EP-2002-1500, Pressure Control Manual For Drilling and Workover Operations

Restricted EP 2002-1500
Pressure Control Manual for

Drilling, Completion and Well Intervention Operations
Sponsor: WALT
Reviewed by: B. Beltman and J. Rommertz (EPT-WN)
Approved by: D. Stewart (EPT-WX)
Date of issue: September 2008
Revision: 1
Period of work: January - July 2008
ECCN number: EAR 99
This version supersedes the previous version

This document is classified as Restricted. Access is allowed to Shell personnel, designated Associate Companies and Contractors
working on Shell projects who have signed a confidentiality agreement with a Shell Group Company. 'Shell Personnel' includes all
staff with a personal contract with a Shell Group Company. Issuance of this document is restricted to staff employed by a Shell
Group Company. Neither the whole nor any part of this document may be disclosed to Non-Shell Personnel without the prior
written consent of the copyright owners.
Copyright 2002 SIEP B.V.
SHELL INTERNATIONAL EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION B.V., RIJSWIJK

Further electronic copies can be obtained from the Global EP Library, Rijswijk
EP 2002-1500 - II - Restricted
SUMMARY
This edition of the Pressure Control Manual incorporates the first update of EP 2002-
1500 Pressure Control Manual for Drilling and Workover Operations and is now re-named
as EP 2002-1500 Pressure Control Manual for Drilling, Completion and Well Intervention
Operations
This Pressure Control Manual represents the Shell philosophy on well control and has
global application.
The manual has two key components:
A. Policies
B. Procedures & Practices.
Policies
The Policies are concise, unambiguous statements that reflect the basic tenets of how Shell
conducts its well control business.
Policies help define how we operate, and under normal circumstances are to be complied
with to the letter.
In circumstances where it is impossible, impractical, irresponsible or imprudent to adhere
strictly to policy such circumstances must be covered by the OU specific Well Control
manual or by an approved dispensation and referenced in the well program.
Procedures & Practices

The Procedures & Practices in this manual are set as minimum acceptable standards The
responsibility lies directly with the Well/Rig Team and Operating Unit Management to put
these procedures and practices into effect or to generate OU specific procedures that will
meet Policy objectives.
Because well teams have the responsibility of specifying well control procedures as an
integral part of the planning and execution of drilling, completion, workover and other well
intervention programmes, they also have the responsibility to justify the adoption of
procedures and will be held accountable. Where there is the possibility to take more than
one course of action it is required that a risk assessment be conducted to determine the
preferred course of action. This risk assessment can be either qualitative or quantitative but
should as a minimum address the following matters:
1 A subjective evaluation of the likelihood that events will happen.
2 The likelihood that particular consequences will occur.
3 The acceptability of this combination of likely events and consequences.
General
This manual, although intranet based, is set out so that it can be printed and is also
available on CD ROM. However, only the online version is controlled and all other
formats must be checked against the online version for validity.
Navigation through the manual is through the Table of Contents and appropriate
hyperlinks. A search engine is also accessible to empower users to search by topic.
EP 2002-1500 - III - Restricted
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following staff have reviewed and contributed to the update of this manual:
Angelidis, Diogenes T SARAWAK-EPA-T-WDM
Bakx, Arie ACM NAM-EPE-T-WE;
Bennett, Bill SUKEP-EPE-T-WE
Campbell, Jeffrey W SEPCO;
Chesters, Adrian P SARAWAK-EPA-T-WTL;
Cranfield, Landale C STI-EPT-SID
De Blok, Gerard LJ SCEPCO-EPA-T-WDR
Delnatte, Yves SDA-EPA-T-WDR;
Failey, Richard SIEP-EPT-HSE-W;
Flaherty, Dominic J SUKEP-EPE-T-WM;
Graham, Paul PG AFPC-TDE-11
Haak, Arjan Ter ATH PDO-UWXC
Hinoul, Wim BSP-TSW/12
Kornaat, Maarten M SNEPCO-EPG-PS-VWD
Myers, Gregory A SEPCO
Noy, Koen A NAM-EPE-T-WA;
Ophoff, Jan SIEP-EPT-WN
Prescott, Ray RJ SIEP-EPT-WB
Ramalho, John J SIEP-EPT-WCT
Schreuder, Jorrit C SRAK-DOP22;
Skar, Olav SIEP-EPH-SLW;
Solano, Jose JG SIEP-EPT-WD
Stephenson, Blake SIEP-EPT-WN;
Tarr, Brian SIEP-EPT-WCT;
Truelove, Brian D SCAN-EPW-T-WUO
Van Wijk, Jan SIEP-EPT-WN;
Webster, Ken SIEP EPT-WCW
Young, Andrew AD SIEP-EPH-SLW
EP 2002-1500 - IV - Restricted
USING THIS MANUAL
Security Classification
This document is classified as Restricted .
Therefore, access to this document is limited to:
• All staff with a personal contract with the Shell Group of Companies
• Designated Associate Companies
• Contractors working on Shell projects who have signed a confidentiality agreement
with a Shell Group Company
Issuance of this document is restricted to staff employed by the Shell Group of
Companies. Neither the whole nor any part of this document may be disclosed to Non-
Shell Personnel without the prior written consent of the copyright owners.
DED Website & Guide URLs

This Guide is part of the SIEP Drilling/Well Engineering Documents (DED) website,.
URL : http://sww.siep.shell.com/ded
CD-Rom Version
The manuals on the DED website including the Pressure Control Manual (EP2002-1500)
and its reference documents will also be available on CD-Rom, obtainable from the SIEP
Library. Note however that a CD-Rom version may not reflect the latest changes.
Updates and Change Management

The online version of the DED website including the Pressure Control Manual is updated
on a regular basis. An update log including version information is kept as part of the site
and is the recommended entry point for next and subsequent access to the site.
EP 2002-1500 -V- Restricted
CHANGE CONTROL
This section records updates of individual sections of this manual since release Jan 2002.
Date Section Rev. No. Remarks Authorised Approved
July 2008 Title Rev 1 Change Title from: J.C. Rommertz D. Stewart
Pressure Control Manual for Drilling and
Workover Operations
To:
Pressure Control Manual for Drilling,
Completion and Well Intervention
Operations
July 2008 All Rev 1 Review/Update Complete manual J.C. Rommertz D. Stewart
EP 2002-1500 - VI - Restricted
VARIANCE PROCESS
Deviation from any Policy or other requirement of this manual requires that a written
Variance Request be prepared, reviewed and approved by the process described below and
in the attached:
- Variance Process Flow Diagram (Attachment A),
- Roles and Responsibilities (Attachment B), and
- Variance Request Form (Attachment C)
Variance Procedure
1. Originator Completes Variance Request Form (Attachment C).
2. Rig Superintendent (or equivalent) determines what level of “review” (Review Leader)
is required, with the objective to involve the appropriate staff in variance reviews. All
appropriate specialist/technical resources should be utilized in the review.
3. Rig Superintendent (or equivalent) determines appropriate “approval” level with the
intention that most variances will be approved at Rig Superintendent (or equivalent)
level. However, the Rig Superintendent (or equivalent) must decide whether a higher
level of approval is warranted based on the level of risk involved, the Rig
Superintendent's (or equivalent’s) experience level, potential impact outside the area of
responsibility, etc.
4. Rig Superintendent (or equivalent) assures “appropriate review” of request at the
determined level.
5. Variance Request is approved or disapproved (or a document revision is initiated, or
both).
6. Review Leader documents the review considerations (Attachment C).
7. Final copies of all Variance requests and supporting documentation are to be
maintained on file in the OU as input for updating of any systems/manuals/procedures
etc.
8. A copy of the completed Variance request is to be forwarded to the Global PTE Well
Control, currently EPT-WN in Rijswijk, for consideration as input into any future
update of this manual.
EP 2002-1500 - VII - Restricted
ATTACHMENT A
EP 2002-1500 - VIII - Restricted
ATTACHMENT B
VARIENCE PROCEDURES ROLES & RESONSIBILITIES
Individual or Roles in Variance Process Other Roles
Group
All users of the • Identify improvement opportunities and • Comply with all Policies
Pressure request variance or revision. and set procedures
Control Manual • Participate in Variance Review, if practical. unless variances are
obtained.
Well • Assist employees in preparing Variance • Encourage employees
Engineering Requests, as needed. to aggressively pursue
Managers & • Concur with request, as appropriate. variances or revisions to
Dept. Heads existing guidance where
it will improve the
business.
Rig Sup. (Or • Screen Variance Requests. • Encourage employees
equivalent) • Act as Review Leader or nominate a leader. to aggressively pursue
• Keep Well Engineering management informed variances or revisions to
of variance activity. existing guidance where
• Approve or disapprove variances unless there it will improve the
is an issue requiring resolution at a higher business.
level. i.e. Policy.
Variance • Select participants for Variance Review team.
Review Leader Utilize appropriate technical resources to
provide thorough regulatory, technical,
operational & H.S. & E. review. Consider
including the Originator in the review process.
• Coordinate review process.
• Send approved copy of variance and any
supporting documentation for record keeping.
Variance • Perform Regulatory, Technical, Operational
Review and H.S. & E. review in a timely manner.
Participants • Validate work with other experts as required.
• Perform Risk Assessment when appropriate.
• Consider applicability of variance to other
locations. Recommend revisions to
procedures/documentation if appropriate.
• Recommend variance for approval /
disapproval.
• Document significant review considerations
for submittal with approved variance for
record keeping.
Document • Prioritize guidance
Management rewrites and oversee
Team revision process.
EP 2002-1500 - IX - Restricted
ATTACHMENT C
Variance Request (To be completed by Originator) Date:
Route to: (Rig Superintendent or equiv.)
Originator:
Unit / Location:
Variance From: (Manual / section / paragraph)
Request:
Does a variance already exist? (Validate )

Full description of Request: (Attach additional data as necessary)
Alternatives and Justification: (Briefly state any alternatives that could be taken to achieve an appropriate degree of
safety and include cost savings as appropriate. Attach additional information.)
Signature:
Review (To be completed by Variance Review Leader)

Review Documentation: (Record significant considerations identified. Include results of risk assessment (severity of
exposure, likelihood of events happening, special provisions). List alternatives considered.
Recommendation:
Review Team:
Approval (by) Date:

Conditional Constraints: (Period of validity etc.)
Feedback: (Comments on Variance Process?)

EP 2002-1500 -X- Restricted
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reference Documents:
(Please note that documents below may not reflect the latest changes. Reference
documents will be updated with the revisions of this manual)
1. EP 2006-5393 Shell Global Std for Temporary Pipework
2. ABC Guide to Temporary Pipework v2
3. E&P Forum Guidelines for the Planning , Drilling and Testing of High-pressure Wells
4. EP 2000-9073 Shell Casing and Tubing Design Guide Vol 1
5. EP 2000-9073 Shell Casing and Tubing Design Guide Vol 2
6. EP 88-1000 Shallow Gas Procedure Guidance Manual
7. EP 92-1785 Relief Well Homing in Manual
8. Slim Well Guide
9. Blow-out Control Technical reference - AIMI
10. Drilling and Well Control Procedures for HPHT Wells
11. Stripping Work Sheet
12. Multilateral Well Control
13. Mud-Gas Separator Evaluation
14. Well Control Readiness Self Assessment
15. SBOP Operations Manual (Arctic-1)
16. Best Practices for H2S
17. UBD recommended practices (API)
18. Guidelines for offshore drilling hazard assessment
19. POWS Guide for Snubbing and Hydraulic Workover Operations
20. Emergency Response – Initial Action Plan Onshore (B&C)
21. Emergency Response – Initial Action Plan Offshore (B&C)
Further reference can be made to relevant API documents such as:
- API RP 49, 53, 54, 59, 7G, 16Q, 57C, Spec 16C, 16D
- ISO 15156
EP 2002-1500 - XI - Restricted
KEYWORDS
well control, primary well control, secondary well control, tertiary well control, kick,
influx, wait & weight method, driller's method, concurrent method, volumetric method,
stripping, bullheading, constant bottom hole pressure, shut-in pressure, shut-in drill pipe
pressure, shut-in casing pressure, shoe pressure, ECD, annulus friction pressure,
circulation, choke, choke line, choke manifold, kill line, standpipe, standpipe pressure,
blowout preventer, BOP, stack, ram, pipe ram, blind ram, shear ram, casing ram, variable
bore ram, ram cavity, accumulator, annular, diverter, rotating BOP, spool, bonnet,
hydraulic operated valve, wellhead, seal, gasket, casinghead, casing hanger, seal assembly,
casing design, philosophy, abnormal pressure, burst, burst resistance, casing wear,
collapse, collapse resistance, friction, pressure test, annulus pressure, surface pressure,
leak, mud gas separator, degasser, underbalanced drilling, hydrates, well shut in, formation
strength, pore pressure, mud, gradient, corroded pipe, tensile strength, overpull, erosion,
retrievable packers, drilling, subsea, marine riser, guideline, pod, control system, hang off,
shear, drill, training, pull out, trip, casing running, pressure gradient, well operation,
software, API, quality assurance, industry standard, inspection, risk, risk assessment,
blowout, broach, HPHT well, high pressure, high temperature, single-barrier well,
extended-reach well, horizontal well, multilateral well, deepwater well, ultra-deepwater
well, slim hole well, corrosion, setting depth, leak-off test, limit test, MAASP, pressure
buildup, shallow water flow, shallow gas, oil based mud, solubility, well intervention,
wireline, coiled tubing, coring, barrier, barriers
EP 2002-1500 - XII - Restricted
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III
USING THIS MANUAL IV
CHANGE CONTROL V
VARIANCE PROCESS VI
BIBLIOGRAPHY X
1. WELL CONTROL POLICY STATEMENTS 1
1.1. Safety of Operations 1
1.2. Minimisation of Environmental Impact 1
1.3. Minimisation of Loss 1
1.4. Compliance with Law 1
1.5. Reliable Communications 1
1.6. Safe Assembly and Briefing Areas 1
1.7. Barriers 1
1.8. Shallow Gas 2
1.9. Maintenance of Primary Control 2
1.10. Underbalanced Operations 2
1.11. Person in Charge 2
1.12. Personnel Competency Standards 2
1.13. Personnel Complement 2
1.14. Well Control Drills 2
1.15. Dissemination of Information 2
1.16. Duty to Inform Driller 3
1.17. Duty to Inform Superintendent 3
1.18. Kick Tolerance 3
1.19. Pre-recorded Information 3
1.20. Course of Well (Well Path) 3
1.21. Integrity Testing Casing or Liner 3
1.22. Well Design 3
1.23. Classification of Wells 3
1.24. Special Circumstances 3
1.25. Equipment Standards 4
1.26. Temporary Pipe Work Standard 4
1.27. Industry Standards 4
1.28. Blow-out Prevention Review 4
1.29. Blind/Shear Rams 4
1.30. Accurate Records 4
1.31. Continuous Observation 5
1.32. Transfer of Mud 5
1.33. Driller’s Duty to Act 5
1.34. Flow Checks 5
1.35. Swabbing/Surging 5
1.36. Use of Trip Tank 5
1.37. Kill Technique 5
1.38. Material and Supplies 5
1.39. Dispensation from Procedures 6
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2. ORGANISATION OF WELL CONTROL OPERATIONS 7

2.1. Personnel Responsibilities 7
2.1.1. Person In Charge of Well Control 7
2.1.2. Contractor Tool pusher (if not the Person in Charge) 8
2.1.3. Driller 8
2.1.4. Mud Engineer 8
2.1.5. Cementer (if present) 8
2.1.6. Mud Logging Engineers (if present) 8
2.1.7. Early Kick Detection Engineers (if present) 9
2.1.8. Subsea Engineer (where appropriate) 9
2.1.9. C&WI Supervisor 9
2.1.10. Other Roles 9
2.2. Well Planning for Well Control 9
2.2.1. Introduction 10
2.2.2. Predicted Conditions 10
2.2.3. Primary Well Control 11
2.2.4. Blowout Prevention Equipment Selection 13
2.2.5. Well Control Procedures 14
2.2.6. Shallow Gas 14
2.2.7. Simultaneous Operations 14
2.2.8. Well Specific Contingency Issues 15
2.2.9. Training and Instruction 15
2.3. Well Planning Checklist 16
2.3.2. Overpressure 16
2.3.3. Anticipated Pressure Magnitude 17
2.3.4. H2S (in well stream) 18
2.3.5. Well Fluid Type 18
2.3.6. Mud Type 18
2.3.7. Bottom Hole Temperature 19
2.3.8. Fracture Margin 19
2.3.9. Well Geometry 19
2.3.10. Well Profile 20
2.3.11. Maximum Design Pressure 20
2.3.12. Rig Location 20
2.3.13. Remediation Risk 21
2.3.14. Environmental Exposure 21
2.4. Risks and Levels in Well Control 22
2.4.1. Well Classification 22
2.4.2. Assessment Process 23
2.4.3. Hazard Rating Matrix 24
2.4.4. Hazard Quotient Evaluation Table 25
2.5. Example of Concurrent Operations Matrix 26
3. WELL CONTROL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES 27
3.1. Formation Pressures 27
3.1.2. Indications Whilst Drilling 27
3.1.3. Use of Logs to Detect Abnormal Pore Pressures 29
3.1.4. Direct Measurement 29
3.1.5. Sub-Normal Pore Pressure 29
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3.2. Formation Strength 29

3.2.1. Overview 29
3.2.2. Formation Strength Testing 30
3.2.3. Leak-off Test Procedure 31
3.2.4. Pressure v Volume Plots 33
3.3. Well Control Checklist 38
3.4. Primary Well Control 40
3.4.1. Overview 40
3.4.2. Swabbing 41
3.4.3. Insufficient Fluid Density 43
3.4.4. Lost Circulation 44
3.4.5. Hole Not Full of Adequate Density Fluid 46
3.4.6. Tripping In the Hole 47
3.4.7. Excessive Drilling Rate Through a Gas Sand 47
3.4.8. Drill Stem Testing 47
3.4.9. Drilling Into an Adjacent Well 47
3.4.10. Equipment Failure 48
3.5. Secondary Well Control 48
3.5.2. Shut-in Techniques 48
3.5.3. Shut-in Sequence for Soft Shut in 49
3.5.4. Moving the String Whilst Killing The Well 49
3.5.5. Circulating Methods 50
3.5.6. Comparison of Circulating Methods 50
3.5.7. Non-Circulating Methods 53
3.5.8. Well Control With a Top Drive System (TDS) 55
3.5.9. MAASP 55
3.5.10. Kill Circulating Rate 56
3.5.11. Kick Tolerance 57
3.5.12. Kick control by the Driller's method 59
3.5.13. Kick control by the Wait & Weight method 67
3.6. Tertiary Control 77
3.6.2. Barite Plugs 77
3.6.3. Barite-Water Mix 78
3.6.4. Barite-Diesel Mix 79
3.6.5. Cement Plugs 79
3.6.6. Reactive Squeeze Plug Mixes 80
3.7. Barrier Requirements 82
3.7.1. Terminology 82
3.7.2. Mechanical Barriers 82
3.7.3. Fluid Barriers 83
3.7.4. Barrier Test Integrity 84
3.7.5. Inflow Testing 84
4. CONTROL EQUIPMENT – SURFACE 86
4.1. The Well Kill System 86
4.1.1. Tankage 86
4.1.2. Pumps 88
4.1.3. Drill String Shut off Devices 89
4.1.4. The BOP 91
4.1.5. Down Stream Equipment 91
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4.2. Surface Well Control Equipment 92

4.2.1. General Issues 92
4.2.2. Pipe Shearing 93
4.2.3. Stack-up 95
4.2.4. Stack-up Options for Two-cavity-BOP 95
4.2.5. Stack-up Options for Three-Cavity-BOP 98
4.2.6. Use of Casing Rams 98
4.3. Classification of Well Control Equipment 99
4.3.1. Surface BOP Equipment (Definition) 99
4.3.2. 13,800kPa (2000psi) WP classification 99
4.3.5. 69,000kPa (10,000psi) WP classification 104
4.3.6. 103,500kPa (15,000psi) WP classification 106
4.4. Blow Out Preventer Equipment Installation 107
4.5. Control System Requirements for Surface Bop Stacks 109
4.6. Mud-Gas Separator 110
4.6.1. Overview 110
4.6.2. Evaluation Process 111
4.6.3. System Schematic 112
4.6.4. Detailed Evaluation 112
4.6.5. Other Considerations 113
4.6.6. Instrumentation 113
4.6.7. Rig-Up and Operation 113
4.6.8. Common Industry Designs. 114
4.7. Other Well Control Equipment 114
4.7.1. Diverter Equipment 114
4.7.2. Choke Manifold and Kill & Choke Line Manifold 118
4.8. Tests for Surface Wellheads and Bop Equipment 122
4.8.1. Blowout Preventers, Wellhead Components And Their Connections 122
4.8.2. The BOP Hydraulic Control Unit 124
4.8.3. The Choke Manifold, Valves, Kill-&-Choke Lines And Valves On
The Side Outlets 125
4.8.4. The Kelly Or Top Drive Kelly Stop-cocks And Stab-in Valves 126
4.9. Maintenance and Inspection of Surface Well Control Equipment 126
4.9.1. The Blow Out Preventer 126
4.9.2. Choke Manifold 127
4.9.3. Gas Detection Equipment 127
4.9.4. Inside Pipe Shut-off Tools 127
5. SPECIALIST TOPICS 128
5.1. Complications During Well Control Operations 128
5.2. Hydrogen Sulphide Considerations 133
5.2.1. General 133
5.2.2. Practical Considerations for H2S kicks 134
5.3. Shallow Gas 134
5.3.1. Origin 135
5.3.2. Detection / Prediction of Shallow Gas 135
5.3.3. Shallow Gas Procedures 136
5.3.4. Identification of Shallow Gas Pockets Whilst Drilling 136
5.3.5. General Recommended Drilling Practices in Shallow Gas Areas 137
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5.4. Gas Hydrates 138

5.4.1. Overview 138
5.4.2. Practical Considerations 139
5.4.3. Hydrates Formation in SOBM 139
5.4.4. Monitoring Potential Hydrate Formation At The Rigsite 140
5.4.5. Operational Practices That Can Be Used To Prevent Hydrates From
Forming 140
5.4.6. Novel Approaches Worth Considering 141
5.4.7. Removal of Hydrates 141
5.4.8. Removal of Hydrates (Producing Wells) 141
5.5. Using a Surface BOP for Deep Water operations 143
5.6. Tapered Drill Strings 144
5.6.1. External 144
5.6.2. Internal 146
5.7. Well Control Whilst Drilling with Oil Based Mud 148
5.7.1. Kick on Bottom Drilling 148
5.7.2. Swab Influx Whilst Tripping 150
5.7.3. Swab Kick while Tripping 150
5.7.4. General Conclusion 150
5.7.5. Post Kick 151
5.7.6. Bottoms Up 151
5.7.7. Solubility 151
5.8. Deviated Wells 152
5.9. Horizontal Wells 154
5.9.1. Swabbing 154
5.9.2. On Bottom Drilling Kick 154
5.10. Multilateral Wells 155
5.10.1. TAML Classification 155
5.10.2. Risks 156
5.10.3. Hazard Mitigation / Recommendations 156
5.10.4. Kick Detection 157
5.10.5. Shut In Procedure 157
5.10.6. Kill Method 158
5.11. Slim Hole Drilling 160
5.11.2. The Factors 160
5.11.3. Well Control 161
5.11.4. Kill Procedure 162
5.11.5. Practical Considerations 163
5.12. Drilling with Low Margins 165
5.12.1. Background 165
5.12.2. The Hazards 166
5.12.3. Guidelines 166
5.13. HPHT 167
5.13.1. General 167
5.13.2. Equipment 167
5.13.3. Drilling 168
5.13.4. Tripping 170
5.13.5. Secondary Well Control 171
5.14. Managed Pressure Drilling 171
5.14.1. Managed Pressure Drilling – Overbalanced 171
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5.14.2. Managed Pressure Drilling – Underbalanced 173

5.15. Dynamic Annular Pressure Control 176
5.15.1. Dynamic Kill 176
5.15.2. Low Choke Method 176
5.15.3. No Choke Method 176
5.16. Coring Considerations 177
5.16.1. The Risks 177
5.16.2. Guidelines 178
5.17. Stripping and Volumetric Well Control 179
5.17.1. Overview 179
5.17.2. Rig Preparation for Stripping and Volumetric methods 180
5.17.3. Volumetric and Lubrication Methods 181
5.17.4. Lubrication Method Guidelines 183
5.17.5. Stripping Procedures 184
5.18. Workover, Completions and Well Interventions 188
5.18.1. Overview 188
5.18.2. Running a Completion (Un-perforated Liner) 188
5.18.3. Running a Completion (Open Hole or Perforated Liner) 188
5.18.4. Working Over a Well 189
5.19. Wireline Operations 191
5.19.1. Open Hole Wireline Electric Logging 191
5.19.2. Cased Hole and Workover Wireline Operations 191
5.19.3. Wireline Intervention 192
5.20. Coiled Tubing Intervention 193
5.20.1. General 193
5.20.2. Surface Wellheads 193
5.20.3. Subsea Wellheads 193
5.21. Snubbing / Hydraulic Workover Units 194
5.21.1. Jacking Assembly 194
5.21.2. Work Basket 194
5.21.3. BOP 195
5.21.4. Control Unit 195
5.21.5. Workstring 195
5.21.6. Well Control 195
5.22. Geothermal Well Control 197
6. SUBSEA WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT 198
6.1. Subsea Well Control Equipment 198
6.1.1. Components of the Subsea System 198
6.1.2. Equipment 198
6.2. Operating and Control Systems for Subsea BOPs 202
6.2.1. An Independent Automatic Accumulator Unit: 202
6.2.2. Two Graphic Remote Control Panels 203
6.2.3. A Dual Hydraulic Or Electro-hydraulic Cable and/or Hose System 203
6.2.4. An Independent Emergency Control System (Acoustic System) 203
6.3. Testing Subsea Wellheads and BOP Equipment 204
6.3.1. Philosophy 204
6.3.2. Tests Before Lowering the BOP Stack 204
6.3.3. Tests During Lowering And After Connecting The BOP Stack, Kill
& Choke Lines, Marine Riser And Operating Hoses. 205
6.3.4. Tests For Accumulators 206
6.3.5. Test Frequency 207
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6.3.6. Functional Tests, Inspections and Precautions 207

6.4. Operations Related to Subsea BOP Systems 208
6.4.1. Running The BOP Stack. 208
6.4.2. Hanging-off 208
6.4.3. Shearing Drill Pipe 209
6.4.4. Shearing Casing 210
6.4.5. Disconnecting 210
7. SUBSEA WELL CONTROL: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES 211
7.1. Subsea Well Control 211
7.1.2. Kick Detection 211
7.1.3. Fracture Gradients 211
7.1.4. Subsea Choke and Kill Lines 211
7.1.6. Riser Margin 212
7.1.7. Riser Collapse 212
7.1.8. Trapped Gas 212
7.1.9. Killing the Marine Riser 212
7.1.10. Hydrate Formation 213
7.2. Choke and Kill Line Effects 213
7.2.1. Friction Effect 213
7.2.2. Hydrostatic Effect 214
7.2.3. Pressure Lag Time 215
7.3. Trapped Gas in Subsea BOPs 217
7.3.1. Overview 217
7.3.2. Removal of Trapped Gas 217
7.4. Subsea Well Control Procedures and Calculations 218
7.4.1. Measurements 218
7.4.2. Shut-in Procedure 219
7.4.3. Calculations 220
7.5. Deep Water Well Control 221
7.5.1. Overview 221
7.5.2. Shallow Gas in Deep Water 223
7.5.3. Shallow Water Flow 226
7.5.4. Pre-Kick Preparation 228
7.5.5. Flowcheck / Shut In Procedures 230
7.5.6. Other Shut in Procedures / Considerations 232
7.5.7. Kill Procedure – General and Preparations 233
7.5.8. Kill Calculations 233
7.5.9. Determination of Initial Circulating Pressure 234
7.5.10. Choke & Kill Line Friction - Maintaining a Constant BOP Pressure 234
7.5.11. Selection of Kill Rate & Use of Choke and/or Kill Lines 237
7.5.12. Kill Procedure – Driller’s Method: 1st Circulation 238
7.5.13. Kill Procedure – Driller’s Method: 2nd Circulation 239
7.5.14. Kill Procedure – Wait and Weight 240
7.5.15. Choke Adjustment Considerations 241
7.5.16. Preventing Hydrate Formation within the BOP Stack – Use of WBM 241
7.5.17. Sweeping the Stack & Clearing the Riser- General Issues 242
7.5.18. Clearing the Riser of Gas 243
7.5.19. Flushing the BOP 244
7.5.20. Sweeping the Stack 246
EP 2002-1500 - XIX - Restricted
7.5.21. Kick Off Bottom 247

8. ADVANCED WELL CONTROL 248
8.1. Advanced Well Control – Overview 248
8.2. Suggested Drilling Practices 250
8.2.2. Drilling With Small Margins 250
8.2.3. Mud Weight/Hydraulics Management 251
8.2.4. Combining PWD and Modelling 253
8.2.5. Pit Discipline 253
8.2.6. Rate of Penetration 254
8.2.7. Weight Up Method 254
8.3. Pressure Indicators and Checks 254
8.3.1. Mud Gas Levels 254
8.3.2. ‘Pump Off’ Test (Dummy Connection) 255
8.3.3. Swab Test 255
8.3.4. Other Guidelines 256
8.3.5. Ballooning/Flowback/Backflow/Supercharging 256
8.3.6. Recap 259
8.4. Start-Up Technique for the Kill Circulation 259
8.5. Focus on the Annulus 261
8.5.2. Hydraulics Software 261
8.5.3. Kick Tolerance 262
8.5.4. Kick Software 262
8.5.5. Planning 262
8.5.6. Operations 263
9. WELL CONTROL TRAINING , DRILLS AND ASSESSMENT 270
9.1. Training and Organisation 270
9.1.1. Competency 270
9.1.2. Task Assignments 270
9.1.3. Communication 270
9.1.4. Drill Frequency 271
9.1.5. Reaction Times 271
9.2. Well Control Drills 272
9.2.1. Overview 272
9.2.2. Pit Drill On Bottom 273
9.2.3. Diverter Drill 273
9.2.4. Choke Control Drill 274
9.2.5. Pit Drill While Tripping 275
9.2.6. Stripping Drill 276
9.2.7. Pit Drill For Floating Rigs 278
9.3. Well Control Readiness Self Assessment and Audit 278
9.3.1. Well Control Readiness Self Assessment 278
9.3.2. Audits 279
10. BLOWOUT CONTINGENCY PLANNING 280
10.1. Blowout Contingency Plan 280
10.1.1. Global Framework Agreements 280
10.1.2. Hazards and Background Data 280
10.1.3. Key Considerations For The Plan 281
10.1.4. Detailed Plan Development 282
EP 2002-1500 - XX - Restricted
10.1.5. Implementation 283

10.1.6. Feedback Loop 283
10.1.7. Review Cycle 283
EP 2002-1500 - XXI - Restricted
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Leak off test - Impermeable Formation 34
Figure 3.2: Leak off test - Permeable Formation 34
Figure 3.3: Leak off test - Unconsolidated Formation 35
Figure 3.4: Leak off test - Formation Breakdown 35
Figure 3.5: Limit Test 36
Figure 3.6: Leak-off Test Worksheet 37
Figure 3.7: Swabbing 41
Figure 3.8: Cumulative effect of Swabbing 42
Figure 3.9: Plot showing comparison of Choke Manifold Pressure between
Driller's method and Wait & Weight method with 90 minute wait time.
(1500m (5000ft) well, 1m3 (6bbl) gas kick, migration rate 300m/hr
(1000ft/hr)) 52
Figure 3.10: Kick Tolerance 58
Figure 3.11: Stand pipe pressure vs pump strokes (time) 61
Figure 3.13: Driller’s method kill 66
Figure 3.15: Typical Horner Plot 85
Figure 4.1: Schematic (an example of many possible alternatives) 86
Figure 4.2: Surface Diverter on Stove Pipe – Kill line on diverter spool 116
Figure 4.3: Surface Diverter on Stove Pipe – Kill line on wellhead or single ram. 117
Figure 4.4: Surface Diverter on Stove Pipe – Kill line below dual ram. 118
Figure 4.5: Typical Back Pressure Manifold arrangement 120
Figure 4.6: Test pressure drop versus time 123
Figure 5.1: Subsea Diverter BOP 138
Figure 5.2: Hydrate Potential 140
Figure 5.3: Pressure plots for Driller's method kill in gauge hole. (Shoe pressure on
different scale to other pressures) 145
Figure 5.4: Pressure plots for Driller's method kill in a hole that has an overgauge
section immediately below the shoe. Note the effect on choke manifold
pressure and shoe pressure as the gas bubble passes through the
overgauge section. 145
Figure 5.5: Shows the difference between the normally calculated straight line
pressure reduction plot, and actual standpipe pressure required to
maintain constant bottom hole pressure. At the point of maximum
deviation the normal plot would be 75psi underbalanced in this
example. 146
Figure 5.6: Highlights the difference in solubility of H2S, CO2, and CH4 in diesel
oil 151
Figure 5.7: Shows the bubble point pressures of mixtures of methane and (diesel-
based) OBM (s.g. = 1.0985). The diagonal line represents the pressures
at which part of the dissolved gas comes out of solution. 151
EP 2002-1500 - XXII - Restricted
Figure 5.8: Typical standpipe kill schedule for an S-profile well. 152
Figure 5.9: Multilateral Well Kill Decision Tree 159
Figure 5.10: Comparison of Shoe Pressure for two kills with different technique for
handling annulus circulating friction pressure. 164
Figure 5.11: Pore Pressure/Fracture Gradient Diagrams 165
Figure 5.12: Typical UBD Location Layout 175
Figure 5.13: Examples of Active / Passive RCDs 176
Figure 5.14: Equipment set-up for combined stripping and volumetric control 180
Figure 5.15: Plot of surfact (choke) pressure and BHP for volumetric control and
lubrication process 187
Figure 5.16: Snubbing Unit Layout 196
Figure 6.1: Typical single stack system 199
Figure 7.1: Effect of gas in the choke line 216
Figure 7.2: Subsea vs. land / jack-up well control 235
Figure 7.3: Maintain constant BOP pressure when bringing pumps up to speed or
adjusting pumps 236
Figure 7.4: Flushing the BOP 245
Figure 8.1: Normal and advanced well control: the difference 249
Figure 8.2: Mud Hydraulics Management While Drilling 252
Figure 8.3: Balooning Procedure 258
Figure 8.4: Pump start up procedure for Kill Circulation 260
Figure 8.5: Modelling Pit Gain 264
Figure 8.6: Modelling Choke Pressure 264
Figure 8.7: Modelling Pressures at BOP 265
Figure 8.8: Modelling Pump Pressures 265
Figure 8.9: Kick Tolerance Example 266
Figure 8.10: Wait & Weight Method Pump Pressure Schedule 267
Figure 8.11: Bar graph Visualisation of Well Control Pressure Margins 268
Figure 8.12: Pit gain 269
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Ranges for anticipated pressure magnitude 17
Table 2.2: Typical fracture margins 19
Table 3.1: Example risk table 57
Table 3.2: Kick Tolerance Table 58
Table 4.1: Expected shear force range for common sizes of Tubing and Drillpipe 94
Table 4.2: Back Pressure manifold – component rating 121
EP 2002-1500 -1- Restricted
1. WELL CONTROL POLICY STATEMENTS

Policy statements are those global directives that are considered fundamental to the way we
conduct our business and operations. Under normal circumstances deviation from well
control policy is not permitted without prior approval through Operating Company
procedures. These Policies provide the guidelines for interpretation, selection and
application of procedures.
1.1. Safety of Operations

All well control operations shall be conducted in such a manner as to give highest priority
to health and safety of personnel.
1.2. Minimisation of Environmental Impact

The second order of priority shall be to minimize environmental impact whether this be
atmospheric, terrestrial, marine or subterranean.
1.3. Minimisation of Loss

The third order of priority shall be given to minimize losses be they loss of equipment,
facilities or operational time.
1.4. Compliance with Law

As a minimum, all facets of well control shall be in accordance with the relevant laws of
the area of operation.
1.5. Reliable Communications

Reliable 24 hours per day radio and/or telephone communications shall be established
between the well site and base supervisory personnel. An independent backup system
should also be available
1.6. Safe Assembly and Briefing Areas

At least two muster areas shall be established on each drilling or workover site/facility. Of
these two areas, the one upwind at any given time is the designated safe muster area.
1.7. Barriers
All planned well operations will normally be executed under the protection of two
independent barriers between reservoir and environment, in order to prevent an
unintentional flow from the well. Should one barrier be lost then the focus of operations
will divert to regaining two-barrier status.
NOTE: One barrier may be acceptable only in the case were the well cannot produce to
the environment without pressure boosting. A risk assessment must prove the
acceptability of operating under a single barrier protection. Details will be documented in
the drilling program
1.8. Shallow Gas

An optimal site investigation shall be conducted at a drilling location to determine the
likelihood of shallow gas being present. In areas where shallow gas is deemed a possibility,
the surface location shall be moved to an optimum position based on interpretation of
shallow seismic In any case, a contingency plan shall be prepared prior to spud.
1.9. Maintenance of Primary Control

Drilling, completion, workover and other well intervention programs as well as operational
procedures shall be designed and executed to continuously maintain primary control.
1.10. Underbalanced Operations

Primary well control during intentional underbalanced operations shall be maintained by a
combination of fluids, well bore casings and specialised pressure equipment. Specialist Well
Control equipment shall be in addition to the normal BOP arrangement
1.11. Person in Charge

All well control operations at the well site shall be under the direction of a pre-appointed
“Person in Charge” whose responsibilities and duties shall be clearly defined. The Person
in Charge for the drilling or Well Intervention unit and deputies shall be agreed in writing
between the relevant Company and Contractor Management.
1.12. Personnel Competency Standards

The Operating Company shall be responsible for the assessment and appointment of
personnel responsible for the planning and execution of well control procedures. These
staff shall be both competent and qualified to the agreed Operating Company standard.
All Company and Contractor supervisory staff shall hold a valid IWCF or WellCAP well
control certificate at the appropriate level.
1.13. Personnel Complement

All well operations shall be conducted with sufficient competent personnel to ensure
immediate and safe response to any well control situation
1.14. Well Control Drills

Drills shall be carried out to achieve and maintain an acceptable performance standard.
Drills shall continue until the Shell representative is confident that equipment and
personnel are operating to the agreed standard. Drills may include but not be limited to
Drilling, tripping, stripping, out of hole, and volumetric.
1.15. Dissemination of Information

Well control related information shall be disseminated to all relevant personnel and
contractors, as required, and well control aspects shall be regularly discussed during
handovers, the weekly safety meetings, or toolbox meeting. Safety meetings with Company,
rig and contractor personnel shall be conducted before all well control operations. The
meetings should review planned operations and contingencies.
1.16. Duty to Inform Driller

The Mud Logger, Mud Engineer, Derrick man and/or Shaker Hand, and other members
of the drilling team shall each keep the Driller fully informed of any indications of a
potential well control situation.
1.17. Duty to Inform Superintendent

The Company Rig Superintendent or equivalent e.g. Senior Well Engineer (Operations)
etc. at the base shall be advised of any deficiencies in BOP equipment, standards or
operating procedures in order to advise on corrective actions to be taken
1.18. Kick Tolerance

Periodic checks shall be made to establish the kick tolerance in terms of magnitude and
intensity of an influx that can be safely handled with the mud in use.
1.19. Pre-recorded Information

A kill worksheet shall be maintained and pre-recorded data obtained at such frequency to
allow accurate calculations of kill parameters.
1.20. Course of Well (Well Path)

Deviation surveys shall be taken to ensure that the course of the well is within the limits
given in the program and that the bottom hole location is known to a degree that enables
intersection by a relief well.
1.21. Integrity Testing Casing or Liner

Any new casing or liner shall undergo an integrity test before further drilling or other
category of work is carried out through that casing. The type of integrity test shall be
specified in the well program. In general, the casing or liner shall be pressure tested
immediately after cementing (soft cement) as specified in the well program.
1.22. Well Design

All well casing and tubing designs shall be in accordance with the Shell Casing and Tubing
Design Guide.
1.23. Classification of Wells

For the purpose of well control, well specific risks shall be identified and reviewed using a
structured evaluation system. Higher risk wells shall be the subject of a higher level of
planning and control where modelling and specialists tools may be required.
1.24. Special Circumstances

Where operations are non-standard or a potential for hazardous conditions exist, additional
safety measures shall be specified in the well program.
1.25. Equipment Standards

All well control equipment shall be of dimensions and pressure rating appropriate for the
application. All well control equipment shall be maintained with original manufacturer’s
genuine or approved spares and shall be operated and tested in accordance with
manufacturers recommended procedures. Major repairs and overhaul on well control
equipment shall be performed either by the original manufacturer or an alternative
provider but then only when approved by the original manufacturer.
1.26. Temporary Pipe Work Standard

All Temporary Pipe Work (TPW) in use shall comply with the Temporary Pipe Work
standard as set out in EP 2006-5393
1.27. Industry Standards

API standards and recommended practices shall be followed to the extent that they do not
conflict with these policies.
1.28. Blow-out Prevention Review

Each newly contracted drilling unit shall undergo a blowout prevention review as part of
the commissioning process prior to spud of its first well and shall include:
• BOP equipment, controls and control unit location;
• Mud gas separator
• Kick detection systems;
• BOP operating standards and procedures;
• BOP inspection, testing, certification and maintenance program.
This review is recommended to be repeated at suitable milestones during the life of the
contract e.g. before an exploration or workover campaign or other change in operational
risk
1.29. Blind/Shear Rams

Where there is a risk of drilling through formations containing hydrocarbons that have the
potential to flow to surface and the max anticipated closed in pressure is higher than 3000
psi shear rams must be installed in the BOP stack and be proven capable of shearing the
drill pipe in use under no-load conditions and subsequently provide a proper seal. For
systems where the maximum anticipated closed in pressure is lower than 3000 psi shear
ing blind rams are preferred but as a minimum blind rams must be installed.
1.30. Accurate Records

Accurate records of equipment certification, preventive maintenance and personnel
training/competence levels shall be maintained in an auditable fashion and kept at the rig
site. For pressure tests, recording charts are recommended and should be retained with
other well documentation.
1.31. Continuous Observation

Any open well with exposed formation shall be monitored continuously for flow.
1.32. Transfer of Mud

The Driller and Mud Logger shall be informed of all mud transfers with details of volumes,
time intervals and completion of operations.
1.33. Driller’s Duty to Act

The decision to take immediate corrective action shall be the responsibility of the Driller.
Information/drawings relevant to closing in the well shall be available on the rig floor.
1.34. Flow Checks

A flow check shall normally be made whenever a drilling break is encountered.
As a minimum flow checks shall be performed on all trips out of the hole:
• On bottom
• In the shoe of the last casing string
• Before starting to pull the BHA through the BOP.
1.35. Swabbing/Surging
When tripping, procedures shall be used to minimise swabbing and surging. In
circumstances where it is suspected that swabbing has occurred, and provided there is no
flow, the pipe shall be run back to bottom under increased well observation at readiness to
shut- in the well at any signs of a flowing well. In such a case the pipe shall be stripped to
bottom and killed without increasing the mud weight. Downhole Non Return (float) Valve
Whenever there is a risk of uncontrolled flow up the drill string, a method of controlling
flow shall be specified for each individual well operation.
1.36. Use of Trip Tank

The trip tank shall be used for the accurate measurement of mud volume changes when
tripping. Trip sheets recording actual vs. theoretical volume changes shall be filled-in for
each trip in and out of the hole. The trip tank should also be used for monitoring the well
under static conditions e.g. logging etc.
1.37. Kill Technique

The technique adopted to control a well, shall be in line with Operating Company
standards, or as specified in the well program.
1.38. Material and Supplies

Adequate material and supplies shall be available to effectively deal with well control
situations in a timely manner. The required quantity and quality of materials and supplies
shall conform to Operating Company procedures and normally be documented in the well
programme.
1.39. Dispensation from Procedures

The procedures in this manual are set as a minimum standard. Where operations are to be
conducted by using other procedures, dispensation must be granted by the OU Drilling
Manager and the fact highlighted in the work program.
2. ORGANISATION OF WELL CONTROL OPERATIONS
2.1. Personnel Responsibilities

Well control operations may involve many individuals working as a team. The
responsibilities of each individual must be clearly defined and they must have the training
and skills to enable them to perform their allocated duties. This section gives examples of
how various responsibilities may be assigned.
2.1.1. Person In Charge of Well Control

It is imperative that this Person In Charge is clearly identified before operations commence
and that he is totally aware of his duties and responsibility to ensure that operations are
conducted in a manner to provide for complete well control. The deputy and stand-in to
the Person in Charge should also be clearly identified. This responsibility for the execution
of well control operations may lie with the Shell or Contractor Representative as laid out in
Company procedures consistent with Government Regulations. The responsibilities of the
Person In Charge in no way reduce those of other supervisory staff with regard to well
control.
Pre-Kick
• Duties may include:
• Ensure that any conflict of policy is resolved;
• Ensure that policies are followed, instructions are properly given and to make sure that
they are fully understood and effectively implemented;
• Acquaint himself with the locality in which he is drilling;
• Review the drilling programme in detail;
• Advise his supervisors of any aspects of the prognosis or well plan which may cause
the loss of well control and take appropriate action to avoid such events;
• Maintain a system of well control data sheets to be ready for immediate use if required;
• Ensure that units (SI or field units) are used consistently throughout the drilling rig and
be consistent with the drilling programme;
• Check on the adequacy of well control training of supervisory staff on site and relevant
personnel on the rig floor;
• Ensure that all operations conducted with equipment associated with pressure control
are carried out in a safe and efficient manner;
• Be acquainted with the contingency plans relating to fire, blowout, pollution and
spillage on or around the location;
• Include a full knowledge of H2S procedures in areas where a possibility of H2S
occurrence exists and to verify that all contractors on site are suitably equipped and
trained;
• Organise regular kick and other well control drills and report crew performance;
• Delegate duties and responsibilities as required.
Post Kick
• Once the well is shut-in, to organise a pre-job meeting with all key personnel involved
in the well control operation and provide specific well control instructions;
• To monitor and supervise the implementation of these instructions;
• To be present on the drill floor at the start of well control operations (either the Shell
Rep or the Contractor Tool pusher to be present on the drill floor for the duration of
the operation).
• Maintain communication with the Operations Base;
• Assign the responsibility of keeping a diary of events;
• Produce reports as required by local procedures or regulations.
2.1.2. Contractor Tool pusher (if not the Person in Charge)

• Overall responsibility for implementation of the well control operation;
• Must ensure Driller and crews are correctly deployed;
• Must be present on the rig floor at the start of operations;
• Must facilitate an optimum crew handover during well control operations.
2.1.3. Driller
• Responsible for detection of kicks and losses;
• Responsible for making the well safe;
• Responsible for implementing agreed contingency procedures.
• Responsible for notifying Contractor & Company representatives at the earliest
opportunity.
• Responsible for supervising the crew during well control operations.
2.1.4. Mud Engineer

• Responsible for maintaining the mud condition.
2.1.5. Cementer (if present)

• Must ensure the cement unit is ready for operation.
2.1.6. Mud Logging Engineers (if present)

• Co-responsible (with Driller) for initial kick detection;
• To monitor and record all parameters during the well control operation, including;
- Time
- Shut-in pressures
- Pump strokes (total and SPM)
- Pump pressure
- Casing pressure
- Gas
- H2S
- Pit volumes
• Keep a full and detailed record of the operation.
2.1.7. Early Kick Detection Engineers (if present)

• Responsible for monitoring inflow/outflow at all times;
• Responsible for notifying the Driller in the case of a differential flow alarm.
2.1.8. Subsea Engineer (where appropriate)

• Must be available for consultation at all times during any well control operation;
• Responsible for supervision of Subsea BOP system operation.
2.1.9. C&WI Supervisor

During workover or well intervention operations, the status of Person In Charge may be
delegated to the C&WI Supervisor. Well control may differ from drilling in that activities
may involve snubbing units, slick line, electric line or coiled tubing and operations are often
on a live well. His duties will be to:
Pre-Kick
• Ensure all pressure control equipment is fit for purpose and properly rigged up and
pressure tested;
• Interface between contractor, company and 3rd party personnel;
• Ensure all check valves etc. required for pipe/tubulars in use are available;
• Ensure adequate stocks of brine are available if required;
Post Kick
• Coordinate all service personnel involved;
• To calculate kill parameters;
• To supervise well kill;
• Produce a kill report if required.
2.1.10. Other Roles

Other operations including marine and logistics associated with a well control situation are
not detailed in this manual and should be included in relevant contingency procedures.
2.2. Well Planning for Well Control

Successful execution of well control operations is highly dependent on thorough planning.
This section deals with issues related to well control that must be addressed in the well
planning stage.
EP 2002-1500 - 10 - Restricted
2.2.1. Introduction
Well control is an integral part of the well planning process, be it for a new well or a re-
entry. The drilling programme will cover well control risks in detail
These risks and subsequent mitigation will focus on keeping the well under control during
all phases of the operation. To be successful, subsurface conditions must be predicted,
detected, and controlled.
Consideration must be given to;
• the potential hazards to be encountered;
• uncertainties related to formation parameters;
• maintaining Primary Control;
• the equipment to be used;
• the procedures to be followed;
• training of the crew.
Advance planning should include an equipment and operations procedure checklist. The
items on the checklist will depend on the prognosed hazards, company policies,
government regulations, and anticipated use of the well control equipment. Any specific
operating practices / procedures / recommendations should be included in the drilling
programme. The first step is to assemble the available data, then evaluate the information
and predict what hazards can be expected. The well programme should provide the means
to manage the risks of these hazards to ALARP (as low as reasonably practical) and
mitigation steps (contingency plans) should be in place to deal with them should any
escalation or different circumstances be experienced.
2.2.2. Predicted Conditions

The well casing and tubing programme will have been designed in compliance with the
Shell Casing and Tubing Design Guide. Any well control assumptions used in
programming operations must be consistent with those used in that design.
Data Availability and Gathering

Most Operating Companies will have agreed minimum data requirements as input into the
well planning process. The following types of data are typical minimum of what is required
and include but is not limited to;
- Bathymetric surveys including information on existing structures
- Seismic information and interpretation, including shallow gas surveys;
- For re-entry, existing Well Status/Integrity and proximity of other wells;
- Offset lithology, porosity, permeability, stability and information on previous drilling
problems etc.;
- Identification of weak formation or loss zones;
- Formation fluid type, hydrocarbon depths, gas zones, H2S, CO2;
- Data gathering requirements (DST, Logging, mud logging, coring etc.)
- Other subsea or surface hazards such as mobile salt formations, water flows etc.;
Formation Pressure
All available engineering, geophysical and geological information should be analyzed to
predict formation fracture gradients, pore pressure, and shallow hazards. Offset well data
may help indicate the possibility of charged or depleted formations.
From pressure profiles developed plans can then be prepared for handling under and over-
pressured formations, both shallow and deep. This pressure and formation strength data
are fundamental to the design of the drilling programme, drilling fluids required, casing
strings, and selection of best operating practices.
Casing Programmes
Casing programmes in offset wells, offset fields, and regional wells, combined with
geological and formation pressure data, are essential in planning a well. The casing design is
amongst others based on formation strength and pore pressure assumptions used in
planning the well. The casing design may need to be revalidated should unexpected
changes occur.
When work is to be done on an existing well the condition of the casing will need to be
assessed And any worn or corroded casing should be downgraded using techniques
detailed in the Shell Casing and Tubing Design Guide.
Drilling Data Utilisation

A number of methods or indicators can be used to detect abnormal pressure while drilling,
these include but are not limited to:
- drilling rate or 'd' exponent;
- sloughing shale;
- shale density;
- gas units in drilling fluid;
- drilling fluid properties;
Formation strength leak-off/limit tests should be included in the programme. The
importance of gathering pressure and strength data whilst drilling cannot be overstated.
Wireline formation tests provide reliable direct pressure data and should be considered for
critical wells.
2.2.3. Primary Well Control

Drilling fluid of suitable density and volume to maintain an overbalance on formation pore
pressure is necessary to maintain primary control.
Maintenance of Overbalance
This overbalance can be affected by drilled solids and/or influx of fluids. For this reason
controlled drilling rates are advisable in certain cases where fast drilling is possible or the
amount of overbalance is critical. The use of a PWD tool can assist in accurate
determination of dynamic BHP.
Drilling Fluid Monitoring Equipment

It is essential to monitor the quality and quantity of drilling fluid in the system. Measuring
devices that will monitor the active surface and down-hole drilling fluid volumes should be
provided. Several methods of combining different types of equipment can be used,
depending upon the well requirements.
These may include:
- pump stroke counters;
- flow line sensors with alarms;
- pit level recorders with alarms;
- trip gain-and-loss meters;
- trip tanks;
- flow meters, particularly for Slim hole kick detection;
- PWD.
Quality of drilling fluid is extremely important. Provisions should be made to measure the
density, viscosity, and other fluid properties as required. A mud logging unit may also be
employed to monitor these and other pressure indicating parameters mentioned above.
Fluid Storage Capacity

Adequate supplies of fluids are necessary for well control operations. Logistics and storage
should be thoroughly reviewed and planned, especially offshore where space on a drilling
rig or platform is limited. Priority should be considered for storage of adequate supplies of
base fluids, weighting material, and lost circulation materials. Procedures and fluid recipes
should be pre-planned and readily available. It may be desirable to have kill weight or LCM
fluids pre-mixed and available during certain operations such as drilling into a suspected
shallow gas formation or a transition zone. In floating drilling operations, plans should be
made to recover and store riser fluids during planned and emergency disconnects,
especially when using oil or synthetic based drilling fluids and certain heavy brines.
Service Operations
Well intervention or service operations need to be planned in a similar manner to any other
well operation. These include, but are not limited to: logging, coring, fishing, drill stem
testing, slick-line, and coiled tubing operations (refer to API RP 5C7: Recommended Practice
for Coiled Tubing Operations in Oil and Gas Well Services).
Considerations for all these operations include:
- Procedures for securing the well;
- Monitoring well fluid levels when in and out of hole;
- Avoiding surge and swabbing;
- Procedures for stuck pipe and /or fishing operations;
- Contingency plans in case of problems.
2.2.4. Blowout Prevention Equipment Selection

A blowout prevention equipment system comprises all the equipment components
required for well control. These systems include BOPs, choke and kill lines, choke
manifold, degassers, flare lines, closing unit, marine riser (if applicable), and any auxiliary
equipment. Their primary function is to confine well fluids to the well bore, provide means
to add fluid to the well bore, and allow controlled volumes to be withdrawn while allowing
controlled pipe movement. The selection of equipment for a particular well is dictated by
many factors including, but not necessarily limited to, casing and drill string design,
anticipated pressures, environment, space, governmental regulations, and availability.
Following are some general guidelines:
The rated working pressure of ram-type BOPs should exceed the maximum anticipated
surface pressure by a safety margin of 10%. Provisions should be made for closing BOPs
on all sizes of drill pipe, drill collars and casing that may be used.
Schematic drawings should be available in Drilling Contractor or Operating Company
Drilling Manuals showing equipment and arrangement of the wellhead, BOP stack, valves,
lines, manifold, and accessory equipment required for each hole section. These drawings
should clearly indicate the location, size, and type of rams. Any changes to these standards
or well specific operational requirements should be detailed in the well programme.
The location of the various rams in the stack-up should be determined after careful
consideration of the expected use of the stack and application of risk assessment analysis.
The rationale behind any changes in ram configuration should be agreed with the drilling
contractor and stated in the well programme detailing specific functions and redundancy.
Whenever possible the BOP type, size and ram configuration should be chosen to
minimise the number of ram changes throughout the drilling or well intervention program.
Due to changes in the size of drillpipe in use, or for example the requirement to be able to
use a fixed ram to provide blowout prevention during casing running, it may be necessary
to change the position or size and type of a number of BOP rams. When this is necessary
great care must be taken to provide 2 independent, adequately and correctly tested barriers
between each potential sources of hydrocarbons.
If hydrogen sulfide is predicted or suspected, materials used in the down hole and surface
equipment must be resistant to hydrogen embrittlement (sulphide stress cracking). The
following references are recommended:
API RP 7G: Recommended Practice for Drill Stem Design and Operating Limits;
API RP 49: Recommended Practice for Safe Drilling of Wells Containing Hydrogen Sulfide;
API RP 53: Recommended Practice for Blowout Prevention Equipment Systems for Drilling Wells;
API Spec 16A: Specification for Drill Through Equipment; and
ISO 15156: Sulphide Stress Cracking Resistant Metallic Material for Oil Field Equipment.
Additional considerations for blowout prevention equipment selection are:
• distance between rams so pipe can be stripped, sheared or hung off;
• sizing of lines and valves to minimize friction losses and backpressure during well
killing operations;
• special marine applications.
Additional information on BOP equipment systems is available in API RP 53: Recommended

Practice for Blowout Prevention Equipment Systems for Drilling Wells (reader should check for the
latest edition). Information on marine riser systems is available in API RP 16Q:
Recommended Practice for Design, Selection, Operation and Maintenance of Marine Drilling Riser
Systems (reader should check for the latest edition).
2.2.5. Well Control Procedures

Once all the well data are gathered and a general well plan is complete, attention should
focus on response to potential well control events during drilling, completion and
workover operations. Procedures must be in place to handle each of the typical situations
shown below. These procedures would normally be expected to be included in Operating
Company manuals however any well specific requirements which are not covered should
be detailed in the well programme.
• Pre-kick data requirements and collection for each stage of operations. This includes
adequate surveys to establish the well path and bottom hole position;
• Diverter procedures;
• BOP close-in procedure selection at each stage;
• Kicks while tripping pipe in and out of the hole;
• Kicks while tripping in the hole with casing and liner;
• Kicks while out of the hole;
The details of principles and some alternate recommended practices to deal with these
events are to be found in this manual.
2.2.6. Shallow Gas

Well proposals should always include a statement on the probability of encountering
shallow gas. This statement should not only use the 'shallow gas survey', but include an
assessment drawn from the exploration seismic data, historical well data, the geological
probability of a shallow cap rock, coal formations, and any surface indications/seepages.
(Shallow gas procedures are discussed in Section 5.3).
2.2.7. Simultaneous Operations

Plans for simultaneous operations may be considered when drilling and workover
operations are conducted in close proximity with other operations. Examples include: a
drilling and production site, an offshore drilling and production platform or jack-up
operations on a producing platform.
Where one installation Management of work system would be employed for more than one
operation, i.e. wirelining, coiled tubing and drilling from a fixed platform while producing
from adjacent wells, the operation is often referred to as simultaneous (simultaneous use of
one PTW system). Where a number of installation Management of work systems will be
employed i.e. Jack-up working over a fixed installation, operations are often referred to as
concurrent.
These combined operations all have additional exposure due to the presence of oil and gas
processing facilities, pipelines, pipeline connections, and producing wells as well as the
potential for additional production and service personnel. Consideration should be given to
shut-in of producing wells and oil and gas processing facilities during certain high risk
operations such as secondary well control, moving the rig, top hole drilling (collision risk),
hoisting loads near or above producing wellheads, piping, or process vessels unless
additional protection has been provided. Simultaneous operations shall be documented in a
site specific Simultaneous Operations Plan dealing with interface management and an
operations Matrix, which clarifies the types and levels of activities that may be conducted
concurrently. An example of a Concurrent Operations Matrix (Shell Expro NBU) is given
in Section 2.5.
2.2.8. Well Specific Contingency Issues

While Operating Company contingency plans will need to be in place to cover emergencies
it is essential that the well programme addresses any well specific issues that may impact on
more generic plans. Typical well specific issues that may need to be addressed include but
are not limited to;
• Logistics
• Site access/egress in case of emergency and possible relief well site
• Specialised transportation or equipment requirements
• H2S
2.2.9. Training and Instruction

Well control situations, especially those involving shallow gas flows, can develop quickly
and be difficult to detect early. All concerned personnel should be familiar with the well
control system components and installation and be capable of reacting quickly and
efficiently to potential situations requiring its use. The following general guidelines are
offered for personnel training and instruction:
• Formal training and instruction in well control theory and procedures is recommended
for all safety critical positions at supervisor and driller levels or equivalent. Contracts
should specify competence and training requirements and systems should be in place to
ensure validated certification exists.
• For complex wells where advanced well control procedures are to be followed, well
and rig-specific training should be provided based on the procedures established. This
is the responsibility of the Operating Company. The following section is for
information only and describes a number of training schemes currently in use
worldwide.
The International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC) has implemented two
training programmes for industry.
(IADC) RIG PASS Accreditation System - The programme identifies core elements of
training programmes for new rig employees and recognises programmes that adhere to
those elements. Completion of a RIG PASS accredited programme confirms that
personnel have met basic requirements defined by safety and training professionals in the
drilling industry, irrespective of the rig location.
(IADC) WellCAP Programme - The programme emphasises the knowledge and practical
skills critical to successful well control. It uses quality benchmarks developed together with
operators, drilling contractors, professional trainers and well control specialists. WellCAP
ensures that well control training schools adhere to a core curriculum developed by
industry. Accreditation is achieved only after an extensive review of a provider’s

curriculum, testing practices, faculty, facilities, and administrative procedures.
International Well Control Forum - Accreditation System accepted widely that requires
participants to achieve a minimum grade of their knowledge of well control principles,
procedures and equipment in a written test and demonstrate their practical skills on a
simulator. Formal (re) training is not mandatory for biannual re-certification. IWCF
certification is often set as the minimum acceptable standard by Governmental Agencies
and major operating companies.
2.3. Well Planning Checklist

The following describes details which should be checked and considered during the well
planning phase. These criteria feed into the Risks and Levels Matrix (Section 2.4) and are
numbered accordingly.
2.3.1. Shallow Gas

Every effort should be made to establish the likelihood of shallow gas at the drilling
location. Typical probabilities would be:
• No evidence of shallow gas;
• Regional observations;
• Locally observed phenomena;
• Shallow seismic anomaly on shot point;
• Oil seeps;
• Seabed pockmarks;
• Observed gas seeps.
2.3.2. Overpressure
The probability of abnormal formation pressure must be investigated at a number of levels:
Geological Environment
The geological setting of the well location may indicate a tendency towards overpressured
sequences. This subject should be discussed with the subsurface team, however typical
problem areas include
• Currently subsiding basins e.g. Gulf of Mexico
• Significant thickness of recent sediments e.g. Central North Sea
• Adjacent mountains with possible aquifer continuity
• Deep graben features
• Significant thickness of evaporite sequences e.g. Southern North Sea
• Observed halokinetic effects (i.e. salt domes with possible dolomite rafting) e.g.
Southern North Sea
• Compressional tectonics e.g. Columbia
Subsurface Geology
Geological hazards which may impact well control should be assessed as thoroughly as
possible from offset data. Typical hazards may include:
• Thief zones – loss of drilling fluid and therefore primary control
• High ratio of shale to sand in sequence – may result in trapped pressure
• High bottom hole temperatures – often associated with abnormal pore pressure
• Highly permeable sections – lead to differential sticking
• Reactive / swelling shales – can result in swabbing
• Faults – can act as a conduit for high pressures
Offset Pore Pressure Data

The well design will include an analysis of offset data in order to determine the pore
pressures to be expected. The results will be used to design both the mud programme and
casing scheme. The quality of the offset data will impact confidence in the pressure
interpretation, i.e.
• Regional observation – Overpressure encountered in adjacent fields;
• Deep seismic cut-back on shot point – good evidence if rock sequence is understood;
• Field observation – reasonable probability that pressures will be similar across the field;
• Fault block observation – very high probability if the well is in the same tectonic unit;
• Adjacent well – almost a certainty.
2.3.3. Anticipated Pressure Magnitude

Zones of overpressure are seldom pressured at a single gradient, the exceptions being
permeable carbonates sealed within massive salt sections. Commonly, in an overpressured
zone the pressure will vary sharply with depth due to localised partial depletion. In highly
overpressured sequences, the range of individual pressures will be greatest, with occasional
hydrostatically pressured horizons possible. The resulting erratic pressure profile is difficult
to interpolate between wells.
This variable pore pressure over a range of depths can cause well control problems due to
alternate loss-gain scenarios resulting from an inability to maintain primary control.
Anticipated pore pressure should be quantified in ranges, for example:
Table 2.1: Ranges for anticipated pressure magnitude
psi/ft kPa/m ppg

<0.47 <10.6 <9
0.47<0.62 10.6<14.1 9<12
0.62<0.73 14.1<16.5 12<14
0.73<0.83 16.5<18.8 14<16
0.83<0.94 18.8<21.2 16<18
>0.94 >21.2 >18
2.3.4. H2S (in well stream)

Expected H2S levels are critical both to health, environmental and equipment selection.
The anticipated concentration should be estimated, i.e.:
• 0
• 0 - 50 ppm
• 50 - 100 ppm
• 100 - 500 ppm
• 500 - 1000 ppm
• 1000 - 5000 ppm
2.3.5. Well Fluid Type

It is important that the type of fluid or gas to be encountered is known as this may affect
well control, for example:
• Connate water / native brine – No additional risk;
• Heavy oil – No significant additional risk;
• Light oil – Higher density contrast leading to migration;
• High GOR – Can be a problem if bubble point is reached during a kill;
• Dry gas – Least dense influx, highly mobile leading to migration problems;
• Condensate / retrograde fluids – can be a serious risk due to phase and therefore
volume changes which can affect bottom hole pressure;
2.3.6. Mud Type

The choice of drilling fluid can impact well control:
• Water base is generally most benign if in good condition. However, poor inhibition can
lead to swabbing. With gas kicks, gas migration must be dealt with. In deep water the
potential for gas hydrates must be mitigated;
• Oil based mud (OBM) generally maintains good hole conditions but gas can dissolve in
the oil phase down hole and (if undetected) subsequent release at shallower depths
poses a significant risk due to rapid unconfined expansion. Numerous circulations may
be required to de-gas after a kick;
• Synthetic oil based mud (SOBM) covers a number of proprietary products which in
general have the shale inhibition properties of OBM with similar risks to OBM;
• PHPA mud has excellent shale inhibition but can be prone to swabbing if a top-drive is
not in use and the string has to be worked back every 30m-60m (100 to 200ft);
• Native mud usually has poor shale inhibition and poor fluid loss therefore high
swabbing tendency;
• Crude oil cannot be weighted easily and can transport gas in solution masking pit gains;
• Spud mud typically has no weight above hydrostatic and can be highly prone to gumbo
formation and subsequent swabbing.
2.3.7. Bottom Hole Temperature

High BHTs can be a problem in terms of well control for a number reasons:
• Muds (particularly OBM and POBM) are thinned with resultant Barite drop out;
• Mud expands when static giving indications of false influxes and making the volumetric
monitoring of trips difficult;
• High temperatures are typically associated with retrograde fluids which can cause
problems maintaining primary control. These generally involve gas influxes which hit
dew-point high in the hole resulting in a loss of volume. In more extreme cases, a
liquid influx can pass through both the bubble point and dew point while being
circulated to surface.
MWD/PWD tools may not operate at higher temperatures.
NOTE: Temperature should be estimated as BHT at the anticipated problem zone
(and/or reservoir) rather than as a gradient
2.3.8. Fracture Margin

This is the lowest fracture gradient in the open hole (often at the shoe) minus the bottom
hole pore pressure gradient.
The fracture gradient is calculated during the well design process from the interpreted pore
pressure, overburden and the matrix strength of the rock. The margin is essentially a safety
factor between the fracture pressure at the weakest point in the open hole and the highest
pore pressure to be encountered in that hole section.
The shoe margin at each casing point must also therefore be calculated at the design stage,
i.e.:
Table 2.2: Typical fracture margins
psi/ft kPa/m ppg

0.31 7.1 6
0.21 4.7 4
0.10 2.4 2
0.05 1.2 1
<0.05 <1.2 <1
2.3.9. Well Geometry

There is an industry wide move towards slim-hole well designs, driven by savings in
tubulars, mud, cement and rig rate. While slim wells are common place, they pose a well
control hazard due to their smaller geometry, i.e. a kick will:
• Occupy a longer section of annulus per bbl;
• Exert more pressure at the shoe per bbl;
• Have a greater likelihood of unloading the hole.
The ‘traditional’ casing scheme must be taken as a base case and any slimming down of the
profile must be evaluated as to how much additional risk is imposed. There are a limited
number of classifications (traditional, semi-slim and slim) and the scoring used on the Risk
and Level assessment must be made on professional judgement.
2.3.10. Well Profile

The two or three dimensional profile of the well can have a major impact on well control:
• Vertical well – no additional risk;
• Deviated (low angle, low radius) – no significant additional risk;
• Deviated (medium angle, medium radius) – can be problems with gas pooling on the
high side of the hole in dog-legs etc.;
• High angle ERD – potential for continuous gas phase on the high side;
• Horizontal – possibility of very high influx volumes;
• Multi-lateral – potentially two or more different pressure regimes leading to complex
kill procedures.
2.3.11. Maximum Design Pressure

The BOP must be selected to cope with the maximum anticipated surface pressure plus a
safety margin of 10%. For use in the Risks and Levels Matrix (Section 2.4), the calculated
design pressure must be used, not the actual rating of the BOP stack to be used. Due to rig
availability, highly rated stacks are often used drilling very low risk wells. Use of the actual
stack rating could unnecessarily bias the well towards a Complex status.
Typical stack ratings are:
• 2kpsi - generally confined to sub-hydrostatic wells on land;
• 3kpsi - normally used for very low pressure land wells;
• 5kpsi - a 'standard' rating;
• 10kpsi - high pressure rating;
• 15kpsi and above - very high rating. (HPHT wells).
2.3.12. Rig Location

This section combines two factors into the Risk and Level matrix. The surface location
scores against ease of access and egress, supply of chemicals and support services. The
water depth incorporates risks from choke line length, hydrates and accumulator
requirements. The range of locations include:
• Land - Easy access;
• Land - Limited access;
• Offshore - bottom supported, inland;
• Offshore - bottom supported;
• Offshore, floating rig , <1500ft / 500m water depth;
• Offshore, floating rig, 1500ft / 500m < 6000ft / 2000m water depth;
• Offshore, floating rig, > 6000ft / 2000m water depth.
2.3.13. Remediation Risk

The pollution impact of a major well control situation is difficult to express as a numeric
range due to the number of possible permutations. Each well location must be evaluated
on the specific consequences that could result and is scored according to professional
judgement. The risk in this instance is the cost to SIEP or affiliates of remediation work,
For example, criteria associated with the two end members of the series could be:
Low Risk Base Case:

• Remote desert region;
• No agriculture;
• Minimal habitation;
• Restricted surface run-off;
• Deep, concealed water table.
Typical High Risk Factors:

• Densely populated area;
• Intense agriculture;
• Shallow, exposed water table;
• Coastal or inland waterways;
• Conserved environments, e.g. rainforest, national parks, coral reefs etc.;
• High value real estate.
2.3.14. Environmental Exposure

In a similar manner to the Remediation Risk, the Environmental Exposure is difficult to
express as a linear scale and must be presented as a base case and a series of hazards. The
risk in this case is local environmental or climatic impact on well control. These may be
direct on operations or on the supply of stock and equipment. Again, professional
judgement must be used to determine the risk rating:
Low Risk Base Case:

• Land location;
• Good transport / communications;
• Temperate climate;
• Gentle relief;
• Politically stable.
Additional Risks May Include:

• Remote location;
• Deep water;
• Strong currents;
• Arctic conditions;
• Typhoon / hurricane prone region;
• High tidal range;
• Mountainous topography;
• Difficult transport;
• Civil unrest.
2.4. Risks and Levels in Well Control

This section demonstrates a method of determination of a relative risk value for a planned
well. Wells with high relative risk will require a higher level of planning and control.
NOTE: This risk value or hazard quotient is only used to help highlight and raise
awareness of the possible well control risk in the well. (as some OUs do for stuck pipe risk,
financial risk etc.)
2.4.1. Well Classification

For design purposes, wells are classified as Level 1,2 or Level 3 (as per SIEP EP 2000-
9073, Shell Casing and Tubing design Guide). For well control issues, no similar definitive
classification is possible because of the diversity of risks and the relative impact that each
has on the overall plan. A continuous range exists from a low risk standard well to a very
high risk complex well at the other end of the spectrum.
Low Risk Standard Well

Comprises 'traditional' well designs with low risk ratings typified by:
- Well known area;
- High fracture margins;
- Few potential hazards;
- Easy access and escape.
High Risk Complex Well

This well type encompasses a greater degree of risk imposed by either well conditions,
profile or location. Typical examples will include:
- Unknown area;
- Deepwater locations;
- Low fracture margins;
- Tortuous and/or long well designs
- High formation pressures;
- Shallow gas prone areas;
- Known hazards e.g. H2S, High Temperature etc.
2.4.2. Assessment Process

The following pages illustrate a system of evaluation by assigning a score for a number of
hazards defined by the well design. Individual risk scores are determined from the Hazard
Rating Matrix.
Regardless of the indicated relative risk, under no circumstances should design or
execution of well control operations be less than the minimum standards recommended
throughout this manual.
2.4.3. Hazard Rating Matrix

No. HAZARD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Shallow No Evidence Regional Local Oil Seeps Shallow Seabed Pock Observed Gas
Gas Risk Phenomena Phenomena Seismic Marks Seep
Anomaly
2 Over No Evidence Seismic Cut- Field Wide Fault Block Adjacent Well
Pressure Back on Shot Observed Observed
Risk Point
3 Anticipated <0.47psi/ft 0.47<0.62psi/ft 0.62<0.73psi/ft 0.73<0.83psi/ft 0.83<0.94psi/ft >0.94psi/ft
Pressure Risk <10.6kPa/m 10.6<14.1kPa/m 14.1<16.5kPa/m 16.5<18.8kPa/m 18.8<21.2kPa/m >21.2kPa/m
<9ppg 9<12ppg 12<14ppg 14<16ppg 16<18ppg >18ppg
4 H2S % Zero 0-50ppm <500ppm <1000ppm >1000ppm
5 Well Fluid Type Water / Brine Heavy Oil Light Oil High GOR Dry Gas Condensate /
Retrograde
Fluids
6 Mud Type WBM Pseudo Oil IOEM PHPA Native Mud Lease Crude Spud Mud
7 Bottom Hole <40°C 40<65°C 65<95°C 95<120°C >150°C

Temperature <100°F 100<150°F 150<200°F 200<250°F >300°F
8 Shoe Margin >0.31psi/ft 0.31>0.21psi/ft 0.21>0.10psi/ft 0.1>0.05psi/ft <0.05psi/ft
>7.1kPa/m 7.1>4.7kPa/m 4.7>2.4kPa/m 2.4>1.2kPa/m <1.2kPa/m
>6ppg 6>4ppg 4>2ppg 2>1ppg <1ppg
9 Well Geometry Traditional Semi-Slim Slim-Hole
10 Well Profile Vertical Low angle Med angle ERD Horizontal Multi- Lateral
Low radius Med radius
11 Maximum 2k 5k 10k 15k >15k
Design Pressure
12 Rig Location Land Land Limited Inland Bottom Offshore Floater Floater Floater
Easy Access Access Supported Bottom <500m 500<2000m >2000m
Supported Water Depth Water Depth Water Depth
13 Remediation Low Low Medium Level High Exxon Valdez
Risk Risk Level Impact Impact Level Impact Scale
Base Case
14 Environmental Low Minimal Significant Serious Extreme
Exposure Risk Adversity Adversity Conditions Conditions
Base Case
2.4.4. Hazard Quotient Evaluation Table

No. HAZARD Score
1 Shallow Gas
2 Overpressure
3 Anticipated Pressure Magnitude
4 H2S
5 Well Fluid Type
6 Mud Type
7 Bottom Hole Temperature
8 Shoe Margin
9 Well Geometry
10 Well Profile
11 Maximum Design Pressure
12 Rig Location
13 Remediation Risk
14 Environmental Exposure
NOTE: The purpose in assessing a hazard quotient is to evaluate potential areas of

concern during the well design process. The results can be used to compare wells or
sections of a well. The objective is to raise awareness of the level of well control risk, and
to identify factors which may:
• Increase the probability of a kick on a particular well
• Add complexity to any subsequent well control operations
Once identified, risk from high scored hazards should be mitigated by changes to the well
design or by the application of specific procedures / controls.
2.5. Example of Concurrent Operations Matrix

Shell Expro NBU Concurrent Operations Document (Extract)
Operation Risk
Level
Drilling or workover with conventional rig (No risk of hydrocarbons) 0
Drilling or workover with conventional rig (Risk of hydrocarbons) 2
Drilling or Workover with HWU, CTU or Hybrid (No risk of hydrocarbons) 0
Drilling or Workover with HWU, CTU or Hybrid (Risk of hydrocarbons) 2
Wireline intervention through Tree (Actuated UMGV with ability to cut wire) 1
Wireline intervention through Tree (Actuated UMGV compromised) 2
Other Non-subsurface Operations, Requiring Category 2 Hot Work Permits (except 1
Open Electrics) in associated areas, opening hydrocarbon systems.
Other Non-subsurface Operations, Category 1 Hot Work/Heavy Lifting/Opening 3
Electrics in associated areas or opening a hydrocarbon system with one of the barriers
jeopardised
The combined risk must not exceed 3 for concurrent operations to take place without
specific review.
The risk level does not take into consideration an escalation factor such as adverse weather
conditions or if one or more safety systems fail or are temporarily disabled etc. Because of
the complexity, the precise limitations on working conditions must be established on site.
Conducting operations with a combined risk level greater than 3 is permitted when it can
be demonstrated that appropriate measures are in place to manage any situation that may
increase risks significantly above those envisaged, is likely to occur.
The key to successful concurrent operations with minimum increase in risk is to identify
the potential problems/clashes and develop a means of managing these to minimise the
risk. This may involve delaying one operation until a high risk or critical activity (such as
cementing) is completed on the other operation.
It is also vital that when a problem does occur there is an agreed method to ensure that
other activities are managed appropriately to reduce the potential for escalation should
complications arise.
3. WELL CONTROL PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
3.1. Formation Pressures

By definition, Formation Pressure or Pore Pressure is the pressure exerted by the fluids
(liquid or gas) within the pore space of a formation. For convenience, we usually refer to
formation pressure as a pressure gradient from surface rather than an absolute pressure.
3.1.1. Introduction
Primary control dictates that the mud hydrostatic gradient shall always exceed the
formation pore pressure gradient in formations. It is well known that drilling penetration
rates are reduced the more mud hydrostatic pressure exceeds formation pressure. Hence,
for efficiency reasons we try to maintain mud at the lowest practical density (overbalance)
to facilitate fast drilling yet still maintain primary control.
Under normal undisturbed conditions, formation pressure increases linearly with depth and
is often equivalent to a salt water gradient. This is often referred to as a normally pressured
sequence. The fact that the most common formation fluid is also salt water implies that un-
weighted or slightly weighted mud will provide overbalance and that even if formation
water entered the well it would fill up and kill itself without continuing to flow at surface.
This is true only if the influx hydrostatic pressure gradient is equal to or greater than the
formation pressure gradient. Hydrocarbon fluids are invariably less dense than water and
will flow to surface and continue to flow if allowed to enter the wellbore unrestrained.
Additionally, formation pressure in a column of hydrocarbons, even in a normally
pressured sequence, will be higher than in the underlying water contact just by virtue of the
trapping mechanism and the density contrast between hydrocarbons and formation water.
This higher pressure can result in significantly higher gradient at the top of a column of
hydrocarbons thus requiring higher mud gradient to maintain primary control. This is
generally known as ‘The Hydrocarbon Effect’.
Higher pressures can also be encountered in abnormally pressured zones. These often
occur in areas where there has been sedimentation and compaction at a rate too fast for
trapped pore fluids to escape. The result is that the fluids bear a disproportionate share of
the overburden load and hence are at a pressure and gradient greater than normal. These
are called geopressured formations. Geopressuring can also be caused by tectonic forces
and thermal cracking of hydrocarbons in areas of high heat flow.
Before drilling, every effort must be made to predict formation pressures in the sequence
to be drilled. This is dealt with in Section 2.2, Well Planning for Well Control.
3.1.2. Indications Whilst Drilling

When drilling commences, it is imperative that there are systems in place to monitor
parameters that may indicate the presence of abnormal pressures. The indications will
depend on the type of formation being drilled. Different indications will be observed in
clastic and impermeable formations.
Indications of Abnormal Pressures in Clastic Formations

When drilling clastic formations a variety of phenomena can indicate the presence of
abnormal pore pressures. These are listed below, and the usefulness or reliability of each as
an indicator is suggested. However, all drilling areas are different and some responses may
not apply in certain regions or they may be masked. Under many circumstances the surface
indications, particularly cavings and gas effects may be subjective and require a high degree
of experience. This is particularly true of ‘d’ exponent interpretation. It is important
therefore, to utilise the services of a mudlogging company with an experienced Data
Engineer on each tour.
1. Actual kick (Definitive).
2. Drop in circulating pressure (Good).
3. Increased drilling rate, called a "drilling break", (Good).
4. Increased pit level (Definitive, caution if drilling in "ballooning" formations).
5. Changes in differential flow rate (Definitive).
6. General hole conditions, e.g. when overpulls are experienced during trips or making
connections, and when drilling torque increases. This may be caused by sloughing shale
(Fair).
7. Cuttings shape size and abundance (Fair).
8. Decreasing values of the calculated modified 'd' exponent (Good in certain situations).
9. Increasing background gas or gas-cut mud (Good).
10. Connection gas (Good when consistent drilling practices are employed).
11. Increasing trip gas (Fair).
12. Change in background gas composition (Marginal).
13. Change in mud properties, e.g. salinity and/or Resistivity (Marginal).
14. MWD with GR readings (Good).
15. PWD (Good).
16. Decreasing trend in values of shale density with depth (Marginal; requires very accurate
well site measurement).
17. Cation Exchange Capacity in shales. (Poor)
18. Abnormal temperature at flow line (Very poor).
The phenomena described above may be observed immediately prior to, or just after
penetrating a higher pressured zone. It is therefore imperative that crews are properly
instructed and trained to recognise such phenomena. However, all indicators which are
based on flowline measurements are inevitably delayed and their usefulness is
correspondingly limited.
Indications of Abnormal Pressures In Impermeable Formations

When drilling evaporites or carbonates there is, in most cases, no real indication of the bit
approaching abnormally pressured formations. Sometimes the presence of sulphur salts in
the mud returns and H2S from the cuttings may give an indication prior to penetrating
higher pressured hydrocarbon bearing zones.
3.1.3. Use of Logs to Detect Abnormal Pore Pressures

Interpretation of intermediate logs may also assist in the detection of abnormal pore
pressures or trends in shales, suggesting that an abnormal pressure zone is being
approached. The most useful logs are:
- Sonic, Resistivity and Density in conjunction with GR.
- Seismic shots run for a Vertical Seismic Profile may also be useful for fine tuning the
pseudo-sonic data mentioned in Well Planning.
3.1.4. Direct Measurement

Formation Pressure can be measured directly in permeable formations with the wireline
formation testing or with a DST. These measurements are rarely of any immediate practical
use for drilling but the information is very valuable for planning future wells. A well kick
also gives a direct measurement of formation pressure.
3.1.5. Sub-Normal Pore Pressure

Lower than normal pressure exists in sub-normally pressured (or depleted) zones. These
are usually the result of prior production from the zone and rarely, by themselves, present a
Well Control hazard. When they exist in a well with other normal or abnormally pressured
zones in the same open hole section they may be the cause of loss of circulation which
could lead to a well kick.
3.2. Formation Strength

Formation Strength is the term we use to describe the pressure required to breakdown the
wall rocks of the wellbore and thus allow drilling fluids to penetrate. It can alternatively be
described as injection pressure or even fracture pressure depending on the nature of the
formation the fluid and the circumstances.
3.2.1. Overview
Formation Strength at a point in the well is usually quoted as a gradient and called Fracture
Gradient or as an equivalent mud density. Irrespective of the terminology used, the
important fact is that we must determine the maximum drilling fluid gradient that the
formation can withstand before fractures occur and develop in the rock surrounding the
well bore.
The term formation intake gradient is most useful for field application. A knowledge of
this gradient is of utmost importance for well control since it puts an upper limit on the
mud density and well pressures that can be handled safely.
In normal situations formation strength of impermeable clastic sediments increases with
depth in a predictable manner. The relationship between strength and depth is non-linear
and can vary from region to region. Fracture Gradient curves have been developed for the
well-explored basins with continuous deposition, and are useful reference when drilling in
these areas. These curves are not continuous where there has not been continuous
deposition. Unfortunately, there are many permeable, vugular, faulted and fractured
formations whose strength cannot be predicted by these methods.
It is important that formation strength is not exceeded during operations. Breakdown can
be caused by excessive mud weight, surge pressures, equivalent circulating density or by
back pressure applied at surface. It is vitally important in most circumstances to avoid

breakdown during well kill operations as this may lead to an underground blowout and/or
broaching to surface.
Formation strength can be determined by conducting a leak-off test. These are usually, and
most conveniently, done immediately after drilling out a casing shoe. Casing is usually set
with the shoe in an impermeable formation. As a consequence, the result often agrees with
theoretical curves. However, one must remember that drilling ahead even a short distance
may penetrate a natural fracture or permeable formation with much lower strength.
Once formation strength has been measured or estimated it is possible to calculate kick
tolerance and Maximum Allowable Annulus Surface Pressure (MAASP).
3.2.2. Formation Strength Testing

Formation strength tests are carried out to investigate formation/casing integrity as a
function of borehole pressure. Tests can be divided into three categories:
1. Leak-off tests to investigate the capability of the formation below the shoe to support
additional pressure in order to assess the severity of the kick which can be handled
safely; hence to allow proper selection of the next casing setting depth (this aspect is
particularly important when abnormal pressures are anticipated). In this test the
pressure is increased to the formation intake pressure.
2. Limit tests are sometimes called casing seat tests or shoe strength tests (also known as
shoe integrity tests). The main purpose of this type of test is to confirm the strength of
the cement bond around the casing shoe and to ensure that no communication will
occur outside the casing if borehole pressures at the shoe exceed the hydrostatic head
of the mud. These tests are terminated at some predetermined pressure less than the
formation intake pressure. These tests are also recommended for brittle formations
that fracture with limited deformation and can suffer from considerable permanent
reduction in formation intake gradient.
3. Formation breakdown tests to establish fracture initiation, propagation, and closure
pressures of a formation in an attempt to gain regional knowledge of these parameters.
These are rarely, if ever, performed in conjunction with drilling operations (except
during abandonment) and are normally used for well stimulation studies and not
associated with well control.
Leak-off tests are always scheduled in Complex exploration and exploratory appraisal wells
below all casing shoes when drilling has to be done below that casing string. This also
includes the conductor string if a BOP stack is installed.
Limit tests are usually carried out in Standard and development wells to confirm that the
required shoe strength is present. The test must be stopped if it becomes apparent that
formation intake pressure has been reached.
Limit or leak-off tests in development wells may be omitted if no hydrocarbon bearing
and/or overpressured formations are to be penetrated in the hole section below that
particular casing shoe.
Information obtained from leak-off tests in straight holes is not applicable to deviated
holes in the same field (and vice versa). Only measurements in the deviated hole
themselves should be used.
It is not necessarily true that deeper horizons always have a higher strength than shallower
ones. If less competent formations are penetrated after conducting a leak-off test, another
test can be made immediately upon penetrating a transition zone or a cap rock which could
overlay higher pressured zones. However, the practice of repeating limit or leak-off tests
needs to be applied with much caution. In general during kick control the breakdown
pressure at the shoe will remain the critical pressure, unless much weaker zones, close to
the shoe, are penetrated. Also, if known depleted or low-pressure zones are penetrated, the
breakdown pressure may be estimated on the basis of wireline formation test results. If the
zone is expected to be critical during kick control, it may still be preferable not to subject
this 'weak spot' to breakdown loads during tests.
Data obtained from leak-off tests should be treated with some caution. It is considered
acceptable to use the values obtained to calculate the maximum pressure to which the
formation can be temporarily subjected, such as while circulating out a kick. The capability
of the formation to support pressure continuously may, however, be adversely affected by
changes in the hole profile or local damage to the borehole wall. Therefore, it should not
be presumed that a mud gradient could be increased up to that of the formation intake
gradient, as indicated by a leak-off test. If available, information on the fracture
propagation pressure should be used to determine the maximum allowable mud gradient in
the hole.
When good zonal isolation behind the casing is imperative, the leak-off/limit test should
be carried out with a retrievable packer to avoid pressurising the casing which may cause
permanent damage to the cement bond by the creation of micro-annuli in the cement.
Leak-off test procedure, report forms and all relevant calculations are also given in
Appendix 8 of the Shell Casing & Tubing Design Guide (EP 2000-9073 V2), Leak-off and
Limit Tests.
3.2.3. Leak-off Test Procedure

Pre-calculate anticipated leak off limit and approximate mud volume required to get to that
pressure. Earlier casing pressure tests will give a good indication of volume. Prepare a table
and graph to record and plot Pressure vs. Volume Pumped in real time (Figure 3.6).
Drill out shoe track and float equipment with care. Clean out sump and drill 3m - 6m of
new formation.
Circulate the hole clean. Cuttings load in the annulus will give spurious results. Condition
the mud to an even consistency. If the mud is badly out of condition when the shoe is
drilled out it should be conditioned before drilling the new hole. All leak-off tests should
be carried out with the lowest drilling fluid density necessary to overbalance the expected
formation pressure at the shoe. Weighting up drilling fluid to combat anticipated higher
pressure gradients further down the hole should be done after the leak-off test.
1. Circulate kill and choke lines to the same mud as in the hole.
2. Pull the bit back into the casing shoe and ensure that the hole is full.
3. Close BOP around the drillpipe. Open the annulus between the last and previous
casing strings where practicable. Floating rigs must use stationary pipe techniques by
compensator and/or hang-off.
4. Line up a low volume pump to pump accurately measured small amounts of mud
slowly into the well. High pressures are normally not required and a manifold with a
range of low pressure gauges and recorder is essential. Rig pumps are not suitable. If
using a cementing unit on a floating rig count strokes for volume determination
rather than rely on measurement in the displacement tank. Be sure to fill the lines
from the pump to the wellhead before starting.
5. Compensate pressure readings for the elevation between the cementing unit and the
drill floor.
6. Pump into the annulus provided allowance is made to be able to bleed off pressure
and measure flow-back volume at the conclusion of the test if there is an NRV in the
kill line. Close the lower kelly cock. Pumping may be down the drillpipe. However, to
avoid plugging the jets, bleed-off should be from the annulus and it must be
measured accurately. In any event use the annulus line if there is an NRV, PDM or
MWD in the hole.
7. Pump mud slowly until there is a positive consistent pressure response, which can
often be as much as half the anticipated maximum pressure. Pump rate should be
slow enough to be able to ignore dynamic friction pressure losses. Stop the pump
and record time, stabilized pressure and volume pumped.
8. Slowly pump uniform increments of 0.016 to 0.040m3 (0.1 to 0.25bbl) of mud and
wait for two minutes, or the time for the pressure to stabilize if this takes longer.
Record and plot the time, final pumping pressure, static pressure and cumulative
volume pumped at each increment.
9. Continue this procedure plotting results until the gradients of the final pumping
pressure and static pressure lines deviate from the established relationship to each
other or from the established trend line.
10. Stop pumping immediately this deviation is observed. Monitor and record the
pressure decay to stability. Allow sufficient time to confirm that a stable pressure has
been obtained.
11. Bleed off the pressure from the annulus and measure the volume of mud returned
and thus calculate the volume injected. Watch that the volume returned is not
supplemented by mud draining from the lines.
12. Note: The procedure can be modified to pump slowly but continuously plotting
Pressure v Volume watching for the first sign of deviation from the established trend
line. This technique is faster but requires much more diligence to avoid
overpressuring the formation and causing irreparable damage, and should only be
attempted under ideal conditions in Standard Wells.
13. At the conclusion of the test reinstate wellhead, choke and kill valves to normal
position before resuming drilling operations.
These procedures, if carried out correctly, should not fracture the formation. The static
pressure at the deviation point on the Pressure v Volume plot is called the 'formation
intake pressure' which is used to calculate 'formation intake gradient'. Pumping beyond this
point will cause fracturing which occurs at the 'formation breakdown pressure'. Breakdown
is usually characterized by a sharp pressure drop followed by pumping at constant pressure
known as the 'fracture propagation pressure'.
The 'fracture closure pressure' is the static pressure required to keep a fracture open
without propagating it further into the formation. It is the instantaneous shut in pressure
recorded at the conclusion of a formation breakdown test. These 'fracture' parameters are
important for well stimulation operations in cased hole but fracturing should be avoided
during drilling unless a bullhead kill is necessary.
Formation intake pressure added to the mud hydrostatic pressure at the shoe is used to
calculate formation intake gradient: The actual Formation Intake Gradient (Gfi) at the shoe,
from derrick floor, is calculated as follows:
Pmh + Pfi
G fi = which is the equivalent mud gradient.
D shoe(tvdbdf)
Where:
Gfi = Formation Intake Gradient
Pmh = Mud Hydrostatic Pressure at the shoe
Pfi = Formation Intake Pressure as determined from Leak-off test.
Dshoe(tvdbdf) = Shoe Depth. (True Vertical Depth Below Derrick Floor).
3.2.4. Pressure v Volume Plots

The character of the Leak-off plot will depend on the type of formation being tested.
Consolidated Formations
Characterized by a straight line plot up to the formation intake pressure. At low pumping
rates final pumping pressure and stabilized pressure at each increment will practically
coincide. See Figure 3.1 to Figure 3.5.
Unconsolidated Plastic Formations

Typically characterized by a slightly curved plot throughout. Final pumping pressure and
stabilized pressure at each increment will not coincide but should plot parallel to each other
up to the formation intake pressure. See Figure 3.1 to Figure 3.5.
Leak-Off
Surface Leak-off Pressure
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Volume Pumped
Figure 3.1: Leak off test - Impermeable Formation
Leak-Off
P Surface Leak-off Pressure

r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Volume Pumped
Figure 3.2: Leak off test - Permeable Formation

Leak-Off
P
r Surface Leak-off Pressure
e
s
s
u
r
e
Volume Pumped
Figure 3.3: Leak off test - Unconsolidated Formation
FBP
LOP ISIP
FCP
P
r
e
s
s
u Time
r
e
Volume Pumped
Figure 3.4: Leak off test - Formation Breakdown

Surface Limit Pressure
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Volume Pumped
Figure 3.5: Limit Test

Well: Rig: Date:
Pressure Leak-off Test Worksheet
Cumulative Volume Pumped
Final P Press. Stab. Press. Cum Vol. Time
Mud Gradient:____ Shoe TVD (Dshoe(tvdbdf))_____ Mud Hydrostatic Pressure (Pmh)______

Formation Intake Pressure (Pfi)__________ (from plot)
Pmh + Pfi
Formation Intake Gradient = G fi = = ________________
D shoe(tvdbdf)
Figure 3.6: Leak-off Test Worksheet

3.3. Well Control Checklist

Although the focus of everyone associated with well work must be on maintenance of
primary well control, it is essential that there be a plan in place to deal with secondary
control measures if they become necessary. The following is a non-exhaustive, example list
of items that should be checked.
WELL CONTROL CHECKLIST

Well Number: Location:
Rig: Spud-Date:
Remarks:
No Item Ck’d Date Comments

by
1 Nominate "Person in Charge".
2 Assign duties to individuals.
3 Determine level of crew training and Schedule pit drills and safety
competency. meetings etc. Include
stripping drills.
4 Scheme for inspection and testing of all Regular “Topical” audit
well control equipment. schedule on Well Control
and related equipment
5 Inspect accumulator manifold pressure,
and the regulated pressure for the
functions.
6 Inspect accumulator bottle pressures Check that all accumulator
bottles are charged and that
all functions can be opened
and closed as per
specification.
7 Inspect accumulator electrical and
pneumatic charging pump.
8 Ensure that the diverter equipment is in
working order
9 Inspect trip tank and stripping tank Calibrate the level readings
of both tanks. In semi subs a
margin of error to be
included to compensate for
rig motion.
10 Check pressure and operation of the
additional stripping equipment on the
annular, i.e. the surge bottle
11 Check choke and kill lines to the BOP
and condition of HCR
12 Inspect side outlet valves on the Standby valves in particular
wellheads.
13 Determine sensitivity levels for influx Especially on large semi-sub
detection instrumentation. flowlines where movement
of the rig can affect the flow
readings.
14 Prepare and advise appropriate shut-in
procedures and choke manifold set-up.
WELL CONTROL CHECKLIST

Well Number: Location:
Rig: Spud-Date:
15 Determine well kill method to be used The appropriate method may
for each depth by risk analysis. change at different depths as
the well progresses.
16 Prepare kill worksheets and keep Daily, every 200m or
updated. whenever there is a change
17 Prepare trip sheets.
18 Scheme for gathering slow pump rate Ensure Poor-boy Degasser
pressures if required. limitations / operating range
are known by Rig Team
19 Determine MAASP. Adjust as necessary when
mud density changes.
20 Formulate plan of action that will be Plan for on-the-spot decision
taken if MAASP is exceeded. making.
21 Determine kick tolerance in terms of Adjust as well deepens.
pressure and volume.
22 Prepare directional survey plan Must be maintained for
planning relief wells
23 Adequate surplus inventory of weight Additional to that amount
material on location. that will be used in the
normal course of the well.
24 Scheme for rapid delivery of weight Fork truck for sacks or bulk
material from storage to mixing point. bags, compressed air for
pneumatic transfer of bulk.
25 Backup rapid delivery scheme. Standby compressor.
26 Scheme for minimising active circulating Minimise the volume to
system. weight-up by transfer to
storage, dumping or
bypassing pits.
27 Determine the rate mud can be Essential information for
weighted-up in the active system. determination of kill
circulation rate.
28 Scheme for isolating reserve mud and Isolated reserve pits with
disposal of excess mud volume. mixing capabilities allows
mixing to take place in
reserve during Universal
method first circulation.
29 Determine the rate mud can be On most rigs these will be
weighted-up in the reserve pits. the same as every pit will
have a line connected to the
mixing system
30 Check the back up mixing lines Ensure back up lines to
mixing system are clear
31 Scheme for disposal of mud from the On most offshore rigs this
hole when pumping mud from reserve. should be possible
32 Determine circulation rate constraints Mud-gas separator
on choke and surface equipment. throughput limitations may
limit kill circulation rate.
33 Determine maximum pump output and
pressure, and pressure relief valve
setting.
34 Scheme for switching between pumps or
cementing unit if necessary.
3.4. Primary Well Control

By definition, Primary Well Control is the prevention of formation fluid flow into the
wellbore by maintaining a pressure - greater than formation pressure in permeable
formations. Shell Well Control Policy dictates that all operations are to be planned and
executed so as to maintain Primary Control at all times.
3.4.1. Overview
Primary well control is about maintaining the primary barrier, which traditionally is the
fluid column. This implies that formation fluid flow into the wellbore is to be prevented as
it negatively impacts the primary barrier. However, if another primary barrier is used
(rotating head) the formation fluid flow into the well bore no longer negatively affects the
primary barrier. The emphasis should therefore be on the effectiveness of the primary
barrier.
Since Well Control is a daily responsibility of the Shell Supervisor he must consistently
work to prevent loss of primary control.
This is particularly important:
• In remote locations where supply of materials may be complicated by logistical
constraints.
• In hydrogen sulphide environments where materials are more susceptible to failure.
• In top hole drilling operations when employing a diverter system.
If primary control is lost and formation fluids enter the well bore the well is said to have
kicked.
Conditions Necessary for a Kick

Two conditions in the well bore are required for a kick to occur:
1. the pore pressure of the formation must be greater than the mud hydrostatic pressure
in the well bore.
and
2. the formation must have sufficient permeability to allow flow into the well bore.
Loss of primary well control most frequently results from:
• swabbing;
• insufficient drilling fluid density / or e.g. unexpected formation pressure;
• lost circulation;
• failure to keep the hole full.
• equipment failure. e.g. (deepwater) riser failure.
These problems can occur during any operation conducted on a well. Other situations
where loss of Primary Well Control can occur may include; Tripping in the hole, Excessive
Drilling Rate Through a Gas Sand, Drill Stem Testing, Drilling Into an Adjacent Well and
Equipment Failure.
3.4.2. Swabbing
Swabbing is a reduction in wellbore pressure caused by a piston-like effect of moving the
drill string upwards. There are two main types of swabbing which vary in degree,
indications, and potential hazard. They are identified as "Low Volume" and "High
Volume" swabbing.
"Low Volume" swabbing

When the drill string is pulled out, to some extent there will always be a reduction in
wellbore pressure due to the internal friction between the mud, the pipe, and the borehole
wall. The mud “clings” to the pipe being raised, creating an effect that is the opposite of
ECD while circulating. A system that has high ECD will have high swab pressure. This
reduction must never be allowed to exceed the original overbalance over the formation
pore pressure, otherwise formation fluid will enter the well bore from a permeable
formation. Pressure reduction takes place along the entire length of the drill string so it is
possible to swab-in a formation above the bit.
Mud
D Hydrostatic
e Pressure
p
t
h
Reduced
Pressure due
to upward
pipe
movement
Pressure
Figure 3.7: Swabbing
"Low Volume" swabbing is sometimes difficult to detect at surface. Careful monitoring of

the hole to check whether it is taking the proper amount of fluid during a roundtrip is
therefore always required.
"High Volume" swabbing

Swabbing can also be caused by pulling full gauge or balled-up tools that restrict the
passage of fluid in the annulus. This creates a piston effect and the volume below the tool
would be filled by the fluid inside the drill string, causing a large drop of the fluid level in
the drill string and consequent dangerous reduction in hydrostatic head. In these situations
it may be advisable to pump out of the hole, especially if the rig is fitted with a top drive.
"High Volume" swabbing is therefore especially dangerous in large diameter holes.
Swabbing is one of the greatest pressure control hazards of drilling operations. The danger
is not necessarily related to the volume of fluid swabbed. A small volume of gas for
example, may migrate and expand, ultimately displacing (sometimes violently) a significant
volume of mud from the well. This may occur when there is little, if any pipe left in the
hole. The possibility of losing control of the well when the drill string is run back into
swabbed gas must also be recognised, since the gas column will elongate rapidly when the
assembly passes through it. Safety requires continuous monitoring of fill up and return
volumes throughout the roundtrip. This should be done with a trip tank of minimum
sectional area (to increase accuracy) and trip tank chart recorder or trip sheet.
A short roundtrip followed by circulating bottoms up before pulling out of the hole
completely will provide the most reliable information on the swabbing characteristics of
the system. This might indicate whether pulling speeds and/or mud properties should be
adjusted.
Limited volumes of swabbed gas/fluid can reduce the overbalance to formation pressure
without resulting in a flowing well (but do decrease the 'trip margin'). I.e. the well is
subsequently more sensitive for swabbing and indeed any gas percolation (water base
muds) of these small volumes may create an underbalanced situation.
Figure 3.8: Cumulative effect of Swabbing
Also note that with OBM undetected swab volumes (dissolved in mud near bottom) are a
risk when running back to bottom and circulating out. Sudden expansion when gas comes
out of solution may cause forceful unloading of the well at surface.
NOTE: When seepage (partial) losses are experienced and a roundtrip is being made, the
degree of losses should be accounted for in the trip tank measurements during the
roundtrip, otherwise swabbing may not be detected.
The three principal factors that contribute to a swabbing tendency are:

A annular clearance;
B pulling speed;
C mud properties.
Formulae and software that relate these factors have been developed to enable estimation
of swab & surge pressures. These should be used as a guide in situations where margins are
small but will not account for balled up assemblies.
Swabbing forces are always reflected in weight indicator readings as drag. It is possible to
measure this swab and surge drag (friction force) by observing and comparing weight
indicator readings while raising and lowering the drill string inside vertical casing where
other hole drag is minimal. -
A Annular clearance
Annular clearance is determined by the drill string and assembly configuration for a
given hole size. However, hole size can be reduced by excessive mud cake, swelling
formations, or an accumulation of cuttings (i.e. on low side in deviated holes). With a
large annular clearance, the tendency for swabbing to occur is reduced.
B Pulling speed
Low pipe speeds reduce the possibility of swabbing.
C Mud properties
Controlling the yield point of the mud is - very important, since the swabbing effect
is almost proportional to it. Minimising the solids content will help maintain a low
yield point.
A low water loss assists in obtaining a thin filter cake on the borehole wall, and in
minimising the swelling of shales. This will reduce the balling-up of bit and stabilisers
and thus reduce swabbing tendencies.
NOTE: When swabbing is anticipated it is recommended not to pump a heavy pill prior to
commencing a roundtrip. This permits a more accurate check for swabbing. The heavy pill can be
pumped when it is certain that swabbing will not occur. If low pipe pulling speeds and good mud
properties are not sufficient to allow a roundtrip to be made safely, consideration should be given
to circulating whilst the string is pulled, (i.e. pumping out of the hole) or to increasing the
overbalance factor. It is important to pump at or in excess of a rate that is related to the pipe
pulling speed (hole voidage below the bit), and is thus sufficient to prevent any loss of positive
bottom hole pressure. Flow at the bell nipple is not a sufficient indication, as this could be entirely
due to the mud column that is being 'lifted' out of the well.
3.4.3. Insufficient Fluid Density

This can be caused by:
1. higher than anticipated pore pressures of the formation or,
2. the drilling or workover fluid becoming contaminated (diluted) by less dense fluids
(e.g. by rainwater, or errors in opening/closing valves) or an influx of formation
liquids or gas.
Fast drilling rates may increase the mud weight considerably by drilled solids. Drilling with
heavier mud returns could obscure indication of drilling through higher pressured
formations. Primary control may be lost during circulating the hole clean when drilled
solids are being removed.
Annular pressure drop due to friction whilst drilling/circulating (ECD) will disguise an
underbalanced situation and primary control may be lost as soon as circulation is stopped.
Sometimes mud of insufficient density can be circulated safely and operations can proceed
temporarily without increasing the mud gradient and without the need for secondary
control measures. This occurs when drilling into abnormally pressured zones with low
permeability and hence, low productivity. In such cases, the well will not flow measurably,
but hydrocarbons or salt water will show up in the returns from bottom after a trip. Traces
of contaminants will always be present in the drilling mud whilst circulating.
3.4.4. Lost Circulation

Lost circulation may quickly result in loss of the hydrostatic overbalance that constitutes
primary control. The loss can result from natural or induced causes. Natural causes include
fractured, vugular, cavernous, subnormal-pressured, or pressure-depleted formations.
Induced loss can result from mechanical formation fracturing caused by:
1. excessive drilling fluid density,
2. excessive annular circulating pressure,
3. pressure surges related to running pipe or tools,
4. breaking circulation,
5. packing-off in the annulus and balling up of BHAs.
6. casing or riser leaks or downhole plug failures can also cause lost circulation.
If loss of circulation occurs in drilling or well servicing operations, the static mud level may
drop. Depending on the severity of the losses, the hydrostatic overbalance in the well will
then be reduced or eliminated.
In areas where loss of circulation is regularly experienced, the following preventive
measures should be considered prior to and whilst drilling into the potential lost circulation
zones:
• drill with the lowest mud density that can be safely used;
• use mud with a low yield point and low plastic viscosity;
• lower the circulation rate to reduce annular friction losses;
• drill at a controlled rate to avoid cutting build-up in the annulus.
• adjust the drill string configuration (DC size and length, pipe weight, stabilisers, etc.) to
minimise pressure surges and annular friction losses. This may also reduce the risk of
getting the drill string stuck;
• remove the jets from the bit or run regular bits with enlarged water courses to allow
pumping of LCM pills;
• limit the running-in speed of the pipe to minimise pressure surges;
• use proper techniques for breaking circulation during and after the trip;
• include a circulating sub in the assembly to allow pumping of LCM pills.
In order to restore circulation, the severity of the losses must first be evaluated.
Evaluation of Losses
Losses are usually classified as follows:
• dynamic losses (downhole losses which occur during circulation. The difference
between mud volume in/out will indicate the magnitude of the losses);
• static losses (downhole losses which occur under static hole condition, i.e. no
circulation );
• total losses or loss of circulation (no returns will be observed).
Restoring Full Circulation: Slight Losses

In the case of slight losses, both of the following techniques should be applied:
• drill ahead carefully whilst adding fine lost circulation materials to the mud (this may
seal the loss zone);
• reduce the mud yield point and circulation rate (this will reduce the pressure on the loss
zone).
Restoring Full Circulation - Severe Losses

In the case of severe losses, the fluid gradient which can be supported by the loss zone
must be determined. To do this, light mud or water of known density is pumped into the
annulus and the volume required to fill the hole noted. Because of the possibility of hole
collapse if water comes in contact with water sensitive formations, the volume of water
should not exceed that which would fill the casing volume from surface to the shoe. In
case of using OBM the addition of water is not recommended. Top up should be with base
oil.
The equivalent fluid gradient can then be calculated by working out the heights and hence,
the hydrostatic heads of both the lighter fluid (water or base oil) column and the original
mud column.
Sealing The Loss Zone

If circulation cannot be restored by the use of LCM, attempts should be made to seal off
the loss zone (once it has been located) by the use of special lost circulation "soft plugs"
such as salt gel, diesel/bentonite, etc. Alternatively, the use of a cement plug may be
considered. If a plug is set it should be pumped through open-ended drill pipe or tubing
with the tail near the top of the loss zone so the plug can migrate down to the thief area by
virtue of its density. The hole should not be filled by continuous circulation when tripping
out with the cementing string as this will cause the plug to be completely lost to the thief
zone. Only the calculated pipe displacement volume should be used to keep the annulus
level constant. Conversely, failure to 'fill' the hole at all or too little will result in formation
water being produced from the thief zone thus destroying the plug.
Plugged off lost circulation zones may hold some borehole pressure depending on the type
of formation and the lost circulation material used. However, after sealing a loss zone,
casing should normally be set as soon as a non-permeable zone is penetrated. An exception
to this rule may be made when it is known that pore pressure gradients do not increase
with increasing depth.
Drilling Without Returns

If the loss zone cannot be sealed and the formation will not support a column of light mud
(or water), drilling without mud returns may be considered. (See Floating Mud Cap
Drilling, Section 5.14.1)
An NRV or Drop In Sub (DIS) should be installed in the string when drilling with total
losses or with a floating mud cap. The dart of the DIS should be dropped and pumped
down/latched prior to each trip out of the hole.
Loss Of Circulation in Offshore Operations

In offshore drilling operations, primary control is more complicated than in onshore
operations. This is due to the difference between the pressure gradient of the mud column
from the flowline to well depth and the greatly varying overburden and formation strength
gradients over the same interval.
The overburden and formation strength gradients are nil from the flowline to sea level;
from sea level to seabed an 'overburden' gradient of seawater is present; below the seabed
the formation strength gradient gradually increases. The strength of the high porosity
sediments within 600m (2000 ft) of the seabed is usually very low.
Particularly when operating in deep waters (say beyond 600m), great care must be exercised
to avoid fracturing the formation. Therefore, the lowest practicable overbalance should be
employed to prevent mud losses. Accurate information regarding the strength of exposed
formations, based on carefully conducted tests, is particularly valuable.
NOTE: It should be kept in mind that when mud losses are gradually reducing while drilling /
circulating, the well may have actually started to flow. In C&WI operations, loss of fluid to the
productive zone can occur during initial well control or remedial operations. In multiple zone
completion wells with considerable differences in formation pressures between separate producing
zones, lost circulation can only be remedied by mechanically isolating the loss zone (with a packer
or cement) or by temporarily bridging the loss zone.
3.4.5. Hole Not Full of Adequate Density Fluid

When the fluid level in the well bore is allowed to drop the resulting reduced hydrostatic
pressure can become less than the formation pressure and allow formation fluid entry into
the well bore.
Tripping Out of the Hole

When pipe is pulled from a well, a reduction of bottom-hole hydrostatic pressure may
occur from swabbing as discussed above, or from failure to fill the hole to correct for the
volume displacement of the pipe.
Drilling and Completion Operations

In operations where circulation is desirable, such as most drilling or completion operations,
the displacement volume of the pipe being pulled from the hole should be replaced to keep
the hole full and maintain constant hydrostatic pressure. If the hole fails to take the proper
amount of drilling fluid, hoisting operations should be suspended and an immediate safe
course of action determined while observing the well. This usually requires returning to
bottom and circulating the hole. If a significant volume of gas has been swabbed
circulation will have to be via the choke manifold using the Driller's Method otherwise
expansion of the rising gas bubble may unload the hole, reduce hydrostatic pressure, and
induce another kick. The frequency of filling the hole during tripping operations is critical;
the hole should be completely filled at intervals that prevent an influx of formation fluid.
Continuous filling or filling after each stand of drill pipe may be advisable. The hole should
be filled after each stand of drill collars. When the hole is filled continuously, an isolated
drilling fluid volume measurement facility (such as a trip tank) must be used.
Completions & Well Interventions (C&WI) Operations

In operations where circulation is not normally maintained, such as many C&WI
operations where wells with depleted formations are being worked over, consideration
should be given to keeping a volume of fluid in reserve to add or bullhead into the well as
needed to maintain control.
3.4.6. Tripping In the Hole

When running pipe in the hole, the drilling fluid volume increase at the surface should be
no greater than the predicted pipe volume displacement. Some holes take significant
volumes of drilling fluid during trips due to seepage loss. Highly permeable and weak
formations may be susceptible to fluid loss or fracture if pipe or tools are run in the hole
too fast, causing excessive pressure surges.
3.4.7. Excessive Drilling Rate Through a Gas Sand

Even if the drilling fluid density in the hole is sufficient to control formation pressure, gas
from the drilled cuttings will mix with drilling fluid. The composition of the drilling fluid
can influence the amount of mixing. A high drilling penetration rate through a shallow gas
zone or coal bed can supply enough gas from the cuttings to reduce the hydrostatic
pressure of the drilling fluid column. This occurs through a progressive combination of
density reduction and "belching" drilling fluid out of the hole. The hydrostatic pressure
loss can reach the point where the formation begins flowing into the well bore.
3.4.8. Drill Stem Testing

A drill stem test (DST) is performed by setting a packer above the formation to be tested
and allowing the formation to flow. During the course of testing, the borehole or casing
below the packer and at least a portion of the drill pipe or tubing is filled with formation
fluid. At the conclusion of the test, the fluid in the test string above the circulating valve
must be removed by proper well control techniques, such as reverse circulation, to return
the well to a safe condition. Depending on the length of hole below the packer, type of
fluid entry, and formation pressure, the normal drilling hydrostatic overbalance can be
reduced or lost. Exercise caution to avoid swabbing when pulling the test string because of
the large diameter packers.
3.4.9. Drilling Into an Adjacent Well

A large number of directional wells may be drilled from the same offshore platform or
onshore drilling pad. If a drilling well penetrates the production string of an existing well,
the formation fluid from the existing well may enter the well bore of the drilling well or the
drilling fluid of the well being drilled may be lost to the penetrated well bore; either of
which can lead to a kick.
3.4.10. Equipment Failure

Mechanical failure of the casing at the surface or the BOP and related well control
equipment or formation breakdown can result from excessive casing pressure during initial
closure or while circulating out a kick. Riser failure on a subsea well may result in loss of
Primary control if a riser margin has not been added to the mud density.
3.5. Secondary Well Control

The primary duty of all wellsite personnel is to maintain Primary control of the well. If
however, primary control is lost, the well must be closed-in immediately followed by
secondary well control techniques aimed at removing an influx from the well and if so
required, increase the mud weight to regain primary control . This section discusses these
Secondary Well Control techniques.
3.5.1. Introduction
Personnel placed in positions of responsibility for Well Control must be assessed as
competent for the job.
3.5.2. Shut-in Techniques

Regardless of the secondary control method that is to be used, it is imperative that a kick is
recognized early and the well shut in quickly. The volume of influx allowed to enter the
hole will directly affect the amount of additional pressure exerted on the open hole, casing,
BOP and choke system.
There are two recognized shut-in techniques;
• Hard shut in;
• Soft shut in.
The difference between these two lies in the apparent control of the flow of fluids exiting
the well.
The hard shut in closes the flowing well against a closed choke, whilst the soft shut in, in
theory, closes the flowing well by gradually closing a choke.
Hard Shut In
On taking a kick the HCR is opened, and the BOP is closed against an already closed
choke valve.
This is a simple, fast way to shut in the well and thus minimise influx volume. It is the
Policy for Shell Operations to use the Hard Shut-in method.
Soft Shut In
On taking a kick, the HCR is opened to an open choke, The BOP is closed, and finally, the
well is shut in by closing the choke.
This method is slower than hard shut in thus allowing a greater volume of influx to enter
the well.
3.5.3. Shut-in Sequence for Soft Shut in

Function Close BOP
Open HCR
Close Choke
Time
Detailed closing-in well procedures differ for each of the following installations:
• land rigs and offshore bottom-supported units;
• offshore floating units (with drillstring motion compensator operational);
• offshore floating units (with drillstring motion compensator non-operational).
The procedure for land rigs is as follows: (Subsea procedures are given in Section 6)
Land Rigs And Offshore Bottom-Supported Units

1. With the pump ON, raise the kelly or top drive so that:
- the lower kelly cock is above the rotary table;
- there is no tool joint or other upset opposite any of the BOP stack rams or inside
the BOP stack.
2. Stop the pump.
3. Function Open the hydraulically operated choke line valve. (The rest of the choke line
should be open under normal conditions and the Choke should be closed).
4. Function Close the annular preventer.
NOTE: A choke valve is for regulating pressure, some will not isolate pressure. Therefore,
immediately after the choke is closed the gate valve upstream of the choke must be closed to
ensure that the well pressure is effectively closed in. Do not close a valve that isolates the pressure
gauge sensator.
5. Check the position of upsets, tooljoints etc. Close the upper pipe rams (optional). Do
not close the upper rams if casing protectors have been placed on the pipe.
6. Observe and record the closed-in drill pipe pressure SIDPP (Pdp) and the closed-in
annulus pressure SICP (Pa).
NOTE: If drill pipe pressures approach or are forecast to exceed standpipe rating, then use a
circulating head, high pressure lines and cement unit.
3.5.4. Moving the String Whilst Killing The Well

In some cases it may be considered appropriate to keep the string moving through the
annular preventer during well control operations in order to prevent stuck pipe. This
practice is optional and depends entirely on the circumstances under which the kick is
experienced and the amount of back-up / contingencies that are available. Moving the
string through the annular preventer may only be done if well control is not jeopardised.
Other criteria are:
• the BOP stack should have more than one properly functioning/sealing ram type
preventer;
• blind/shear rams are installed;

• there is no danger of stripping the tool joint through the annular preventer (offshore
floating units).
When killing a well, the first priority is to safely execute the well control operation. Possible
hole problems have a lower priority and may be dealt with after the well is killed.
3.5.5. Circulating Methods

• Driller's See Section 3.5.12
Influx removed from the hole in first circulation. Kill density mud introduced in
second circulation.
• Wait & Weight See Section 3.5.13
• Kill density mud introduced and influx removed in one circulation. May require waiting
to mix kill density mud.
• Concurrent
Circulation commenced with increased mud density but less than desired kill density.
Density increased in stages.
Non-circulating Methods
• Volumetric
Influx removed by migration. Necessary to follow a pressure vs pit gain schedule to
allow for gas expansion.
• Bullhead
Forcible reinjection of the influx into the formation.
It is important that the appropriate well kill technique be applied to each situation. The
onus now lies directly with Well Teams to firstly critically analyze the entire operation and
then each well section in the planning stages to formulate a plan to deal with secondary
control should it be required. This requires a thorough evaluation and comparison of the
possible techniques by risk analysis. This should ideally be quantified in a risk matrix, an
example of which is given later in this section.
The "Appropriate" technique is that method that is most likely to deliver the best economic
outcome without compromising safety.
3.5.6. Comparison of Circulating Methods
Advantages of the Driller's Method:

1. Is a constant bottom hole pressure method.
2. Applicable to any string in the hole.
3. Applicable at any depth.
4. Does not require any pre-recorded information.
5. Does not require complex calculations or recalculations.
6. Applicable for any mud properties.
7. Applicable for all mud types.
8. Applicable for swab kicks.

9. Applicable for all stages of kill. i.e. underkill, balance and overkill.
10. Applicable in vertical and deviated holes of all geometry with no complex calculations.
11. Applicable for composite strings with no complex calculations.
12. Applicable for all influx types
13. Applicable for all BOP systems including deep water.
14. Is not adversely affected by gas migration.
15. Circulation can be commenced immediately after determining SIDPP,
16. Circulation can be stopped and restarted at any time without complex calculations.
17. Circulation can be at any convenient rate.
18. Circulation rate can be varied at any time without complex calculations.
19. Safety margin can be added to kill mud density without complex calculations.
20. Applicable for down hole problems such as twist off, lost jet, plugged jet.
21. Clears the influx from the hole expeditiously thus eliminating the possibility of
problems that arise from, for example, a subsea riser disconnect while there is a gas
influx in the hole.
Disadvantages of Driller's Method

1. May result in higher pressures at the shoe.
2. May result in higher pressures at the choke manifold.
3. BOP must be shut in under pressure for a longer period if weighting up is required.
Advantages of the Wait & Weight Method

1. May result in lower pressures at the shoe compared with the Driller's Method
2. May result in lower choke manifold pressure compared with the Driller's Method
3. The well may be under pressure for a shorter time compared to the Driller's method
Disadvantages of the Wait & Weight Method

(This method is applicable only when an increase in mud weight is required)
1. Requires additional calculations once the kick is taken.
2. Does not account for changes in mud rheology.
3. Calculated pressure response to change of mud density is only approximate.
4. Quality control of mud weight is relatively low, hence additional circulation is often
needed for conditioning the mud.
5. Circulation is delayed, increasing the probability of becoming stuck.
6. Effect of gas migration during the wait period must be monitored and dealt with.
Worst case scenario: Single Gas

Bubble in Water Based Mud
500
WAIT WEIGHT
400
WAIT & WEIGHT

METHOD 300
200
FIRST CIRCULATION
DRILLER'S 100
METHOD
SECOND CIRCULATION
Figure 3.9: Plot showing comparison of Choke Manifold Pressure between Driller's
method and Wait & Weight method with 90 minute wait time. (1500m
(5000ft) well, 1m3 (6bbl) gas kick, migration rate 300m/hr (1000ft/hr))
Advantages of the Concurrent Method

1. Minimum of non circulating time
2. Excellent for large increases in mud weight (under balanced drilling)
3. Mud condition (viscosity and gels) can be maintained along with mud weight
4. Less casing pressure than Driller’s Method
5. Can be easily switched to Wait & Weight method
Disadvantages of the Concurrent Method

1. Arithmetic is a little more complicated
2. Requires more on-choke, circulating time
3. Higher casing and casing seat pressure than Wait & Weight method
Migration Notes
- Liquid kicks can be regarded as having zero migration.
- Gas kicks dissolved in OBM can be regarded as having zero migration.
- Horizontal hole sections obviously have zero gas migration

- Vertical, near vertical (<15º) and near horizontal hole sections (>85º) have low gas
migration rates. (200m - 300m per hour)
- Deviated hole sections (15º>85º) experience much higher gas migration rates.
- Gas slugs migrate faster in more viscous mud.
- Gas continues to migrate while circulating.
- Turbulence induces faster gas migration.
- Turbulence induces fragmentation of gas bubbles.
- Fragmentation of the gas bubble has the effect of lowering maximum pressures at the
shoe and at surface.
- Fragmentation of gas bubbles is more pronounced in lower viscosity mud.
- Fragmentation of gas bubbles is more pronounced in deviated holes.
3.5.7. Non-Circulating Methods
Volumetric Method
The method relies on migration of the influx so is only applicable to gas. It will most likely
be applied after a swab kick so it may only be necessary to remove the gas from the well
without any need to increase the mud density. If there is pipe to bottom hole so that
bottom hole pressure can be monitored the method requires no calculation. This technique
must be used while waiting in the Wait & Weight method. If there is no means to monitor
bottom hole pressure the method requires more complex calculations. It also relies on
assumptions of hole diameter which may be incorrect, and may induce higher open hole
pressures.
This method is used in conjunction with stripping operations when it is considered
desirable to strip to bottom to effect a circulating kill. Despite the limitations of the
Volumetric method it is often considered more prudent to use it in preference to stripping
and the associated inherent danger of damage to BOP equipment. Gas migration rates of
300m/hr are not uncommon so this time should also be compared with the alternative of
stripping and circulating.
Bullheading
This method involves reinjecting the influx back into the formation by squeezing mud into
the well. It is only likely to succeed when reinjection can be achieved without causing
breakdown at a shallower zone. In practice it is often the preferred method of dealing with
a sour oil/gas kick in a known reservoir, or used to kill a completed well in preparation for
a workover. It is rarely used to kill wells that have kicked during drilling or tripping. Under
the right circumstances this method has several significant advantages
1. Influxes containing H2S can be disposed of downhole. The second circulation of the
Driller's method is then used to increase the mud density to the required level.
2. Exposure of personnel and equipment to dangerous H2S is avoided.
3. Can defuse a potentially dangerous MAASP situation by removing the influx from the
hole. (see discussion on MAASP)
Bullheading is not a routine well control method in drilling operations, and as such must be
discussed and agreed between onshore and offshore teams before it is implemented. In
many cases, it will be doubtful whether the well can be killed by squeezing the influx back
into the formation from which it came. A permanent loss situation may be created by
fracturing at some other point below the shoe. The method can only be used if hole
conditions permit. Each case must be judged on its own merits, considering such variables
as:
1. Formation permeability
2. The formation must have good permeability/porosity to allow squeezing. The actual
kick can be used as an indicator (inflow performance prior to closing in the well and
the speed of pressure build-up after the well is closed-in).
3. Type of Influx
4. Gas is easier to squeeze back into the formation than liquid. Also, the higher the
viscosity of a liquid, the more difficult it is to squeeze.
5. Contamination of influx with mud
6. If the influx is contaminated with mud (which will be the case with most kicks),
squeezing will be much more difficult, because of the plastering qualities of the mud
and the possible presence of cuttings.
7. Position of influx
8. If the influx has migrated, or has been circulated up over a certain distance, mud
below the influx will have to be squeezed ahead of the influx, assuming that the
weakest formation is where the influx came from. The sooner squeezing takes place,
the higher the chance of successful squeezing will be.
9. Strength of the formation
10. Squeezing should be performed with the aim not to create any new fractures in any
formation. In principle, the surface squeeze pressure should not exceed the pre-
calculated MAASP. If heavier kill mud is pumped down the annulus, MAASP should
be adjusted according.
11. Casing burst strength at surface and wellhead/BOP pressure rating
12. The casing burst strength should always be taken into account when bullheading is
considered. An appropriate safety factor should be stated in the drilling programme.
Apart from the generally small chance of successfully squeezing the influx back into the
invading formation, bullheading has other crucial disadvantages:
1. fluid will go to the weakest formation which may not be the formation where the
influx came from;
2. there is a potential risk of fracturing formation anywhere along the open hole section
which can lead to an (internal) blowout situation. In the case of shallow casing setting
depths this can lead to cratering;
3. high pressures may have to be applied to surface/subsurface equipment.
Even if squeezing fluid back into the formation is possible to some extent, it may not be
possible to remove the influx completely. Different well control techniques may then have
to be employed.
The earlier bullheading is implemented the better the chances are to obtain satisfactory squeeze
rates.
Operational Considerations
- When high pressures need to be applied, the cementing unit should be used for better
control and adequate pressure rating.
- Large mud volumes and LCM pills should be available in case major losses are
experienced during bullheading.
- A kill line connection above the bottom pipe rams of the BOP stack should be used so
as to be able to isolate the annulus in case of a kill line failure.
- The line used for bullheading (commonly the kill line) should be fitted with a remotely
controlled valve, or Non Return Valve to protect surface equipment and personnel
from the backflow of hydrocarbons, or the uncontrolled flow of hydrocarbons should
the kill line develop a leak.
3.5.8. Well Control With a Top Drive System (TDS)

When a TDS is used in combination with stands, it should be possible to disconnect the
string under pressure at rotary level to be able to carry out jobs which require string entry
near the rotary table (e.g. installation of a lubricator, HP circulating head, etc.). For that
purpose - a kelly cock may be used at the bottom of the ‘drilling stand’. For critical
operations (e.g. HPHT) a ‘drilling stand’ may be used containing a kelly cock below each
drillpipe single. When a TDS is being used on a floater, it should always be possible to pull
back the string sufficiently high to be able to hang-off the string in the subsea BOP stack.
3.5.9. MAASP
(Maximum Allowable Annulus Surface Pressure).In general MAASP is dependent on
casing strength, wellhead rating and formation strength In this context however MAASP is
a straightforward concept whereby one can calculate the maximum pressure that can be
tolerated on the annulus without risk of causing formation breakdown at the shoe. MAASP
is normally calculated immediately after performing a leak off test and is then adjusted
whenever mud density is changed. If choke manifold pressure exceeds MAASP while
killing a well and the influx is still below the shoe, formation breakdown may occur.
Opening the choke is not recommended as this will cause a drop in bottomhole pressure and allow
additional influx which will ultimately increase well pressures and thus the chances of an
underground blowout.
The recommended approach is to ignore MAASP and to carry on as before, adjusting the choke to
maintain constant drill pipe pressure. The choke manifold pressure may fall as fluid is squeezed
away. However, if it is possible to maintain the desired drill pipe pressure, sufficient bottomhole
pressure will be maintained, and the kill should proceed. If drill pipe pressure cannot be
maintained, even with the choke fully closed, consider bullheading the annulus using mud. with
LCM
Be aware that mud and gas injected into a formation may bleed back into the well when the
pressure is reduced.
3.5.10. Kill Circulating Rate

Traditionally, the circulating rate chosen for a well kill operation has been no more than
half the normal drilling circulating rate. The main reason for this is to allow the choke
operator to maintain control of the well at critical periods.
The objective is to choose a circulating rate that brings the well control operation to the
earliest final conclusion. This is not to say that 'faster is better' since the risks of high
circulation rate at inappropriate times could cause problems that may take a considerable
time to rectify.
Practical Considerations For Circulating Out a Kick

It is generally accepted that kicks should be circulated out at about ½ the drilling pump
rate. This slow pump rate should give the choke operator sufficient time to react on
pressure changes. Depending on the kick situation the applied pumprate may be different
or adjusted when gas reaches the surface in order to avoid overloading the Mud Gas
Separator.
Advantages of Higher Rates:

1. Brings the operation to a conclusion sooner, therefore:
- Lower cost in terms of rig time;
- BOP Equipment under pressure for less time;
- Lower probability of becoming stuck.
2. Choke operated close to open reduces the risk of:
- Plugging the choke;
- Forming hydrates;
3. Choke adjustments are more controlled at the open end of the range. Small
adjustments deliver small pressure changes. At the closed end of the range small
adjustments can deliver large pressure changes.
4. Annulus circulating friction pressure is higher thus delivering a higher safety factor.
5. High circulating rates help to induce turbulence in a gas influx which in turn causes
bubble fragmentation and dispersion. This results in lower shoe pressure and lower
maximum choke manifold pressure.
Rate Limitations:
Risk Factor Comment
1 Standpipe The rate should never be so high that standpipe pressure exceeds normal
pressure drilling pressure.
2 Mud The rate must be limited to the rate at which the mud can be treated and
treatment brought to the desired density.
3 Surface The rate must be limited to the throughput capacity of surface
equipment equipment in particular the mud-gas separator (MGS).
4 Choke The rate should not cause the choke to be operating full open.
opening
These limitations are not all effective simultaneously, therefore it is worth considering each
phase of the kill procedure and determining the limiting rate for each phase. It is also
worth noting that it may be prudent to change the circulating rate for various stages of the
kill.
The example risk table below assumes a Driller's method kill but the analysis can just as
easily be applied to any other circulating kill method.
Table 3.1: Example risk table
Stage Risk Applies Comment

First circulation. 1 Yes Maximum rate limited by standpipe pressure.
From start-up
2 No No weighting up required.
until gas near
surface 3 No No gas to surface. MGS not required.
4 Yes Maximum rate limited by maximum choke opening.
First circulation 1 Yes Maximum rate limited by standpipe pressure.
Venting gas
2 No No weighting up required.
3 Yes Gas to surface. MGS required.
4 No Choke opening reduced while venting gas.
Second 1 Yes Maximum rate limited by standpipe pressure at outset.
circulation
2 Yes Weighting up required.
pumping kill
mud 3 No No gas to surface. MGS not required.
4 Yes Maximum rate limited by maximum choke opening.
The appropriate rate in each stage will be that of the lowest rate limiting factor.
Circulation rate can be changed during the kill by the following procedure:
Increasing rate:
While holding choke manifold (BOP) pressure constant (opening the choke), increase the
pump rate to the desired level. Once the desired level is reached read the new standpipe
pressure and thereafter maintain constant standpipe pressure by adjusting the choke.
Decreasing rate:
While holding choke manifold (BOP) pressure constant (closing the choke), decrease the
pump rate to the desired level. Once the desired level is reached read the new standpipe
pressure and thereafter maintain constant standpipe pressure by adjusting the choke.
These procedures assume that the change is effected quickly and that the gas influx does
not rise a significant distance in the hole while the choke manifold pressure is being held
constant.
3.5.11. Kick Tolerance

Kick tolerance can be defined as an expression of the well’s capability to withstand the
effect of taking a kick. This ability is directly associated with the pressures generated
throughout the well when a kick is taken and during the subsequent operations performed
to re-establish primary control over the well. In a typical well, the weakest component will
usually be the formations in the open hole. As formation competence normally (but not
always) increases with depth, the weakest component is often the formation just below the
casing shoe.
For a given influx density there are two extremes that can be tolerated by the pressure
vessel as a whole:
- A kick with almost no volume but maximum kick intensity (pressure)
- A kick with zero kick intensity (a swab kick) but a maximum kick volume
Between these two extremes are combinations of kick volume and intensity that can be
tolerated by the well.
The actual kick tolerance at any time can be approximated by determining the two end
limits stated above, and interpolating between them.
Kick Tolerance
3.5
Kick Magnitude (kPa/m)
3 1000m (3000ft) TD
2.5 1500m (5000ft) TD
2 2100m (7000ft) TD
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Kick Volum e (m 3)
Figure 3.10: Kick Tolerance
The plot above illustrates the case of a well with casing set at 460m (1500ft), 11.8kPa/m
(0.52psi/ft, 10ppg) mud in the hole and with a MAASP of 2700kPa (390psi).
Table 3.2: Kick Tolerance Table
Kick Tolerance for gas kick Influx Volume Kick Magnitude
m3 bbls kPa/m psi/ft ppg
Well depth 1000m (3000ft). 0 0 2.94 0.13 2.5
1.6 10 1.65 0.07 1.4
4.3 27 0 0 0
Well depth 1500m (5000ft). 0 0 1.77 0.08 1.5
1.6 10 1.06 0.05 0.9
3.3 21 0 0 0
Well depth 2100m (7000ft). 0 0 1.18 0.05 1.0
1.6 10 0.71 .03 0.6
2.7 17 0 0 0
Note that this well has a MAASP of 2700kPa (390psi) with 11.8kPa/m (0.52psi/ft, 10ppg)
mud in the hole. This equates to an equivalent shoe breakdown of 17.66kPa/m (0.78psi/ft,
15ppg). While this is theoretically the highest mud weight that could be circulated, it is not
a measure of Kick Tolerance.
3.5.12. Kick control by the Driller's method
Bit On Bottom
In this method the well is killed in two circulations. In the first circulation the influx is
circulated out using the original mud. In the second circulation, when weighted up mud is
available, the well is killed.
Procedures
The following procedures concerning the Driller's method are discussed below:
1. Closing in the well.
2. Pressure and pit volume readings.
3. First circulation: selecting the pump rate.
4. Standpipe pressure during first circulation.
5. Determining the height and gradient of the influx.
6. First circulation: determining travel times (or volumes).
7. First circulation: standpipe kill graph construction and use.
8. Determining the pressure at the top of a gas influx at any point in the annulus.
9. First circulation: action.
10. Second circulation: determining the gradient of the kill mud.
11. Second circulation: determining the amount of overbalance.
12. Second circulation: selecting pump rate.
13. Second circulation: travel times (or volumes).
14. Second circulation: standpipe pressures.
15. Second circulation: standpipe kill graph construction and use.
16. Second circulation: action.
17. Procedure after the well has been brought under control.
Note that only two calculations are necessary to apply the Driller's method:
• Kill mud density;
• Surface to bit volume, time or strokes.
Other calculations are not necessary but should always be done to give a comparative base
to assist in detecting problems.
Closing in the well

Close in the well immediately after detecting a kick condition. See discussion on shut-in
procedures.
Pressure and pit volume readings

Pressure and pit volume readings should be taken.
1. Start taking readings of the closed-in annulus pressure (Pa) and closed-in drill pipe
pressure (Pdp) immediately until they are stabilised. Record pressures on graph paper.
If a drill pipe float valve is installed in the string (or is an integral part of a downhole
tool such as the MWD assembly), pump very slowly occasionally and read the pressure
required to open the float (employing a float valve with a small wear resistant hole to
equalise the pressure will avoid this inconvenient procedure).
2. Measure the volume increase in pit level.
3. Watch the behaviour of the well carefully. The closed-in drill pipe pressure is always a
reliable measure for the bottom hole pressure if the bit is near bottom. If both drill
pipe pressure and annulus pressure rise steadily before starting circulating, gas
migration is indicated and the annulus pressure will have to be continuously bled off
to maintain the original drill pipe pressure.
The following procedure can be used to check for trapped pressures:
1. Determine the hydrostatic pressure loss per unit volume bled off in the worst case
situation (e.g. influx opposite the smallest annular space: OH/DC capacity).
2. Bleed off a small volume of mud on the annulus/choke side (50litre 1/4bbl) and allow
a small pressure decrease only (e.g. no more than 350kPa, 50psi). Use the strip tank to
monitor return volumes.
3. Check that the hydrostatic pressure loss per unit volume bled off corresponds with the
pressure loss shown on the drill pipe pressure gauge. If this agrees then repeat the
process.
4. When the pressure ceases to drop on the drill pipe side and the pressure on the
annulus rises to a higher pressure after the choke is once more closed, the bottom hole
pressure as indicated by the standpipe pressure, equals the formation pore pressure.
Any additional bleeding of mud at the choke will allow more influx to enter the hole.
First Circulation: Selecting the Pump Rate

The mud is not weighted up for the first circulation: therefore, the pump rate is not limited
by the weighting material mixing capacity of the rig. However, the maximum pump rate is
limited by other factors such as the increased initial standpipe pressure, the need for choke
adjustment, and surface gas handling equipment. Also, if the choke starts blocking-off,
pressure surges will be less at reduced circulating rates. See discussion on selection of kill
circulation rate.
Standpipe Pressure During First Circulation

The standpipe pressure at the start is the same as with the Wait & Weight method. The
standpipe pressure should then be approximately equal to the normal pre-kick circulation
pressure at the selected pump speed (if known), plus the closed-in drill pipe pressure, plus
a small margin of 700 kPa (100 psi). In practice, the standpipe pressure is that which is
observed after the pump is brought up to the optimum rate whilst keeping the choke
manifold pressure constant.
Since there is no change in the gradient of the mud being pumped, the initial standpipe
pressure must be held constant for a constant pump rate throughout the first circulation to
ensure that the bottom hole pressure is also kept constant.
Determining the Height and Gradient of the Influx

This information is not essential, but will give an indication of the pattern of choke
pressures and pit level changes that may be expected during the first circulation. The
procedure is as for the Wait & Weight method.
First Circulation: Determining Travel Times (or Volumes)

The bit-to-shoe and shoe-to-choke times are determined as in the Wait & Weight method.
The minimum total pumping time for the first circulation is that required to displace the
annulus, i.e. the sum of the bit-to-shoe and shoe-to-choke times, volumes, or pump
strokes.
It is absolutely necessary to continue circulation until all gas is removed from the hole. If it
is not, the second circulation will have to be done according to the Wait & Weight method.
First Circulation: Standpipe Kill Graph Construction and Use

There is no necessity (although it is recommended) to construct a graph for the Driller's
method. The standpipe kill graph is a horizontal line equal to the closed-in drill pipe
pressure plus the circulating pressure plus the overbalance margin of 700 kPa (100 psi).
Figure 3.11: Stand pipe pressure vs pump strokes (time)
Determining the Pressure at the Top of a Gas Influx at any Point in the Annulus
When a gas kick is being circulated out of the hole, the influx volume will increase due to
expansion and consequently result in increased pit levels.
By calculating the expected annular pressures at the top of the influx at specific points
along the hole together with the associated influx volumes at these points, comparisons can
be made with actual values observed during circulating out the influx. This information can
play an important role in the decision making process during well control operations.
The pressure at the top of a gas bubble at any point in the annulus while circulating it out
using the Driller's method can be calculated as follows:
1
A  A   Z T 
2 2
Vinf .o
Px = +   +  Po − (hinf .o × ρ inf .o ) }× ρ1 × × 2 1
2  2   AV .cap.x Z 1T1 
where:
AV .cap.o
A = Po − ( D − X ) ρ1 − (hinf .o xρ inf .o ) x
AV .cap.x
Px = pressure at the top of the gas at point X
Po = formation pressure
hinf.o = height of gas column at the bottom of the hole
ρ inf o = original influx gradient
ρ1 = original mud gradient

Vinf.o = original influx volume
AV.cap.x = average annular capacity of influx volume at point X
AV.cap.o = average annular capacity of influx volume at bottom
Z1 = initial compressibility factor of gas
Z2 = compressibility factor of gas at point X
T1 = absolute initial temperature of the gas
T2 = absolute temperature of the gas at point X
D = depth of the hole
X = depth of point X
Z 2T2
We can assume = 1 if there is no other information available.
Z 1T1
The influx volume at point X can be calculated as follows:
Po − (hinf .o xρ inf .o ) Z 2T2
Vinf . x = xVinf .o x
Px Z 1T1
Note that these calculations are only approximate and the data can best be obtained from
well control software.
First Circulation: Action

The procedure for the first circulation is as follows:
1. Open the choke and start pumping the existing mud at the selected pump speed.
2. Adjust the choke opening until the choke pressure equals the closed-in annulus
pressure plus the overbalance margin. Record the choke pressures throughout the first
circulation.
3. Read the standpipe pressure. It should agree with the calculated value, i.e. the normal
pre-kick pump test circulation pressure at the selected pump speed (if known) plus the
closed-in drill pipe pressure, plus a small margin of 700 kPa (100 psi). If the observed
standpipe pressure does not agree with the calculated value, consider the observed
pressure to be correct. Note that there is no requirement to know any pre-kick pump
test circulation pressure.
4. Note the standpipe pressure and thereafter keep standpipe pressure constant by choke
manipulation whilst maintaining a constant pump rate, until the influx is circulated
out.
5. When all influx has been circulated out, stop the pump and close in the well to check
the closed-in drill pipe and annulus pressures. At the end of the first circulation, if all
gas has been removed, the closed-in pressures of the annulus and drill pipe should be
the same and equal to the initial closed-in drill pipe pressure. The well is controlled but
not killed.
During the first circulation the following should also be carried out:
• maintain and record the density of the mud pumped into the drill string. Ensure that it
has the correct value;
• measure and record the properties of the mud returns;
• de-gas, treat or discard any contaminated mud returns.
Second Circulation: Determining the Gradient of the Kill Mud

The gradient of the kill mud to balance the formation pressure can be determined as soon
as the shut-in standpipe pressure has stabilised at initial shut-in. This is one of the two
calculations required to apply this method.
Pdp
Density increase = kPa/m (psi/ft)
D(Tv )
where:
D(Tv) = true vertical depth m (ft)
The required new mud gradient (ρ2 ) is then found by adding the increase to the original
mud gradient (ρ1 ).
A trip margin can now be added to the kill mud gradient in order to overbalance the
formation pressure and to resume normal operations.
Second Circulation: Determining the Amount of Overbalance

Normally the overbalance on bottom during well control (neglecting friction losses in the
annulus) should not exceed 700 kPa (100 psi). However, since the influx has been displaced
with ρ1 mud during the first circulation, large fluctuations in mud gradient and choke
control operations are not expected. Therefore, if possible, the density of the mud in the
well can be raised directly to that required to resume normal operations.
Second Circulation: Selecting Pump Rate

See discussion on selection of kill circulation rate.
Second Circulation: Travel Times (Volumes or Strokes)

The surface-to-bit strokes is the second and final calculation required to apply the Driller's
method. However, in practice, this is not absolutely necessary as the standpipe pressure will
not continue to drop after the new density mud reaches the bit. This is a signal to the
choke operator that constant standpipe pressure should now be maintained for the
remainder of the kill.
The surface to bit time is given by:
Internal volume of complete drillstring (bbls)
Surface to bit time = minutes
Pump output (bbls/min)
Alternatively, the number of pump strokes required can be calculated:
Pump strokes = Selected pump rate x Surface to bit time
Bit-to-choke times are the same as for the Wait & Weight method.
Second Circulation: Standpipe Pressure

The initial standpipe pressure should be the same as for the first circulation.
Pst = Pdp + Pc1 + m arg in
During the period that the heavy mud is being pumped down the drill string, the choke
manifold pressure is maintained constant by choke manipulation.
In practice, very little, if any, choke manipulation will be necessary.
The standpipe pressure should decrease until the heavy mud reaches the bit at which time
it should be approximately:
ρ2
Pst = Pc1 x = Pc 2
ρ1
The standpipe pressure should be held constant by choke adjustment after the heavy mud
has reached the bit.
Second Circulation: Standpipe Kill Graph Construction and Use

There is no necessity to construct a kill graph. However, it is recommended that the
standpipe pressure kill graph for the second circulation be constructed in a similar manner
to that of the Wait & Weight method.
The procedure for constructing the standpipe kill graph is as follows:

1. Plot the initial circulating pressure plus margin at the start of the second circulation.
2. Plot the heavy mud circulating pressure (Pc2) at the time that the heavy mud reaches
the bit.
3. Whilst the heavy mud is being circulated into the annulus, the choke manifold back
pressure should be progressively reduced to zero at the time when the heavy mud
reaches the choke. The standpipe pressure should then equal the heavy mud
circulating pressure. This assumes that the heavy mud gradient includes a suitable
overbalance margin.
Second Circulation: Action

If possible, the density of the mud in the well can be raised directly to that required to
resume normal operations.
The procedure during the second circulation is as follows:
1. Open the choke and start pumping mud of the required density at the rate selected to
kill the well. Maintain a constant pumping rate.
2. Adjust the choke opening until the choke pressure equals the closed-in annulus
pressure (plus margin) observed at the end of the first circulation. Choke pressures
should be recorded throughout the process.
3. Read the standpipe pressure. This should agree with the calculated standpipe pressure,
i.e. the pre-kick pump test circulating pressure plus the closed-in drill pipe pressure at
the end of the first circulation including the margin. If the standpipe pressure does not
agree with the calculated value, consider the observed pressure to be correct and
modify the standpipe pressure kill graph accordingly.
4. Maintain constant choke manifold pressure by manipulation of the choke until the kill
density mud reaches the bit. The standpipe pressure will automatically follow the
correct pressure reduction schedule. This is true even for tapered drill strings and
deviated holes.
5. Once the kill density mud reaches the bit, observe and note the standpipe pressure.
For the remainder of the kill maintain standpipe pressure constant at this value by
manipulation of the choke.
6. When the heavy mud reaches the surface, stop pumping and check whether the well is
dead by observing for flow at the choke line.
During the second circulation the following should also be carried out:
- maintain and record the density of the mud pumped into the drill string; ensure that it
has the correct value;
- measure and record the properties of the mud returns until the well is killed;
- de-gas, treat or discard any contaminated mud returns.
First Circulation Second Circulation
Maintain constant
standpipe pressure Standpipe pressure
Maintain constant
standpipe pressure
Choke manifold
pressure
Maintain
constant
choke
manifold
pressure
Figure 3.13: Driller’s method kill
Procedure after the Well has been brought under control

After the well has been brought under control, the well should be flow-checked via the
open choke line. The preventers can be opened and normal circulation resumed after any
possible flow has ceased from the choke line for a reasonable flow-check time.
Kick control whilst tripping

If an overbalance existed prior to pulling out of hole, then the only reasons for the well to
flow are:
- swabbing;
- failure to keep the hole full;
- losses induced by surge pressures.
Since no weighting up is required, the Driller's method first circulation is all that is required
to remove the influx from the hole to restore primary control.
Early detection of kicks off bottom can be achieved by observing whether the hole is
taking the proper amount of fluid during roundtrips. This can be achieved by pumping
across the flow riser with the trip tank which will give an immediate indication of gains or
losses. Trip tank fluid levels observed during roundtrips should be recorded on a dedicated
trip sheet and compared to previous roundtrips as well as to calculated values. This is the
most accurate method of checking if the hole is filling up correctly.
If swabbing is observed, but the well does not flow, the string should be run back to
bottom carefully. Running the BHA into a gas bubble will greatly increase its length and
this could put the well into an under-balanced state. The possible influx should be
circulated out, but not without due regard to the fact that if it is gas, it will expand as it is
circulated up the hole and could unload and create an under-balance on bottom. It is
necessary to close the BOP and circulate through the choke. Manipulate the choke to
maintain constant standpipe pressure. This is basic application of the Driller's method.
If the well shows any indication of flow, it must be closed in. The string should be
stripped back to bottom if it is thought to be a liquid influx as there will be no migration. If
the influx is gas, consideration should be given to allowing the influx to migrate above the
bit where it can be circulated out by the Driller's method rather than undertake a stripping
operation. It is more complicated to handle a kick with the bit off bottom as compared to
killing a well with the bit on bottom. This must be balanced against the time and
complication of attempting to strip.
If severe losses are experienced, followed by a kick (i.e. when running in too fast) LCM
pills should be squeezed into the loss zone formation via the annulus at such a rate as to
prevent the influx rising up the annulus. The losses should be cured before the remaining
influx is circulated out.
An inside BOP and Full Opening Safety Valve (FOSV) complete with lifting arms must
always be available on the drill floor and be open ready for immediate use. If the well starts
to flow whilst tripping pipe, the FOSV should be installed, made up and closed and then
the well closed in.
Do not attempt to run the bit back to bottom with the well still open, since this may lead
to excessive kick volumes and make well control much more difficult, if not impossible.
The correct procedure is to close in the well at first indication of flow. Closed-in pressures
will be much lower and will leave more options open during further well control
operations.
3.5.13. Kick control by the Wait & Weight method
Whilst on Bottom Drilling

(Applicable only when a mud density increase is required).
In this method, the well is killed in one circulation. The kick is circulated out whilst mud of
sufficient density to (over) balance the pore pressure is circulated in.
Procedures
The following procedures concerning the Wait & Weight (W&W) method are discussed
below:
1. Pressure and pit volume readings.
2. Calculating the gradient of the kill mud.
3. Determining the amount of overbalance.
4. Determining the amount of weighting material required.
5. Determining the pumping speed (killing pump rate).
6. Determining the circulating pressures.
7. Determining the surface to bit travel time (or volume).
8. Determining the time (or volume) for the influx top to reach the casing shoe.
9. Determining the shoe to choke time.
10. Determining the total pumping time.
11. Determining the height and gradient of the influx.
12. Construction and use of the standpipe kill graph.
13. Maintaining a constant bottom hole pressure.
14. Choke adjustment.
15. Determining the pressure at the top of a gas influx at any point in the annulus.
Pressure and Pit Volume Readings

After the well is closed in, and whilst making calculations on how to proceed in controlling
the well, the following should be carried out:
1. Start taking readings of the closed-in annulus pressure (Pa) and closed-in drill pipe
pressure (Pdp) immediately until they are stabilised. Record pressures on graph paper.
If a drill pipe float valve is installed in the string, pump very slowly occasionally and
read the pressure required to open the float (employing a float valve with a small wear
resistant hole to equalise the pressure will avoid this inconvenient procedure).
2. Measure the increase in pit level.
3. Record all values on the Kick Control Worksheet.
4. Watch the behaviour of the well carefully. The closed-in drill pipe pressure is always a
reliable measure for the bottom hole pressure. If both drill pipe pressure and annulus
pressure rise steadily before starting circulating, gas migration is indicated and the
annulus pressure will have to be continuously bled off to maintain the original drill
pipe pressure.
The following procedure can be used to check for trapped pressures:
1. Determine the hydrostatic pressure loss per unit volume bled off in the worst case
situation (e.g. influx opposite the smallest annular space: OH/DC capacity).
2. Bleed off a small volume of mud on the annulus/choke side (50litre 1/4bbl) and allow
a small pressure decrease only (e.g. no more than 350kPa, 50psi). Use the strip tank to
monitor return volumes.
3. Check that the hydrostatic pressure loss per unit volume bled off corresponds with the
pressure loss shown on the drill pipe pressure gauge. If this agrees then repeat the
process.
4. When the pressure ceases to drop on the drill pipe side and the pressure on the
annulus rises to a higher pressure after the choke is once more closed, the bottom hole
pressure as indicated by the standpipe pressure, equals the formation pore pressure.
Any additional bleeding of mud at the choke will allow more influx to enter the hole.
Calculating the Gradient of the Kill Mud

The mud gradient required for controlling a kicking well can be determined as soon as the
closed-in drill pipe pressure has stabilised. The information required will be on the Kick
Control Worksheet.
The closed-in drill pipe pressure represents the degree of underbalance since the drill pipe
is full of uncontaminated mud of a known gradient. The increase in mud gradient required
to balance the pore pressure is given by:
Pdp
Density increase = kPa/m (psi/ft)
D(Tv )
where:
D(Tv) = true vertical depth m (ft)
The required new mud gradient (ρ2) is then found by adding the increase to the original
mud gradient (ρ1).
Determining The Amount Of Overbalance

A small overbalance factor can usually be included in the new mud gradient. If, in addition,
bottom hole pressure during well control is maintained by applying additional choke
pressure, complete flexibility is retained. Note that a safety margin equal to annulus
circulating friction pressure is already automatically applied.
The amount of required overbalance (safety margin) should take into account the
fluctuations in mud gradient and choke control operation.
Normally the overbalance on bottom during well control (neglecting friction losses in the
annulus) should not exceed 700kPa (100psi). A low margin of 350kPa (50psi) in the mud
density, together with 350kPa (50psi) additional choke pressure is recommended.
If it is decided to apply more than the above-mentioned recommended overbalance during
the well control operation, applying additional choke pressure is preferred to increasing the
mud gradient, as it allows immediate adjustment if undesirable hole conditions or mud
losses develop.
Once the well is under control, the mud gradient should be further increased until it
includes a normal trip margin to enable resumption of normal operations. Offshore
floating units should add the trip/riser margin to the mud only when circulating through
the riser with the rams open.
Note that addition of anything other than a small overbalance to the new mud density
requires that the overbalance factor be included in the calculation of final circulation
pressure.
Determining the amount of Weighting Material Required

The amount of weighting material per unit volume of original mud required is given by:
d w × ( ρ 2 − ρ1 )
N1 = kg/m3
( )
981 × 10 × d w − ρ 2
−5
or:
d w × ( ρ 2 − ρ1 )
N1 = lb/bbl
( )
1237 × 10 −6 × d w − ρ 2
where:
N1 = amount of weighting material required per unit volume of original mud - kg/m3
(lb/bbl)
dw = density of weighting material - kg/m3 (lb/bbl)
ρ1 = original mud gradient - kPa/m (psi/ft)
ρ 2 = new mud gradient - kPa/m (psi/ft)
The volume increase after adding weighting material to the mud is:
N1 3
∆V = m /m3
dw
or:
N1
∆V = bbl/bbl
dw
The gradient of the mud pumped into the drill string should be maintained constant and
recorded. The properties of the mud returns should be measured until the well is brought
under control. Any contaminated mud returns should be de-gassed, treated, or discarded.
Determining the Pumping Speed (Kill Pumping Rate)

The maximum pumping speed is, amongst others, limited by the weighting material mixing
capacity of the rig. This is the maximum flow rate which is calculated by:
Weighting material mixing capacity 3
Max. flowrate = m /min (bbl/min)
Weighting material required
Weighting material mixing capacity Kg/min (lb/min)
Weighting material required Kg/m3 (lb/bbl)
To obtain a safety margin and reasonable surface pressures, a pump rate lower than the
one corresponding to the maximum flow rate is selected.
Killing pump rates for Wait & Weight method are normally restricted to approximately one
half the speed used for the drilling operation. Kill pump rate should be maintained at a
level which allows sufficient time for the choke operator to react to changes in choke
pressure.
The pump rate should preferably be kept constant throughout the well control period.
See discussion on kill pump rate in Section 3.5.12.
Determining the Circulating Pressures
Initial circulating pressure

The standpipe pressure at the start of the well control operation is expected to be the sum
of the closed-in drill pipe pressure (Pdp ) and the pump pressure at the selected pump rate
(Pc1 ) found during a previous pump test:
Pst = Pdp + Pcl kPa (psi )
Hence, we have:
Pcl = Pst − Pdp kPa (psi )
However, if the observed standpipe pressure is different than expected when circulation is
started at the selected pump rate with the choke pressure adjusted to the closed-in annulus
pressure, the circulating pressure to be used for all subsequent calculations should be taken
as the observed standpipe pressure minus the closed-in drill pipe pressure. If it is not clear
why pressures do not match, the well should be closed in to allow analysis of the situation.
Circulating Pressure with New Mud

The approximate circulating pressure when the new mud reaches the bit is derived by
adjusting Pc1 for the mud density increase. The drill pipe pressure Pdp is now zero and the
relation between Pc1 and Pc2 is as follows:
ρ2
Pc 2 = Pc1 × kPa ( psi )
ρ1
Note that this is only an approximation and is only valid when the kill mud gradient is
equal to the formation pressure gradient.
If a kill mud of density other than balance is used, Pc2 must be adjusted by the overkill
factor.
Overkill factor = Overkill Margin (psi/ft) x D(Tv)
ρ2
Therefore Pc 2 = Pc1 × - OKM × D(Tv) kPa ( psi )
ρ1
Determining the Surface to Bit Travel Time (or Volume)

The time, or volume, needed to pump the new mud to the bit at the selected pump flow
rate is determined. This value can also be expressed as a number of pump strokes.
The surface to bit time is given by:
Internal volume of complete drillstring (bbls)
Surface to bit time = minutes
Alternatively, the number of pump strokes required can be calculated:

Pump strokes = Selected pump rate x Surface to bit time
Determining the Time (or Volume) for the Influx Top to Reach the Casing Shoe
The time, or volume, required for the top of the influx to reach the casing shoe is
important (in the case of a gas influx), since the choke pressures can thereafter be allowed
to exceed the MAASP without risk or fracturing the formation at the shoe.
The time, or number of pump strokes, needed to displace the top influx from bottom hole
to casing shoe at the selected flow rate is approximated as follows:
Bit to shoe volume - original influx volume
Bit to shoe time = minutes
Pump output
This can also be expressed as a volume or as a number of pump strokes.

A more accurate time (or volume) can be calculated, by using the actual influx volume at
the casing shoe, instead of the original influx volume. Neither method makes any
allowance for gas migration.
Determining the Shoe to Choke Time

The time required to displace the drill pipe/casing annulus is determined from:
Shoe to choke volume (bbls)
Shoe to choke time = minutes
This can also be expressed as a volume or as a number of pump strokes.
Determining the Total Pumping Time

The total pumping time will be the sum of the three values found above, i.e.
Total pumping time = (Surface to bit time) + (Bit to shoe time) + (Shoe to choke time).
Determining the Height and Gradient of the Influx

Knowledge of the gradient of an influx is not a necessity for the well control operation.
However, the pattern of the expected annular pressures is determined by the type of influx,
i.e. liquid or gas and this will largely determine if MAASP considerations are likely to come
into play, or if there will be migration of the influx.
Determining the height of the influx

The height of the influx in the annulus when the influx is at bottom (hb ) can be calculated
from the volume gained before the well was closed-in, and the annular capacity, assuming
hole size equals bit size.
The influx height is calculated as follows:
When the initial pit volume gain is less than the annular volume around the DC's:
Measured pit volume gain
Influx height (h b) = m (ft)
Annular capacity (OH/DC)
When the pit volume gain is larger than the annular volume around the DC's, the
calculation above is repeated for the remaining volume. The height thus calculated is added
to the height of the previous section. If required, the process is repeated for each change in
section, until all the influx volume is accounted for.
Determining the gradient of the influx

Since the difference between the closed-in surface pressures is due to the presence of the
influx in the annulus, the gradient of the influx may be calculated by dividing the pressure
difference between the closed-in annular and drill pipe pressures by the true vertical height
of the influx as determined in the previous section.
The gradient of the influx is given by:
Pa − Pdp
ρ inf = ρ1 − kPa / m ( psi / ft )
hb
where:
Pdp= closed-in drill pipe pressure - kPa (psi)
Pa = closed-in annulus pressure - kPa (psi)
hb = true vertical height of influx in annulus when influx is at bottom - m (ft)
ρ1 = initial gradient of mud - kPa/m (psi/ft)
ρ inf = gradient of influx - kPa/m (psi/ft)
This information is not essential to the well control operation, but will give an indication of
the pattern of choke pressures and pit level change that may be expected during the
controlling of the kick. It will also give warning of what to expect when the influx reaches
surface.
Using the calculated gradient to determine the type of influx

The gradient of gas under bottom hole conditions is usually less than 3.4 kPa/m (0.15
psi/ft), whereas that of formation water is likely to exceed 10.5 kPa/m (0.465 psi/ft). A
calculated value within this range could represent a mixture of gas and water or oil.
In practice, a significant difference between Pdp and Pa for a reasonable inflow volume
implies gas.
Every kick should be assumed to be gas until proved otherwise.
Construction and Use of the Standpipe Kill Graph

The kill graph of standpipe pressure versus volume pumped or time should be plotted.
Standpipe pressures should include the safety margin to be applied when controlling the
well at the selected pump speed.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Plot the initial standpipe pressure from the Kick Control Worksheet at time (or
volume) zero.
2. Plot the standpipe pressure when the new mud has reached the bit.
3. Connect the points obtained in (1) and (2) with a straight line. (Note exception for
deviated hole or tapered drill string). This line represents the standpipe pressure to be
followed whilst pumping the new mud from the surface to the bit (given the condition
that the bottom hole pressure is equal to the pore pressure).
4. By adjusting the choke opening every 2-4 minutes, the correct standpipe pressure is
obtained whilst the selected pump rate is held.
5. Once the drill string is filled with mud of gradient ρ2, the standpipe pressure must be
held constant at the circulation pressure Pc2 until heavy mud returns to the surface,
provided the pump speed is also maintained constant.
Note that if it is decided to apply extra back pressure to increase the bottom hole pressure
whilst circulating, e.g. by 350kPa (50psi), the standpipe kill graph must be adjusted by the
same amount. This extra pressure also acts against all formations in the open hole below
the casing shoe.
If gas migrates after the initial build-up period, annulus and drill pipe pressures will rise at
the same time. Formation breakdown will eventually occur unless action is taken.
Therefore the closed-in drill pipe pressure must not be allowed to rise above the initial
value by more than the amount necessary to observe the change.
The gas must then be expanded by bleeding off mud via the choke until the drill pipe
pressure returns to a value slightly in excess (700kPa, 100psi) of its initial reading. The
original drill pipe pressure should be used again at the start of the circulation.
Maintaining a Constant Bottom Hole Pressure

From the moment that pumping of the weighted mud begins, until the end of the well
control process, a constant bottom hole pressure should be maintained. This is achieved by
pumping at a constant rate and adjusting the choke opening as required to obtain pre-
determined standpipe pressures. These are obtained from the standpipe pressure killing
graph on the Kick Control Worksheet. If standpipe pressures drop below the pre-
determined values, including safety margins, the bottom hole pressure will be less than the
pore pressure and another influx will enter the well. If the standpipe pressure rises above
the pre-determined value, pressures throughout the well become higher than necessary.
The risk of damage to the formation and consequent mud loss is therefore increased.
To maintain a constant bottom hole pressure until the heavy mud reaches the bit, the initial
standpipe pressure must be compensated for the effects of pumping heavier mud into the
string.
These effects include:
• the reduction of the closed-in drill pipe pressure to zero;
• the greater pressure required because of the increased friction generated by pumping
heavier mud at the same rate as the lighter mud was being pumped.
With heavy mud at the bit, there is no further significant change in conditions between
bottom hole and the pump. The standpipe pressure must therefore be held constant
(indicating constant bottom hole pressure) by choke adjustment as necessary until the
heavy mud reaches the surface.
Pumping can then be stopped and the well observed for flow.
In most cases where circulating rates are low, the effect of annulus circulating friction
pressure is small and can be neglected. However, in practice, the annular friction loss adds
to the bottom hole pressure throughout circulation. Similarly, by "stepping" the pressure in
increments during Phase I, bottom hole pressures are also higher than normal. The gradual
change from Pc1 to Pc2 also adds pressure to the open hole, because a significant percentage
of the pressure rise occurs only when the heavy mud actually passes through the bit
nozzles (e.g. at the very end of Phase I).
Choke Adjustment
The choke opening is adjusted so that, while pumping, the standpipe pressure corresponds
to the calculated pressure for the volume pumped or time elapsed.
The procedure for choke adjustment is as follows:
1. Open the valve upstream of the choke, then open the choke as soon as possible and
start pumping mud of the required density at the selected pump speed.
2. Adjust the choke opening until the choke pressure equals the value of the closed-in
annulus pressure plus the overbalance back pressure.
3. Read the standpipe pressure. This should agree with the calculated value plus the
overbalance back pressure applied. If it does not, consider the actual standpipe
pressure to be correct and modify the standpipe kill graph accordingly.
4. Record choke pressures.
NOTE: The value of the choke pressure depends on the characteristics of the influx
gradient, pressure and volume. If the influx is salt water in a uniform annulus, the choke
pressure remains constant until the heavy mud reaches the bit. Thereafter the choke
pressure gradually decreases as the original lighter mud and the salt water in the annulus are
replaced by heavier mud. The pit level remains constant during the well control process
except for a small rise due to the volume of weighting material which has been added. With
heavy mud at the surface, the final pit level will show a gain representing the volume of
weighting material added during weighting up. It is important that there are no restrictions
(e.g. partially closed valves) downstream of the annular pressure measuring point, because
that will result in higher pressures along the hole. A similar effect is seen with the choke
line of a subsea BOP stack.
Determining the Pressure at the Top of a Gas Influx at any Point in the Annulus
When a gas kick is being circulated out of the hole, the influx volume will increase due to
expansion and consequently results in increased pit levels and higher annulus pressures.
By calculating the expected annular pressures at the top of the influx at specific points
along the hole together with the associated influx volumes at these points, comparisons can
be made with actual values observed during circulating out the influx. This information can
play an important role in the decision making process during well control operations.
The pressure at the top of a gas bubble at any point in the annulus while circulating it out
using the Wait & Weight method can be calculated as follows:
1
A  A   Z T 
2 2
Vinf .o
Px = +   +  Po − (hinf .o × ρ inf .o ) }× ρ 2 × × 2 2
2  2   AV .cap.x Z 1T1 
where:
AV .cap.o
A = Po − ( D − X ) ρ 2 + D1( ρ 2 − ρ1 ) − (hinf .o xρ inf .o ) x
AV .cap.x
Px= pressure at the top of the gas at point X
Po = formation pressure
hinf.o = height of gas column at the bottom of the hole
ρ inf .o = original influx gradient
ρ1 = original mud gradient
ρ 2 = kill-mud gradient
Vinf.o = original influx volume
AV.cap.x = average annular capacity of influx volume at point X
AV.cap.o = average annular capacity of influx volume at bottom
Z1 = initial compressibility factor of gas
Z2 = compressibility factor of gas at point X
T1= absolute initial temperature of the gas
T2 = absolute temperature of the gas at point X
D = depth of the hole (True Vertical)
D1= height of the ρ1 mud in the annulus after it has been displaced from the drill string
X = depth of point X
If there is no ρ2 mud in the annulus, use ρ1 instead of ρ2 .
Z 2T2
We can assume = 1 if there is no other information available.
Z 1T1
The influx volume at point X can be calculated as follows:
Po − (hinf .o xρ inf .o ) Z T
Vinf . x = xVinf .o x 2 2
Px Z 1T1
3.6. Tertiary Control
3.6.1. Introduction
In circumstances where secondary control cannot be properly effected to restore primary
control due to gain/loss situation, equipment failure or hole conditions, certain emergency
procedures can be implemented to prevent the total loss of control.
Such measures, sometimes referred to as 'Tertiary Control', may lead to partial or complete
abandonment of the well. Prudent application of these techniques at an early stage may
avert much more serious consequences.
The procedures to be applied in order to effect Tertiary Control depend on the particular
operating conditions which are encountered. Specific recommendations regarding
appropriate procedures cannot therefore be given. However, three common procedures
should be noted.
These involve the use of:
• barite plugs;
• cement plugs.
• reactive squeeze plug mixes.
3.6.2. Barite Plugs

A barite plug is a slurry of barite mixed in a low viscosity carrier liquid. This may be either
water (fresh, sea or brine) or diesel oil whichever is compatible with the mud system. The
slurry is displaced through the drill string to form a balanced plug on bottom. Ideally, if
conditions allow, the string is then pulled up above it. The barite settles out rapidly and
should form an impermeable mass, capable of isolating the problem zone.
Barite plugs are most commonly used when a well reaches a point where there is no longer
any margin between mud hydrostatic gradient on bottom and formation breakdown at a
weaker zone higher in the hole. This situation can arise from either:
• Weighting up to counteract increasing pore pressure;
• Weighting up to kill a kick;
• Mud loss from fracturing.
In each case the well may be quite safe with the bit on bottom. The well not flowing and
not shut in. Typically there are no static mud losses but there are dynamic losses. The
entire mud system cannot be weighted up enough to provide a safe trip margin because of
the losses. If attempts to seal the loss zone have failed and there is insufficient vertical
height between the pressure zone and the loss zone to counteract the pressure with a
conventional heavy slug, a barite plug can be set. This can seal off the bottom hole
productive zone with a relatively short plug to enable the drilling assembly to be pulled and
casing to be run and cemented to isolate the loss zone. It may even be possible to wash
down the casing through the plug.
The effectiveness of a barite plug derives from the high density and fine particle size of the
material, and its ability to form a tough impermeable barrier. It can be pumped through the
bit and offers a reasonable chance of recovering the drill string. In addition, the material to
mix it is normally available on site and the plug can be drilled/washed easily after casing is
set.
To be effective the slurry must:
• be made with good quality barite with a low clay content;
• have a high density. The density must be at least 3.5 kPa/m (0.15 psi/ft) greater than
the mud density;
• have a rapid settling rate;
• have a high water loss.
The main disadvantage is the risk of settlement and consequent plugging of the string if
pumping has to be stopped before the slurry has been completely displaced. The string
must be pulled above the plug immediately on cessation of displacement.
Barite plugs are not suitable in situations where there is any flow that could keep the barite
in suspension.
Always conduct a pilot test using the available materials before mixing the plug.
3.6.3. Barite-Water Mix

For use in conjunction with water base mud. To avoid mud and/or hole instability
problems, the plug make-up water should be the same as mud make-up water. Also, be
aware that after the barite settles out there will be a slug of light weight carrier liquid in the
hole.
Recipe for Mixing Barite Plug Slurry in Fresh Water

Required Slurry Density Barite per unit of mix Water Slurry Volume per
unit of mix Water
Kpa/m psi/ft ppg kg/m3 lb/bbl
18.82 0.83 16.0 1696 593 1.4
21.17 0.94 18.0 2389 836 1.6
23.52 1.04 20.0 3268 1143 1.8
25.88 1.14 22.0 4417 1545 2.1
Slurry mixed in salt water or brine will be correspondingly heavier for the same amount of
barite.
A thinner should be added to prevent flocculation.

Lignosulphonate Caustic Soda
kg/m3 lb/bbl kg/m3 lb/bbl
1.14 0.4 0.71 0.25
OR Sodiumhexametaphosphate (for BHT < 60ºC only)
2.0 0.7
3.6.4. Barite-Diesel Mix

A barite-diesel mix plug is preferred in oil based or invert emulsion muds (alternatively a
barite-water mix can be used with a diesel spacer ahead and behind).
Recipe for Mixing Barite Plug Slurry in Diesel Fuel.

Required Slurry Density Barite per unit of mix Diesel Slurry Volume per
unit of mix Diesel
Kpa/m psi/ft ppg kg/m3 lb/bbl
18.82 0.83 16.0 1959 685 1.4
21.17 0.94 18.0 2684 939 1.6
23.52 1.04 20.0 3602 1260 1.9
25.88 1.14 22.0 4802 1680 2.1
An oil wetting agent should be added in the concentration of 14 kg/m3 (5 lb/bbl).
Mixing and Displacement of Barite Plugs

Barite plugs are usually batch-mixed in a rig slug tank or dedicated batch mixing tank that is
fitted with a mixer and preferably, jet guns. Continuous agitation of the barite pill is highly
recommended. Displacement can be with the rig pumps. It may be feasible and preferable
in some circumstances to mix and displace with a cementing unit. This gives more accurate
volume control for displacement but can be difficult to avoid contamination when mixing
through bulk systems normally reserved for cement. In any event, it is important to avoid
stoppages whilst pumping as the barite may settle out and plug the string.
A minimum final plug length of 60 m (200 ft) in the open hole should be planned to
ensure a good seal. Plugs should not be less than 1.6 m3 (10 bbl) in volume to allow
accurate displacement.
3.6.5. Cement Plugs

A cement plug could be employed to seal off a troublesome pressure zone on bottom in
the same circumstances as described above for a barite plug, with little added risk.
A cement plug could also be employed to shut off a small downhole flow. However, this
will almost invariably result in loss of a significant part of the hole and loss of most of the
drilling tools.
A quantity of quick setting (accelerated) cement is pumped into the annulus via the drill
string. Quick setting cement reduces the possibility of gas cutting taking place. The cement
is usually displaced until pump and choke pressures indicate that a bridge has formed. This
is usually done with the BOP and choke closed. If a cement plug is to be set off bottom it
will rarely be feasible to set a slug of viscous mud below the zone to be plugged although
this would be desirable, particularly in long or deviated holes, or when the cement slurry is
substantially heavier than the mud. The alternative is to mix extra cement slurry to allow
for losses to the hole below the drill string.
The use of cement plugs offers little chance of recovering the drill string. It is also likely
that after pumping cement through the string, it will become plugged, precluding any
second attempt if the first should not succeed. A cement plug in a flowing well should
therefore be regarded as a last ditch attempt.
3.6.6. Reactive Squeeze Plug Mixes

These include the so-called "gunk" squeeze and some proprietary formulations such as
Halliburton's FlexPlug and basically consist of a mixture of water reactive components in
diesel or vice versa. These can be used when well control is threatened by lost circulation
such as is often experienced in cavernous, vugular or fractured carbonates. Reactive plug
squeezes have also been used beneficially to cure underground blowouts. Well Control,
Cementing and/or Mud Service Companies should be consulted for the most recent
recommendations. Refer to Section 10.
Application
These would typically be used in the situation where there is pipe in the hole and it is
impossible to trip out because of the inability to keep the hole full, or there is an
underground blowout.
Advantages
- No other material has the same ability to set on the fly in a gas flow.
- Unlimited pumping time.
- Can be pumped through the drilling assembly.
Disadvantages
- Requires scrupulous cleaning, flushing and isolation of tanks and lines to avoid
premature reaction and setting.
Formulation
The compatibility of the reactive plug with the mud has to be checked beforehand. Pilot
tests must be carried out before mixing, and final formulation adjusted as necessary. Brine
mud may severely limit the reactivity.
Usually mixed in batches of 20bbl to 100bbl (3m3 to 16 m3) in tanks that have been
thoroughly cleaned and all contaminants (water) removed. Cement batch mix tanks are
ideal for this purpose. If a rig mud pit is to be used it must be isolated from the remainder
of the mud system. All surface lines should be drained and flushed.
When there is Water Base Mud in the hole the reactive plug is formulated in diesel or oil.
Typical concentrations:
Bentonite only - 400ppb (1140kg/m3) bentonite in diesel.
Bentonite and Cement - 200ppb (570kg/m3) bentonite + 200ppb (570kg/m3) cement.
When there is Oil Base Mud (OBM) in the hole the reactive plug (proprietary product)
must be formulated in water.
Typical concentrations for OBM as specified by Baroid for their product GELTONE:
Slurry Density Additive per unit volume of slurry (bbl, m3)
Water Barite Lignosulfonate Caustic Soda GELTONE
Kpa/m psi/ft ppg m3 bbl kg/m3 lb/bbl kg/m3 lb/bbl kg/m3 lb/bbl kg/m3 lb/bbl
12.48 0.55 10.5 0.66 0.66 0 0 10 3.5 4 1.5 627 220
15.42 0.68 13.0 0.63 0.63 499 175 10 3.5 4 1.5 428 150
18.82 0.83 16.0 0.58 0.58 1055 370 10 3.5 4 1.5 285 100
Slurry volume should be no less than 20bbl (3 m3) or twice the open hole volume of the
loss zone.
Displacement
Spacers of the slurry base liquid must precede and follow the plug. The spacer volumes
should occupy no less than 500ft (150m) of the drill string in front and behind.
Pumping sequence:
1. Position the drill string with the bit above, but close to, the zone to be treated if
possible.
2. Install circulating head and cementing lines and pressure test.
Using the cementing unit:
3. Pump spacer ahead into the drill string.
4. Pump slurry into the drill string.
5. Pump spacer behind into the drill string.
6. Displace with mud to put the first spacer at the bit. Do not over displace.
7. Close the annular preventer.
Using rig pump on the annulus and cementing unit on the pipe:
8. Simultaneously pump mud into the drill pipe and into the annulus below the BOP at
equal rates until all the slurry has been displaced from the drill string.
A hesitation squeeze may be performed to attempt to establish a minimum level of
competency of the plug. If the loss zone is above the bit the drill string will probably
become irretrievably stuck in the hole.
Note that there will be a volume of low-density spacer and carrier fluid left in the hole after
the plug has reacted with the mud.
3.7. Barrier Requirements

All operations conducted on a well are performed under the protection of barriers. SIEP
operate a double barrier policy. This policy requires that under NORMAL
CONDITIONS, two barriers are required for each potential flow path from the well.
3.7.1. Terminology
Barrier: is any system or device that can be used to contain fluid or pressure within the
confines of the well.
Normally Open: A barrier which is open during normal operations but at readiness to
close (e.g. Xmas tree or BOP).
Normally Closed: Usually a permanent installation in the well such as cemented casing,
cement plug, production packer etc.)
First Barrier: The term used to describe systems providing first line containment.
Second Barrier: The term used to describe systems providing backup to the first barrier.
Independent: Not reliant on another barrier to ensure pressure integrity, e.g. two similar
plugs can be considered to be independent so long as each can be regarded as reliable in its
own right.
Dependant: Reliant on another barrier to maintain integrity, e.g. a check valve requiring a
kill weight hydrostatic head to maintain closure.
3.7.2. Mechanical Barriers
Types of Barrier
• Cemented casing with shoe and floats intact.
• Cement plugs, tagged and tested.
• Cemented liners, pressure tested and the liner lap (& liner top packer) inflow tested.
• Annular side outlet valves or VR plugs in side outlet bore.
• BOPs – pressure tested drilling, wireline and CT stacks.
• SSSV: Safety valves are generally considered a barrier if inflow tested with a zero leak
rate. (NB: API definition of a sub surface safety valve includes an acceptable leak rate)
• Tubing hanger seals pressure tested via the hanger test ports in the wellhead or against
the casing.
• Plugs with bi-directional seals (o-rings or solid seal elements) are considered to be a
barrier if inflow tested, or under some circumstances pressure tested from above.
Remarks
• Flapper type valves can only be considered as a first barrier and only then if a positive
differential can be maintained to ‘hold’ the valve shut. If it were to be used as a second
barrier there is no way of inflow testing.
• It is generally considered that plugs dressed with chevron seals (or with separate sealing
faces) must be pressure tested in the direction of flow to be considered a barrier.
• Individual barriers which are normally open shall be regularly tested in accordance with
approved testing procedures (e.g. BOP, Xmas Tree and SSSV routine testing).
• Barriers which are normally closed shall be tested at the time of installation to confirm
that they are correctly positioned.
• Testing of a barrier should be in the direction of anticipated flow whenever possible.
Should a barrier fail, immediate action shall be taken to restore or replace that barrier prior to
continuing operations
3.7.3. Fluid Barriers
Types of Barrier
• Drilling Mud of sufficient density to overbalance any zones in the well capable of flow.
• Brine – Non particulate fluid of kill weight density normally used in conjunction with
LCM.
• Dynamic Fluid Column – Continual fill, restricted to total loss conditions.
Remarks
• Drilling mud can be defined as an independent barrier that consists of an overbalanced
fluid column, supported by means of a downhole mud cake. However, in order to
maintain the condition and therefore the weight of the mud, it must be circulated.
Therefore, if not circulated and maintained, mud can only be considered a temporary
barrier with a restricted life span dependent on the mud weight and temperature.
Barite drop-out will start sooner in heavy muds and high temperatures normally speed
up this process.
• Non-particulate fluids such as brine cannot be said to be an independent barrier under
most circumstances. Generally, only in conditions where LCM is held against the
formation by a hydrostatic pressure greater than reservoir pressure is brine acceptable
as a first barrier, and then only when the brine column can be maintained by
circulation.
• Under some circumstances (generally low permeability or heavy oil reservoirs) a
column of brine alone (no LCM) may act as a viable barrier. However, this capability
must never be assumed and brine alone must only be used based on local experience.
• The brine can only be said to provide a true barrier if its level can be observed
continuously to ensure maintenance of the hydrostatic head. In practice this is not
normally possible, especially when an upper mechanical barrier encloses the brine
column.
• Brine supported by a plug can only be considered as a single pressure barrier since the
brine is completely dependent on the plug not leaking.
• In areas where total losses are usual and dynamic fluid barriers are used, a minimum
fill-up rate (based on water availability and well control requirements) must be stated,
below which the well must be shut-in until continuous supply at the correct minimum
rate can be re-established.
3.7.4. Barrier Test Integrity

Barriers must be tested to ensure that they prevent the flow of fluid or transfer of pressure
within defined acceptance criteria. The following aspects must be addressed:
Acceptance Criteria - Criteria under which the test will be accepted as valid and
recommended actions in the event that the barrier fails to meet the criteria.
Pressure Differential - ∆P across the barrier should be large enough to adequately
challenge the integrity of the barrier.
Test Feasibility - Barrier integrity is usually measured as a pressure change or flow of
fluid into or from a fixed volume (flowline, annulus, cavity etc.) adjacent to the barrier.
This fixed volume must be of dimensions that allow changes of pressure or volume due to
leakage through the barrier to be assessed relative to the acceptance criteria.
Duration - The test period should be of adequate duration to ensure stable test conditions
apply and changes of pressure / volume can be accurately measured.
Frequency - Tests should be repeated at a frequency that accurately confirms the
competence of the barrier.
Barrier tests must be conducted in a manner that ensures accurate measurement of changing
parameters using calibrated test equipment. Charts or printouts must be retained to provide a
record of the test performed.
3.7.5. Inflow Testing

When inflow testing it is often hard to efficiently determine if a barrier is leak tight, as a 'no
flow' situation could take some time. Typically in a HPHT well this can be longer than 4
hours, especially if a cold fluid has been circulated above the barrier. In this case a Horner
Inflow test is required
The minimum test period is one hour (past experience suggests a reliable trend takes
between 1 and 3 hours depending upon well circumstances).
Horner Plot Guidelines

• During inflow test, periodically measure rate of flow at say 10 minute intervals.
• For each sample point, calculate: Horner Time = ((T+dT)/dT) where T is the time
since the last circulation (in minutes, may be taken as an arbitrary 60) and dT is the
time since the start of the inflow test, recorded in minutes.
• On the Y axis: plot rate of flow (L/min) on a linear scale.
• X-axis: plot Horner Time on a logarithmic scale.
• Interpolate between sample points with a straight line if possible. (Exponential rate
decay should plot linearly).
Early data may not be

indicative
t∞ Horner Time (plotted on Log Scale)
Figure 3.15: Typical Horner Plot
The plot in above is based on data from a real case. As can be seen, early data can be
erroneous for various reasons. The inflow test should be continued for as long a period as
necessary until a definite trend is observed – this trend should be indicative of either flow
from the well (FAIL), or thermal expansion (PASS). If the projection of the final trend
clearly indicates an intersect of the X-axis at or before infinite time (Horner time = 1), the
test can be considered good as the flow will eventually cease before infinite time. If the
projection trends towards an intersect of the Y-axis (indicating flow at infinite time) the
test can be considered as a fail. If the intersection of the final trend is in doubt, other
variables should be considered in order to confirm the result, such as possible gas on
bottom-up circulation after an inflow test.
Using the Horner plot provides an opportunity to optimise inflow testing by reducing as
much as possible, the subjective nature of the "reducing trend". The test should be
continued until a definitive trend has been established. An early termination of an inflow
test may lead to an indeterminate result.
4. CONTROL EQUIPMENT – SURFACE
4.1. The Well Kill System

The ‘Well Kill System’ is comprised of various rig components, many of which are
permanently installed and in most cases have daily routine functions. This section
highlights their involvement in the kill process and makes recommendations on their
specification and dimensions.
Kelly Cock To Flare To Vent
IBOP
FOSV Mud-Gas
Reserv Separator
NRV
Pits
BOP
Pump
Kill&Choke Choke
#1 Trip
Line Manifold Manifold
Active Tank Header
Pump
#2 Tank
Drop-In
Dart Stripping
Cmt Tank De-gasser
Pump
Figure 4.1: Schematic (an example of many possible alternatives)
4.1.1. Tankage
Mud Pit Management

The guidelines given below refer to ideal situations where local circumstances, size of rig,
type of well, design of well, equipment availability and other limitations are not an issue.
The decision to say, increase the size of reserve tanks or mixing speed to comply with these
guidelines should reflect local circumstances. The key element is to maintain control by
utilising available resources to the best advantage by pre-planning and good mud pit
management. Accurate fluid level monitoring devices must be in place and where mud
logging services are used, instrumentation shall not interfere or affect the driller’s
instruments/sensors. A set of very specific procedures should be developed locally when a
set of standard equipment components are not available. Factors to consider may include:
• Mud surface volumes will increase by the amount of kick volume taken
• The total volume of mud after circulating out a kick without weighting up (Driller's
method) will be the same as before the kick was taken (the kick volume will be
separated and/or vented off)
• As a gas kick is circulated up the hole, it will likely expand, causing an increase in pit
volume.
• As a gas kick is circulated out of the hole through the choke and vented, there will be a
decrease in pit volume (until the pre-kick volume is reached).
• It is important to monitor these variations which, if irregular, may indicate losses.
Before circulating out a kick by the Driller's method, reduce the active system to effectively
one pit. The total pit capacity should be capable of accommodating a potential pit gain due
to gas expansion and accommodate a level drop due to volume replacement of vented gas
or reservoir fluid.
• If weighting up is required, the mud volume will increase by the volume of the weight
material added.
• An efficient kill will be the one that initially weights up only the hole volume and a
minimum surface circulating volume.
• Weighting up should proceed in reserve pits during the first circulation of the Driller's
method only if they can be managed to advantage. It is best to prepare weighted mud
in a reserve pit that has direct mud pump suction and can take returns direct from the
degassed mud pit. It may be necessary to segregate tanks in the active system to achieve
this set-up.
• Weighting up can proceed in the active suction pit during the wait period of the Wait &
Weight method.
Before preparing weighted mud for either kill method, reduce the mud volume in the pit to
the lowest practical level. This will facilitate faster initial weighting but will have no effect
on the pump rate at which the kill can proceed. Pump rate will be governed by the rate at
which weight material can be added to the mud returning from the hole.
Active Pit
• The ‘Active’ pit should be large enough to hold an adequate working volume of fluid
yet small enough so that a small influx can easily be detected due to an increase in mud
level.
• Any pit to be used as the ‘Active’ must be equipped with accurate fluid level
monitoring devices.
• The pit level monitoring devices should be alarmed (visual & audible to the driller) to
indicate flow from the well.
• For floating rigs, consider a level device in each corner of the pit with averaged output,
to compensate for rig pitch and roll.
• If a mud-logging contractor is to be used, an ultra-sonic levelling system is
recommended.
Reserve Pits
• The reserve system should be large enough to accommodate all surface volumes
required in the course of the well.
• Provision must be made for increases in volume due to weighting-up.
• The mud mixing system (hoppers, jet-guns etc.) should be adequate to allow fast
density changes to large volumes of mud (i.e. a hole volume).
• The system of valves and transfer lines must be such that pit-management is simple
and efficient.
Kill Pit
• Normally confined to critical wells (HPHT etc.) where the risk of a kick is high.
• Normally large enough to hold a full well volume of mud weighted to maximum
anticipated kill weight plus a safety margin.
Trip Tank
• Primarily use to monitor hole fill and returns while tripping.
• The trip tank shall be provided with an accurate fluid level indicator or a
recorder/indicator, showing the amount of mud used to keep the hole full when
pulling pipe, and the amount of mud returned when running in. It should also be
possible to monitor hole fill/flow during static conditions such as electric logging
operations.
• Used for accurate volumetric flow-checks, particularly on floating rigs.
• Must have a small cross-section so that volume changes are easily detected and
accurately quantified.
• There should always be a redundancy in measuring trip tank levels i.e. Drillers should
use their own (mechanical) devices as well as those from other systems (either acoustic
or ultra-sonic). Apart from accuracy, the importance of understanding why
discrepancies exists and how they should be interpreted should be stressed.
• Multiple level monitoring devices must not interfere with each other’s operation (i.e. a
float giving a false signal to a sonic sensor).
• Instrument/recorders for volume changes must be easily monitored from the Driller's
position.
Stripping Tank
• A small secondary tank to the trip tank used to measure fluid transferred from the trip
tank while stripping.
• Must have a small cross section so that volume changes can be accurately measured.
4.1.2. Pumps
Mud Pumps
• Prior to spudding, the drilling mud pumps, mud manifolds, valves and main discharge
lines shall be pressure tested with water to 34,500kPa (5000psi) or the circulating
system working pressure if it is higher e.g. (7500psi).
• In all cases, a minimum of two pumps must be available to allow for redundancy.
• Hydraulic output must be sufficient to circulate maximum anticipated kill weight mud
at planned well profile and worst-case geometry.
• Functional stroke counters must be installed to monitor displacement.
Cement Pump
• The emergency high pressure kill pump (and/or the cement pump), manifolds, valves
and lines shall be tested to the maximum rated working pressure of the lowest rated
part of the system.
• The cement pump may be required during kill operations as a back-up to the mud
pumps.
• Ideally, the cement pump will have an independent power source (diesel) for the event
of total power loss.
• Functional stroke counters or flow/volume measuring devices must be installed to
monitor displacement.
4.1.3. Drill String Shut off Devices
Kelly Cock
• The kelly cock is used to close off the drill pipe.
• On a kelly-rig, two kelly cocks are used, one immediate below the kelly (Full Opening
Safety Valve (FOSV)) and the other, with LH threads, below the swivel (i.e. one at
either end of the kelly itself).
• The left-hand threaded upper kelly cock shall be in good operating condition at all
times. A test sub for testing the kelly or top drive and kelly cocks shall be available on
the drilling rig.
• The hexagonal wrench (Allen Key) used to operate the kelly cock must be available on
the rig floor at all times.
• Top-drive rigs generally have one kelly cock (IBOP) positioned below the TDS - which
is remotely operated from the Driller's position and one manually operated kelly cock
above the dp saver sub
• The IBOP of a top drive should be hydraulically operated.
• It should be possible to break the connection above the IBOP of the top drive and
remove the top drive when string entry below the top drive is required with the well
under pressure.
• The Kelly cocks and IBOP’s in use should have an outside diameter suitable to run or
strip this tool into the casing in use.
Stab In Valve (FOSV)

• The stab in valve is used to shut-off flow up the string while tripping (i.e. the kelly is
racked)
• Three Full Opening Safety Valves (FOSV) for each size of drill pipe in use shall be
available.
- One shall be used below the kelly or top drive during drilling operations,
- One shall be on the drilling floor complete with removable handles for easy
stabbing and connection and;
- One as a spare.
• The valve must be crossed-over to fit the pipe currently being run.
• Cross-overs must be available for all pipe and thread combinations being run. If this is
not possible or practical, alternate methods to control the well should be available,
understood and practised (e.g. shearing the pipe or dropping the string). A method of
shearing and dropping the string should be possible in all cases as a redundancy
method, if the safety valve cannot be stabbed owing to location of connection (above
the drill floor) or excessive flow.
• The valve and cross-over assembly must be full bore to the pipe being run so that
stabbing the valve does not present a restriction to flow from the well.
• The valve must always be in the full-open position until actually installed. The valve is
closed after being made up and before the BOP is closed. The FOSV is opened after
installing the drill pipe NRV (Gray valve) before stripping.
• Stabbing of the valve and cross-over assembly must be facilitated by either limiting the
size and weight to that that can be easily man-handled, or use of un-powered
mechanical means such as a counterweight device.
• FOSV's have been known to fail under external pressure differential and hence may
not be appropriate for high pressure stripping operations.
Inside BOP (drill pipe NRV)

• The inside BOP is a non-return valve contained in a sub that can be made up in the
drill string.
• A 'Gray-type' inside BOP NRV with the appropriate connections for the drill string in
use, shall be on the drill floor at all times. It shall be ready for immediate use.
• It is always made up above the FOSV when stripping is required or may be stabbed
directly onto the drill string in place of the FOSV.
• Practical considerations for use are similar to the FOSV with the exception that once it
is installed there is no longer wireline access to the drill string below it, neither can
pump-down devices be used.
Drop-in Sub (DIS)

• This term applies to a number of devices, which install an NRV in the drill pipe when a
dart is dropped into the pipe at surface and locates in a dart-sub in the BHA. Their
function is to prevent flow up the string, working as a one-way check valve.
• When drill string float valves are not run, a drop-in type back-pressure valve (NRV)
must be available complete with seating subs to fit the drill string in the hole. The
drop-in valve must be able to pass the smallest bore in the drill string above the seating
sub, and preferably be wireline retrievable.
• If a dart-sub is being run, the drift of the BHA and pipe above it must be checked to
ensure that the dart can land.
• One or two float valves (NRV’s) should be installed in the string when drilling with
total losses or with a floating mud cap.
• In a well control situation, the string should never be broken specifically to drop a dart
except in extreme circumstances where loss of containment at surface is likely.
• A drill pipe float valve positioned in the bit sub provides a 'permanent' non return
function during trips and connections.
Circulating Head
• A 69,000kPa (10,000psi) WP 76.2mm (3") rotating type circulating head with correct
bottom subs for the drill string sizes in use shall be available on the drilling floor
• A casing circulating head with a pressure rating equal to the casing rating shall be
available on the drill floor throughout casing running operations.
Any item used for drill string shut off in an emergency shall match the tool joints in use
4.1.4. The BOP

• The function of the BOP is to seal-off the annulus and to divert flow from the well to
the choke manifold.
• The BOP rating and ram configuration will be determined by well conditions and the
proposed activity. The equipment and example stack-ups are discussed in Section 4.2.
4.1.5. Down Stream Equipment
Choke Manifold
• The choke is a device which allows gas and fluids to be released from the well at a
controlled rate and pressure
• Two chokes should be available, This will allow washed out or plugged choke devices
to be changed without stopping the kill.
• A glycol injection point should be available upstream of the choke to prevent hydrate
build-up resulting from cooling caused by gas expansion through the choke..
Mud-Gas Separator (‘Poor Boy’)
• The Mud-Gas Separator (MGS), is the first device down stream of the choke during
well control operations. It is not a part of the normal circulating system.
• It is essentially a gravity separation tank where the mud is briefly unconfined and flows
across a series of baffles. This allows gas bubbles to breakout at the surface of the mud
and pass up the vent line.
• Mud is effectively drawn off from the lowest part of the separating chamber of the
tank through the mud leg (liquid seal, U tube) on route to the header tank.
• Gas is vented through a large diameter line usually secured to the derrick.
• The MGS must be fitted with a low pressure gauge 100kPa (15psi) which should be
visible from the choke control console and preferably alarmed.
See Section 4.6.
Flowline
• Although not strictly part of the kill system, the flow line is an important location for
kick detection.
• The ‘traditional’ mud-flow paddles are poor in angled flow-lines. Wherever possible
they must be located at the downstream end of a horizontal section, to allow the flow
to settle.
• Flow sensors in general, are unreliable on floating rigs due to vessel motion.
Header Tank
• Entrained gas downstream of the MGS is monitored at the header tank, normally by
the mudlogging contractor.
• If on contract, mud weight, mud temperature and H2S sensors should also be located
here.
Vacuum De-Gasser
• The primary function of these Vacuum or Centrifugal De-Gassers is the removal of
dissolved or entrained gas from the mud system. They are part of the normal
circulating system and can be used at any time to treat gas-cut or aerated mud
• In simple terms they work by subjecting the mud to a mechanically induced pressure
gradient, which allows gas to break out of the mud.
• Mud can carry high levels of entrained and/or dissolved gas for many circulations,
therefore the Vacuum De-Gasser is required to reduce gas levels prior to the mud
returning to the active pit.
4.2. Surface Well Control Equipment

This section lays out the basic requirements of well control equipment for a typical surface
installation and reviews the philosophy for BOP stack-up.
4.2.1. General Issues

The following considerations should be made when selecting well control equipment:
• BOPs that have been fully refurbished, body pressure tested to 50% above the rated
working pressure and re-certified are considered "new";
• Used BOPs (>5 years old) and associated BOP equipment that may be subjected to
well bore pressure (e.g. drill pipe shut-off tools and BOP side outlet valves) shall be
subject to a 5-yearly re-certification after full refurbishment and body testing. Any
BOP used on a well shall have a rated working pressure of no less than 10% in excess
of maximum anticipated surface pressures. The BOP shall consist of remotely
controlled equipment capable of closing in the well with or without pipe in the hole.
The remote control unit should diagrammatically represent the stack-up arrangement.
Valves, handles and buttons, which are not in use, should be removed;
• Welded, flanged, or hub connections are mandatory on all pressure systems with a
rated working pressure in excess of 13,800kPa (2000psi). Threaded connections to line
pipe are not acceptable
• Any well control equipment containing Temporary Pipe Work components shall
comply with the Temporary Pipe Work standard EP 2006-5393. For in field
operations and awareness reference should be made to the ABC guide to Temporary
Pipework In wells where H2S may be encountered, well control equipment suitable for
sour service is required; in such cases the complete high-pressure BOP system should
be fabricated of materials resistant to H2S and sulphide stress corrosion cracking.
Note: Where hard-steel shear ram blades are not in compliance, the shear rams should
be placed in the uppermost ram cavities such that exposure during killing operations,
with the pipe rams positioned lower, is limited.
• Elastomers installed in BOPs must be appropriate for the fluid systems used and
maximum anticipated temperatures (including temperature scenario’s during well
control operations).
• Dedicated kill lines must not be smaller than 50mm (2") nominal and shall be fitted
with two valves and an NRV. Choke lines must not be smaller than 75mm (3") through
bore and are to be connected with two valves to the BOP stack of which the outer
valve shall be remote hydraulically operated.
• When dual purpose kill and choke lines are employed, both lines must not be smaller
than 75mm (3") through bore and the outer valve of each line shall be remote
hydraulically operated. They shall both be connected to a Kill & Choke Line Manifold
that incorporates an NRV on the mud pump discharge line.
• During drilling, workover and completion operations, shearing blind rams should be
provided in the BOP stack. The calculated shear pressure required to shear the pipe in
use must be available on site. The shearing blind rams should be capable of shearing
the drill pipe/tubing in use under no-load conditions and subsequently provide an
effective seal. Forces required to shear some common sizes of drill pipe are shown in
Table 4.1. More detailed information on shear bonnets, shear ram types and shear
factors can be obtained via the manufacturers engineering data.
• The rated hang-off data for the fixed PR and VBR (for relevant pipe sizes) must be
available on site.
• Closing systems of surface BOPs should be capable of closing each ram preventer
within 30 seconds. The closing time should not exceed 30 seconds for annular
preventers smaller than 508mm (20") and 45 seconds for annular preventers of 508mm
(20") and larger (see also API RP53).
• All master and remote operating panel handles should, at all times, be in the full open
or closed position, and be free to move into either position, i.e. the shear ram operating
handles should not be locked but may be screened to prevent inadvertent operation.
• All four way valves in operation should be either in the fully open or fully closed
position, as required; they should not be left in the blocked or centre position.
All spare operating lines and connections, which are not use in the system should be
blanked off with blind plugs at the hydraulic operating unit.
4.2.2. Pipe Shearing

Shearing pipe is preceded by a deformation (pipe flattening) process that geometrically
limits the size of pipe (OD and wall thickness) that can be sheared by a given shear ram
size and type. Depending on the shear ram type in use the maximum allowable pipe OD
may be less than 50% of the nominal BOP bore. Exact limits for pipe sizes can be
obtained via the BOP manufacturer.
Forces required for shearing pipe (casing, tubing, drill pipe) are dependant on:
o Pipe weight (lbs/ft)
o Yield strength (psi)
o Type of shear rams in use
and can be estimated by the calculation below:
Shear Force = Cs * pipe weight (lbs/ft) * pipe yield (psi)
where Cs = shear factor for pipe material and shear ram type
Note: Variances in dimensional and mechanical properties of tubulars (such as actual yield
strength) as well as the cutting efficiency of the shear ram type in use affect the required shear force
Table 4.1 shows some commonly used tubing/drill pipe sizes together with the expected shear
force range, indicating minimum and maximum expected values. Note that shear forces with SBR
rams are higher than DS rams for the same pipe types.
Values in the table give an indication only. For the various types of BOP and shear rams
used in the industry, shear forces may differ. Manufacturer data should be consulted.
Table 4.1: Expected shear force range for common sizes of Tubing and Drillpipe
Diameter Grade Weight Shear ram type Shear Force

2-⅞” N-80 6.6. lb/ft SBR 130,000 - 170,000 lbs
3-½” N-80 10.2 lb/ft SBR 200,000 - 265,000 lbs
3-½” S-135 13.3 lb/ft SBR 335,000 - 445,000 lbs
3-½” S-135 15.5 lb/ft SBR 390,000 - 520,000 lbs
5” Grade E 19.5 lb/ft SBR 355,000 - 475,000 lbs
5” G-105 19.5 lb/ft SBR 400,000 - 530,000 lbs
5” S-135 19.5 lb/ft SBR 490,000 - 650,000 lbs
5” Grade E 19.5 lb/ft DS 330,000 - 440,000 lbs
5” G-105 19.5 lb/ft DS 365,000 - 485,000 lbs
5“ S-135 19.5 lb/ft DS 405,000 - 540,000 lbs
5 ½” G-105 24.7 lb/ft DS 460,000 - 615,000 lbs
5 ½” S-135 24.7 lb/ft DS 515,000 - 685,000 lbs
The closing pressure to shear pipe at atmospheric conditions can be calculated as:
Pshear = Shear Force / Closing Area
A range of shear bonnets that have a larger Closing Area than Standard Shear Bonnets (SB)
are available in the industry:
LB - Large Bore Bonnet
SBT - Standard Shear Bonnet with Tandem Booster assembly
LBT - Large Bore Bonnet with Tandem Booster Assembly
Closing areas of shear bonnets (with or without booster) can be obtained from the BOP
manufacturer’s engineering data.
Note: Where uncertainty remains about the actual shear force and the calculated shear
pressure for the pipe in use is more than 80% of the maximum hydraulic operating
pressure, a shear test prior to the start of operations is recommended.
4.2.3. Stack-up
The relative positioning of the blind/shear rams, pipe rams and the kill and choke line
outlets for surface BOPs will depend on the well type, expected well conditions, the rig, the
equipment available and the particular operating conditions. Each stack-up has both
advantages and disadvantages which should be matched to the anticipated situation.
In BOP Stacks with more than two ram type preventors, SBRs should be be spaced
sufficiently to facilitate hang-off on a lower ram prior to shear. The sketches in the
following sections show some of the options available. In each case:
Option a) would normally be preferred.
Option b) would be suitable for special circumstances.
Note:
In general option b) can be justified on the basis of casing ram change-out or stripping capability.
However, with the increase of well complexity there are more specialized reasons as to why a
deviation may be justified. Some examples are:
o Temperature limitations for VBR’s (HPHT)
o String hang-off limitations of VBR’s (Deep wells)
o Avoiding shear ram blade exposure to H2S during a well kill.
All elastomers exposed to high temperature on the BOP etc. must be capable of
withstanding the maximum anticipated temperatures plus a safety margin.
4.2.4. Stack-up Options for Two-cavity-BOP
A. Two Single Ram Preventers

1. When shearing blind rams are not available.
a) Position BR in lower cavity, PR/VBR in upper
cavity, Drilling spool or side outlets below both. ANNULAR
Advantages:
PIPE/VBR
− Allows change of PR to CR above closed BR. CASING
− Allows installation of shooting nipple above BLIND

BR.
SPOOL
Disadvantage:
− Does not allow stripping tooljoints from
annular to PR. (Resolved by placing a spacer
spool between annular and PR.)
b) Position PR/VBR in lower cavity, BR in upper

cavity, Drilling spool or side outlets below both.
ANNULAR
Advantage:
− Allows stripping tooljoints from annular to PR.
BLIND CASING
Disadvantages:
PIPE/VBR
− CR installation only with PR blanking plug or
drill pipe in the hole. SPOOL
− CR installation removes BR from stack.

− Cannot install shooting nipple above BR.
2. When Shearing blind rams are available and they
can shear the drill string.
a) Position PR/VBR in lower cavity, SBR in upper
cavity. Drilling spool or spacer spool and side outlet between
rams, and drilling spool or side outlet below both.
ANNULAR
Advantages:
− Allows pipe hang-off and shear. SHEAR CASING
− Allows stripping tooljoints from annular to PR. SPOOL
PIPE/VBR
Disadvantages:
OUTLET
− CR installation only with PR blanking plug or
drill pipe in the hole.
− CR installation removes SBR from stack.
− Cannot install shooting nipple above SBR
− May Increase stack height.
b) Position SBR in lower cavity, PR/VBR in upper ANNULAR
cavity. Drilling spool or side outlets below both.
Advantages and disadvantages same as for A1a) above. PIPE/VBR CASING
i.e SBR not positioned for maximum benefit.
SHEAR
SPOOL
B. One Double Ram Preventer

1. When blind ram cannot shear the drill string. ANNULAR
a) Position BR in lower cavity, PR/VBR in upper
PIPE/VBR CASING
Advantages and disadvantages same as for A1a)
BLIND
above.
SPOOL
b) Position PR/VBR in lower cavity, BR in upper ANNULAR

Advantages and disadvantages same as for A1b)
BLIND CASING
above.
PIPE/VBR
SPOOL
2. When Shearing blind rams are available and they ANNULAR

can shear the drill string.
a) Position SBR in lower cavity, PR/VBR in
PIPE/VBR CASING
upper cavity. Drilling spool or side outlets below both.
SHEAR
Advantages and disadvantages same as for A1a)
above. SPOOL
b) Position PR/VBR in lower cavity, SBR in upper

cavity. Drilling spool or side outlet below both.
Advantages:
ANNULAR
− May allow stripping tool joints from
annular to PR.
SHEAR CASING
Disadvantages:
PIPE/VBR
− Does not allows pipe hang-off and shear.
SPOOL
− CR installation only with PR blanking plug
or drill pipe in the hole.
− CR installation removes SBR from stack.
− Cannot install shooting nipple above SBR
Some Considerations for Two-Cavity-Stacks Include:

• A pipe ram (PR/VBR) above the blind ram (BR) is recommended to facilitate changing
the PR to casing rams (CR). On surface BOPs without shearing capability the blind
ram should rarely be in the uppermost ram cavity unless the possibility of high pressure
stripping is anticipated.
• On two-cavity-stacks the SBR may be in the upper cavity provided that a PR blanking
plug (or alternative method) is available to facilitate changing the SBR to CR, and, the
stack-up dimensions will permit drill pipe hang off and shear. This will normally only
be possible with single rams separated by a spool.
• There should be a minimum of one complete drill pipe tool joint length (including
tapers) space between the top of the lowermost pipe ram and the bottom of the
shearing blind ram. This is normally achieved with the drilling spool but may require a
spacer spool if side outlets are used. With this configuration a blowout up the drill
string may be shut off (sheared) without dropping the drill string.
• There should be a drilling spool or kill and choke side outlets below the lowermost
ram.
• When more than one set of kill and choke lines are installed, the uppermost are always
to be used first to maximise redundancy.
4.2.5. Stack-up Options for Three-Cavity-BOP
A One Double and One Single Ram Preventers

1. When shearing blind rams are not fitted.
ANNULAR
Typical stack-up for three-cavity BOP made
up with either a single and a double or three
singles when there is no shearing capability.
PIPE/VBR CASING
BLIND
SPOOL
PIPE
OUTLET
2. When Shearing blind rams are fitted and

ANNULAR
they can shear the drill pipe
Typical stack-up for three-cavity BOP made
up with either a single and a double or three
singles when there is shearing capability. PIPE/VBR CASING
SHEAR
SPOOL
PIPE
OUTLET
4.2.6. Use of Casing Rams

Casing rams (or appropriately sized VBRs) should be installed in the BOP when running
casing whenever there may be hydrocarbon bearing or abnormally pressured water zones
open in the well.
It is recognised that in certain situations, the safety of the well may be jeopardised while
changing rams preparatory to running casing.
In those cases where it is decided casing rams should not be installed, the following shall
be on the rig floor made up, ready for use:
• A crossover from drill pipe to the casing;
• Drill pipe matching the diameter of the pipe rams, of sufficient strength to support the
casing weight;
• Full Opening Safety Valve;
• Inside BOP.
The possibility of dropping or shearing the casing, as a last resort, should also be assessed.
4.3. Classification of Well Control Equipment

Well control equipment falls into five basic rated working pressure (WP) classifications.
1. 13,800kPa (2000psi) WP
2. 20,700kPa (3000psi) WP
3. 34,500kPa (5000psi) WP
4. 69,000kPa (10,000psi) WP
5. 103,500kPa (15,000psi) WP
4.3.1. Surface BOP Equipment (Definition)

Surface blowout prevention equipment is that equipment used in land operations and in
offshore operations where the wellhead is above the water level. Given below are the
MINIMUM requirements for each rated working pressure classification.
4.3.2. 13,800kPa (2000psi) WP classification

Where equipment of this classification will suffice, the minimum BOP stack will consist of:
Either;
1. A double hydraulic operated ram type preventer (one equipped with correct size pipe
or variable bore rams, the other with SBR or blind rams) and one full opening
drilling spool with two 77.8mm (3-1/16") bore side outlets.
EP 2002-1500 - 100 - Restricted
2K ALTERNATIVE 1.
PR/VBR
2 1 1 1 4
SBR
DRILLING
SPOOL
CASING HEAD
HOUSING
1 76.2mm (3") GATE VALVE 3 50.8mm (2") GATE VALVE
2 76.2mm (3") HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED NON RETURN VALVE

4
CHOKE LINE VALVE
or
2. One annular preventer capable of full closure and one full opening drilling spool
with two 77.8mm (3-1/16") bore side outlets.
ANNULAR
2 1 1 1 4
DRILLING
SPOOL
CASING HEAD
HOUSING
1 76.2mm (3") GATE VALVE
2 76.2mm (3") HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED CHOKE LINE VALVE
50.8mm (2") GATE VALVE 4 NON RETURN VALVE

3
EP 2002-1500 - 101 - Restricted
or
3. When no Drilling spool is available, a combination of a single hydraulic operated ram
type preventer (with 3-1/16" bore side outlets and fitted with SBR or blind rams)
and one annular preventer.
2K ALTERNATIVE 3.
ANNULAR
1 1 1 4
2
SBR
CASING HEAD
HOUSING
The BOP stack shall have a dedicated kill line and a choke line. Each line should have two
full-bore valves of which the outer valve on the choke line is remote hydraulically
operated. A Non Return Valve (NRV) should be installed in the dedicated kill line.
When the BOP stack consists of a double ram type preventer with side outlets that meet
the above specified dimensional requirements, the kill and choke lines may be connected to
the outlets of the lower preventer. In this case the drilling spool may be omitted.

Where equipment of this classification will suffice, the minimum BOP stack shall consist
of:
1. One annular preventer.
2. One double, or two single hydraulic operated ram type preventers; one of which
must be equipped with correct size pipe rams (either fixed or variable), the other
with SBR or blind rams.
3. One full opening drilling spool with two 77.8mm (3-1/16") bore side outlets.
EP 2002-1500 - 102 - Restricted
3K WP MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS
ANNULAR
PR/VBR
2 1 1 1 4
SBR
DRILLING
SPOOL
CASING HEAD
HOUSING
1 76.2mm (3") GATE VALVE 4 NON-RETURN VALVE
2 76.2mm (3") HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED KE LINE VALVE

CHO
The BOP stack shall have one dedicated kill line and a choke line. Each line should have
two full-bore valves of which the outer valve on the choke line is remote hydraulically
operated. A Non Return Valve (NRV) should be installed in the dedicated kill line.
When the lowermost ram type preventer has side outlets that meet the above-specified
dimensional requirements, the kill and choke lines may be connected to the outlets of the
lower preventer. In this case the drilling spool may be omitted.

Where equipment of this classification will suffice, the minimum BOP stack shall consist
of:
1. One annular preventer.
2. One double, or two single hydraulic operated ram type preventers; one of which
must be equipped with correct size pipe rams (either fixed or variable), the other
with shearing blind rams.
3. One full opening drilling spool with two 77.8mm (3 1/16") bore side outlets.
EP 2002-1500 - 103 - Restricted
5K WP MINIMUM REQUIREMENT
ANNULAR
PR/VBR
2 1 1 2
SBR
DRILLINGSPOOL
CASING SPOOL
CASING HEAD HOUSING

3
2 76.2mm (3") HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED CHOKE/KILL LINE

VALVE
The BOP stack should have two dual-purpose kill and choke lines. Each line should have
two full-bore valves of which the outer valve of each line is remote hydraulically operated.
Both lines should be connected to the kill and choke line manifold (see Section 4.7.2).
When dual purpose kill and choke lines are not employed, the BOP stack shall have one
kill line and one choke line. Each line should have two full-bore valves of which the outer
valve on the choke line is remote hydraulically operated. A Non Return Valve (NRV)
should be installed in the dedicated kill line.
When the lowermost ram type preventer has side outlets that meet the above-specified
dimensional requirements, the kill and choke lines may be connected to the outlets of the
lower preventer. In this case the drilling spool may be omitted.
EP 2002-1500 - 104 - Restricted
5K WP PREFERRED OPTION
ANNULAR
PR/VBR
2 1 1 2
SBR
DRILLINGSPOOL
PR/VBR
CASING SPOOL
CASING HEAD HOUSING

3
2 76.2mm (3") HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED CHOKE/KILL LINE

VALVE
4.3.5. 69,000kPa (10,000psi) WP classification

Where equipment of this classification is required, the minimum BOP stack shall consist
of:
1. One annular preventer with a working pressure of 69,000kPa (10,000psi). (A
34,500kPa (5000psi) WP annular preventer on a 69,000kPa (10,000psi) WP BOP
stack is acceptable on existing stacks).
2. Three single, or one double and one single, hydraulic operated ram type preventers;
one of which must be equipped with shearing blind rams and the other two with
correct size pipe rams. Suitable Variable Bore Rams (VBRs) of correct temperature
specification may be used instead of the fixed pipe rams providing hang-off capacity
of the lower rams is not compromised.
3. One full opening drilling spool with two 77.8mm (3 1/16") bore side outlets.
EP 2002-1500 - 105 - Restricted
10K WP MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS
ANNULAR
PR/VBR
2 1 1 2
SBR
DRILLINGSPOOL
PR/VBR
CASING SPOOL
CASING HEAD HOUSING

3
2 76.2mm (3") HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED CHOKE/KILL LINE VALVE
Provided that the middle and lower ram type preventers are equipped with side outlets that
meet the above-specified dimensional requirements, the kill and choke lines may be
connected to these outlets and the drilling spool omitted.
two full-bore valves of which the outer valve of each line is remote hydraulically operated.
Both lines should be connected to the kill and choke line manifold.
When dual purpose kill and choke lines are not employed, the BOP stack must have two
kill line and two choke line entries which should be manifolded. Each entry should have
two full-bore valves of which the outer valve of each choke line shall be remote
hydraulically operated. The lowermost kill and choke lines shall be connected to the BOP
stack below the bottom preventer and act only as spare kill and choke lines. The lines may
be connected to the side outlets of the bottom preventer, provided that the preventer is
equipped with side outlets that meet the above-specified dimensional requirements. When
the lowermost kill and choke lines cannot be connected to the side outlets of the bottom
EP 2002-1500 - 106 - Restricted
preventer, they should be connected to the outlets of a drilling spool installed below the
bottom preventer as shown.
4.3.6. 103,500kPa (15,000psi) WP classification

Where equipment of this classification is required, the minimum BOP stack shall consist
of:
1. One annular preventer with a working pressure of 103,500kPa (15,000psi) or a
69,000kPa (10,000psi) WP unit, preferably with a body rated to 103,500kPa (15,000
psi).
2. A four-ram stack is preferable. However, minimum requirements are three single, or
one double and one single, hydraulic operated ram type preventers, one of which must
be equipped with shearing blind rams and the other two with the correct size pipe
rams. Variable Bore Rams (VBRs) may be used instead of fixed pipe rams, but at least
one ram type preventer shall be equipped with fixed pipe rams.
3. One full opening drilling spool with two 77.8mm (3-1/16") bore side outlets.
Provided that the middle ram type preventer is equipped with side outlets that meet the
above-specified dimensional requirements, the kill and choke lines may be connected to
these outlets and the drilling spool omitted. The 15K BOP stack configuration of the
three-ram-cavity stack is the same as the 10K stack. The configuration of the four-ram-
cavity BOP stack is shown below.
15K WP FOUR-RAM-CAVITY BOP
ANNULAR
PR/VBR 1 2
SBR
2 1
PR/VBR
2 1 PR 1 2
DRILLINGSPOOL
CASING SPOOL
CASING HEAD HOUSING
2 76.2mm (3") HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED CHOKE/KILL LINE VALVE

EP 2002-1500 - 107 - Restricted
two full-bore valves of which one valve of each line is remote hydraulically operated. Both
lines should be connected to the kill and choke line manifold.
When dual purpose kill and choke lines are not employed, the BOP stack must have two
kill line and two choke line entries which should be manifolded. Each entry should have
two full-bore valves of which the outer valve of each choke line shall be remote
hydraulically operated. The lowermost kill and choke lines shall be connected to the BOP
stack below the bottom ram preventer and act only as spare kill and choke lines. The lines
may be connected to the side outlets of the bottom preventer, provided that the preventer
is equipped with side outlets that meet the above-specified dimensional requirements.
When the lower kill and choke lines cannot be connected to the side outlets of the bottom
preventer, they must be connected to the outlets of a drilling spool installed below the
bottom preventer as shown.
4.4. Blow Out Preventer Equipment Installation

A BOP will only act as a functional pressure containment device if properly installed and
hooked up. This section comprises a list of critical issues to be addressed or guidelines to
be applied during rig-up.
The BOP equipment installation shall conform to the following:
1. Wellhead equipment shall be designed to withstand the maximum anticipated
surface pressures and allow for future remedial operations.
2. Ram type preventers must always be installed the correct way up, as in most cases
the seal is ‘pressure assist’ and will only hold pressure in one direction.
3. All connections, valves, fittings, piping, etc., subject to well pressure, must be
flanged, clamped or welded and have a minimum working pressure equal to the rated
working pressure of the preventers. Screwed valves and fittings are only acceptable
on installations up to 13,800kPa (2000psi) WP but should be avoided if at all possible
4. Valves must be of the flush through-bore type when in the open position.
5. When installed, all ring gaskets should be new, checked for cleanliness and coated
with light oil. Dry and/or previously used ring gaskets should never be installed.
6. All correct size bolts/nuts and fittings shall be in place and tight. All connections
shall be pressure tested before drilling is resumed. The use of a torque device for
making up bolted connections is recommended.
7. The ID of the bell nipple should be large enough for hanger and seal assemblies to
pass through. Slip and seal assemblies should preferably be landed through the BOPs
before lifting the BOP stack. Emergency slip and seal assemblies for mandrel type
wellheads can rarely be installed without lifting the BOP stack. When lifting the stack
is necessary this shall only be done after the cement seal has adequate integrity and
the well cannot flow.
8. When non-fluted bowl-weevil hangers are used to land the casing string before
cementing, wellhead side outlets shall have a bore, large enough to avoid excessive
annular backpressure whilst cementing. A hydraulically operated valve should be
installed in both side outlets to allow closing in the well in an emergency.
EP 2002-1500 - 108 - Restricted
9. Fluted hangers are recommended so as to avoid bypassing the wellhead/BOP stack

during cementing operations.
10. All manually operated valves should be equipped with hand wheels, and be ready for
immediate use, including the valves on the wellhead.
11. Ram preventer hand wheels are not a general requirement. The locking screws
should be operated each time the preventers are tested to ensure that they turn
freely. Rams should be locked whenever used for secondary control.
12. BOP equipment shall be function tested and pressure tested, when installed, and at
the appropriate times during operations to determine that the system will function
properly. (See Section 4.8).
13. The Company drilling representative shall inspect and approve every BOP
installation after flanging up and testing. He/she or an authorised delegate shall
witness every BOP pressure test.
14. Circulating access to the well bore (or annulus) should always be possible, hence
provision must be made for connection of one kill/choke line below the lower-most
preventer.
15. Wellhead side outlets shall not be used for killing purposes, except in case of
emergency. In an emergency situation, the kill line may be connected to the side
outlet of the casing spool when circulating access to the well bore is required. The
casing spool outlet should have the proper connection to allow changing over the
permanent kill line.
16. Kill lines shall not be used for routine fill-up operations.
17. When critical operations are being carried out on high-pressure wells, a second kill
line should be employed and tied into the kill line near the BOP stack. A high-
pressure pump should be lined up to this kill line.
18. All pipelines shall be securely anchored and fitted with snub lines across the
connections.
19. Choke lines shall be as straight as practicable and firmly anchored to prevent
excessive whip or vibration. Turns, if required, should be targeted. Flexible kill and
choke hoses, longer than 4m (12ft), shall be supported and anchored in accordance
with manufacturer's recommendations. The distance between anchoring points shall
be 4m (12ft) or less.
20. Ensure that the manufacturer's BOP operating manual is followed and no alterations
are made to the BOP equipment without written consent from the manufacturer. Re-
certification may be required after making equipment alterations.
21. The primary kill and choke lines of a three-ram-cavity BOP stack should be
connected between the lower pipe and the shearing blind rams. i.e. between the
lower two cavities.
22. The primary kill and choke lines of a two-ram-cavity BOP stack should be connected
below the lowermost ram preventer.
23. Multiple choke lines should be connected to a kill and choke line manifold. There
should be only one line from the kill and choke line manifold to the choke manifold.
EP 2002-1500 - 109 - Restricted
4.5. Control System Requirements for Surface Bop Stacks

The specifications and hook-up of the control system are critical to the safe and effective
operation of the stack. This section defines the minimum equipment requirements and
specification.
Control systems for surface BOP stacks shall consist of the following as a minimum:
1. One independent automatic accumulator unit rated for 20,700kPa (3000psi) WP with
a control manifold, clearly showing 'open' and 'closed' positions for preventer(s) and
the remote hydraulic operated kill and choke line valves.
• It is essential that all air and hydraulic BOP operating units be equipped with
0-20,700kPa (0-3000 psi) regulator valves similar to the Koomey type TR-5
which will not 'fail open', causing complete loss of operating pressure.
• Without recharging, the accumulator capacity shall be adequate for closing and
opening one annular and all pipe rams, open the hydraulic choke line valve and
closing the blind/shear rams.
• After completion of above operations the remaining accumulator pressure shall
be at least 200 psi above the pre-charge pressure of the accumulator. The
accumulator pressure after closing one annular and all pipe rams shall be
adequate to keep the pipe rams closed against a well bore pressure equal to the
rated working pressure of the preventers.
• The design of the accumulator bottle banks must be such that any failure or leak
in the system will not result in more than 25% loss of the total system capacity.
• Accumulator units must be provided with electrically and air-driven high
pressure pumps which automatically charge the accumulator bottles to the pre-
set pressure. The electric pump should be fitted with an electric pressure switch,
which automatically stops the electric pump when the accumulator pressure
reaches 20,700kPa (3,000psi) and starts the pump again when the pressure drops
to 18,970kPa (2,700psi) or below. The air-driven pump should be fitted with an
air pressure switch, which automatically stops the air-driven pump when the
manifold pressure reaches 20,700kPa (3,000psi) and starts the pump again when
the pressure drops to 18,620kPa (2,700psi) or below
• A backup power supply should be available to maintain accumulator pressure in
case of failure of the primary power source.
• The unit shall be located in a safe area away from the drill floor.
• Control lines shall be protected from damage.
• The unit shall include a low pressure warning alarm and hydraulic fluid level
indicator or low fluid level warning alarm.
2. All BOP stack installations should have two graphic remote control panels, each one
clearly showing 'open' and 'closed' positions for each preventer and the hydraulic
operated choke line valves.
• Each of these panels should include a master shut-off valve and ideally, controls
for regulator valves and for a bypass valve.
• One panel must be located near the Driller's position, the other panel to be
located near the exit of the location or near the Toolpusher’s office.
EP 2002-1500 - 110 - Restricted
3. Control hoses that are high-pressure and fire-resistant with a working pressure of
20,700kPa (3000psi) are preferred, although steel swivel joints are acceptable. The
hoses should be steel wrapped (co-flex type) to provide greater resistance to fire and
improved durability.
4. All master and remote operating panel handles are to be free to move into either
position at all times, i.e. the shear ram operating handles should not be locked (but
should be protected from inadvertent operation).
5. All spare operating lines and connections, which are not used in the system, are to be
properly blocked off.
4.6. Mud-Gas Separator

Mud-Gas Separators are a vital component of the well kill system. Their specification and
installation is crucial to their safe use during well control operations. This section
comprises guidelines to their selection and evaluation.
4.6.1. Overview
Mud-Gas Separators (MGS) (or atmospheric degasser or poor-boy degasser) have been in
use for many years with little change in fundamental design.
They can be described as a passive type cascade/baffle gas knock-out unit. They operate at
atmospheric pressure or slightly above (atmospheric plus vent line backpressure). Their
function is to remove free gas from the contaminated mud leaving the choke manifold but
equally important to remove mud/liquid droplets from liberated gas prior to entering the
vent line.
The capacity of the MGS is dependent on the design. If the capacity is exceeded, liquid
mud or oil droplets may be carried up through the vent line. More importantly, gas may
blow straight through the U-tube (Seal leg) and into the shale-shaker house, where there
may be potential for explosion and fire.
It is critical therefore that the mud-gas separator specifications must be fully evaluated. In
short:
• For new rig contracts, the minimum required mud gas separator specifications must be
calculated and stated in detail on tender documents.
• For existing rig contracts, the mud gas separator specification must be evaluated as part
of the well design process.
• Instrumentation and alarm mechanisms must be in place, such that if the capacity of
the MGS is approached, actions can be taken to reduce the gas rate (kill rate reduction),
or to divert the flow from the well such to by-pass the MGS. On a land rig, this would
be to a flare and on an offshore rig to an overboard line.
• The safe operating envelope for the MGS shall be known by the relevant staff on the
rig.
• High gas rates will typically be associated with high kick volumes. These high gas rates
may also occur when dissolved gas in OBM comes out of solution across the choke
due to the sudden pressure drop.
EP 2002-1500 - 111 - Restricted
4.6.2. Evaluation Process

A methodology for evaluating the capacity of mud gas separators was developed by J.M.
Prieur of Shell Expro in 1990 and can still be used today. It is very complex to calculate gas
rates – it is only really feasible to do this using one of the realistic kick simulators. As stated
previously, it is essential that the appropriate pressure gauges and alarms are installed on
the MGS to warn personnel when the gas rate is approaching the capacity of the MGS.
This section identifies the main steps in the evaluation sequence.
Separation Capacity
This is based on the minimum droplet size that will settle out of a moving gas stream. The
maximum allowable gas velocity is calculated using the density of the liquid and gas phases.
Blow Down Capacity

A U-tube between the bottom of the separator vessel and the header tank forms a liquid
seal preventing gas escape to the shaker house. Blow down capacity is exceeded when the
pressure in the separator vessel caused by back-pressure from gas in the vent line exceeds
the hydrostatic head of the liquid seal.
Gas Handling Capacity

Separation is a function of the separator vessel dimensions, while blow down capacity is a
function of the vent line. The gas handling capacity is the lower of the two.
Flow Rate and Kill Rate

The gas handling capacity is used to ensure that the flow rate during a kill operation is
maintained within the safe operating range of the separator. This information is presented
as a graph showing the safe operating envelope.
EP 2002-1500 - 112 - Restricted
4.6.3. System Schematic

Secondary Ventline
Ventline Up Derrick
From Mud From Cement

Pumps Pumps
P P
Atmospheri
Drilling Choke
c Mud/Gas T
Manifold
Separator
∆
Over Choke Kill To Burner
Board Line Line Booms
Fill-Up and
Flushing Line
To Shale Shakers
Key Liquid
Seal Liquid
P Pressure Gauge Tank Seal
Depth
∆ Differential Pressure Meter
P Pressure Sensor
P
T Temperature Sensor
Valve
Drain
4.6.4. Detailed Evaluation

A computer program (created by Expro Group Integrated Services Aberdeen) for the
evaluation of existing separators and the calculation of parameters required for tendering is
available at: Mud Gas separator evaluation program
This program will:
Calculate the gas throughput capacity of an existing system in mmscf/d
Calculate the required gas throughput capacity in mmscf/d for a future well
EP 2002-1500 - 113 - Restricted
4.6.5. Other Considerations
Design Temperature
Very low temperatures can be achieved down stream of the choke due to gas expansion. It
is very difficult to calculate what temperatures will be reached under these dynamic
conditions, however it is generally accepted within Shell that minus 45° Celsius is
acceptable
Pressure Rating
During normal operations the vessel should not be subjected to any pressure in excess of
the liquid seal hydrostatic head. However, if the liquid seal line would become plugged the
vessel could fill up to the top of the vent line with mud.
The pressure vessel should therefore be able to withstand the pressure imposed by this
mud column. As most vent lines are 40-55m (130 – 180 ft) in height, a pressure rating of
1000 kPa (150psi) will be fit for purpose
4.6.6. Instrumentation
(Minimum equipment standards, maintenance, combined gauges, testing)
• A low pressure 100kPa (15psi) gauge and/or sensor shall be fitted to the vessel close
to the entry of the line from the choke manifold. The gauge reading should be easily
visible to the position(s) from where the chokes are operated
4.6.7. Rig-Up and Operation

The following shall be met when configuring (or specifying the configuration of) the pipe
work for the mud-gas separator:
There must be an injection point down stream of the choke to allow the use of glycol to
inhibit hydrate formation
• There are to be no valves, pipe expansion or constrictions within 3m (10ft) of the
inlet nozzle;
• If a bend is required in the feed pipe it shall be long sweep and in a vertical plane
through the axis of the feed nozzle;
• The pipe reducer of the gas outlet line should be no nearer to the top of the vessel
than 0.6m (2ft).
• The gas outlet line shall be a minimum of 200mm (8") diameter. If the vent exists
more than 40m (130ft) from the vessel this vent line diameter should be increased to
ensure that the back pressure in the vent line does not exceed 15kPa (2psi), at a gas
flow rate of 0.2 x 106m3(st)/d (7MMscf/d).
• No reduction in any vessel dimension is permitted.
• Internal mist mats are not permitted due to their unsuitability for the rugged service.
• The mud-gas separator shall have one or more vent lines leading a safe distance
downwind from the well, and/or to the top of the derrick. Low places in the vent
lines should be avoided to prevent accumulation of liquids.
EP 2002-1500 - 114 - Restricted
• The mud-gas separator mud discharge line should be routed directly to the header
box upstream of the shale shakers where gas detection is present.
• The mud-gas separator shall not be operated above its manufacturers design
limitations as calculated. Operating outside of this envelope will give poor mud/gas
separation and the possibility of gas blow through. An additional unit with dedicated
vent line shall be installed when the mud-gas separator capacity is insufficient for the
well to be drilled.
• After every use the MGS is to be flushed/cleaned with water to avoid settling and
plugging by mud solids
There must always be provision to divert flow from the choke manifold direct to the flare
pit.
4.6.8. Common Industry Designs.

There are a number of mud-gas separators in current use, all working on the same
principals.
The mud-gas separator can be installed as:
• A skid mounted horizontal unit outside a mud tank;
• Vertical unit outside a mud tank;
• Unitized with the trip tank;
4.7. Other Well Control Equipment

In addition to the Blow Out Preventer, there are other items of equipment which are
required to either contain or control flow from the well.
4.7.1. Diverter Equipment

The diverter is installed on top of the wellhead to enable flow from shallow formations to
be diverted away from the work area in case of a shallow gas kick. However, current
diverter equipment is not yet designed to withstand an erosive shallow gas kick for a
prolonged period. The diverter system is still seen as a means of "buying time" to evacuate
the drilling site.
In principle, a diverter system must be installed on each well when both of the following
conditions apply:
1. There is a possibility of losing primary well control, which may result in a kick
situation.
2. The well cannot be closed-in with a BOP stack, because the formation below the
stove pipe/marine conductor, conductor string, or surface string is too weak.
Fracturing of the formation will occur if the well is closed-in.
See also Shallow Gas Procedures Guidance Manual, report EP 88-1000.
Plus Section 5.3 of this manual
EP 2002-1500 - 115 - Restricted
Diverter Equipment Specifications

Flow restrictions in diverter systems should be avoided where possible, because they may
lead to formation breakdown and cratering of the well in case of a shallow gas blowout.
The minimum required nominal ID of diverter outlets/lines is considered to be 304.8mm
(12").
In principle two outlets are required on the diverter spool. They should face opposite
directions to be able to vent flow downwind of the rig. One outlet may be considered only
in the case where there is a clear prevailing wind direction, and the vent line extends a
sufficient distance from the rig to permit safe venting. Diverter lines should be as short as
possible, but long enough to conduct flow past the extremity of the offshore drilling
structure, or away from any obstacle in land operations. Rig structure and/or cellar design
may have to be modified to accommodate straight diverter lines.
The minimum rated working pressure of diverter equipment is based on the anticipated
backpressure during a shallow gas blowout and therefore largely depends on the size of the
diverter lines. The minimum rated working pressure of the recommended large bore
diverter line system should be 3450kPa (500psi) WP. Dynamic forces are much higher in
the initial stage of diverting a well, when the expanding gas is forcing the mud out of the
diverter system.
The following considerations should be made when selecting diverter equipment:
1. The equipment shall be selected to withstand the maximum anticipated surface
pressures.
2. Welded flange or hub connections are mandatory on diverter systems; quick
connections in diverter lines are not allowed.
3. Diverter lines should be straight and properly anchored. (especially at the end of the
lines).
4. Diverter lines should be sloping down towards the outlet so as to be self-draining,
and to avoid blockage of the lines with cuttings, etc.
5. Installation requirements for wellhead and BOP equipment also apply to diverter
equipment (see Section 4.4).
6. A diverter system can be a BOP stack system with a diverter spool, or a specifically
designed and developed diverter system. The faster closing diverter unit is preferred
to a large and slowly closing annular preventer. In any case, the diverter lines and
mud return lines should be separate, not partially integrated lines. This is necessary to
avoid gas entering the rig system in case the separating valve between both lines fails
to seal.
7. Diverter valves shall be full opening valves with an actuator (pneumatic or hydraulic).
The bore of the diverter valves shall be equal to the bore of the diverter lines.
8. Each diverter system should incorporate a kill line facility (including a check valve) to
be able to pressure and function test the system and to be able to pump water
through the diverter system.
9. The diverter control system should preferably be self-contained or may be an integral
part of the BOP accumulator unit and control system. It shall be located in a safe
area away from the drilling floor and have the control functions clearly identified.
EP 2002-1500 - 116 - Restricted
10. The diverter control system should be capable of operating the diverter system from
two or more locations, one to be located near the Driller's position. It should contain
the minimum of functions. Preferably, a one-button or lever-activated function
should operate the entire diverter system.
11. A 1-½" hydraulic operating line should be used for diverter systems with a 1-½"
NPT closing chamber port size. The hydraulic line for the opening chamber port
may be 1".
12. All spare operating lines of the control system, and connections which are not used
should be properly plugged off.
13. Control systems of diverters/annular preventers and BOPs should be capable of
closing the diverter and annular preventers smaller than 508mm (20") within 30
seconds, and annular preventers of 508mm (20") or larger within 45 seconds.
14. Diverter valves must be opened before the diverter element is completely closed.
15. It should be possible to control pumping operations at the pumps as well as on the
drilling floor.
SURFACE DIVERTER INSTALLED ON

STOVE PIPE OR MARINE CONDUCTOR
29 ½”
Bag Type
Preventer
Actuator Actuator
P Diverter P
Diverter Diverter
Line Valve Spool Valve
Line
P P Valve: Pressure Operated,

26” or 30” R
Controlled
t Failsafe
O
NRV Stove Pipe /
Kill Line Marine
Conductor
Figure 4.2: Surface Diverter on Stove Pipe – Kill line on diverter spool
EP 2002-1500 - 117 - Restricted

20”
Bag Type
Preventer
Option A
Actuator Actuator
P Diverter P
Diverter Diverter
Valve Spool Valve
Line Line
Kill Line
NRV
P
26” or 30”
Stove Pipe /
Marine
Conductor
P Value: Pressure Operated, Remote

Controlled Failsafe Open
20”
Bag Type
Preventer
Option B
P P
NRV Blind / Shear
Rams
Choke
Kill Line
Line
Actuator Actuator
P Diverter P
Diverter Diverter
Valve Spool Valve
Line Line
26” or 30”
Stove Pipe /
Marine
Conductor
Figure 4.3: Surface Diverter on Stove Pipe – Kill line on wellhead or single ram.
EP 2002-1500 - 118 - Restricted

20”
Bag Type
Preventer Option C
P Valve: Pressure Operated,
Remote Controlled Failsafe Open
Pipe Rams
P P
NRV Blind / Shear

Rams Choke
Kill Line
Line
Actuator Actuator
P Diverter P
Diverter Diverter
Line Valve Spool Valve
Line
Conductor String
Casing Housing
26” or 30”
Stove Pipe /
Marine
Conductor
Figure 4.4: Surface Diverter on Stove Pipe – Kill line below dual ram.
4.7.2. Choke Manifold and Kill & Choke Line Manifold

1. The manifolds shall be constructed in accordance Figure 4.5 and Table 4.2 which is
the minimum requirement for all working pressure ratings over 13,800kPa (2000psi).
A choke manifold as already installed by the owner of the drilling unit may be
acceptable, but only after full inspection and approved in writing by the Company
Rig Superintendent.
2. Whilst drilling, the block valves upstream of both chokes and valves downstream of
the remote choke to the mud-gas separator shall be in an open position.
3. The remotely adjustable choke, the manually operated adjustable choke and all valves
at the choke manifold shall be left in a position (closed or open) to facilitate closing
in by the hard or soft shut-in method, as agreed to be appropriate.
4. The remote choke is to be operated from a control panel installed near the Driller's
position.
5. The minimum recommended size for all choke lines and valves is 76.2mm (3")
through bore. Valve size and line bore size of BOP stack side outlets and valves,
choke lines and choke manifold should be identical throughout the system.
EP 2002-1500 - 119 - Restricted
6. Choke manifolds rated to 103,500kPa (15,000psi) shall have hydraulically operated

valves upstream of any choke to assist in opening/closing valves under pressure
quickly, thus minimising gate and seat wear.
7. Chokes should incorporate a suitable bleeder valve facility to ensure that the pressure
can be released prior to removal of the bonnet nut. Hammer type threaded bonnet
nuts are not recommended. Flanged or bonnet clamp connections are preferred.
Temperatures downstream of the choke are to be limited to the design temperature rating
of the choke manifold.
EP 2002-1500 - 120 - Restricted
Figure 4.5: Typical Back Pressure Manifold arrangement

EP 2002-1500 - 121 - Restricted
Table 4.2: Back Pressure manifold – component rating

For Use With BOP-stack, Having A Rated Working Pressure Of:-
34,500 kPa (5,000 psi)
Item
Qty. Description 103,500kPa (15,000 psi) 69,000 kPa (10,000 psi) 20,700 kPa (3,000 psi)
No.
13,800 kPa (2,000 psi)
kPa psi kPa psi kPa psi
1 1 Studded cross 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
76.2 x 76.2 x 76.2 x 76.2 x 50.8mm (3” x 3” x 3” x 3” x 2”)
2 1 50.8mm (2”) nominal size gate valve with steel seat 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
3 11 76.2mm (3”) nominal size gate valve with steel seat - - - - 34,500 5,000
3 5 76.2mm (3”) nominal size gate valve with steel seat 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 - -
3a 6 76.2mm (3”) nominal size gate valve with steel seat (hydraulic remote 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 - -
operated valve) (optional) (optional)
4 1 76.2mm (3”) nominal size manual adjustable choke 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
5 1 Hydraulic Remote operated choke 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
6 2 120.7mm OD x 76.2mm ID (41” OD x 3” ID) wear nipple 76.2mm 3” 76.2mm 3” 76.2mm 3”
flanges flanges flanges flanges flanges flanges
103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
7 3 Studded cross 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
76.2 x 76.2 x 76.2 x 76.2mm (3” x 3” x 3” x 3”)
8 2 Flange companion lead filled 76.2mm (3”) 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
9 2 Martin-Decker Series GM6A pressure gauge or equivalent 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 41,500 6,000
10 1 Martin-Decker Sensor Series GM6A or equivalent 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 41,500 6,000
11 1 Y-piece: 76.2 x 76.2 x 76.2mm (3” x 3” x 3”) 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
12 4 76.2mm (3”) Nominal size gate valve with steel seat 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
13 1 Check valve 77.79mm – 3 1/6” – 77-79mm 3 1/6” – 79.38mm – 3 1/8” –
103,500 15,000 – 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
14 4 50.8mm (2”) Nominal size gate valve with steel seat 103,500 15,000 69,000 10,000 34,500 5,000
EP 2002-1500 - 122 - Restricted
4.8. Tests for Surface Wellheads and Bop Equipment

Testing requirements are given for the following equipment:
1. Blowout preventers, wellhead components and their connections.
2. The BOP operating unit.
3. The choke manifold, valves, kill and choke lines and valves on the side outlets of the
casing spool.
4. The kelly or top drive and kelly cocks stab in valves etc..
4.8.1. Blowout Preventers, Wellhead Components And Their Connections
Function Tests
Should be carried out on BOP hydraulic operated components when they are installed and
weekly thereafter.
Function tests should be performed with reduced operating pressure to avoid unnecessary
wear and tear, particularly when there is no drill string in the hole.
Pressure Tests
Tests on the blowout preventers, wellhead components and their connections should, on
initial installation, be made with fresh water. Subsequent tests should also be with water.
However, in circumstances where this is not practical, dispensation may be allowed for
testing with the drilling fluid in the hole. Any such dispensation must be clearly indicated in
the Drilling Programme.
The following test tools may be used:
1. Plug Type Tester and test sub (PTT).
2. Combination Cup Type Tester/hang-off tool (CCTT).
3. Cup Type Tester (CTT).
The PTT or CCTT is run on drill pipe and landed in the wellhead whilst the CTT is
suspended on drill pipe. Test tool design, application, and testing procedures depend on
the type and the design of the wellhead.
After any flanging up operation, the wellhead and each item of the BOP equipment should
be high pressure tested to the rated working pressure of the wellhead or the blowout
preventers, whichever is the lower, and to a low pressure in the order of 1725 to 3450 kPa
(250 to 500 psi). When a CTT is used and it is seated in the casing, test pressure must not
exceed 85% of casing burst rating.. When a PTT is used and is seated in the well head, any
pressure increase below the test tool should be avoided either by using an open test joint or
by monitoring the annulus through a side outlet that is kept open for the duration of the
test.
During subsequent drilling operations, the equipment should be pressure tested at regular
intervals. The frequency of tests will, as a minimum, comply with Company and/or
government regulations and generally should be done:
• After installation of any new wellhead component and BOP assembly and prior to
drilling.
EP 2002-1500 - 123 - Restricted
• Every fortnight, or other interval (maximum 3 weeks), depending on type of operation.

• Prior to a production test.
• At any time requested by the Company drilling representative.
Subsequent tests of the wellhead and preventers should be to the anticipated maximum
wellhead pressure with a maximum limit for the annular preventer of 70% of its rated
working pressure.
The CTT must be run with open-ended drill pipe to prevent pressurisation of the
casing/hole below the cup in the event that it leaks. The drill pipe shall also be strong
enough to withstand the tensile load caused by the hydraulic pressure on the cup area. The
assembly should be suspended in the elevators, not set in the slips. Hook load must be
monitored and care must be taken not to overload the derrick or hoisting equipment.
Blind/shear rams shall be tested with the PTT converted into a blind plug. During this test
the wellhead side outlets below the tester shall be open to prevent pressurising the casing.
The wellhead side outlets must be monitored at all times, and closed immediately on
completion of the testing.
Casing rams should be visually inspected prior to installation. Casing rams and BOP
bonnets should be pressure tested after installation with a Casing Ram Tester/CTT
combination tool, to the usual test pressure.
Plug and cup type testers, suitable for pressure testing the wellhead and BOP equipment
installed on all casing strings, shall be available. Retrievable packers with large slip areas
may also be used.
NOTE: It should always be possible to close in the well or any annulus immediately, if flow is
observed from the well or annulus while testing is in progress. Annular valves opened during
pressure testing or any other type of operation shall not be left open unattended.
All equipment should hold the applied test pressure for at least 10 minutes. A constant
pressure during the full 10 minutes of test is the ideal result, but a certain drop in pressure
is also often acceptable, depending on the way in which this drop occurs
P.Test P.Test
10 mins
Time Time
A. Even a slight pressure drop in B. Initial drop of less than 10% and then
way is unacceptable
hi stable for remaining time is acceptable
Figure 4.6: Test pressure drop versus time

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4.8.2. The BOP Hydraulic Control Unit

The complete BOP operating unit shall be tested in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations. It shall be pressure tested to its rated working pressure and should hold
the test pressure applied for at least 10 minutes.
The tests shall also confirm that all BOP controls:
• are properly connected;
• activate the functions indicated on them;
• perform as per specification.
Accumulator Pre-Charge Pressure Test

This test should be conducted on each well prior to spudding and approximately every 30
days thereafter, at convenient times. On control units with two or more banks of
accumulator bottles, the hydraulic fluid line to each bank must have a full opening valve to
isolate individual banks. The valves must be in the open position except when
accumulators are isolated for testing, servicing or transporting.
The pre-charge test should be conducted as follows:
• Shut off all accumulator pumps.
• Drain the hydraulic fluid from the accumulator system into the closing unit fluid
reservoir.
• Remove the guard from the valve stem assembly on top of each accumulator bottle.
Attach the charging and gauging assembly to each bottle and check the nitrogen pre-
charge.
• If the nitrogen pre-charge pressure on any bottle or bank of bottles is less than the
minimum acceptable pre-charge pressure listed below, recharge that bottle or bank of
bottles (with nitrogen gas only) to achieve the specified desired pre-charge pressure.
• If the nitrogen pre-charge on any bottle or bank of bottles is greater than the maximum
acceptable pre-charge pressure listed below, a sufficient volume of nitrogen gas must
be bled from the accumulator bottle or bank of bottles to provide the specified desired
pre-charge pressure.
Accumulator Working Desired Pre- Minimum Maximum
Pressure Rating Charge Pressure Acceptable Pre- Acceptable Pre-
Psig /kPa Psig/kPa Charge Pressure Charge Pressure
Psig/kPa Psig/kPa
1500 10350 750 5175 750 5175 850 5865
2000 13800 1000 6900 950 6555 1100 7590
3000 20700 1000 6900 950 6555 1100 7590
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Accumulator Closing Test

This test should be conducted routinely as part of BOP stack tests. The test should be
conducted as follows:
a) Position a joint of drill pipe in the blowout preventer stack.
b) Close off the air and electric power supplies to the accumulator pumps.
c) Record the initial accumulator pressure.
The pressure should be the maximum operating pressure of the accumulators.
Adjust the regulator to provide 1500psi operating pressure to the BOP’s.
d) Operate all BOP functions as listed below. For each step record time to close/open,
volume used (if counter installed) and remaining accumulator pressure.
1. Close Annular Preventer - record data
2. Close all Pipe Rams one by one - record data at each function
Note: After step 2 the remaining accumulator pressure must be sufficient to hold the pipe
ram closed against a well bore pressure equal to the maximum pressure rating of the BOP
3. Open all Pipe Rams one by one - record data at each function
4. Open Annular Preventer - record data
5. Open hydraulic choke line valve - record data
6. Remove the joint of drill pipe from the BOP stack
7. Close the Blind/Shear rams - record data
Note: After step 6 the remaining accumulator pressure must be at least 200 psi above the pre-
charge pressure of the accumulator bottles.
8. Open the blind/shear rams and close the hydraulic choke line valve
e) Turn on the accumulator pumps and record the time taken to re-charge the
accumulators to the maximum operating pressure. Record the accumulator pressures
at which the electric and air driven charge pumps cut out.
4.8.3. The Choke Manifold, Valves, Kill-&-Choke Lines And Valves On The Side Outlets
The choke manifold, valves, kill, choke lines and valves on the side outlets shall be pressure
tested at the same frequency as BOPs and conducted with water whenever feasible. The
initial test should be to the rated working pressure of the ram type preventers or the rated
working pressure of the manifold, whichever is the lower. Subsequent tests may be limited
to the BOP test pressure. The equipment should hold the test pressure applied for at least
10 minutes. All lines should be flushed prior to testing to ensure they are not blocked and
all air is removed from the lines.
A pressure test schedule should be drawn up to ensure that all components are tested
correctly and in the most efficient manner.
No tests shall be performed against closed chokes.
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4.8.4. The Kelly Or Top Drive Kelly Stop-cocks And Stab-in Valves
The kelly or top drive and kelly cocks shall be pressure tested to their rated working
pressure with a test sub. The equipment shall hold the applied test pressure for at least 10
minutes.
4.9. Maintenance and Inspection of Surface Well Control Equipment

The general recommendations on maintenance, inspection and testing of BOP and
associated equipment are presented in this section.
4.9.1. The Blow Out Preventer

• A BOP body pressure test shall be carried out once a year on the test stump at surface,
in accordance with the manufacturer's specification for such a test.
• BOP's shall undergo a regular major overhaul and inspection, depending on the type of
work and period in use. Periods between checks shall not exceed 5 years.
• Overhaul, repairs, major maintenance, recertification, etc. on any Well Control
Equipment shall be performed only by the original manufacturer or by providers that
have been approved by the original manufacturer.
• During maintenance of BOP stacks (also transportation & rigging up), operating
practices should be used which avoid cold work and hence, hardening of equipment
components.
• BOP hydraulic operating lines shall be tested to the maximum accumulator manifold
pressure when newly installed and during every regular BOP stack test, by opening the
KR bypass valve. The control lines to the annular preventer shall be tested once per
well to the maximum operating pressure. The control lines are to be disconnected from
the annular preventer in order to avoid damaging the annular preventer rubber.
• Inspect the tightness of flange bolts and clamps frequently, particularly after pressure
testing.
• Ensure the manufacturer's BOP operating manual is followed and no alterations are
made to the BOP equipment without written consent from the manufacturer. Re-
certification may be required after making equipment alterations.
• Only original manufacturer genuine or approved spares/replacement parts shall be
used on BOP and associated equipment.
• A maintenance schedule and checking procedures for BOP's shall be available on the
drilling location and workshop.
• During pressure tests, all pressure gauges will be cross checked/calibrated
• Records of maintenance shall be kept, both scheduled and unscheduled, in a BOP
history file.
Note: For full details on BOP Inspection, refer to API RP 53
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4.9.2. Choke Manifold

• Any replacement parts: flanges, valves, fittings, and discharge lines (flare lines) used in
the maintenance of the choke manifold assembly should contain metals and seals in
accordance with API RP 53.
• Pump through kill-and choke lines at regular intervals and displace weighted mud from
choke manifold and kill lines. In freezing conditions replace mud in lines with inhibited
fluid.
4.9.3. Gas Detection Equipment

• H2S and Combustible gas detectors should be calibrated at a frequency determined by
the manufacturer’s instructions.
• Detector heads should be checked regularly to ensure that mud build-up does not
prevent activation.
• The mud-logging contractor’s gas and H2S system must be calibrated weekly. In
addition, the system must be checked for sensitivity to changing levels. A calibration
and sense check record must be maintained and available for inspection.
4.9.4. Inside Pipe Shut-off Tools

• The Full Opening Safety Valve (stab-in valve) and the inside BOP (Gray valve) must
be available on the rig floor at all times. In addition to routine inspection, it must be
confirmed prior to any operation that:
- They are in the open position;
- The FOSV is full bore and does not present a restriction to drop-in darts or W/L
tools;
- They can be crossed-over to any pipe in the string;
- They can be easily man-handled.
• The hydraulically operated IBOP (kelly cock) of a top drive should be function tested
every day.
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5. SPECIALIST TOPICS
5.1. Complications During Well Control Operations

The number of possible complications that can occur during a well control incident plus the number of possible permutations of rig type and
well conditions is huge. This section does not attempt to address each situation in detail but suggests possible actions, which may be employed
in some circumstances. The objective of this section is to raise awareness of possible problems in order that a course of action can be agreed
before commencing kill operations (contingency). The right-hand column is left blank for this purpose.
Note: The Actions described in this table are possible cures for potential complications and do not apply in all circumstances. During well
planning (kick control operations), complete ‘Well Specific Actions’ according to actual or anticipated well conditions and the drilling/well
control equipment in use need to be agreed.
Problem Symptoms Possible Actions Remarks Well Specific Action
Halt in Operations • Anything that • Shut-in at the choke • If shut-down is for a long
halts the kill • Maintain standpipe pressure time, Volumetric Method
process • Minimise shut-down period as may be required to
much as possible accommodate gas
expansion.
• Consider shutting an
upstream valve in addition
to the choke.
Hole Packing Off • Erratic rise in • Reciprocation might be • If hole packs-off
standpipe pressure considered in some cases. completely, the string must
• This situation compels the be perforated above the
team to make a ‘judgement stuck point
call’, not a decision tree
approach
Lost Circulation • Total or partial • LCM may control partial losses • When losses occur, nothing
loss of returns • A gunk squeeze may offer a is certain and the well is
better cure not technically ‘under
• Cement as a last resort control’. Actions should
focus on curing losses
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Washout in • Gradual drop in • Circulation may proceed at • “Judgement call” required.
Drillstring standpipe pressure reduced pump rate. • A Volumetric Kill to
• Loss of flow • Periodically stop and restart at remove the influx may be
through MWD true drill pipe pressure. time consuming but
• Minimise string movements effective
• Consider a Volumetric Kill. • A follow-up with CT may
• In extreme circumstances the be necessary to get the kill
well kill could be completed mud in place.
with a CT unit.
Stuck Pipe • Unable to move • If circulation is possible, • Leave freeing string until
drill string continue with kill. after well is dead
• Stuck Pipe usually happens
because of
– (a) differential sticking
– (b) shale breakout
– (c) cuttings build-up.
• The above problems all
require a different
approach, both pro-actively
as well as remedial.
Pump Failure or • Erratic stand pipe • Shut-in

Pump Wear pressure • Line-up alternative pump (or • If pump wear, then it will
• Irregular cement pump if necessary) and be difficult to detect by
movement of the continue with kill. pressure alone, because
mud hose • If in doubt about a pump, shut pump rate is low and there
in the well, restore BHP and are many other
then establish the new pump circumstances (surface and
pressure while making subsurface) why a pump
attempts to detect & rectify the pressure could be lower
than expected.
EP 2002-1500 - 130 - Restricted
problem.
• Alternatively, the other
pump(s) can be used
immediately and the suspect
pump checked separately.
• Repair pump #1 as soon as
possible in case it is required
again later in the kill.
Pressure Gauge • No response on • Shut in the well • Ensure there is always an

Failure gauge • Change out for spare ASAP adequate supply of gauges
and ensure redundancy gauges covering a workable range
when following pressures of pressures (not a 20,000
during kill psi gauge to follow 200 psi
• If spare fails or annular pressure)
troubleshooting is required,
always shut in the well.
Jet Washout • Sudden fall in drill • Stop pump and shut in.
pipe pressure • Restart the kill • If large nozzles are in use,
• Casing pressure • Adjust circulation rate / choke it will be impossible to
constant setting to maintain constant detect but should have no
bottom hole pressure under major consequences to the
new conditions successful killing of the
well.
Plugged Jets • Increase in • Stop pump and shut in. • If all jets become blocked,
standpipe pressure • Restart the kill the string should be
at constant pump • Adjust circulation rate / choke perforated above the bit or
rate setting to maintain constant mud motor.
bottom hole pressure under • Be prepared for
new conditions unexpected ‘un-plugging’
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Plugged Choke • Sudden rise in • Shut-in and switch to alternate • If partially blocked,
annulus pressure choke consider continuing the kill
followed by rise in • Isolate plugged choke and at a lower pump rate
drill pipe pressure clean-out • The simplest cure may be
• If partially to quickly open the choke
blocked, the choke wide and then back to
pressure is erratic. original choke setting in an
attempt to release the
blockage
Washout at Choke • Choke has to be • Adjust choke to maintain • If the choke washout
gradually closed to constant BHP occurs at the last stage of
maintain pressure • Monitor pit levels to confirm Phase 2, it may be difficult,
no losses to formation if not impossible to relate
• Shut-in and switch to alternate to the levels in the pits
choke
• Repair washed-out choke as
soon as possible in case it is
required again later in the kill.
Preventer Failure • Loss of casing • Immediately close backup • Assess damage before
pressure preventer. restarting
• Flow from bell • Shut in the well • Monitor well and apply
nipple • Let the BHP restore itself and volumetric method if
concentrate on regaining full necessary.
control first (i.e. stop pumping • A volumetric kill may take
and close the well fully) a very long time and require
subsequent pumping with
alternative means (e.g. CT
unit).
• It may be practical to line
up a redundant annulus
exit, such as the wellhead
EP 2002-1500 - 132 - Restricted
outlet(s)
Complete Power • Loss of all power • Have an independent power • A back-up power supply
Failure system or emergency system for critical equipment
linked to the accumulators should be addressed prior
• Connect a small diesel driven to load-out / mobilisation.
compressor to the accumulator
air pumps
Bad Weather • Any extreme • Remove the influx by fastest, • Location specific
weather which will safe method (Driller’s). contingency procedures
complicate or • Consider bullheading influx should be produced at the
hinder well control back to formation well planning stage.
activities
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5.2. Hydrogen Sulphide Considerations

This section addresses general safety preparedness for H2S exposure and looks at the
practical considerations of well control when there is Hydrogen Sulphide in the influx.
5.2.1. General
It should be well appreciated that H2S is a very dangerous gas and even in small
concentrations poses risks to personnel and equipment. The gas is a complicating factor in
the process of maintaining Well Control. H2S can cause failure of non resistant materials
and can cause problems in mud systems. For these reasons there are a number of
requirements which must be met for all well operations in sour gas areas and in
exploratory/appraisal operations with potential to encounter H2S.
• Drilling and Completion Equipment selection;
• Well control equipment specifications;
• Drilling fluid specifications;
• Emergency preparedness plans and training of staff
• Personnel safety and air breathing systems;
• Site specific procedures.
Following document must be considered where H2S may be encountered in the Well
operations. These can be found at the HSSE Business Control Framework:
http://sww.shell.com/ep/corporate_support/eps_hsse/HSE%20Framework/ep_business_hse_control_fra
mework_versie_bms.html
- EP 95-0317 HSE Manual Hydrogen Sulphide in Operations
- EP 95-0210 HSE Manual Drilling Chapter 6.5
Other useful documents on H2S:
ENFORM Canadian Association of six Petroleum Industry Trade Associations
Relevant Document is Industry Recommended Practices 1and 2 (IRP 1,2) can be made
available via http://www.enform.ca/859
Shell UK (EPE) Document Best Practice – The Management and Control of Hydrogen
Sulphide 3139-006. Available at: Best Practice H2S
Equipment specifications are laid down in a ISO standard 15156 series (which replaces the
old NACE-MR.01.75)
ISO, API, EN and other standards can be accessed via
http://sww05.europe.shell.com/standards/
e.g.
API RP 49 3 rd ed. May 2001 -Recommended Practice for Drilling and Well Servicing
Operations Involving Hydrogen Sulphide-Third Edition
API RP 54 3rd ed. August 1999 - Recommended Practice for Occupational Safety for Oil
and Gas Well Drilling and Servicing Operations-Third Edition
EP 2002-1500 - 134 - Restricted
EN 529 - Respiratory protective devices - Recommendations for selection, use, care and
maintenance - Guidance document
5.2.2. Practical Considerations for H2S kicks

Dealing with H2S at surface, circulating out a kick or other work, is complicated by the fact
that all personnel will be restricted in their movements and their ability to communicate
whilst wearing air breathing masks. Even tasks that are normally relatively simple can
become quite difficult, and all operations are much slower as a result. For this reason alone,
it is wise to consider the simplest course of action when dealing with an H2S kick.
• Bullheading is the most satisfactory manner to dispose of an H2S kick if conditions are
appropriate. In principle and on paper, bullheading is the simplest method and avoids
having to deal with sour gas at surface, but in some situations bullheading could lead to
more complications or will be extremely cumbersome. This is true for situations where
the influx is dispersed (bubbles or slugs), has moved a considerable distance from the
reservoir or across tight formation, making it hard or impossible to attain adequate
injection rates or even in situations (exploratory) where it is uncertain or unknown that
the influx contains H2S. (See Section 3.5).
• The Driller's method is the simplest of the circulating methods and provides the
quickest way to circulate the H2S from the hole. If there is the opportunity to circulate
under H2S surface controlled conditions, this method should be pursued.
• Stripping should be avoided if possible.
Preparation
If bottom-hole temperature exceeds 60ºC, H2S will not damage the bottom hole tools, and
while it is on bottom it is no threat to personnel. Therefore, there is no reason to undertake
any operation without taking the time for complete and thorough preparation.
• Pre-treat the mud system with scavenger and maintain high pH.
• The plan must be communicated to all concerned in an H2S free zone before
commencing the kill. Communication will be restricted mostly to hand signals and
scribbled notes once the operation starts.
• Well pressures must be monitored and adjusted during the preparation time.
• If use of the Wait & Weight method has been indicated as the preferred kill method by
risk analysis, then it should be used.
• In favourable conditions, Volumetric followed by Driller's method should be
considered for off-bottom swab gas kicks, rather than attempting to strip to bottom.
However, the Volumetric method can take days (e.g. in deep and/or deviated wells)
5.3. Shallow Gas

Shallow gas can be defined as a gas accumulation encountered at shallow depth in the well
which cannot be controlled by conventional techniques, either because the surface casing
is not yet in place or the well can not be closed in due to low fracture pressures below the
surface casing .
EP 2002-1500 - 135 - Restricted
5.3.1. Origin
The gas may originate in situ from the microbial decomposition of organic matter in
sediments, and / or as gas derived from underlying reservoir rocks. In most cases the
dominant gas (>90%) is methane.
Direct evidence of gas migration is provided on seismic profiles by gas chimneys, and
seabed features such as pockmarks and seabed gas seeps. Hydrocarbon reservoirs are
charged with fluid and gas expulsed from an adjacent source rock. Any oil or gas not
trapped in the charging process will tend to rise through the sediment column, as it is less
dense than the formation water. This migration is either along structural pathways (faults,
joints etc.), laterally and up-dip through permeable sediments (where it travels along the
top of these carrier beds, beneath the overlying impermeable beds) or vertically (and very
slowly) through impermeable sediments. Hence the common occurrence of shallow gas at
drilling locations.
Some areas are notorious for the presence of hydrostatically pressured gas pockets at
relatively shallow depths. Shallow gas is normally associated with offshore locations, due to
the sealing effect of sediment with a high water content, however it can also occur onshore
in areas as diverse as Brunei and Baku.
Shallow gas accumulations are potentially hazardous to drilling operations. More blow-outs
are caused by shallow gas than by any other single factor. As a consequence, pre-drilling
hazard surveys are required by certain national authorities. - including. the DTI in the UK
and NPD in Norway.
Shallow gas can also result from the charging of shallow sands via the casing annulus of old
production wells with poor cement isolation.
5.3.2. Detection / Prediction of Shallow Gas

The location of gas pockets is difficult to predict. Existing seismic data (2D and 3D) and
wells should be carefully interpreted for indications of regional gas accumulations.
Dedicated high resolution seismic data acquisition, processing and interpretation
techniques increase the reliability of the shallow gas prognosis at the proposed location.
Timely completion of such surveys prior to well spud is recommended.
Accumulations of gas within the sediments can be seen as anomalies on seismic profiles.
However seismic interpretation is subjective and not normally unambiguous. The existence
of a seismic anomaly may represent <5% gas within the sediment - or much more.
Reliability of the interpretation can be significantly improved by calibration to existing well
data – if available in the general area.
Seismic interpretation is a complex subject. However, the following summarises typical
observations
• High amplitude reflections ('bright spots') which are normally phase reversed. These
reflections often represent accumulations in coarser, more permeable horizons.
• Masking and 'pull down' of underlying reflections.
• Phase change along reflections at the gas/water interface
• Acoustic turbidity - seismic reflections masked by a cloud-like amorphous signal. This
is likely to represent disseminated gas in argillaceous sediments.
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Identification of gas anomalies are normally aided by seismic attribute analysis, including
amplitude analysis and inversion. In some areas, amplitude versus offset (AVO) processing
should also be considered.
NOTE: Recent North Sea studies have indicated that shallow gas may migrate in ‘real
time’ and that even drilling close to old wells may result in unexpected problems.
Well proposals should always include a statement on the probability of encountering
shallow gas, even if no shallow gas is present. This statement should not only use the
"shallow gas survey", but include an assessment drawn from the exploration seismic data,
historical well data, the geological probability of a shallow cap rock, coal formations, and
any surface indication/seepage.
See also Guidelines to Offshore Drilling Hazard Assessment (EP 2000-7009)
5.3.3. Shallow Gas Procedures

Based on the shallow gas statement in the well proposal, practical shallow gas procedures
should be prepared for that particular well. The comprehensiveness of these shallow gas
procedures depends on the chance of encountering shallow gas and may vary from well to
well. Procedures can be prepared using EP 88-1000 "Shallow Gas Procedures Guidance
Manual" , which addresses the following shallow gas philosophy:
• avoid shallow gas where possible;
• optimise the preliminary shallow gas investigation;
• the concept of drilling small pilot holes for shallow gas investigation with a dedicated
unit is considered an acceptable and reliable method of shallow gas detection and
major problem prevention;
• surface diverter equipment will not withstand an erosive shallow gas flow for a
prolonged period of time. Surface diverters are still seen as a means of "buying time" in
order to evacuate the drilling site;
• diverting shallow gas subsea or drilling riserless when water depth exceeds 200m, is
considered to be safer as compared to diverting at surface;
• a dynamic kill attempt with existing rig equipment may only be successful if a small
pilot hole (9-⅞" or smaller) is drilled and immediate pumping at maximum rate is
applied in the early stage of a kick;
5.3.4. Identification of Shallow Gas Pockets Whilst Drilling

Whilst drilling at shallow depth in a normally pressured formation, no indication of a gas
pocket other than higher gas readings in the mud returns can be expected. Since the
overbalance of the drilling fluid at shallow depths is usually minimal, pressure surges may
cause an under-balanced situation, which could result in a kick. Therefore, every attempt
should be made to avoid swabbing.
If drilling pilot hole with MWD, consideration may be given to running PWD.
EP 2002-1500 - 137 - Restricted
5.3.5. General Recommended Drilling Practices in Shallow Gas Areas

Common drilling practices which are applicable for top hole drilling in general and diverter
drilling in particular are summarised below. Recommendations are made with a view to
simplify operations, thereby minimising possible hole problems.
1. A pilot hole should be drilled in areas with possible shallow gas, because the small
hole size will facilitate a dynamic well killing operation.
2. Restrict the penetration rate. Particular care should be taken to avoid an excessive
build-up of solids in the hole, which could cause formation breakdown and losses.
Drilling with heavier mud returns could also obscure indications of drilling through
higher pressured formations. The well may kick while circulating the hole clean.
Restricted drilling rates also minimise the penetration into the gas bearing formation,
which in turn minimises the influx rate. An excessive drilling rate through a
formation containing gas may reduce the hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid if
drilled gas is entrained in the mud. This may eventually result in a flowing well.
3. Every effort shall be made to minimise the possibility of swabbing. Pumping out of
the hole at optimum circulating rates is recommended for all upward pipe
movements (e.g. making connections and tripping). Especially in larger hole sizes (i.e.
larger than 12") it is important to check that the circulation rate is sufficiently high
and the pulling speed sufficiently low to ensure that no swabbing will take place.
A Top Drive System will facilitate efficient pumping out of hole operations.
4. When drilling with returns, accurate measurement and control of drilling fluid is
most important in order to detect gas as early as possible. Properly calibrated and
functioning gas detection equipment is essential in top hole drilling. Flow checks are
to be made before tripping, at any time a sharp penetration rate increase or tank level
anomaly is observed, when any anomaly appears on the MWD log (if an MWD data
transmission system is used), and at any specific depths referred to in the drilling
programme (taken from the shallow seismic survey). It is recommended to flow
check each connection while drilling the pilot hole in potential shallow gas areas.
Measuring mud weight in and out, and checking for seepage losses are all important
practices which shall be applied continuously.
5. A float valve (NRV) must be installed in all bottom hole assemblies (BHAs) which
are used in top hole drilling in order to prevent uncontrollable flow up the drillstring.
The float valve is the only down-hole mechanical barrier available. The use of two
float valves in the BHA may be considered in potential shallow gas areas. A drop in
dart sub by itself is not sufficient.
6. Large bit nozzles or no nozzles and large mud pump liners should be used. Large
nozzles are advantageous during dynamic killing operations, since a higher pump rate
can be achieved. As an example, a pump rate of approximately 2700 ltr/min at
20,000 kPa pump pressure can be obtained using a 1300-1600 HP pump with 3 x
14/32" nozzles installed in the bit. By using 3 x 18/32" nozzles, the pump rate can
be increased to around 3800 ltr/min at 20,000 kPa. (Values will vary slightly
depending on mud weight, hole size, BHA configuration, etc.). The use of centre
nozzle bits will increase the maximum circulation rate even further and also reduces
the chance of bit balling.
Large bit nozzles or no nozzles should be used to allow lost circulation material
(LCM) to be pumped through the bit in case of losses.
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7. In general, shallow kick-offs should be avoided in areas with probable shallow gas.
Top hole drilling operations in these areas should be simple to minimise possible
hole problems. BHAs used for kick-off operations also have flow restrictions which
will reduce the maximum possible flow through the drillstring considerably. A
successful dynamic well killing operation will then become very unlikely.
8. It is recommended to have kill mud of at least the pilot hole content pre-mixed and
available ready to be pumped immediately at maximum rate at the Driller's
discretion.
SUBSEA DIVERTER BOP
Figure 5.1: Subsea Diverter BOP
5.4. Gas Hydrates

Gas hydrates are a major concern when drilling in deep water environments. High pressure
and low temperature are typical conditions that are encountered in the BOP stack at the
mudline of a deep water drilling operation. This section reviews techniques to avoid
hydrate formation.
5.4.1. Overview
Gas hydrates are an ice-like material that can form when kick gas mixes with water-based
drilling fluids at high pressure and low temperature. They are a natural form of clathrates -
unique chemical substances in which molecules of one material (in this case, water) form
an open solid lattice that encloses, without chemical bonding, appropriately-sized
molecules of another material (in this case, natural gas).
Formation of gas hydrates in the BOP can result in a very costly drilling shutdown lasting
weeks. Once formed, gas hydrates are difficult to remove because of the inability to
circulate.
EP 2002-1500 - 139 - Restricted
There should be a means of injecting hydrate inhibitor such as glycol at the subsea BOP.
It is critical in deep water drilling operations that water-based drilling fluids be specially
tailored to suppress gas hydrate formation. Westport Hydrate Prediction (WHyP) software
can be used to model the hydrate suppression achieved using various chemical additives.
Various salts and glycols can be used to lower the hydrate-forming potential of water-based
muds. The WHyP model determines the concentration of selected hydrate inhibitors
needed to suppress hydrate formation at a given mudline temperature and pressure.
5.4.2. Practical Considerations

It should be noted that hydrates cannot form if:
• The pressure is low;
OR
• The temperature is high.
Therefore, when conditions are critical, every opportunity should be taken to lower the
pressure and to increase the temperature.
Lowering Pressure
The are few, if any techniques that can be adopted to significantly lower the pressure at the
subsea BOP during a well kill without risking other, potentially more hazardous, problems.
Raising Temperature
The temperature inside the subsea BOP is controlled by the temperature of the mud
circulating through it internally and the surrounding seawater temperature externally. While
drilling and circulating, the BOP is heated by virtue of the mud continuously carrying heat
from bottom hole to counteract the heat loss to the seawater. Once circulation ceases, the
BOP looses heat and the temperature falls. Given enough static time the BOP will come to
thermal equilibrium with the very cold seawater.
The key then is to conserve heat by minimising any non circulation time. Initially, the gas
influx will be hotter than the mud. As it is circulated up the hole it will lose heat and will
cool somewhat by virtue of its expansion.
The loss of heat can be minimised by:
• Commencing circulation immediately; i.e. Use Driller's method.
• Using a high kill circulation rate.
• Avoid shutdowns or delays.
• Consider insulating kill and choke lines.
5.4.3. Hydrates Formation in SOBM

Hydrate formation is normally avoided when using SOBM Hydrates can form in SOBM if
water is introduced into the system. However, gas does not generally migrate in SOBM (it
goes into solution). The net result is that the hydrate forming components (hydrocarbon
gas in particular) do not migrate into the area of the BOP stack and cool. It is therefore
unlikely that hydrates will form when SOBM is in use.
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5.4.4. Monitoring Potential Hydrate Formation At The Rigsite

All of the elements required to effectively monitor potential hydrate formation are
available. These elements are:
• Assessment of hydrate formation temperature
• Temperature and pressure measurement
The results of these measurements can be combined into a real time hydrate potential
graph – see Figure 5.2 below.
Hydrate Warning System (6000 ft Water Depth)
Drilling - 12 hr Shutdown - Kill Circulation - Prolonged Shutdown
5000
23% NaCl 32 hrs 15% NaCl

31.5 hrs
4500
BOP Pressure (psi)
20.5 hrs
4000
3500
48 hrs 35 & 40 hrs
3000
0-20 hrs
30 40 50 60 70
Temperature (deg F)
Figure 5.2: Hydrate Potential
5.4.5. Operational Practices That Can Be Used To Prevent Hydrates From Forming
• Specify appropriate thermodynamic and/or kinetic mud inhibition
• Use SOBM if appropriate - however, there are other safety issues in using this type of
mud in deepwater. In particular, use of a Riser Gas Handler should be considered to
deal with any gas that is in solution and in the riser above the BOP.
• Use the Driller’s method – this allows circulation to start as soon as possible and
therefore minimizes cooling of any mud/gas mixture
• If any operational shutdown occurs, flush the choke and kill lines and across the BOP
using fresh inhibited mud or highly inhibited fluid.
• Use a kill rate that avoids lost circulation.
• Specify choke and kill lines that are large enough such that friction pressure loses are
low and lost circulation is avoided.
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• Monitor the potential for hydrate formation using a plot of BOP pressure and
temperature superimposed upon the hydrate formation condition for the mud in use.
Make everyone at the rigsite aware of the potential.
5.4.6. Novel Approaches Worth Considering

Insulation would seem to “buy” a significant amount of time. For example, mud in a choke
line can cool from the “steady-state” temperature to the seabed temperature in 30 minutes
or less. If the same choke line is insulated, this cool down time can be increased to 55
hours.
5.4.7. Removal of Hydrates

In general, hydrate melting can be achieved by using four basic schemes. These are:
1. Mechanical
2. Depressurization
3. Chemical
4. Thermal
In the first scheme, (mechanical), the hydrate blockage is removed by applying direct
mechanical force such as drilling or differential pressure. In (2) the depressurization
scheme, the pressure over the hydrate plug is reduced below the hydrate equilibrium
pressure at the prevailing temperature. Consequently, the hydrate blockage starts to
dissociate at the boundary subjected to the pressure reduction. The third scheme,
(chemical), involves bringing inhibitors like methanol, salts or glycol into direct contact
with the hydrate blockage to destabilize the hydrate. In the fourth, (thermal) scheme, an
external source of energy is utilized to raise the hydrate plug temperature above the hydrate
equilibrium temperature. The difficulties arise in transporting the chemicals or the energy
to the place the of hydrate plug.
A “thermal bomb” (chemicals to generate large quantities of heat) may consist of sodium
nitrite plus ammonium chloride. These chemicals must be kept separate until they are
combined at the location where the heating is required.
NOTE: Hydrates are also covered in section 7.5
5.4.8. Removal of Hydrates (Producing Wells)

The formation of hydrates in producing wells (eg, during well tests) is especially hazardous
when vertical test trees are used. When surface strings become hydrated on floating rigs, it
is not possible to deploy the disconnect at the subsea test tree to leave the well safe.
Therefore, the practicality of hydrate prevention is designed into well test subsea
equipment and techniques. Subsea trees are equipped with chemical injection facilities so
that methanol and glycol can be injected into the hydrocarbon stream at the seabed during
flow periods and more importantly, when the well is closed in. It should always be noted
that hydrates do not require flowing conditions to form, in fact, it is unlikely that a hydrate
will form during flow periods.
Similarly, neat glycol or water glycol mixtures are used as test fluids when pressure testing
the surface string and subsea valves. It is critical that the right mix of water and glycol be
used to prevent the formation of hydrates and that attention be paid to the thorough
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flushing of lines with the mix. It is recommended that a hydrometer be used to measure
the specific gravity of the mix and that tables be referenced for the most appropriate mix.
Whilst glycol is an accepted method of hydrate prevention, methanol is the only proven
chemical means of hydrate dispersion. When well tests are planned, thought must be given
to the provision of appropriate volumes of glycol and methanol.
For practical purposes, hydrates may be assumed to be supported on three ‘legs’. These
‘legs’ are; hydrocarbon gas, the presence of water and pressure. Strictly speaking, low
temperature is another leg. However, since low temperature is always present in surface
strings, other than in really hot locations there is no practical means of raising the string
temperature. This ‘leg’ can therefore be discounted for hydrate dissipation purposes. The
most prevalent conditions for hydrate formation are in high pressure, tight gas wells with a
high water cut. The hydrate will most likely form in the surface string, somewhere between
the drill floor and the seabed, however, the possibility of hydrates being found deeper in
the well must not be discounted.
The hydrate can be dissipated by the removal of any one of the three aforementioned legs.
For treatment purposes, it is not possible to remove hydrocarbon gas from a well, nor to
take the water out. Therefore the only effective method of dispersing the hydrate is to treat
it with methanol or to remove the pressure by bleeding off (or flowing the well). Please
note that glycol will not disperse a hydrate.
For methanol to be effective as the means of dispersion, it is necessary to spot the
chemical directly on the hydrate. The presence of hydrocarbons and test fluids immediately
above the hydrate would normally preclude this since the methanol, being lighter, will
generally sit on top of the well effluent rather than on the hydrate. Additionally, within the
surface string, there are no circulation devices for accurately spotting chemicals.
The only practical means of removing hydrates is therefore to bleed off the pressure, (i.e.
flow the well). However, before attempting to do so, it is important that the following
points are considered;
• That a check be made to ascertain the presence of gas above the hydrate.
• In the event that gas is established to be above the hydrate, fluid (neat glycol or
methanol) should be lubricated into the well above the hydrate. This must be carried
out carefully so that as far as possible, the surface pressure is maintained during the
lubrication process. The lubrication above the hydrate may be a lengthy process.
• No attempt should be made to bleed off the pressure with only a gas cap above the
hydrate, this can result in the hydrate being dislodged up the well with considerable
force. The presence of fluid will act as a cushion when bleeding off pressure.
• Once bleeding off pressure has commenced, it is important to keep the well flowing.
On subsea welltest systems, methanol may additionally be injected at the subsea test
tree.
• The choke must be manned at all times during the process and the operator prepared
to keep opening the choke should the well appear to die and to be prepared to control
the well’s flow rate when the hydrate has dissipated.
• The subsequent flowing of the well will enable the temperature to be lifted above the
hydrate formation point. It is recommended that the well be flowed until clean if
possible, (i.e., so that stable flow occurs). Subsequent shut-in periods should be
minimised if possible.
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5.5. Using a Surface BOP for Deep Water operations

Sections 6 and 7 of this manual describe equipment and procedures for the ‘traditional’
well control methods used with a BOP at the sea bed. As complexities (and floating rig
specifications) with the use of this traditional system increase with water depth an
alternative set-up is used more frequently where the functionalities of the BOP is split into
two parts:
1. A Surface BOP - providing the well control functionality
2. A Seabed Isolation Device (SID) – providing emergency disconnect functionality
For a Surface BOP system, well control is achieved using a

standard ´Jack-up type´ surface BOP (SBOP) which is
located in the rig’s moon pool and is attached to the top of
the high pressure drilling riser. In the case of a well control
incident, the well will be closed in at the SBOP. The kick
can then be circulated up the riser and out of the BOP
through the choke. In this regard, well control techniques
will be identical to the well control techniques used for jack-
up rig operations. However, unlike a Jack-up, the weight of
the SBOP and the high pressure riser is supported by the
riser tensioners and therefore only a small amount of
drillstring weight can ever be hung-off on a pipe ram in the
SBOP.
In the case the rig is unable to maintain position a blind

shearing ram inside the Seabed Isolation Device (SID) will
be used to sever the pipe and seal the well. The riser
connector at the top of the SID will subsequently de-
activate, releasing the riser.
Shear Rams In some special circumstances it may be advantageous to use

the SID also for well control purposes but that is NOT its
primary function.
Whilst the principles for operating with a SBOP and SID are based on common practices
used in standard systems, the type of equipment, controls and procedures may differ
substantially. Separate procedures have been developed for operating with a SBOP and
SID in deep water. A draft of such a document for the rig Arctic I is available at the
following link: Arctic I SBOP installation and operations manual.
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5.6. Tapered Drill Strings

In every drill string there are variations in diameter between the different components. The
variations are both internal and external. This section considers the effects that these
variations have on well killing operations.
5.6.1. External
Variations in the outside diameter of components of the drill string have an effect on
choke manifold pressure and all pressures in the annulus.
These differ because fluids in different annular spaces occupy different lengths. In the case
of smaller annular clearance, a given volume of fluid will occupy a greater length of hole.
The vertical component of this length will have a greater effect on hydrostatic pressure
than the same volume of fluid in an annular space with greater clearance and the same
vertical height. If the fluid in question is a gas kick it will have a far greater effect (for the
same volume) on choke manifold pressure whilst it is in a small clearance drill collar
annulus than when it is in a large clearance drill pipe annulus. Because of this, maximum
shoe pressure in vertical holes often occurs when a gas influx is in the drill collar annulus,
immediately on shutting in.
Note that the same effect occurs when hole diameter changes. A gas influx has less effect
on choke manifold pressure in a larger diameter hole. This can be taken to the point that
kick tolerance may be greater if there is a section of larger diameter hole below the casing
shoe.
Dynamic Pressures
These differ in the annulus because of the increased flowing friction pressure in reduced
annular spaces. Long, large diameter BHA's can have a marked effect on dynamic annulus
friction pressure. See Section 8 for more details.
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Standpipe pressure Gauge hole
Choke manifold
pressure
Shoe pressure
Drillcollar effect
Figure 5.3: Pressure plots for Driller's method kill in gauge hole.
(Shoe pressure on different scale to other pressures)
Standpipe pressure
Overgauge
hole
Choke manifold
pressure
Shoe pressure
Figure 5.4: Pressure plots for Driller's method kill in a hole that has an overgauge section
immediately below the shoe. Note the effect on choke manifold pressure and
shoe pressure as the gas bubble passes through the overgauge section.
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5.6.2. Internal
Variation in internal diameter of the drill string can have a marked effect on standpipe
pressure when circulating dense mud to the bit to kill a kick with constant bottom hole
pressure. The effect of varying inside diameter is only significant whilst there is more than
one density mud in the drill string. Once the drill string is completely full of the new mud
there is no variation in standpipe pressure.
The pressure variance is due to:
• the difference in length of a given volume of mud in different diameters. The vertical
height of these lengths contribute differently to hydrostatic pressure;
• the dynamic pressure loss difference. At a given circulating rate the pressure loss in
smaller diameters is greater than in large diameters.
When using the Wait & Weight method a pressure reduction plot is drawn to show how
the standpipe pressure must be controlled, by choke manipulation, to maintain constant
bottom hole pressure. This is normally drawn as a straight line average from the Initial
Circulating Pressure (ICP) at zero strokes, to, the Final Circulating Pressure (FCP) at
strokes to bit. This is only an approximation, as (among others) it takes no account of
differences in internal diameter between the drill pipe and the drill collars or of the jet
effect. The approximation is acceptable in many conventional drill string / BHA drilling
situations since the effect is relatively small and can be neglected.
Actual pressure
reduction for the
tapered drill string
Normal Tapered
straight line drill string
pressure
reduction plot
See footnote
Figure 5.5: Shows the difference between the normally calculated straight line pressure
reduction plot, and actual standpipe pressure required to maintain constant
bottom hole pressure. At the point of maximum deviation the normal plot
would be 75psi underbalanced in this example.
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However, when drill strings are composed of significant lengths of different inside
diameter tubulars and/or comprise of tools which significantly contribute to the
cumulative pressure drop, the effect is larger and must be taken into account. Failure to do
so could result in allowing the well to flow because of insufficient standpipe pressure. If
the well is highly deviated or horizontal, the dynamic pressure loss difference may be the
most critical contributing factor, despite the fact that the drill string is tapered. Under those
circumstances, the opposite effect will show by having a significant overbalance. If the
fracture gradient is relatively high and/or the casing shoe is set close to the highly
deviated/horizontal section, this overbalance will not have any adverse effect on the killing
process.
Note that this problem only occurs for Wait & Weight method kills.
When using the Driller's method, in the second circulation the choke pressure is held
constant until the kill density mud reaches the bit. The standpipe pressure will
automatically follow the correct pressure reduction provided there is no gas in the hole.
Deviation from the pressure reduction plot should be investigated.
In practice, the trick to handling tapered strings and deviated wells using the Wait &
Weight method is to realize that the standard kill sheet plot is not designed to compensate
for these effects. A standard kill sheet graph tricks the operator into holding a pressure
profile which is incorrect.
The heavy mud going down the string will always act correctly, getting rid of a certain
amount of shut-in pressure for each increment of TVD which is pumped. If faced with a
deviated well or tapered string, the secret is to get the choke sized correctly whilst holding
the correct surface casing pressure at the start of the kill. Thereafter just take your hands
off the choke and observe the drill pipe pressure. On a deviated well the pressure profile
will initially decline faster that the standard sheet predicts, and slower than predicted on a
tapered string situation. The impact is all over with when the heavy mud reaches the bit.
The pressure reduction plot can be constructed by using the approximate formula below,
the derivation of which is covered in the Shell Distance Learning Training Manual.
P'x' = Pst + {(Pc2 - Pc1) x V'x'/Vtotal} - {D'x'TVD x (ρ2 – ρ1}
Where:
'x' is the crossover point
P'x' = standpipe pressure when the kill mud reaches point 'x' (kPa, psi)
Pst = initial circulating pressure (kPa, psi)
Pc2 = final circulating pressure (kPa, psi)
Pc1 = slow circulating rate pressure (kPa, psi)
V'x' = string volume to point 'x' (m3, bbls)
Vtotal = total string volume (m3, bbls)
D'x'TVD = TVD of point 'x' (m, ft)
ρ2 = kill mud density (kPa/m, psi/ft)
ρ1 = original mud density (kPa/m, psi/ft)
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To construct the kill pressure reduction plot, four elements are calculated:
• Pst at the start of the kill;
• Volumes Vtotal and V'x' (the latter for each section of the drill string with a different
inside diameter);
• P'x' at the various crossover points using the above equation;
• Pc2 at the end of the pressure reduction phase, when the kill density mud reaches the
bit.
When the plot is to be calculated for more than one change of diameter, the cumulative
depths and volumes must be used.
Footnote: In Figure 5.5, there is a discrepancy between the FCP value determined by
calculation that would be applied in a Wait & Weight kill, and the actual correct FCP that
will result using the Driller's method. This discrepancy is due to these facts:
The standard technique of calculating FCP from the ratio of the new and old mud densities
is only an approximation and takes no account of changes in other mud flow properties.
The calculated FCP includes circulating overbalance (annulus friction pressure) of the kill
density mud whereas the FCP that will result from using the Driller's method includes
circulating overbalance (annulus friction pressure) of the original mud.
These discrepancies are not unique to tapered drill strings.
5.7. Well Control Whilst Drilling with Oil Based Mud

In many areas of the world, Oil Based Mud (OBM) is the drilling fluid of choice, due to the
excellent shale inhibition and lubricity properties. However, because gas can dissolve in
OBM, its use introduces some well control considerations that are not encountered with
Water Based Mud (WBM). The following discussion relates to influxes that are normally
gaseous at surface conditions.
Down hole temperature and pressure determine the phase (liquid or gas) of all light
hydrocarbons. They also determine the solubility of gas in OBM and the solvent properties
of the oil phase. As an influx is circulated out of a well it is subjected to a gradual pressure
and temperature decrease. This can affect both the phase and solubility of the influx. These
changes can be interactive.
5.7.1. Kick on Bottom Drilling

If The Influx Is Liquid In Situ:
• There will be no solubility effect initially. The kick will appear the same as if WBM
was in use.
• Pit gain will accurately reflect the true (liquid) volume of the influx.
• Shut in pressures in combination with pit gain will accurately reflect the density of
the influx. If light oil (high API gravity) is indicated by calculation, it should be
treated as a gas kick.
• As the influx is circulated out of the hole during the kill procedure, the liquid influx
may change phase to free gas as its bubble point is reached.
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• If conditions are suitable, some of this free gas may go into solution in the OBM.
• As circulation continues, the dissolved gas may breakout again to free gas.
• Choke manifold pressure at the start of the kill circulation will show little change.
• Choke manifold pressure in the final stages of the kill circulation will increase in line
with the amount of free gas in the hole. This increased pressure has a regulating
effect on breakout and it is probable that much of the breakout will occur through
the choke.
If The Influx Is Gas In Situ:
• Gas is highly soluble in OBM. The amount of gas that can go into solution is
dependent on the mud and gas properties and the wellbore temperature and
pressure.
• When gas goes into solution, the resultant volume of the gas/OBM mixture will be
less than the sum of the components. For a very small gas influx at a relatively low
pressure, the resultant volume will be only slightly greater than the original volume of
the mud (with which the gas mixes). For a large gas influx at a high pressure, the
resultant volume will be very close to the sum of the mud volume (with which the
gas mixes) and the in-situ gas volume.
In all cases there will be a positive pit gain.
• Shut in pressures in combination with pit gain may not accurately reflect the true
density of the influx. A gas kick may appear to be light oil. All (apparent) light oil
kicks should be treated as gas kicks.
• As the influx is circulated out of the hole during the kill procedure, the dissolved gas
may breakout again to free gas.
• Choke manifold pressure at the start of the kill circulation may show little change,
depending on the amount of free gas.
• Choke manifold pressure in the final stages of the kill circulation will increase in line
with the amount of free gas in the hole. This increased pressure has a regulating
effect on breakout and it is probable that much of the breakout will occur through
the choke.
In each case, any kick on bottom while drilling with OBM should be detected by diligent
monitoring of increased flow and pit gain, and the well must be shut in immediately.
Subsequent events during the kill procedure may not be the same as could be expected
while using WBM. Nevertheless, there are no special procedures that must be followed.
Whereas there will always be a positive pit gain when a gas influx initially enters the well
bore and goes into solution, there may be no additional pit gain as the gas is circulated to
surface. It is essential that any influx is detected upon initial entry. If no “positive” kick
signs are noted and yet well indications suggest that there may be the possibility of a very
small influx then bottoms up must be circulated through the choke.
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5.7.2. Swab Influx Whilst Tripping

(Hole not taking/returning correct amount of fluid but not flowing.)
If The Influx Is Liquid In Situ:
• Trip tank volume discrepancy will accurately reflect the swab influx volume.
• The influx will not migrate at any significant rate.
• The influx must be removed by running carefully back to bottom and circulating out
through the choke with the well shut in (Driller’s method) over the final stages.
If The Influx Is Gas In Situ:
• Trip tank volume discrepancy may not accurately reflect the swab influx volume due
to solubility effects. However, there will be a trip tank discrepancy.
• The influx may or may not migrate at a significant rate. In any event only the free gas
portion is likely to migrate.
• The influx must be removed by running carefully back to bottom and circulating out
through the choke with the well shut in (Driller’s method) over the final stages.
In each case it is imperative that the well is shut in and that returns are taken through the
choke (and MGS) whilst the influx is circulated from the hole. The choke must be
manipulated to maintain constant standpipe pressure as for Driller’s method first
circulation.
5.7.3. Swab Kick while Tripping

(Well starts flowing during a trip)
If The Influx Is Either Liquid Or Gas In Situ
• If there is any sign of flow whilst tripping, the well must be shut in.
• The annulus above the bit should be circulated clean through the choke, (as above).
If the well is not dead, the drill string should be stripped to bottom for final
circulation (as above).
• A Volumetric method kill is not feasible due to the lack of significant migration.
5.7.4. General Conclusion

When drilling with OBM, it is most important to be aware of the unpredictable behavior of
unrestrained gas expansion near surface, especially when circulating bottoms up after a
round trip or any circulation after long static periods. High solubility OBM is of particular
concern. Most of the expansion of a gas bubble coming out of solution occurs in the top
of the hole. The depth at which this occurs will depend on the composition and initial
pressure of the influx, and the mud composition, pressure and temperature gradient.
Although gas solubility makes drilling with OBM more hazardous due to the possible
sudden gas breakout near surface during normal (open) circulation, well control is not
compromised as the basic principles of kick detection (increased flow, pit gain) are the
same, though indicators may be muted in high solubility mud systems.
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5.7.5. Post Kick

Standard well killing procedures apply for OBM. However, gas present in gas-cut OBM
may be difficult to remove completely due to the solubility of gas. This may result in many
hours circulating to reduce the gas content. This retention of dissolved gas is particularly
troublesome in diesel (or ‘near diesel’) base oil mud, but appears to be less of a problem
with synthetic OBMs.
5.7.6. Bottoms Up
If the presence of dissolved gas in OBM is suspected and it is expected to cause splash
problems at surface, the well should be shut in prior to reaching bottoms up. Circulation
can be completed via the choke manifold maintaining constant standpipe pressure by
choke manipulation if necessary.
Wells drilled with a subsea BOP stack that do not have a Riser Gas Handler need to be
shut in and circulated across the choke before the suspected influx reaches the BOP's.
5.7.7. Solubility
Pressure
X 1000psi
8
CH4
6
CO2
4
2 H2S
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Gas - Oil Ratio scf/bbl
Figure 5.6: Highlights the difference in solubility of H2S, CO2, and CH4 in diesel oil
Depth Pressure
X 1000ft X 1000psi
Dissolved Gas 3
6
2
4
Free Gas
2 1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Gas - Oil Ratio, scf/bbl
Figure 5.7: Shows the bubble point pressures of mixtures of methane and (diesel-based)
OBM (s.g. = 1.0985). The diagonal line represents the pressures at which part
of the dissolved gas comes out of solution.
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Reiteration: The use of OBM is no excuse for a missed kick. There will always be a surface
indicator of a kick in OBM although the effect may be muted.
5.8. Deviated Wells

Hydrostatic pressure is proportional to True Vertical Depth, and circulating pressure is
approximately proportional to Measured Depth. Therefore, the pressure response of
standpipe and choke manifold in deviated holes will not be the same as for vertical holes
when applying a kill schedule for a method using an increase in mud weight.
Of particular note is the fact that the pressure reduction plot accounting for deviation,
while pumping kill mud from surface to the bit, is not a straight line. It is necessary to
calculate a pressure reduction plot that accounts for deviation, otherwise there is danger
that:
• In a simple deviated well (vertical, build up and tangent sections) there will be a
continuous overbalance. (See also the effect of tapered strings on kill schedules,
Section 5.6). This overbalance can act as an additional Safety Factor, and depending
on its magnitude can induce losses. The complications of losses during well control
are generally not desired, (see Figure 5.8).
• Lower than necessary pressure may be applied in drop sections, with the risk of
underbalance and another influx entering the well. This is particularly important with
a tapered drill string, (see 5.6).
During the Well Control Planning stage it will normally be necessary to calculate a
pressure reduction plot that accounts for deviation, and compare it with the traditional
straight line kill schedule. If the overbalance is likely to induce losses, or if the indications
are that formations will be underbalanced, the deviated kill schedule must be used
where an increase in mud weight is planned.
SIDPP Traditional Kill Schedule

P
R
UNDERBALANCE
E OVERBALANCE
S
S
U ICP
R S-Well Kill Schedule
E SCR
FCP
VERTICALSECTION BUILD TANGENT SECTION DROP

TO KOP
PUMP STROKES OR TIME
Figure 5.8: Typical standpipe kill schedule for an S-profile well.

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The procedure to construct the Wait & Weight standpipe pressure kill plot for a deviated
well is as follows:
• Divide the well profile into its major sections. i.e. Vertical section to kick off, Build
section, Tangent section, Drop section.
• Plot the Initial Circulating Pressure (Pst) at time, volume or strokes zero.
• Calculate and plot the Final Circulating Pressure (Pc2) when the new mud has reached
the bit (end of phase I).
• Calculate and plot the standpipe circulating pressure (P'x') when the new mud has
reached each of the transition points along the hole.
Connect the points obtained in 2, 3 and 4 with straight line sections. This line represents an
approximation of the correct standpipe pressure to maintain by choke manipulation, whilst
pumping the new mud from surface to the bit.
The total standpipe pressure P'x' at any point 'x' is calculated by:
P'x' = Pst + {(Pc2 - Pc1) x V'x'/Vtotal} - {D'x'TVD x (ρ2 – ρ1}
Where:
'x' is the crossover point
P'x' = standpipe pressure when the kill mud reaches point 'x' (kPa, psi)
Pst = initial circulating pressure (kPa, psi)
Pc2 = final circulating pressure (kPa, psi)
Pc1 = slow circulating rate pressure (kPa, psi)
V'x' = string volume to point 'x' (m3, bbls)
Vtotal = total string volume (m3, bbls)
D'x'TVD = TVD of point 'x' (m, ft)
ρ2 = kill mud density (kPa/m, psi/ft)
ρ1 = original mud density (kPa/m, psi/ft)
Note that this problem only occurs for Wait & Weight method kills.
When using the Driller's method, in the second circulation the choke manifold pressure is
held constant until the kill density mud reaches the bit. The standpipe pressure will
automatically follow the correct pressure reduction provided there is no gas in the hole.
Deviation from the pressure reduction plot should be investigated.
In practice, the trick to handling tapered strings and/or deviated wells using the Wait &
Weight method is to realize that the standard kill sheet plot is not designed to compensate
for these effects. A standard kill sheet graph tricks the operator into holding a pressure
profile which is incorrect.
The heavy mud going down the string will always act correctly, getting rid of a certain
amount of shut-in pressure for each increment of TVD which is pumped. If faced with a
deviated well or tapered string, the secret is to get the choke sized correctly whilst holding
the correct surface casing pressure at the start of the kill. Thereafter just take your hands
off the choke and observe the drill pipe pressure. On a deviated well the pressure profile
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will initially decline faster that the standard sheet predicts, and slower than predicted on a
tapered string situation. The impact is all over with when the heavy mud reaches the bit.
5.9. Horizontal Wells

Well control situations in horizontal wells should be a very rare occurrence. In general,
horizontal sections are confined to the reservoir. Therefore, if the well did not kick when
the reservoir was first penetrated and no primary well control factor has changed, then the
only kicks should be from swabbing.
5.9.1. Swabbing
Swabbing is more likely to occur in horizontal wells than in others because of the ever-
present cuttings bed. Every precaution must be taken to avoid it. However, there is some
degree of tolerance in that actual underbalance causing well flow as a result of swabbing
should be rare as:
• An influx cannot migrate in the horizontal section (90º+) and thus cannot expand
and unload mud from the vertical section;
• The presence of an influx in the horizontal section, no matter how large, does not
affect bottom hole hydrostatic pressure.
Whenever swabbing is suspected, the bit should be run back to bottom and the influx
circulated out, through the choke if necessary. Every precaution should be taken when
running in, as the drillstring may displace the influx into the non-horizontal hole and create
an underbalance.
If however, a swabbed gas influx finds its way out of the horizontal section, it may migrate
very rapidly and very quickly induce a kick. As with any other well, killing a swab kick does
not require an increase of mud density and is therefore killed using the Driller's method
assuming the bit is on bottom or at the deepest point. There is no need to construct
complex graphs or to deal with the mathematics of 90º hole.
If the string is off bottom the options are similar as for other holes. Either:
• Apply the volumetric method and wait for the gas to migrate above the bit; kill the
well using the Driller's method; run to bottom and circulate out (through the choke)
the gas trapped in the horizontal section. It may be prudent to do this in stages if
there is a long horizontal section.
or
• Strip back to the start of the horizontal section; kill the well by the Driller's method;
Run to bottom as above.
The option of bullheading may be viable if the reservoir is naturally fractured carbonates.
5.9.2. On Bottom Drilling Kick

On rare occasions it may be possible to drill through a sealing fault into a higher pressured
reservoir compartment. This can kick, and can be dealt with in the same manner as for any
other well with a kick on bottom. The Driller's method will most likely be used as the Wait
& Weight will not provide any benefit.
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Some Interesting Points

1. The initial shut-in drillpipe pressure and the initial shut-in choke manifold pressure
will be equal if the influx is still within the horizontal section.
2. It is not possible to calculate the influx gradient so the influx type cannot be
estimated.
3. The initial shut in pressures will both give a measure of formation pressure.
4. Since free gas always migrates upwards, be aware of the well profile.
5. When a kick or swabbing occurs, the influx takes place distributed over the entire
exposed horizontal reservoir section at once. Distribution will be proportional to the
relative permeability along the section.
6. The reservoir overbalance at the "beginning" of the horizontal section is the same as
the "end".
7. Possible dispersion effect in the horizontal section will take place (depending on hole
and flow conditions) which may result in long circulating times to get the mud in the
well gas free and filled with the proper weight mud.
8. Lower than expected annular pressures will occur due to the dispersion effect.
9. High annular velocities may be required to flush gas from the horizontal section.
10. If the Wait & Weight method is used, a standpipe kill graph for a deviated well must
be used to ensure that the correct bottom hole pressure is applied during the well
killing process. An assumed bottom hole angle of 89º should be used. The TVD of
the "deepest" part of the horizontal section should be used for hydrostatic pressure-
related calculations.
11. In principle, well control situations should not be critical since the casing is normally
set directly above the production zone.
5.10. Multilateral Wells

See also the document (Multilateral Well Control)
Multilaterals are becoming more common due to an increasing requirement to drain small
isolated accumulations or areas of un-swept pay. They pose a challenge in terms of well
control as each bore may have penetrated a different pressure regime and have the
potential to kick while only the active bore will be available for an on-bottom kill.
5.10.1. TAML Classification

Multilateral wells are classified according to the TAML System, which groups wells on an
ascending scale from 1 to 6, based on their degree of mechanical / pressure integrity. In
short, these are:
Level 1: Generally comprise barefoot mother-bore/laterals with the junction(s) in open
hole.
Level 2: Cased and cemented mother-bore, barefoot or slotted liner hung off in open hole.
Level 3: As Level 2 but lateral liner anchored to mother-bore but not cemented.
Level 4: Both bores cased and cemented at the junction.
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Level 5: Pressure integrity at the junction(s) achieved with the completion.

Level 6: Pressure integrity at the junction(s) achieved with the casing.
• As with any well, the need for effective well control shall be a key consideration in the
design and planning of a multilateral.
• The TAML classification should be selected on the anticipated risks from each bore
and to facilitate effective isolation if required.
• It is recommended that the WCSD Multilateral Well Control report be read in full prior
to the design or operational phases of a multilateral well.
5.10.2. Risks
The well control hazards which may be presented by a multilateral include:
• Different reservoir pressure in each bore and therefore different kill weight mud.
• Potential for both (or all) bores to flow simultaneously.
• Potential for cross-flow of well fluids while drilling and during kill operations.
• Potential difficulty in getting kill mud to a kicking passive lateral.
• Variable (and possibly unknown) kick tolerance along both bores and junction.
• Narrow bore laterals increase potential for a swabbed kick.
• Long high angle sections through the reservoir increase the potential kick intensity.
5.10.3. Hazard Mitigation / Recommendations

Due to the potential well control hazards associated with multilateral wells, the following
should be considered.
• In high risk wells, where possible do not perforate the main bore until the liner has
been run in the lateral and the junction has been pressure tested.
• If pre-perforation or sand screens are a requirement of the main bore, consider a
recoverable packer below the whipstock.
• It is generally considered, that the time of greatest risk is when re-entering the main
bore after completing the lateral.
• ECD will be relatively higher when drilling a lateral due to the smaller hole size and
high deviation (with resultant cuttings beds). This will result in a greater reduction in
bottom hole pressure when circulation stops. It is important to flow check the well
whenever the pumps are shut down.
• In order to avoid a swabbed kick when pulling out of a lateral:
- Ensure mud is conditioned to optimise rheology.
- Keep tripping speed below the maximum allowable indicated by swab-surge
software.
- Pump out of the hole.
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5.10.4. Kick Detection

The surface indications of a kick in a conventional well also apply to multilateral wells. (See
Section 3.4). However, as the situation may develop where losses occur in one bore while
another flows, surface indications can be masked.
There are some signs that may be used to identify an influx in the active lateral. These
include:
If After The Well Is Shut In
• The shut-in casing pressure (SICP) is slightly higher than the shut-in drill pipe
pressure (SIDPP) when the lateral is non-horizontal.
If While The Influx Is Actually Entering The Lateral (i.e. Active Bore)
• There may be a decrease in pump pressure, which may be accompanied by an
increase in pump speed (particularly if the lateral is non-horizontal)
• Hook load may increase (if the lateral is non horizontal) due to reduction in string
buoyancy.
• There may be a drilling break (due to decreased chip hold-down effect).
NB: The signs above are only valid in the early stages of the kick when the influx is still below the
junction. Additionally, one or more of the signs MAY occur, i.e. the effect is not guaranteed.
An influx in the passive mother-bore can be confirmed by the following signs during the
well shut-in period if:
• SIDPP is equal or close to SICP (when the active lateral is non-horizontal)
NB: Again, this is only valid in the early stages of the kick when the influx is still below the
junction.
5.10.5. Shut In Procedure

The shut-in procedures as described in Section 3.5.6 will apply to multilateral wells. Some
additional points should be noted if the well bores are drilled at high angle.
When the kick occurs in a high angle or horizontal hole section SIDPP is equal or close to
SICP, this is because the influx causes nil or minimal reduction in the annular hydrostatic
pressure.
• Zero shut-in pressure indicates that the formation is not under balanced, but it does
not mean there is no influx. Together with a positive pit gain, it may indicate that the
influx (caused by swabbing or failing to keep the hole full) is still in the horizontal
section.
• The conventional method of determining influx density / type (gas/water/oil) based
on pit gain and shut-in pressures can not be applied if the kick is taken from a high
angle or horizontal hole section.
• A gas influx MAY be recognised by a gradual increase in shut in pressure but this will
be subject to hole geometry and mud rheology (& type, i.e. OBM).
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5.10.6. Kill Method

The kill process may be complicated due to the number of variables which could be
involved. In order to simplify the process, a decision tree has been produced. This forms
part of Appendix WCSD Multilateral Well Control report but has been extracted for use in
this document and appears on the following page
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Perform 1st Circ. Of

No/Maybe Driller’s method
Take a
kick & Assess Shut- Is kick from
Shut in Parameters active lateral?
Assess results of
Well In circulation
Definitely
Consider increasing
Yes
Well dead? MW & then taking
required intervention
steps in kicked lateral
No
Perform W & W or avoid Definitely Is kick from No

pump press. Schedule active lateral?
& perform Driller’s
method(Use KWM(1)). Maybe
Monitor circ. very closely
to ensure well not Mix KWM (1) & perform 2nd circ. Mix KWM (2) & perform 2nd circ. of
of Driller’s method. Maintain Driller’s method. Maintain choke
unloading
Mix KWM(1) & perform 2nd choke press. until KWM @ press. Until KMW @ JUNCTION.
circ. of Driller’s method. JUNCTION. Assess new SIPs & Assess new SIPs & confirm kill
Monitor circ. very closely to take required action. Monitor circ. achieved. Monitor circ. very
ensure well not unloading very closely to ensure well not
closely to ensure well not
unloading
KWM (1) unloading
based on Bit
Depth
Yes Is kick from
Finish kill, adjust MW if active lateral?
required
KWM (2)
based on
No
Junction
Depth Circulate with KWM(2). Maintain Intervene in Passive as Required
choke press. Until KWM @ junction
Figure 5.9: Multilateral Well Kill Decision Tree

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5.11. Slim Hole Drilling

Well control in slim holes is achieved using the same principles as are used in any other size
of hole, that is generally the maintenance of BHP at or slightly above reservoir pressure,
whilst maintaining hole integrity. However, because of the hole, casing and drill string
geometry, the influence of the high annulus frictional losses may differ widely from what is
observed in conventional geometry wells. i.e. in conventional wells the annulus friction
pressure drop is used as a (small) safety factor to help maintain BHP above reservoir
pressure. In a slim hole well, if not taken into account, this frictional pressure loss could
cause formations in the open hole to fracture/take fluid, so making the well kill more
difficult.
Refer to:
• The Shell Slim Well Guide EP 94-5000:
Guidelines for drilling, evaluation and completion of wells with a hole size at total
depth of 4-3/4” or less.
5.11.1. Introduction
Well Control for slim hole well operations, requires particular attention on effective kick
detection due to
• The increased vertical height of even small influxes (normally one barrel detection is
recommended);
• On the impact of the high annular circulating friction pressures while pumping
• On the increased chances to swab in an influx.
These high annular circulating friction pressures may lead to fluid losses while circulating.
If formation breakdown results, the liquid column may decrease, allowing a kick to occur.
It is also possible to inadvertently be drilling in underbalanced conditions with high ECDs
preventing the well from flowing. However, any time the pumps are shut down, the
potential for flow from the well exists.
As discussed above, the selection of pump rates may be critical. Kill rate speed and
pressures must keep the annular friction manageable i.e. so the choke is not fully open. The
use of downhole pressure sensor tools to determine annular friction is recommended. If
unavailable then calculations of circulating friction pressure loss should be performed.
Due to the smaller annular clearance the swabbing potential increases dramatically.
Calculations for trip speed at a given depth should be made and followed.
5.11.2. The Factors
Low Circulation Rates

Because of the small annular clearances, sufficient cuttings lift velocity and thus hole
cleaning can be achieved with low mud circulation rates. Even at low circulation rates it is
not uncommon to have turbulent flow conditions in the annulus. Turbulence assists in
fragmentation and dispersion of gas bubbles and results in lower annulus kill pressures
than would otherwise be expected.
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Short Lag Time

Bottoms-up and cuttings arrive relatively quickly after drilling a specific formation,
therefore indications of approach to a high pressure zone should be visible on surface that
much earlier, together with shorter kill times.
Low Circulating Pressure

Unlike standard wells, the annulus friction pressure may represent a larger proportion of
the total. This means that small changes in annulus flow conditions may be reflected in a
detectable change in total system pressure loss.
High ECD
High annulus circulating friction pressure results in high bottom hole equivalent circulating
density. This can mask the fact that a high pressure zone that is not overbalanced by the
mud hydrostatic pressure may have been penetrated. The well may not kick until
circulation is stopped. ECD must be known at all times for a range of circulation rates with
the current mud in the hole. (Slim Hole – Slow Circulation Rates, SCRs). This data is
needed for secondary well control.
High Swab & Surge

Swab and surge pressures are closely related to annulus circulating friction pressure. A
system with high ECD will also experience high swab and surge. Particular caution is
required when tripping in slim holes. A trip tank with very high sensitivity is essential.
Low Influx Rates

The rate at which an influx can enter the hole is limited by the hole geometry and the small
annular clearances. Influx rate causes an increase in annular velocity which in turn results in
higher ECD thus limiting the rate of influx. Additionally, the small hole size itself tends to
restrict the rate of influx.
Low Kick Tolerance

Characteristic of slim holes because a small influx occupies a large height in the annulus.
5.11.3. Well Control
Primary Well Control

Secondary well control in slim hole is recognised as being potentially more hazardous than
more conventional wells. Therefore, it is absolutely imperative that primary control is
maintained. Every possible indicator should be used to forewarn of possible entry to a
high-pressure transition zone and mud density should be adjusted accordingly.
Additionally, only the very best practices should be used whilst tripping and in execution of
all other operations.
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Secondary Well Control
Early Kick Detection

Since a small volume of influx fills a large height in the annulus, a small gas kick can have a
very large impact on maximum well pressures. If a kick occurs, every effort must be made
to limit the size of the influx by detecting it as early as possible. This can be achieved by:
• Crew training. Rapid response times are essential;
• Sensitive flow out measuring instrumentation;
• Accurate flow in / flow out measurement and comparison;
• Sensitive pit level indicator on a small volume active pit;
• Sensitive pit volume totalizer.
• Continuous calculated / actual standpipe pressure comparison;
• Long and thorough flow checks after drilling a section and circulation is stopped. The
well may kick as the pore pressure gradient of the newly drilled formation could be
higher than the hydrostatic mud gradient.
• Drilling breaks should be treated as potential kick situations. The well should be closed
in immediately after circulation is stopped after each drilling break and the well
observed for any pressure build up.
• When circulating bottoms up, the well should be closely monitored for any kick
indications (e.g. increased mud returns, pit level increase, change in pump pressure).
• Sensitive trip tank calibration and monitoring, with constant circulation across the
wellhead whilst tripping.
• Pumping out of hole (inside the casing as well as in open hole) should be considered to
avoid swabbing.
Hard Shut-in
• The well must be shut in as rapidly as possible whenever a kick is detected or even if
there is reasonable suspicion that it may be happening.
• With the pump still running and, if possible, the rotary still turning, pull back to place a
tooljoint above rotary and correct space out for the BOP;
• Stop the rotary and the pump;
• Secure the well using hard shut in.
5.11.4. Kill Procedure

Conventional kill start-up procedures should be used if it has been determined that high
annulus pressure will not cause formation breakdown.
A slim hole well is a well where slim hole well control must be used, therefore some
upfront Engineering together with continuous checking during the well construction must
be carried out to determine the effect of the annulus friction pressures.
In case of a weaker formation or any uncertainty, a modified startup procedure should be
used. The Driller's method should typically be used since the Wait & Weight method may
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give no advantage because of the reduced annular volume. i.e. The influx may be circulated
to surface before high density mud reaches the bit. Kill circulation rate should be as high as
necessary to take full advantage of the high annulus circulating friction pressure and to help
fragment and disperse the gas bubble. The rate should not be so high as to cause the choke
to be fully open, or to exceed the capacity of other surface equipment.
As an aid to minimising Shoe Pressure, the kill circulating rate should be that rate which
produces annulus circulating friction pressure which equals initial shut-in choke manifold
pressure (from SCRs).
At startup, in critical wells, it is only necessary to hold a small safety margin on the choke,
thereafter manipulating the choke to maintain constant standpipe pressure until the influx
is circulated from the hole. Well control software is helpful in determining the optimum
circulation rate and choke manifold back pressure.
The choke pressure can be reduced by the major part of annulus circulating friction
pressure except for approximately 350 kPa (50psi) maintained as a safety margin.
Note that the ECD whilst drilling will not be the same as that calculated for the well kill
since there is no rotation factor whilst circulating to kill the well.
Pre-recorded information should include calculated volumes and calculated annulus
circulating friction pressure loss over a range of circulating rates without rotation. Surface
equipment losses and calculated drill string friction pressure loss subtracted from slow
circulating rate pressure (SCRs) is used to calculate annulus circulating friction pressure
loss.
Caution: Although the well may not have flowed whilst circulating prior to taking the kick
when the pumps were stopped, it is not safe to attempt to circulate the kick out of the hole
without having the BOP closed and maintaining control with the choke. The gas
expanding near surface will unload the hole, causing a reduction in bottom hole pressure
and allowing another kick to enter the hole. This applies to swab kicks as well as to on
bottom drilling kicks.
5.11.5. Practical Considerations

When ECD is high, the probability is that the majority of kicks in SHD will occur when
the rotary and pumps are shut down, or of swab kicks while tripping. There should be
intense focus on early kick detection in these modes. The flowline flow-out instrument
must be capable of detecting a very small rate of flow and there must be a well tested
system of visual observation during flow checks. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) may be
necessary to enable the Driller to monitor for flow without leaving the BOP control panel.
Hydraulics should be modelled with suitable software.
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EMW Shoe
Ppg Pressure
kPa
10000
18
9000
16
A 8000
14
7000
12
B 6000
10
5000
Figure 5.10: Comparison of Shoe Pressure for two kills with different technique for
handling annulus circulating friction pressure.
A. Kill with circulating overbalance maintained at annulus circulating friction pressure.

Startup choke manifold pressure equals initial shut in choke manifold pressure. (This
is the normal technique for conventional wells.);
B. Kill with circulating overbalance maintained at 350 kPa (50psi.). Startup choke
manifold pressure equals 350 kPa (50psi.) which is 1400 kPa (200psi.) less than initial
shut in choke manifold pressure.
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5.12. Drilling with Low Margins

The term ‘low margins’ is used to describe the situation where the fracture or fluid
injection pressure is close to either the hydrostatic or dynamic (ECD) pressure of the fluid
column.
5.12.1. Background
Fracture gradient is calculated by a number of methods. One of the most important,
industry-wide is the Eaton Method, where:
Poissons Age Corrected

Sedimentary Ratio Pore Press Pore Pres.
Fracture 1 -0.0125* Age Overburden
Basin Depth Depth
Gradient Corr Poissons Stress Grad.
Correction Ratio
.
Although the actual maths of the equation are not important in the scope of this manual, it
can be seen that pore pressure features prominently in the calculation.
The diagrams below illustrate graphically the relationship of pore pressure and fracture
gradient. Both diagrams are of a Gulf of Mexico style model, i.e. continuous sedimentary
sequence with no un-conformities or depositional discontinuities. The fracture gradient has
been calculated using the Eaton Method.
Normally Pressured Abnormally Pressured
Gradient psi.ft Gradient psi.ft

0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0 0
500 500
1000 1000
Depth m
Depth m
1500 1500
Fmn Grad Fmn Grad
Frac Grad Frac Grad
2000 2000
2500 2500
3000 3000
Figure 5.11: Pore Pressure/Fracture Gradient Diagrams
In the left hand diagram, the well is normally pressured to TD. The fracture gradient rises
rapidly with depth to provide a very wide margin. This well can accommodate a wide range
mud weights (& ECDs) for example to maintain shale stability.
On the right, a range of pore pressures increasing with depth has been input (not actual
data). It can be seen that as the pore pressure rises, the fracture gradient also increases but
the margin between the two curves decreases. In the deepest section of the well, the
margin is very low, considering that the mud and ECD gradients must fall between the two
curves. This problem is exacerbated by the fact that heavy muds are also high rheology,
meaning that ECDs will be proportionally higher.
This pore pressure / fracture gradient / ECD issue is particularly problematic in HPHT
wells.
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Fracture gradients apply to shales and tight formations, however a ‘low margin’ will also
apply to porous, highly permeable formations such as ‘Darcy sands’ or vugular limestones.
Under these conditions, ‘the margin’ is the difference between the mud weight (& ECD)
and the injection pressure of the permeable zone. This scenario can apply to low pressure
or sub-pressured (depleted) wells.
5.12.2. The Hazards

There are a number of well control issues associated with low margin drilling:
• Direct Kick: By definition, the pressure gradient is never far below the mud gradient.
As pore pressures, particularly in high-pressure zones have an erratic profile, the risk of
penetrating an isolated zone of slightly higher pressure is ever present.
• Underground Blowout: Again as the pore pressure profile is likely to be erratic, a kick
taken on bottom may fracture the formation higher in the hole or flow to a permeable
zone while being circulated out.
• Swabbed Kick: As the overbalance margin is low, swabbed kicks on connections and
while tripping are always a risk
• Loss of Primary Control: Catastrophic mud losses leading to a kick are a realistic
probability, even in low-pressure wells.
5.12.3. Guidelines
• Optimise the casing design to limit the exposure
• Maximise annular clearances to limit the ECD.
• PHPA mud can give significantly lower circulating pressures compared to conventional
WBM or OBM (although it’s use is best restricted to top-drive rigs).
• Minimise flow rates to reduce EDC
• Ensure mud rheology is optimised to avoid un-necessarily high PV/YP
• In extreme cases, consider keeping ‘Trip Mud’ on surface, i.e. slowly circulate the hole
to a slightly heavier mud prior to POOH. Although costly in time and chemicals, this
removes the need for a trip margin on the drilling mud and therefore lower MW/ECD.
• Pay particular attention to swab AND surge when tripping
• When making a connection, do not work the pipe with the pumps off, continue
circulating until the string is set in the slips.
• Circulate to break the gels regularly when RIH, minimising the initial ECD on bottom.
• Consider Under Balance Drilling (UBD) with rotating BOP etc. See Section 5.14.2.
• Persistent thief zones may be squeezed-off with cement
NOTE: The subject of low margins is described in more detail in section 8 of this manual
together with recommended practices.
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5.13. HPHT
Definition: Exploration and appraisal wells where the undisturbed bottom hole
temperature is greater than 300ºF (150ºC) and where either:
• the maximum anticipated pore pressure gradient of any formation exceeds 0.8psi/ft,
(18.1kPa/m, 15.4ppg)
or
• pressure control equipment with a rated working pressure in excess of 10kpsi
(69,000kPa) is required will be termed High Pressure, High Bottom Hole Temperature
wells, or HPHT.
The following guidelines apply to operations on this type of well.
NOTE: Also refer to Section 8 (Advanced Well Control) for recommended drilling practices and
formation pressure checks.
5.13.1. General
• In HPHT wells, the margin between fracture gradient and pore pressure gradient is
small. Formation breakdown is always a possibility.
• Drill string design must be verified for maximum possible surface pressure in
combination with reduced drill pipe collapse rating due to pipe tension at surface.
• HPHT wells also have a tendency towards hydrate problems.
• Mud expansion due to heating is a very common phenomenon in HPHT wells. The
expansion rate will depend on the initial temperature differential between the bottom
of the hole and the mud. It may take days for the fluid column to achieve equilibrium
with the geothermal gradient but in general most expansion takes place in the first few
hours.
Note: A number of Shell OU HPHT manuals are available. Examples can be found at: E&P
Forum Guidelines for HPHT wells and Drilling and Well Control Procedures for HPHT Wells.
5.13.2. Equipment
• The high pressure overboard lines shall be rigged up and function tested with seawater
prior to drilling out the last casing shoe.
• The glycol injection system must be ready for use and function tested prior to drilling
out the last casing shoe.
• All elastomers exposed to high temperature on the BOP etc. must be capable of
withstanding the maximum anticipated temperatures plus a safety margin.
• All pipework down stream of the choke must be suitable for operation in extremely
low temperatures due to the severe chilling effect of expanding gas.
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5.13.3. Drilling
The following should be available prior to drilling out:
- One hole volume plus 20% excess of high density mud weighted to 0.1psi/ft
(2.5kPa/m, 2ppg) above the mud in use.
- Sufficient barite to weight up the entire active system to the maximum expected pore
pressure equivalent plus 0.1psi/ft (2.5kPa/m, 2ppg).
- Sufficient cement and chemicals to cement off the entire open hole section plus 200%
excess.
• The mixing of mud in the active system or the transfer of mud to the active system
will not be condoned while drilling into or drilling through an HPHT zone. If this
becomes necessary, drilling operations must be suspended for the duration of the
mixing / transferring activity.
• Trip gas must be circulated out after a trip and prior to drilling ahead. For safety
reasons, the latter part of this circulation should be conducted with the BOPs
closed and returns via the choke manifold whilst maintaining 350 - 700kPa (50 -
100psi) backpressure.
• The well must be flow checked after any drilling break or any indications of a kick.
The flow check must be for a minimum of 15 minutes with slow pipe rotation.
• In HPHT wells, the temperature of the returning mud flow (Mud Temperature Out
- MTO) can be a good indication of an approaching transition zone. The
mudloggers must monitor MTO constantly for any fluctuation. It must be noted
that above the transition zone, the MTO may drop due to the so called ‘thermal
shadow effect’ before rising sharply once the zone is penetrated.
• If the background gas rises but not associated with a kick situation the mud may be
weighted-up to control the level. However, weighing-up can lead to further
problems
- Losses due to the narrow pore pressure / fracture gradient margins associated
with HPHT wells.
- Ballooning of shales giving unexpected returns of mud and potentially de-
stabilising the hole.
- Super charging of sands leading to give-take or loss-gain situations
• In the situations above, the decision to weight-up or not must be made on the
evidence available. If it is certain that the gas is not due to a kick, the well should be
circulated off- bottom through the de-gasser until background gas drops to an
acceptable level.
• On HPHT wells, casing wear may become an issue critical to well control. The
following guidelines are recommended:
- The wear bushing should be pulled regularly and inspected for wear.
- A ditch magnet (several) should be placed in the header tank or flowline and
checked regularly for metal returns. The magnet should be cleaned hourly if
possible, particularly during slow drilling, and the swarf washed and dried. The
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samples should be weighed and reported as grams per hour or grams per
thousand revolutions.
- If available, casing wear program such as Wear2000 or Cwear should be run
while drilling.
- If casing wear is anticipated, a baseline multifinger caliper survey should be run
prior to drilling into any potential HPHT zones. Additional surveys may be run
as required, determined by metal returns or wear program output.
HPHT best practices:

- Rotate prior to circulation to assist breaking gels, and circulate prior to reciprocation to
avoid swab/surge especially in narrow-margin sections.
- Circulate the last 3000’ (1000m) of bottoms-up over the choke or via the degasser
(especially when using OBM or SOBM where gas which has gone into solution may
break out when near surface).
- Use tandem solid floats (typically flapper type) in all drilling assemblies, and change
out/ service floats every trip.
- Use a pressurized mud balance to account for any gas-entrained mud effects.
- Flow check for a minimum of 15 minutes – typically this is extended to 30 minutes
minimum to account for well bore fluid expansion (HT-effect) and heat up following
cessation of circulation.
- Measure on/off fluid volumes for all solids control equipment for accurate PVT
measurements.
- Consider using an inside-drill pipe wiper to assist in pulling clean pipe for more
accurate hole fillip measurements during trips.
- Construct fingerprinted drain-back curves for pump-off flow back from the well prior
to entering the HPHT section (for example, in cased hole prior to drilling out) and use
overlay of curves to detect small kicks during pump-off events.
- Measure pump-off flow back over the smallest volume possible, typically the trip tank
for increased accuracy and ability to detect small volume changes (note: on many rigs,
installation of driller-operated remote valves to divert flow to trip tank from flow line
may be required).
- Consider installation of a Rotating Circulating Device (RCD) as a minimum to assist in
diversion of fluid from the rig floor during flow checks (protection of people). In
addition, some wells may require Managed Pressure Drilling to enable efficient
negotiation of narrow-drilling-margin sections of the well.
- Simulate the well to be drilled on a well control simulator, and include training and
practice sessions with critical personnel prior to the drilling of the HPHT section (this
can be done onsite with portable simulators in most locations). This will assist in
developing well-specific kill parameters and identification of critical control variables.
- Pump-out of all open-hole sections to minimize swab-effect.
- After long periods out of the hole, on the trip back in there may be a requirement to
stage-in (circulate the well at various depths on the way in the hole) in order to cool the
well bore mud in stages over the entire length of the well bore to protect tools in the
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BHA to exposure to high undisturbed temperatures, and to protect personnel on the

rig to the maximum circulated mud temperatures from the bottom of the well. Mud
temperatures should be monitored and modelled at all times.
5.13.4. Tripping
• Tripping in HPHT wells, particularly POOH can be very different to normal holes, for
example:
- In water based mud, the trip tank may rise significantly faster than the hole takes
mud to replace steel volume. This increase is due to thermal expansion of the mud
after circulation has stopped.
- In oil based mud, the same effect can be seen but in addition there may be
complications due to the slightly compressive nature of the base oil. Due to the
extreme pressures and temperatures involved, the volume increase due to
‘relaxation’ of the energy stored in the system may be considerable.
• The above phenomena are difficult to predict with accuracy at the well planning phase,
However, once on the well, abnormal responses must be assumed to be indications of
a kick until proven otherwise. Mud expansion rates during flow checks and pulling pipe
must be recorded as a rate since circulation stopped and used as a bench mark for all
subsequent trips out the hole. This technique is also termed ‘finger printing the well’.
The data should be recorded as in the following example:
- Pump slug and pumps of at time zero.
- Zero to zero plus 30 minutes - x bbls per hour
- Zero plus 30m to 2 hours - y bbls per hour
- 2 hours to 5 hours - z bbls per hour
• A ‘check trip on bottom’ is a technique often used on HPHT wells. The well is flow
checked on the trip tank for 15 minutes and the kelly cock shut. The string is then
pulled back the length of a stand (or as high as possible if a kelly rig) and run back
down to TD say five times, to simulate the pulling of five stands. The well is then flow
checked on the trip tank for 15 minutes and then bottoms up circulated. When
bottoms up are 600m (2000ft) below the BOP continue circulation through the choke,
maintaining constant standpipe pressure with choke manipulation if necessary. At
bottoms up, check shakers for cavings and confirm any swabbed gas peak with the
mudloggers. Flow check again, and if the well is stable, pump a slug and POOH.
• The importance of accurate flow checks cannot be overstated. These must be
performed
- On bottom prior to POOH.
- At the casing shoe
- At a point half way between the shoe and the BOP
- Prior to pulling the BHA through the BOP
- And at any time the hole fill deviates from the expected
• In short, the string should not be pulled if there is any doubt that the hole is in a stable
condition.
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Remember: A negative flow check means that the permeable zones in the well are
apparently balanced by the mud column. It does NOT mean that there is NOT an influx in
the hole.
5.13.5. Secondary Well Control

The Driller's method is usually the technique of choice for circulating well control after an
apparent well flow. The reasons behind this include:
• It is often very difficult to determine an accurate stabilised shut-in drillpipe pressure.
The Driller's method can be employed to remove the influx first, then determine the
required kill mud density.
• If there is potential for hydrate formation, the influx should be removed by the fastest
means possible, before it has time to cool.
Annulus circulating friction is often very high. Allowance should be made for this fact to
avoid formation breakdown. (See section 8)
5.14. Managed Pressure Drilling

Managed pressure drilling (MPD) is defined by the industry as “an adaptive drilling process
used to precisely control the annular pressure profile throughout the wellbore. The
objectives are to establish the downhole pressure environment limits and to manage the
annular hydraulic pressure profile accordingly. It is the intention of MPD to avoid
continuous influx of formation fluids to the surface. Any influx incidental to the operation
will be safely contained using an appropriate process
While Shell agrees with this definition, MPD is seen as an umbrella term for a basket of
drilling techniques to actively manage the wellbore pressure profile near balance, or
underbalanced. In between conventional overbalanced drilling and underbalanced drilling
are various techniques used to control the annular pressure profile. The primary difference
between conventional drilling and MPD (including underbalanced drilling) is that MPD
relies upon a closed circulating system whereby flow and pressure in the wellbore can be
controlled while drilling continues. Minimum equipment requirement for an MPD
operation is a choke valve, a rotating control device and a non-return valve in the
drillstring. The following is a brief overview of some of the MPD techniques currently in
use
5.14.1. Managed Pressure Drilling – Overbalanced

There are a number of MPD techniques that are applied in an overbalanced condition that
are used to reduce drilling problems whether in the overburden or in a reservoir section.
Mud Cap Drilling:

Mud cap drilling techniques can be applied when a well is experiencing total dynamic mud
loss to a thief zone at or near bottom and it is not safe and/or practical to continue drilling
without returns (drill blind). Sacrificial drilling fluid (usually water) is pumped down the
drill pipe while a cap fluid is pumped down the annulus at a controlled rate to overcome
hydrocarbon migration. All of the pumped fluid, produced fluid and the cuttings are
pumped into the loss zone. The implementation of the mud cap drilling will require access
to a large amount of water.
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Applicable Circumstances:
Mud cap drilling can only be applied when the thief zone is capable of taking all losses
including cuttings generated. Losses may be induced by weak formations or by dynamic
ECDs, especially when drilling with low margins, or as a result of encountering high
permeability natural features such as inter connected vugular or fracture systems in the
drilled carbonate or limestone section.
There are two types of mud cap drilling techniques; pressurized mud cap and floating mud
cap.
Pressurized Mud Cap

Utilizes annular pressure and fluid column, to divert drill fluid and drilled cuttings into the
loss zone. This allows a light annular mud to be used and annular injection rate to be
optimized. Annular back-pressure provides direct indication of what is happening down-
hole; therefore, less fluid is lost to formation. Viscosifiers can be added to slow gas
migration up the annulus. A sacrificial fluid, e.g. water is pumped down the drill pipe and
lost to formation as drilling progresses. The technique not only enables drilling to continue
despite the onset of downhole losses but also minimizes the downtime associated with the
losses. A rotating control device is a minimum requirement for pressurized mud cap
drilling.
Benefits attributed to this approach:
• Enhanced detection of influx:
- monitoring pressure rather than flow
• Closed system - no reaction/lag time for shutting in well:
- influx to surface NOT intended
- lower risk of an undetected influx to surface
• No requirement to close in the well:
- Less chance of stuck pipe due to packoff of DR annulus or differential sticking
- can quickly apply UB techniques to free differentially stuck string
• Rig crews are better protected with RCD installed
• Controlled placement of well control plugs for tripping
Floating Mud Cap

A similar approach as above that is generally used in an open system, the annular fluid
density must be high enough to force all fluids and cuttings into loss zone. This requires
large volume of mud materials.
Issues related to use of this technique:
• Can only keep filling up well for limited time (until mud materials are depleted)
• Difficult to place well control plugs and cement because of the fluid dynamics
• High risk of gas influx and stuck pipe
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Primary Well control of the annulus is maintained by continuous filling up the annulus
(bullheading). The drill string must be equipped with a minimum of 2 non-return valves
(float valves) in the BHA
Tripping.
The well must be killed prior to tripping. Current practice is to strip back to the casing
shoe, set well control plugs and circulate a kill weight mud above the plug.
• Shell Malaysia has developed and successfully deployed SOBA2C (saraline oil, ½ part
bentonite, ½ part attapulgite and 2 parts cement) well control plugs. This new formula
is much more tolerant to sub-optimal bentonite quality and seawater mixing ratio than
previous formulas. This is accomplished by improving the clay swelling capacity in
seawater and by producing an efficient plug in a wide range of mixing ratios. This
recipe offers a much better chance to form a foothold at the extreme dynamic
conditions encountered when massive karst features are penetrated by the wellbore.
It must be noted that the pumping of gunk or cement plugs requires careful planning
and supervision. Operational errors in either pill composition or contamination may
lead to premature setting and plugging of the drill string.
Constant Bottom Hole Pressure Drilling

There are several applications of well control that utilise circulating friction pressure to
maintain an overbalance at the bottom of the well. These are usually deployed to address
an unexpected well control situation. The Dynamic Annular Pressure Control (DAPC)
system is one of the MPD techniques that enable the bottom hole pressure to be
maintained at a fairly constant level with the mud pumps on and off (the annulus pressure
is increased by the amount of lost ECD when the pumps are off) This is accomplished by
adjusting annular surface pressure in a controlled manner using process logic controllers
PLC. The potential of DAPC is seen as a significant step change in managed pressure
drilling, which enables safely drilling previously conventionally undrillable wells to the
target objective.
Benefits:
• Reduced drilling problems (avoiding losses, ballooning, differential sticking)
• Improved drilling performance (increased ROP, improved bit life)
• Optimised casing schemes e.g. in deepwater drilling.
• Improved well control, for example avoiding mud density increases.
5.14.2. Managed Pressure Drilling – Underbalanced

Underbalanced drilling (UBD) is a drilling activity employing appropriate equipment and
controls where the pressure exerted in the wellbore is intentionally less than the pore
pressure in any part of the exposed formations with the intention of bringing formation
fluids to the surface. Well control equipment, drilling fluids, practices and procedures are in
place to allow UBD wells to be drilled with one or more formations flowing. The specific
equipment and procedures required depend on the objectives and whether the technique is
used in the overburden or in a hydrocarbon bearing section.
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UBD is a specialized drilling technique used where sub-surface conditions are well known,
and risks can be managed. In underbalanced drilling, the primary well control function of
the mud column (overbalance on formation pressure), is replaced by a combination of an
underbalanced fluid column and pressure control. Bottom-hole pressure and return well
flow are continuously measured and controlled by means of respectively, pressure while
drilling (PWD) measurements and a closed-loop system. The complete UBD system
comprises of the DP circulating system, a rotating control device (RCD), a UBD choke
manifold (not the rig’s well control choke manifold), separation equipment and a flare stack
or pit. In addition, non-return valves (NRV’s) are installed in the BHA and drill string to
prevent flow up the DP.
Air or gas drilling are underbalanced drilling techniques that can be used to significantly
increase drilling rates of penetration (ROP). Although primarily used in non reservoir
tophole applications it is being used to drill depleted gas reservoirs utilizing natural gas or
an inert gas like nitrogen instead of air.
The rig’s BOP’s are still considered secondary well control equipment and contingency
plans to return to an overbalanced condition must be in place under predefined conditions
or operational problems.
Benefits
• Reduced drilling problems (avoiding losses, differential sticking)
• Improved drilling performance (increased ROP, improved bit life)
• Reduced formation damage through removal of overbalance.
• Dynamic Reservoir Characterization

In reservoir sections drilled underbalanced, the primary control objective is to maintain
open hole wellbore pressures within the operating pressure envelope while safely allowing
formation influx in the return flow stream. Primary pressure control is jointly maintained
by fluid density and surface back pressure exerted by the return flow processing equipment
as well as drill string NRVs. BOPs shall be utilized as secondary well control devices only
if the primary control barriers fail. When compared to conventional drilling practice, UBD
could be considered as a continuous exercise in well control. UBD planning, equipment
and procedures are described in API RP92U. Recommended Practice for Underbalanced
Drilling Operations and to a lesser extent in the Gas Research Institute Manual.
Since underbalanced operations are designed to potentially handle formation influx, the
definition and response to a well control event is significantly different than in
overbalanced operations, which have limited influx tolerances.
Underbalanced well control events can be caused by:
• Higher formation pressure than expected
• Higher formation permeability resulting in higher flow rates than expected
• Failure or poor control of fluid injection and/or return processing equipment
• Unexpected difference in formation influx density resulting in higher surface pressures
• Drill pipe failure or leak, resulting in uncontrollable gas flow up drill string.
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A well control matrix is utilized to graphically illustrate and communicate when action is
required to return the well parameters of pressure and flow rate back into the optimum
operating envelope. Furthermore it effectively highlights when secondary well control
action is required. Refer to RP 92U.
Secondary Well Control

Reasons to initiate secondary well control are;
• Approaching or exceeding the boundaries of the operating envelope of the equipment
in use.
• Failure of surface equipment,
If primary control is lost then the well can be shut in with the conventional BOP whilst the
problem on UBD equipment is rectified, or, if absolutely necessary, the well can be killed.
Details of kill techniques are well specific, are discussed in other areas of this manual and
should be included in the well programme.
The required volume of inhibited kill fluid of the correct density should always be on hand.
Planning
An underbalanced drilling project in a hydrocarbon reservoir is a prime example of
simultaneous drilling and production operations. Refer to API RP 92U, Chapter 4 for a
good overview of the planning requirements to ensure the technical and safety integrity of
the project.
Figure 5.12: Typical UBD Location Layout

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Kelly Driver
Top Rubber
Bearing Assembly
Bottom Rubber
Bowl
Figure 5.13: Examples of Active / Passive RCDs
5.15. Dynamic Annular Pressure Control

There are several methods of well control that utilise circulating friction pressure to
maintain overbalance when mud hydrostatic pressure is inadequate. The success of these
methods is dependent on the amount of friction pressure that can be developed. Hole and
drill string geometry, mud properties and circulation rate are the chief influencing factors.
5.15.1. Dynamic Kill

This is a technique most often used to kill blowouts from a relief well. In essence, if
enough mud (or water) of suitable density can be pumped into the out-of-control well fast
enough the friction pressure (back pressure) created by this mud being blown out tends to
progressively reduce the rate of inflow until the well is killed. It almost invariably requires
large volumes of mud and high pumping capacity. These kills are always conducted by
blowout control specialists who have developed sophisticated software to model the kill
process.
5.15.2. Low Choke Method

This is the name usually given to a procedure that may be undertaken when MAASP is
reached whilst circulating out a gas kick. The procedure is discussed in Section 3.5 under
MAASP and is not recommended.
5.15.3. No Choke Method

This is normally the technique applied to kill shallow gas kicks. The well cannot be shut in
and cannot be controlled by choke once the well is diverting. Primary control can only be
regained by filling the hole with mud of the required density. This can only be achieved if
the combination of mud hydrostatic pressure and dynamic annulus friction pressure
exceeds formation pressure. In essence it means that a large volume of heavy mud must be
pumped at the fastest possible rate.
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To this end the following points are noted:

• Small holes generate more dynamic friction pressure than larger ones. This is usually
insignificant because of the short hole length in top hole. The decision to drill a pilot
hole can rarely be justified on this factor alone.
• A given volume of mud occupies a much longer vertical column in a small diameter
hole than in a larger one.
• There should be minimum internal restrictions in the drillstring so that very high pump
rates can be achieved without exceeding surface pressure ratings. i.e. There should be
no jets in the bit and there should be no restrictive down hole tools such as motors or
MWDs.
• External restrictions such as large diameter drillcollars and stabilizers assist the process.
• Pump liners should be sized to deliver the maximum flow rate possible. This may not
be the maximum liner diameter for the pump as pressure rating may be the limiting
factor.
• A pit of kill mud should be available for immediate pumping. Diverters are generally
not reliable over long periods, therefore the kill must be effected promptly.
Water flows from artesian aquifers are commonly killed using the no choke technique. The
well usually flows because it is drilled with water. There is usually only a small increase in
mud density required for balance. This is usually achieved by increasing the circulation rate
and "mudding-up" whilst continuing to drill. Drill solids and the cuttings load assist the kill
process.
5.16. Coring Considerations

Although an important data gathering exercise and standard technique, coring is potentially
dangerous from a well control point of view.
5.16.1. The Risks

In coring, a ‘representative sample’ of reservoir is brought to surface, including:
• rock
• liquids
• gases (hydrocarbons and H2S)
• pressures (in the pore spaces)
• stresses (in the rock matrix)
In practice, the ‘sample’ will not be fully representative as fluids will tend to be flushed
while the core is being cut and gas pressure will reduce to surface conditions as the core is
POOH.
However, there are risks associated with certain circumstances:
• Low permeability rocks will have a tendency to retain fluids and/or gas and therefore
de-pressurise in an unpredictable manner, while on route to surface.
• Even a core from a normally pressured reservoir can contain a considerable volume of
gas at surface pressures and temperatures. If de-gassing occurs unexpectedly, the well
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could unload and / or the reduction in bottom hole pressure could allow an influx into
the hole.
• The gas may unload up the drill string. A drop in dart or coring compatible NRV must
always be deployed before POOH.
• 1% H2S in the core gas phase can pose a considerable risk to the drill crew.
• Old rocks or rocks in tectonically active areas may be highly stressed when cut. These
stresses will be released, possibly in an explosive fashion. It is not unknown for a core
to de-stress in the barrel with dramatic results.
• Under certain, but not unusual combinations of permeability, pressure and tectonics,
the core can de-stress with an associated rapid release of gas compounding the hazards.
• In HPHT wells the potential for problems and their effects are considerably worse.
5.16.2. Guidelines
• In virgin structures, carefully consider the need for a core particularly in potentially
HPHT regions. Would a sophisticated logging suite suffice? (image logs etc.)
• Coring should only take place in a stable hole. The target zone should be penetrated by
an agreed depth (2 -3m) and bottoms up circulated. A flow check and check trip must
be used to confirm the well is in balance prior to POOH.
• Core barrels have a large outside diameter relative to the hole size which significantly
increases the risk of swabbing on trips and connections. This must be carefully
assessed using swab – surge calculations to determine safe tripping speeds.
• In wildcat or HPHT wells, consider limiting the first core to 9m (30ft). This will reduce
the amount of gas that may be brought to surface. Subsequent cores may be 27m (90ft)
if circumstances permit.
• Prior to cutting a core (including subsequent cores) bottoms-up should be circulated.
As bottoms up nears the surface, 600 - 1200m (2000 – 4000ft) below the BOP,
circulation should continue through the choke. Constant standpipe pressure must be
maintained by choke manipulation if necessary.
• While core is being cut, there may well be drilling breaks. In most instances a drilling
break will be indicative only of change of porosity and not of increased pore pressure.
The decision whether to flow check, and how to flow check must be decided prior to
running the core barrel. i.e.
- Can the corehead be left on bottom to avoid breaking the core? (top drive)
- Is it a HPHT well? Always flow check
- Very low risk well? Continue coring and monitor the well on the active pit?
• While the core is being POOH, the gas will expand according to Boyle’s Law and the
core will ‘expand’ due to pressure / stress release. In HPHT wells, deep holes, tight
formations or areas of tectonic stress it is good practice to allow the core to de-gas /
relax on the way out. If the bubble point of the oil is known, this can be used to
calculate a depth, otherwise a depth of 600 - 1200m (2000 – 4000ft) below the BOP
should be selected. The following procedure should be applied:
- Put BHA on depth
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- Flow check
- Circulate bottoms up plus 50% through the choke monitoring for gas
- Flow check and POOH
All circulating well control procedures should be by the Driller's method. Therefore, it is
not necessary to obtain slow circulating pressures after dropping the ball and before coring.
5.17. Stripping and Volumetric Well Control

The traditional drilling well control methods, the Driller’s and the Wait and Weight, are
more likely to succeed if the drill string is on or near bottom. This section deals with well
control with the string “off bottom”
5.17.1. Overview
The traditional methods have no immediate application in circumstances such as;
The pipe is a considerable distance off bottom.
• Out of the hole.
• Stuck off bottom.
• Plugged bit or drill string.
• Dropped, parted or sheared drill string.
The control of the well under such circumstances may require the use of techniques (or
combinations) such as;
• Volumetric.
• Stripping.
• Lubrication.
• Snubbing.
• Bull heading.
Of these techniques, bullheading and snubbing are covered elsewhere in this manual
(Section 3.5 and Section 5.21).
Every rig must be prepared with suitable equipment and personnel training to successfully
apply these techniques. It is strongly recommended that these techniques are practised
using rig specific procedures.
The suitability of these techniques for a particular situation and their method of
implementation are well and rig specific. Any Rig specific instructions must be agreed by
the OU and Drilling Contractor.
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5.17.2. Rig Preparation for Stripping and Volumetric methods

Accurate Pressure Gauges
Adjustable Choke
NRV
Calibrated Trip
Tank
Calibrated Strip
Tank
Figure 5.14: Equipment set-up for combined stripping and volumetric control
1. The trip tank must be calibrated, and a stripping tank must also be installed on the
rig.
2. Mud defoamer should be available for use in the trip and stripping tank to ensure a
clear interface on the mud to allow accurate gauging.
3. Choice of whether to use a manual or hydraulic choke should be made depending on
the rig and it’s equipment.
4. All gauges used must be of adequate resolution and regularly calibrated.
5. If well pressure exceeds 14,000kPa (2000psi) it may be necessary to use the annular
and ram type preventer in sequence in order to pass the tool joint through the BOP
preventer. (Annular to ram stripping). It should be noted that this option is very time
consuming.
6. On all rigs equipped with a surface BOP stack the annular preventer shall be used
whenever possible to strip pipe in hole. Work instructions must be in place for
changing out annular elements with pipe in the hole.
7. On all rigs with subsea BOPs only the annular preventer shall be used for stripping.
Care should be taken to ensure that rig heave allows the bit to move freely between
the annular preventer and the blind/shear ram when entering a well under pressure.
Care should also be taken to avoid buckling drill pipe in the marine riser.
8. Recommended BOP closing pressures can be obtained from the manufacturer's
BOP operating manuals. These must be readily available on the rig.
9. It is common to dump oil, diesel or viscosified water on the annular BOP to
lubricate the string and to apply drill pipe dope or grease to the tooljoint. The fluids
used for this purpose must be agreed with the Drilling Contractor and confirmed
with the BOP manufacturer for suitability.
10. Slow tool joint stripping speeds reduce surge pressures and prolong the annular
preventer service life. Stripping speeds should not exceed 1 m/sec (3 ft/sec).
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11. The packing element of an annular preventer must be allowed to expand slightly
when a tool joint passes through. The pressure regulator valve of the BOP control
unit should be set to provide and maintain the proper control pressure. A surge
bottle connected to the closing line of the annular preventer will improve BOP
control when stripping tool joints through the annular preventer.
12. When a subsea BOP stack is used, a surge bottle may be installed on the annular
preventer opening and closing lines.
13. Where the Drilling Contractor has installed check valves in the control lines to the
BOP, with the purpose to ensure that the BOP stays closed if the hydraulic supply is
lost, these should be removed to permit fluid movement during stripping operations.
5.17.3. Volumetric and Lubrication Methods

The Volumetric Method can be used to control the expansion of an influx that is migrating
during the shut in periods of for example the Wait and Weight method, when the bit or
BHA is plugged or the pipe is stuck off bottom. The Lubrication Method is used to
remove influx fluids from the BOP stack or to lower surface pressures.
The simplest form of this method is the Static Volume Method when the drill pipe is
available for monitoring bottom hole pressure. The most common requirement for using
this method is where there is not enough mud in use or kill weighted mud available to
allow the well to be circulated dead with the Driller’s or Wait and Weight Method. The
procedure is as follows;
Volumetric Method Using Drill Pipe Pressure Guidelines

1. Record the initial shut in drill pipe and choke pressures.
2. Prepare an annulus pressure graph as if for the Driller’s Method. (The annulus
pressure will follow this profile whilst maintaining constant bottom hole pressure)
3. Determine the migration rate. The migration rate can be estimated from two
pressure readings, recorded either both on drill pipe or casing, taken at a known time
interval apart.
P 2 − P1
MR = m/hr (ft/hr)
ρ 1 × T
where:
MR = Migration Rate m/hr (ft/hr)
P1 = Pressure at start kPa (psi)
P2 = Pressure at end kPa (psi)
ρ1 = Mud gradient kPa/m (psi/ft)
T = Time Interval hours
4. Allow drill pipe pressure to build by an overbalance margin. 350 - 700kPa (50-
100psi).
5. Allow drill pipe pressure to build up by a further working margin to ensure that the
overbalance is maintained as mud is bled from the well. This margin may be 350kPa
(50psi) to 1400kPa (200psi), bearing in mind the resultant wellbore pressure and
proximity to breakdown pressure.
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6. Bleed mud from the annulus to reduce drill pipe pressure by the working margin. It
is strongly recommended to bleed mud from the annulus in small increments to
allow the drill pipe pressure to respond. The annulus pressure will decrease by a
lesser amount. (Compare with graph prepared in 2. above). Bleeding off mud too
quickly may result in an unintentional reduction in BHP and allow further influx.
7. Continue steps 5 & 6 until the influx has reached surface.
8. When gas cut mud or influx fluid migrates to reach the BOP the well must be closed
in and mud lubricated into the well using the Lubrication Method outlined later.
If the drill pipe pressure is not available to monitor bottom hole pressure, for instance a
plugged bit or drill string, the following method should be used.
Volumetric Method Using Choke Pressure Guidelines

1. Record the initial shut in drill pipe and choke pressures. Even if the drill pipe is
plugged monitor and record the drill pipe pressure throughout the procedure.
2. Prepare an annulus pressure graph as if for the Driller’s Method. (The same profile is
required to maintain constant bottom hole pressure).
3. Determine the migration rate. The migration rate can be estimated from two
pressure readings, recorded either both on drill pipe or casing, taken at a known time
interval apart.
P 2 − P1
MR = m/hr (ft/hr)
ρ 1 × T
where:
MR = Migration Rate m/hr (ft/hr)
P1 = Pressure at start kPa (psi)
P2 = Pressure at end kPa (psi)
ρ1 = Mud gradient kPa/m (psi/ft)
T = Time Interval hours
4. Calculate hydrostatic pressure per m3 of mud at the point in the annulus directly
above the influx.
ρ1 × 1973.414
Ppuv = 2
kPa/m3
−dp )
2
(d
h
where:
Ppuv = Hydrostatic pressure (kPa) per unit volume (m3) of mud kPa/m3.
ρ1 = Mud gradient kPa/m.
dh = Hole or Casing ID inches.
dp = Drill string OD inches.
OR (for field units)
Calculate hydrostatic pressure per bbl of mud at the point in the annulus directly
above the influx.
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ρ1 × 1029.414
Ppuv = 2
psi/bbl
−dp )
2
(d
h
where:
Ppuv = Hydrostatic pressure (psi) per unit volume (bbl) of mud psi/bbl.
ρ1 = Mud gradient psi/ft.
dh = Hole or Casing ID inches.
dp = Drill string OD inches.
5. Allow choke pressure to build by overbalance margin. Convenient values are
between 350 and 700kPa (50 and 100 psi).
6. Allow choke pressure to build up by a further Working Margin to ensure that
overbalance is maintained as mud is bled from the well. This margin may be 350 to
1400kPa (50 to 200 psi), bearing in mind the resultant wellbore pressure.
7. Bleed mud from the annulus whilst holding choke pressure constant. Volume to
bleed is the Working Margin divided by the hydrostatic pressure of mud per unit
volume calculated earlier. It is strongly recommended to bleed mud very slowly from
the annulus. Bleeding off mud too quickly could result in a secondary influx
occurring.
8. Continue steps 6 & 7 until the influx has reached surface.
9. With gas cut mud or influx fluid at the BOP the well must be closed in and mud
lubricated into the well using the Lubrication Method outlined later.
Having used the Volumetric Method to bring the influx to the stack we now need to vent
the influx while maintaining constant bottom hole pressure. On surface stacks the
Lubrication Method is used while on subsea stacks a variation known as Dynamic
Lubrication or Dynamic Volumetric Method is used. This variation is required because of
the complication of monitoring bottom hole pressure through a lengthy choke line that
may be full of gas cut mud. These methods may also be used to reduce surface pressures
prior to stripping or bullheading.
5.17.4. Lubrication Method Guidelines

During this procedure the volume of mud lubricated into the well at each stage during this
procedure will reduce due to the reduction of gas in the well and the consequent loss of
compressibility. Because of this it may be required to use the cementing unit or to dress a
mud pump with liners sized to accommodate the pressure. If the influx is a result of a
swab kick the well pressure should reduce to zero as mud is lubricated. If the drilling mud
density is insufficient to balance BHP, surface pressure will reduce to the under-balance on
the formation.
1. Record the initial shut in drill pipe and choke pressures. Even if the drill pipe is
plugged monitor and record the drill pipe pressure throughout the procedure.
2. If not already calculated, calculate mud hydrostatic pressure per unit volume at the
point in the annulus directly above the influx. (See equations above)
3. Determine the maximum surface pressure to be used to pump to the annulus. Use
the lower of MAASP, equipment rating or pump pressure relief valve setting.
EP 2002-1500 - 184 - Restricted
4. Slowly pump to the annulus until the desired maximum surface pressure is reached.
Stop the pump and shut in.
5. Allow the well to settle, allowing the lubricated mud to fall through the influx.
6. With the well stable, bleed gas from the well to reduce the surface pressure by an
amount equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud lubricated into the well. If the
surface pressure increased after lubricating mud then bleed off this additional
pressure as well.
7. Ensure that no significant mud volume is bled from the well. If mud volume is bled
then shut in and allow further time for the influx to percolate.
8. Repeat until the influx is bled from the well or until the surface pressure is low
enough for stripping.
5.17.5. Stripping Procedures

Stripping is the technique used to move the drill string through the BOP stack with the
well under pressure. To avoid over pressuring the well, a volume of mud must be bled off
equal to the closed end capacity of the drill pipe and tool joints stripped in. A volume of
mud should also be bled to allow for influx migration. Procedures concerning the
combined stripping and volumetric method are discussed for the following conditions:
1. Bit off bottom.
2. String out of the hole.
Bit Off Bottom

1. Close in the well, record Pa and determine Vinflux = initial influx volume m3 (bbl)
2. Install an inside BOP on top of the full opening safety valve used to shut in the well.
Open the full opening safety valve and ensure that the inside BOP is not leaking.
3. Allow the closed-in annulus pressure to build up to Pchoke , where:
Pchoke = Pa + Ps + Pw kPa (psi)
and:
Pa = initial closed-in annulus pressure before second build-up has taken place
Ps = allowance for loss of hydrostatic pressure as the gas rises from below the bit
to around the drill collars.
Pw = working pressure increment.
4. Commence stripping. Allow the choke pressure to build up to Pchoke = Pa + Ps + Pw
without bleeding off any mud.
5. Once the required choke pressure is reached, Pchoke is kept constant whilst additional
drill pipe is stripped in the hole. The excess pressure increase with each stand
stripped is bled off via the choke manifold into the trip tank. The closed-end pipe
displacement of each stripped-in stand of drill pipe is drained from the trip tank into
the stripping tank. The string is stripped in the hole until a volume ∆ V1 has
accumulated in the trip tank.
Vann
∆V1 = Pw × m3 (bbl)
ρ1
EP 2002-1500 - 185 - Restricted
where:
Pw = working pressure increment kPa (psi)
Vann = open hole/DCs annular capacity m3/m (bbl/ft)
ρ1 = mud gradient kPa/m (psi/ft)
6. Once the correct mud volume ( ∆ V1) has entered the trip tank, the choke is closed
and the annular pressure is allowed to rise by the magnitude of Pw by stripping drill
pipe into the hole. The closed-end pipe displacement volume should not be bled
from the trip tank into the stripping tank during this phase of the operation.
7. It is recommended to strip the complete stand in the hole for each phase of the
operation (e.g. whilst maintaining Pchoke constant, or when increasing Pchoke by Pw ) to
simplify the bleeding off process from trip tank to stripping tank and to improve the
accuracy of ∆ V1 measurements which directly results in better control of bottom
hole pressures.
8. Stripping is repeated as often as necessary, filling pipe every three to five stands, until
one of the following situations arises:
- the bit is back on bottom;
- gas has reached surface;
- stripping is no longer possible (excessive pressures, BOP stack problems, open
hole resistance, etc.).
9. Stripping is then stopped and the influx is removed by the chosen circulation
method, if the influx is above the bit.
String Out Of Hole

If the string is out of the hole when an influx is detected and the closed-in surface pressure
allows lowering the first stands of drill stem into the well, stripping should be initiated
since it will improve the well control situation. Care must be taken on rigs with a subsea
stack to avoid buckling the pipe in the marine riser, in addition the rig heave should not
prevent free movement of the string with the bit between blind/shear rams and upper
annular preventer.
The maximum surface pressure that can be overcome by the weight of the first stand,
ignoring the friction between the annular preventer and the string, is calculated as follows:
weight of first stand in mud (kN)
Maximum surface pressure (kPa) = 6.2 ×
2
cross - sectional area of the stand (in )
weight of first stand in mud (lb)

Maximum surface pressure (psi) =
2
cross - sectional area of the stand (in )
and the minimum weight of pipe to overcome surface pressure (without annular friction)
is:
Minimum weight (kN) = 0.161 × surface pressure (kPa) × cross - sectional area of the stand (sq.ins)
Minimum weight (lb) = surface pressure (psi) × cross - sectional area of the stand (sq.ins)
Annular stripping friction cannot be ignored and should be determined in advance during a
stripping drill.
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If it is indicated that the surface pressure is too high to allow stripping i.e. the string must
be snubbed in the hole then the rig should attempt to lower surface pressures by using the
Lubrication methods outlined earlier.
The procedure to enter the string back into the well is as follows:
1. Make up a bit and an inside BOP on the bottom of the first slick stand of drill collars
or drill pipe. Use a bit without nozzles to reduce the chance of plugging.
2. Lower the stand into the BOP so the bit is just above the blind/shear rams (SBR)
3. Close the annular preventer.
4. Pressure up the cavity between the SBR and the annular to the well pressure.
5. Open the SBR and strip through the annular preventer. Allow the choke pressure to
increase by Pw and maintain this value constant thereafter.
6. Fill the string with mud.
7. If drill collars are used instead of drill pipe, continue stripping the slick BHA and
maintain a constant choke pressure. Do not use more than three stands of drill
collars.
8. Allow the choke pressure to increase to (Pa + Ps + Pw) without bleeding off any mud
when stripping the first stands of drill pipe.
9. Continue the combined stripping and volumetric method as described in the
previous "String off bottom". If it is not possible to strip the string into the well and
gas migration is indicated, the volumetric method or bullheading may have to be
employed.
A plot of idealised surface and bottom hole pressures for volumetric control are and
lubrication is presented as Figure 5.15.
Note: A stripping worksheet with a worked example is available at:
Worksheet for Stripping and Volumetric well control
EP 2002-1500 - 187 - Restricted
Surface pressure increases

due to pumping fluid into a
gas influx at surface
Allow influx to migrate

GAS INFLUX
migrate to increase
surface pressure
INFLUX AT
SURFACT
SURFACE
PRESSURE
Allow Influx to
expand by Delta V
holding constant
surface pressure Surface pressure bled off by:
1. HHD of fluid pumped in at surface
2. Increase in surface pressure as a result of
pumping fluid into gas influx at surface
Allow Influx to migrate to VOLUMETRIC LUBRICATION

increase surface pressure CONTROL Surface Pressure
by Psafety + Pworking
Bled off by Psafety
BHP increase due to pumping

BHP increases BHP decreases fluid into gas influx at surface
BOTTOM by Pworking by Pworking
HOLE
PRESSURE
BHP increases by BHP pressure bled off by:

Psafety + Pworking 1. HHD of fluid pumped in at surface
2. Increase in surface pressure as a result of pumping fluid into gas influx at surface
Figure 5.15: Plot of surfact (choke) pressure and BHP for volumetric control and lubrication process
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5.18. Workover, Completions and Well Interventions

This section deals with well control considerations for workovers and completions. The
complications and associated hazards of these operations are often underestimated and
statistics show that they account for the majority of blowouts in the industry.
5.18.1. Overview
Much of this section is focused on the barrier requirements for a particular phase of an
operation. Reference should be made to Section 3.7. In addition the Person In Charge may
change when a well operations move to the completion phase. This must be defined and
documented at the planning stage.
5.18.2. Running a Completion (Un-perforated Liner)
Barriers
Under normal circumstances, two independent barriers against the formation pressure
should be maintained at all times. The un-perforated (and tested) liner is the first barrier
and the drilling BOP’s are the secondary.
Running The Completion

Secondary well control is available via the drilling BOP’s by closing either the annular
preventor or appropriate pipe rams against the tubing or accessories. Note that where
multiple control lines are run alongside the production tubing, this will prevent proper
sealing of the pipe rams. In such a case provisions must be in place to cut the control line
and obtain a pipe rams sealing area or cut the tubing by means of the shear rams. For well
control, the tubing in the hole requires a circulating head and valve to be installed on the
top, therefore, it is necessary for an appropriate well control assembly to be on stand by at
the drill floor at all times.
Removing The Drilling BOP’s & Installing The Xmas Tree

Two independent barriers are normally required on both the annulus and tubing side of the
completion. This is usually the liner, packer/tubing and the tubing hanger for the annulus.
The tubing generally requires the installation of a mechanical plug. Any tubing plug must
be placed at a point above any port or valve installed between the tubing and annulus.
Removal Of Barriers
If the production tubing is not filled with kill weight fluid, the use of pressure control
equipment above the xmas tree is required for the recovery of the mechanical plug by
wireline or coiled tubing etc. In any case, as a minimum, it is recommended that
appropriate intervention BOP’s are fitted above the xmas tree.
5.18.3. Running a Completion (Open Hole or Perforated Liner)
Barriers
Two independent barriers against the formation pressure should be maintained at all times.
Where the formation is exposed, kill weight fluid (supported by a mud filter cake or LCM
EP 2002-1500 - 189 - Restricted
pill where required) and/or a mechanical barrier such as a completion isolation valve can
act as the first barrier. The drilling BOP’s are secondary.
Running The Completion

Secondary well control is available via the drilling BOP’s by closing either the annular
preventor or appropriate pipe rams against the tubing or accessories. Note that where
multiple control lines are run alongside the production tubing, this will prevent proper
sealing of the pipe rams. In such a case provisions must be in place to cut the control line
and obtain a pipe rams sealing area or cut the tubing by means of the shear rams. For well
control, the tubing in the hole requires a circulating head and valve to be installed on the
top, therefore, it is necessary for an appropriate well control assembly to be on stand-by at
the drill floor at all times.
Removing The Drilling BOP’s And Installing The Xmas Tree

Two independent barriers are required on both the annulus and tubing side of the
completion. This is normally the packer/tubing and the tubing hanger for the annulus. If
an isolation valve is installed in the casing above the formation the tubing requires the
installation of a mechanical plug placed at a point above any port or valve installed between
the tubing and annulus. If at this stage the kill weight fluid against the formation is the only
barrier, it is recommended that two mechanical plugs are set in the tubing because of the
unreliability of, and the lack of ability to monitor the kill fluid.
Removal Of Barriers
The use of pressure control equipment above the xmas tree is required for the recovery of
mechanical plugs by wireline or coiled tubing etc.
5.18.4. Working Over a Well
Killing The Well

Killing a live well may be achieved through one of the following methods.
1. Bullheading tubing contents to the formation.
2. Tubing perforation followed by tubing/annulus circulation and final bullhead.
3. Utilisation of gas lift mandrels or sliding side doors for tubing/annulus circulation.
4. Coiled tubing.
5. Snubbing.
Establishing Barriers And Well Control

Establishing the first tubing mechanical barrier can be carried out before or after the well
kill. This is dependant on whether or not the packer/tailpipe is to be left in place when the
tubing is retrieved.
If the packer is to be left in place, a mechanical plug can be installed in the tailpipe prior to
killing the well. After the tubing is recovered, the packer/tailpipe can be removed, if
required, utilising drill pipe and normal drilling well control methods.
If the packer/tailpipe is to be recovered with the tubing or it is in poor condition, the well
should be killed prior to the installation of any plugs to avoid trapping hydrocarbons
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below. Consider the hydrate potential during the well kill, especially in deep water
operations.
Two independent mechanical tubing barriers/plugs must be installed prior to the removal
of the xmas tree. A tailpipe plug plus one other placed at a point above any port, valve or
perforation in the tubing.
The annulus side of the completion also requires two independent barriers. These are
normally provided by the packer/tailpipe plug and the tubing hanger. The annulus should
also be circulated to kill weight fluid.
If the well is sub-hydrostatic (unable to flow without artificial lift), it may be decided that a
single barrier is sufficient.
Well control during these operations shall be provided through kill lines to the annulus and
xmas tree.
The drilling BOP’s will provide the main secondary barrier once installed.
Removing the Xmas Tree and Installing the Drilling BOP’s

Removal of the xmas tree and installation of the BOP’s can be carried out with the above
barriers in place. The BOP’s should be pressure tested against the upper mechanical tubing
barrier and tubing hanger.
Replacing the Tubing

With the BOP’s in place, the tubing can be recovered and replaced. If the packer/tailpipe
with W/L isolation plug has been left in place, this will provide the first barrier. If the
packer/tailpipe has been removed, the kill weight fluid should be circulated and
conditioned and the requirement for an LCM pill across the formation assessed, prior to
pulling and running the completion. Note that where multiple control lines exist alongside
the production tubing, this will prevent proper sealing of the pipe rams. In such a case
provisions must be in place to cut the control line and obtain a pipe rams sealing area or
cut the tubing by means of the shear rams
Removing the Drilling BOP’s and Installing the Xmas Tree

Two independent barriers are required on both the annulus and tubing side of the
completion. This is normally the packer/tubing and the tubing hanger for the annulus. If at
this stage the kill weight fluid against the formation is the only barrier, it is recommended
that two mechanical plugs are set in the tubing because of the unreliability of, and the lack
of ability to monitor the kill fluid.
Removal of Barriers
The use of pressure control equipment above the xmas tree is required for the recovery of
mechanical plugs by wireline or coiled tubing etc.
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5.19. Wireline Operations

Wireline work is carried out in many well operations. This section considers the different
aspects of well control whilst conducting open hole, cased hole and tubing wireline
operations.
5.19.1. Open Hole Wireline Electric Logging

These operations are always carried out with a rig over the hole and the standard drilling
BOP equipment in place. Logging suites may take many hours to complete and it is
essential that during this time the mud level in the hole be monitored continuously, and the
hole kept full at all times. This is best done by circulating across the well on the trip tank. It
is good practice to keep a record of hole seepage loss with time so that any abrupt change
can be investigated. Allowance must be made for gain due to line wiper spray and for tide
changes in floating operations.
If the blind rams are closed while the wireline tools are out of the hole, there must be a
check for well pressure before they are reopened.
In the event that an inflow is detected, the safest course of action is to firstly close the
annular preventer and observe pressures and/or leaks through the annular. Kill the well by
bullhead or volumetric method. Should the annular be incapable of securing the well then
alternative action is to sever the wireline with a wireline cutter or, if necessary, using the
shearing blind rams. The well can then be killed by bullhead or by the volumetric method.
NOTE: Some electric wireline tools are designed to take a sample of formation fluid. In some
tools, the sampling process may involve a flow-through period. It must be realised that extensive
sampling may generate an influx capable of underbalancing the well. Particular attention must be
paid to observing the well on the trip tank during such operations.
5.19.2. Cased Hole and Workover Wireline Operations

These operations are those conducted with a drilling or workover rig over the hole and
with drilling/workover BOP equipment in place.
Comments regarding open hole logging are all applicable in this mode of operation if the
reservoir is exposed.
Additionally, these operations often include wireline perforation which must be conducted
with the highest regard for safety and well control. The following points must be
addressed:
• Any shooting nipple/lubricator assembly installed in the BOP casing rams must be
long enough to accommodate the entire perforating gun and allow the blind rams to be
closed below it.
• There must be a means of accurately monitoring hole fluid level and of keeping the
hole full. It is not adequate to only monitor pressures as a substantial loss could go
undetected and be followed by well flow.
• Operations must cease whenever well flow is detected or there is pressure observed on
the closed well.
• If shearing blind rams are not fitted there must be an alternative method of severing
the wireline at surface.
EP 2002-1500 - 192 - Restricted
• Pulling speeds for large diameter guns should be restricted to minimise the chance of
swabbing.
• Gas generated by the perforating gun explosive may remain in the hole. It may migrate,
expand and induce well flow.
5.19.3. Wireline Intervention

This section covers pressure control on wireline operations without a drilling BOP in place.
Surface Wellheads
Barriers
• Two mechanical barriers are required for rigging-up and rigging-down wireline
equipment. These are normally provided by the xmas tree master and swab valves.
• Whilst operations are in progress, the pressure envelope provided by the lubricator and
stuffing box is the main barrier with additional protection provided by the wireline
BOP’s.
Pressure control
• Pressure control is provided by wireline BOP’s, Lubricator and either a Stuffing Box
(SB) for slick line or a Grease Injection Head (GIH) for braided cable.
• The xmas tree valves provide additional pressure control whilst the wire is in the hole
provided that they are capable of cutting the wire and subsequently providing an
effective seal.
• It is not necessary to have kill facilities such as kill and choke lines and manifolds
rigged-up during routine wireline operations.
Subsea Wellheads
Barriers
• As with surface trees the master and swab valves provide the two required barriers for
rigging-up and rigging-down the intervention equipment.
• Additional protection is provided by a Lower Riser Package (LRP) positioned just
above the Tree Running Tool (TRT) attached to the xmas tree.
• Although all LRP’s may not be exactly the same they generally include a Shear Seal
Valve, a BOP assembly, and an emergency disconnect.
• At the rig floor of a mobile installation, appropriate BOP’s, riser and SB/GIH are
attached to the riser connecting to the LRP.
• For wireline operations from an intervention vessel there is generally no riser to
surface, the BOP’s lubricator and SB/GIH are directly attached to the LRP and are all
remotely operated.
EP 2002-1500 - 193 - Restricted
Pressure control
• Control of all xmas tree, TRT, LRP and subsea wireline BOP’s and SB/GIH functions
are via umbilicals from the surface. Pressure testing and bleed facilities are also
provided through umbilicals.
• Control of surface deployed valves, BOP’s and SB/GIH are normal as with surface
wellheads.
5.20. Coiled Tubing Intervention

This section covers CT well control operations where they differ from conventional
drilling, workover and intervention operations. In practice, because the CT unit is equipped
with an independent BOP system, all CT operations can be considered as well intervention
operations without a drilling BOP.
5.20.1. General
When a CT unit has the coil in the well, most well control issues are identical to those with
a drill string while others such as stripping in/out are considerably easier. This section
focuses on the differences between CT and jointed pipe operations.
NOTE: The Person In Charge of the CT operation must be defined, as operations concurrent
with a platform rig are standard practice in many areas
5.20.2. Surface Wellheads
Barriers
• Two mechanical barriers are required for rigging-up and rigging-down coiled tubing
equipment. These are normally provided by the xmas tree master and swab valves.
• Whilst operations are in progress, the pressure envelope provided by the lubricator and
stuffing box is the main barrier with additional protection provided by the BOP’s and,
if fitted, a shear seal valve above the xmas tree.
• Barriers to the internal bore of the coiled tubing are provided by two check valves
installed in the bottom hole assembly.
• The coiled tubing BOP’s also include shear and blind rams.
Note: Where any uncertainty exists on shear capability, a shear test on the type of CT in
use should be conducted before commencement of operations.
Pressure Control
• Pressure control is provided by BOP’s, Lubricator and a Stuffing Box.
• It is necessary to have kill facilities rigged-up during all coiled tubing operations.
5.20.3. Subsea Wellheads
Barriers
• As with surface trees the master and swab valves provide the two required barriers for
rigging-up and rigging-down the intervention equipment.
EP 2002-1500 - 194 - Restricted
• Additional protection is provided by a Lower Riser Package (LRP) positioned just

above the Tree Running Tool (TRT) attached to the xmas tree.
• Although all LRP’s may not be exactly the same they generally include a Shear Seal
Valve, a BOP assembly, and an emergency disconnect.
• At the rig floor of a mobile installation, an appropriate BOP’s, riser and stuffing box is
attached to the riser connecting to the LRP.
• For coiled tubing operations from an intervention vessel there is also a riser to surface,
BOP’s with coiled tubing cutting capability, a gate valve and lubricator are directly
attached to the LRP and are remotely operated. The standard coiled tubing BOP’s and
stuffing box are attached to the top of the riser at surface.
Pressure Control
• Control of all xmas tree, TRT, LRP, subsea BOP’s and valves is via umbilicals from the
surface.
• Pressure testing and bleed facilities are also provided through umbilicals.
• Control of surface deployed valves, BOP’s and stuffing box are normal as with surface
wellheads.
5.21. Snubbing / Hydraulic Workover Units

Snubbing units have been in use since the 1920s but were traditionally associated with
problem wells. However, in recent years their scope of work has increased to include
routine well intervention and workovers, often on installations without a rig or to allow
operations concurrent with the platform rig. In this capacity they are generally termed
Hydraulic Workover Units or HWUs.
While snubbing as a means to regain control of a well is the remit of a specialist contractor,
this section gives an overview of well control issues for general operations.
5.21.1. Jacking Assembly

A conventional rig runs and pulls the string using a block and tackle under the influence of
gravity. On a snubbing unit, the string is moved in both directions using hydraulic jacks.
When well pressure acting on the cross-sectional area of the pipe exceeds the string weight,
the pipe could be ejected from the hole. However, a snubbing unit has an inverted upper
slip bowl which means the pipe can be jacked into the hole against well pressure. This
practice is termed snubbing.
When well pressure exceeds string weight and the string is positively buoyant, the
condition is termed ‘pipe light’.
‘Balance Point’ is where well upward pressure force matches string weight.
5.21.2. Work Basket

The workbasket is effectively the drill floor of the snubbing unit. However, the main
difference is access. The workbasket is invariably at a significant height and usually reached
by ladders. It is therefore crucial that all stab-in valves, cross-overs, darts etc. required for
the job are available in the workbasket at all times.
EP 2002-1500 - 195 - Restricted
5.21.3. BOP
• The stack is a conventional BOP with a pressure rating suited to well conditions.
• The ram configuration, type and throughbore are job specific will be configured
according to the planned operations.
Note: Where any uncertainty exists on shear capability, a shear test on the pipe (work
string) in use should be conducted before commencement of operations.
5.21.4. Control Unit

• A remote BOP control panel capable of closing all rams must be used.
• The remote panel must be located at a safe distance from the well head but insight of
the BOP and workbasket.
5.21.5. Workstring
• For underbalance operations, the BHA must include two check valves.
• As the primary check valves may be washed out due to circulation, the BHA will
normally include nipple profiles for drop-in check valves.
5.21.6. Well Control

• For operations planned as overbalance, well control is identical to that on a
conventional rig.
• For underbalance operations (with check valves installed), well control is very similar to
that on coiled tubing operations.
Further reference can be made to the document: Snubbing/Hydraulic Workover
Operations EP 95-1816
EP 2002-1500 - 196 - Restricted
Work Basket
Jacking Assembly
Upper Slip Bowl
Work Window
Lower Slip Bowl
BOP
Figure 5.16: Snubbing Unit Layout

EP 2002-1500 - 197 - Restricted
5.22. Geothermal Well Control

In principle, geothermal well control differs little from that of wells drilled for
hydrocarbons. The same basic objectives and procedures are applied.
Primary well control is most important and is achieved by maintaining adequate drilling
fluid density, and, ensuring that the temperature remains below boiling point. Normally
pressured geothermal zones have a formation pressure gradient of 0.41 psi/ft or less, and
can be overbalanced with water.
Kick detection techniques applicable for hydrocarbons are valid for geothermal wells. In
addition, mud temperature in and out should be continuously measured and recorded.
Readouts and alarms shall be located at the Driller's console. Ideally, flowline temperature
should not be above 75ºC
Shut-in procedures and kill methods are the same as for oil well drilling.
High temperature resistant elastomers should be used in all BOP equipment on geothermal
wells.
Under normal circumstances, all casing strings will be cemented back to surface and liner
cemented back to the lap. In all cases, cements acceptable for use in high temperature holes
must be used, such as modified A or G, Alumina Silica Flour or Phosphate Bonded Glass.
This is to prevent well control issues on the annulus side.
Mud cooling techniques must be utilised when necessary. Some local regulatory bodies
(particularly USA) require the use of mud cooling equipment to maintain mud properties
for primary well control and hole conditioning.
Fluid release during well control operations may be as critical on Geothermal wells as on
oil drilling operations, as concentrations of dissolved salts and minerals may be highly
polluting. H2S is also commonly encountered in geothermal environments.
EP 2002-1500 - 198 - Restricted
6. SUBSEA WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT
6.1. Subsea Well Control Equipment

Subsea BOP systems were initially developed by adaptation from the equipment used on
land, so in many respects have similar components to those of surface BOP systems.
However, it is apparent that when a BOP stack is located on the seabed there are also
many modifications necessary. This section reviews the major features of the subsea BOP
system.
6.1.1. Components of the Subsea System

The subsea BOP is most commonly used from a floating drilling unit and must meet
unique specifications.
• All BOP operations must be capable of being performed remotely with no manual
intervention. This includes connection to/from the wellhead. Closed Circuit Television
(CCTV) is essential during landing procedures.
• There must be systems and instrumentation to monitor wellhead position relative to
the rotary table.
• The riser system incorporates the kill and choke lines. It must have flexible elements to
accommodate lateral movement of the drilling unit and must have a telescoping
element to accommodate vertical motion. It must be supported by tensioners which
may be assisted by buoyancy modules.
• There must be a disconnect system that allows the BOP to be left on the subsea
wellhead in a secure state while separated from the riser.
• There must be guidance system to enable remote mating of connectors. This may be
done with or without guidelines.
• Operating and control systems must meet performance standards despite there being
very long hydraulic lines and seawater hydrostatic pressure.
• Redundancy is important, as the system must not be compromised by the failure of
one element.
• Reliability is important as the system can only be repaired on surface.
• ROV or diver operable systems should be available for ring gasket change out and for
connector release. Hot stabs may be available for other functions.
6.1.2. Equipment
See Figure 6.1.
BOP Guide Frame

Must be ccompatible with wellhead guidance system.
EP 2002-1500 - 199 - Restricted
Figure 6.1: Typical single stack system
A number of variations in the position of pipe rams, shear rams, and kill/choke line
connections are in use in subsea BOP stacks throughout the industry. Many have been
designed by Contractors and/or Operating Companies with well control philosophies that
differ from those advocated herein, and cannot be changed without major expense.
However, if a particular stack configuration is accepted by an OU, the drilling manual/well
programme should highlight the differences, limitations and possibilities of the particular
layout.
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Wellhead Connector
Must be compatible with the wellhead profile. Wellhead suppliers will usually supply
profiles to suit the connector installed on a particular rig's BOP rather than change out the
connector. The connector must be robust enough to resist bending moments imposed by
rig offset, non-perpendicular wellhead and environmental forces, without leaking. Stabbing
guide devices must be designed to prevent hydrate accumulation in and around connectors.
Ram Type Preventers

All high-pressure subsea BOP systems should have four ram type preventers, each
equipped with ram locks. One of the preventers is to be equipped with Shearing Blind
Rams (SBRs) and the other three with the correct size Pipe Rams (PR) or Variable Bore
Rams (VBRs). At least one ram type preventer below the SBRs should be equipped with
fixed PRs spaced sufficiently apart to facilitate hang-off and shear. These shall be
designated the ‘Hang-off Rams’. The rated hang-off data of the fixed PR and the VBRs
must be available on site. Similarly, shear ram and shear bonnet data together with
required shear pressure for the pipe in use must be available on site.
Kill and Choke Outlets

Each stack shall have no less than two (preferably four or more) side outlets rated to the
same working pressure as the ram preventers, each connected to the kill/choke lines. The
through diameter shall be not less than 77.8mm (3-1/16”). An additional kill/choke line
outlet must be installed immediately below the upper annular if local conditions dictate that
well kill operations will be done with the annular rather than the pipe rams. This
uppermost line is also to facilitate removal of trapped gas. All side outlets shall be fitted
with two fail safe valves each prior to connection with the kill/choke lines. The valves shall
be 'fail-safe' in the closed position. The outermost valve in each pair should be pressure
competent on the "back" side to facilitate pressure testing the kill and choke lines as the
BOP is run and to seal against kill/choke line pressures where the respective side outlet
valves are not in the flow path during killing operations. Pumping access to the well bore
(or annulus) should always be possible, hence one kill line should be connected to the side
outlet below the lowermost preventer. All unused side outlets shall be blanked off.
Annular Preventers
All BOP stacks must have at least one annular preventer in the main structure. High
pressure and single stack systems should preferably have two annulars. The second annular
may be mounted in the main structure or alternatively, in the Lower Marine Riser Package
(LMRP). This latter configuration may provide the advantage of being able to change the
upper annular packing unit without retrieving the entire BOP.
Annulars should have a rated working pressure equal to that of the ram type preventers
(except for 15,000 psi). However, it is permissible to have a 34,500kPa (5000psi) WP
annular preventer on a 69,000kPa (10,000psi) WP BOP stack, and a 69,000kPa (10,000psi)
WP annular preventer on a 103,500kPa (15,000psi) WP BOP stack.
LMRP Connector
Can be similar to the wellhead connector, but should be of a design that allows disconnect
even when there is not vertical alignment. The LMRP connector interface will also be the
interface for the BOP control system. (See Section 6.3).
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Lower Flexible Joint

(or Lower Ball Joint) This accommodates lateral movement of the drilling vessel without
causing bending moments in the riser. The resulting non vertical riser tension will cause a
bending moment on the BOP and well head. Pressure balancing and correct riser tension
are important operating parameters to ensure correct function and longevity of ball joints.
The unit must also provide flexible sections for both the kill and choke lines. Forces
generated by these components under pressure should be understood.
Marine Riser
Supplied with integral kill and choke lines that should have an internal diameter no less
than 65mm (2-½”) for shallow water (<50m) subsea wells, 75mm (3”) for medium depth
(>50m <1000m) and 112mm (4-½”) for deepwater (>1000m). Choke & kill lines must
have working pressure rating equal to the BOP. A third, booster line, is often integral.
Apart from its function in assisting clearance of cuttings from the riser at low circulating
drilling rates the booster line allows displacement of the riser without interference with
BOP functions. Pressure rating of the booster line and valves must be no less than that of
the Diverter or Gas Handler system.
Riser Dump Valve
A rarely used remote operated large diameter valve, usually situated at the base of the
Marine Riser, that can provide direct connection between the riser contents and the
seawater. A Riser Dump Valve may be used to avert riser collapse in the event of riser
evacuation or severe loss of circulation. Installed in conjunction with a Gas Handler it may
be used to divert a shallow gas flow subsea.
Gas Handler (GH)

A specialised annular closing device for deepwater floating drilling. The GH is located in
the marine riser below the telescopic joint, and has integral valves to permit circulating
mud to neutralise a gas intrusion trapped in the riser above the subsea BOPs.
Telescopic Joint
Permits vertical motion of the drilling vessel without buckling the marine riser. The
telescopic joint does not have high-pressure rating on the seals. Telescopic joints should
incorporate double seals, to improve the sealing capability when gas has to be circulated
out of the marine riser. Kill and Choke line goosenecks at the top of the outer barrel are
connected to flexible moonpool hoses that provide the pressure integrity of the well
control system connection to the kill and choke manifold. These hoses should be
adequately protected from damage.
Upper Flexible Joint

The inner barrel of the telescopic joint is suspended by an upper ball joint to compensate
for pitch, roll and minor off-station of the drilling vessel.
Surface Diverter System

Situated between the upper ball joint and the rotary table. This enables the annulus to be
closed at surface and the returns channelled through the diverter system. Diverter housing,
telescopic joint etc. must be locked down. Rigs that can 'weather vane' (i.e. dynamically
positioned or turret moored rigs) may have just one diverter discharge line. Diverter lines
EP 2002-1500 - 202 - Restricted
should be as short as possible, but long enough to conduct flow past the extremity of the
drilling vessel.
Storm Chokes
A retrievable packer to support the weight of the drill string and seal off the casing, with a
combination back-off tool/valve, to seal the drill string. When a subsea BOP stack is in
use, storm chokes shall be available, sized to match the casing and drill pipe in use. The
equipment is used when it is necessary to work on the BOP equipment, or may be used to
suspend operations when it is too hazardous to rack pipe in the derrick during adverse
weather conditions.
Emergency Hang-Off Tool

To enable the drill string to be hung off in the wellhead below the BOP. It is run with an
IBOP below it and a short slick joint matching the pipe rams above it. After disconnecting
from the tool the pipe rams can be closed around the slick joint and the blind rams closed
above it, thus securing the well and allowing a riser disconnect with the drill string
remaining in the hole. Normally run prior to the onset of forecast bad weather. Care must
be taken to ensure that the tool can actually be hung off safely on the wear bushing. It is
usually not possible to hang off on a bore protector, in which case it is necessary to use the
Storm Choke device.
Pressure and temperature gauges

Should be mounted on subsea BOPs used in deep water.
6.2. Operating and Control Systems for Subsea BOPs

Subsea BOP operating and control equipment shall include:
6.2.1. An Independent Automatic Accumulator Unit:

• Which shall;
• Be rated for at least 20,700kPa (3000psi) WP for use with the underwater BOP control
system
• Be complete with a soluble oil/water reservoir,
• Include automatic proportioning equipment for soluble oil and water,
• Include a control manifold.
Without recharging, the accumulator capacity shall be adequate for closing and opening
one annular and all pipe rams, opening the hydraulic valves on one choke line and closing
the blind/shear rams.
After completion of above operations the remaining accumulator pressure shall be at least
200 psi above the pre-charge pressure of the accumulator.
The accumulator pressure after closing one annular and all pipe rams shall be adequate to
keep the pipe rams closed against a well bore pressure equal to the maximum rated
working pressure of the preventers.
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• Include one electrically driven triplex charging pump and

• Include two air-driven pumps for charging the accumulators.
• Be fitted with a regulator, similar to the Koomey type TR-5, which will not "fail open",
causing loss of operating pressure.
• Be located in a safe area away from the drilling floor and the moon pool area. Part of
the accumulator bank may be installed on the BOP stack for rapid response of the
functions, and for operation via an acoustic control.
• Closing systems of subsea BOPs shall be capable of closing each ram preventer within
45 seconds. Closing time should not exceed 60 seconds for annular preventers (see also
API RP-53)
6.2.2. Two Graphic Remote Control Panels

• Each one clearly showing 'open' and 'closed' positions for all underwater functions.
• One panel must be located near the Driller's position.
• The other panel to be located at a safe distance from the rig floor and adjacent to the
escape route from the drilling unit, or in the Toolpusher's office.
• A meter for indicating control fluid flow should be located on each remote control
panel.
• The panels should be connected to the control manifold in such a way that all
functions can be operated independently from each panel.
6.2.3. A Dual Hydraulic Or Electro-hydraulic Cable and/or Hose System

• Must provide 100% redundancy of control for all functions of the BOP stack.
• The nature of the interconnections between the surface control equipment and the
underwater BOP stack depends on the type of control system.
• For the direct hydraulic and pilot-operated hydraulic systems, integrated multiple hose
bundles are commonly used.
• For electro-hydraulic systems the electrical interconnections may be combined into
integrated 'umbilical' cable bundles. Alternatively the hydraulic hose can be handled
separately.
• As a general rule, the original total lengths of the flexible control cables and hoses
should be 90m (300ft) greater than the maximum water depth for which the system is
designed.
6.2.4. An Independent Emergency Control System (Acoustic System)

• Installed on deep water and dynamically positioned rigs. Depending on water depth,
BOP arrangement and local regulations this may involve an Acoustic or Auto-shear
system
• When installed, should have as a minimum, the capability to close one pipe ram and
the shear rams, and unlatch one hydraulic connector, in the event that the BOP
functions are inoperable due to a failure of the primary control system.
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The dedicated accumulator bottles on the BOP stack for the acoustic system should be
fitted with non-return valves to prevent accidental dumping and shall have sufficient
capacity to complete one activation of each of the emergency control functions whilst the
remaining accumulator pressure will exceed the minimum system operating pressure
required to shear the drill pipe in use.
• General Remarks
• Electrical equipment shall be suitable for the zone in which it is installed (Zone 1 or 2).
• BOP control fluid shall be protected against freezing.
• When a surface diverter system and a subsea BOP stack are employed, two separate
control/accumulator systems are required. This will allow the BOPs to be operated and
the riser disconnected in case the diverter control system is damaged and loses
pressure.
6.3. Testing Subsea Wellheads and BOP Equipment

Regular function and pressure tests are the only way of checking the performance of a
subsea BOP system. This section covers testing requirements.
6.3.1. Philosophy
Although the results of a test are only an indication of the condition of the equipment at
the time of the test, regular testing is the best means of;
• Checking that the equipment maintains the ability to perform its function.
• Monitoring changes in functional characteristics that may indicate prudent intervention
prior to actual failure.
6.3.2. Tests Before Lowering the BOP Stack

• All subsea BOP stack components which can be tested at surface shall be installed,
checked, and pressure tested to their rated working pressure and to a low pressure in
the order of 1725kPa to 3450 kPa (250 to 500 psi) whilst the stack is mounted on the
test stump.
• Operational records for marine riser joints shall be available to monitor fatigue life.
Regular wall thickness checks shall be made to monitor internal wear or corrosion that
will reduce collapse resistance.
• Control components subject to frequent failure (e.g. SPM) should have their pressure
resistance verified prior to installation of the BOP stack by testing to anticipated
operating / hydrostatic pressure in a pressure-cabin on the rig.
• After the surface tests, all clamp connections and all studded connections must be
checked for tightness.
• The complete BOP operating unit shall be tested in accordance with manufacturers'
recommendations and pressure tested to its rated working pressure. The test shall
include at least the following:
- To test every BOP control;
- To check that each function is properly connected;
EP 2002-1500 - 205 - Restricted
- To activate the functions which are indicated from both control pods;
- To check operating volumes and response times for each function.
• The choke manifold, valves, kill and choke lines and failsafe valves shall be pressure
tested with water to the rated working pressure of the ram type preventers, or the rated
working pressure of the manifold, whichever is the lower.
• All lines shall be flushed to ensure they are not blocked.
• No tests shall be performed against closed chokes.
• The kelly or top drive and kelly cocks shall be pressure tested to their rated working
pressure with a test sub.
6.3.3. Tests During Lowering And After Connecting The BOP Stack, Kill & Choke Lines, Marine
Riser And Operating Hoses.
• When running the BOP stack on riser joints, the kill and choke lines shall be pressure
tested at least when the stack is below the splash zone and both before and after
landing. The frequency of other tests during running the stack will depend on water
depth and equipment reliability.
• After the BOP stack is connected to the wellhead, a full function test on both pods,
plus a low pressure test in the order of 1725kPa to 3450 kPa (250 to 500 psi)under the
SBR, shall be carried out prior to rig down of running/retrieving tools.
• All blowout preventers, wellhead components, their connections, and the kill and
choke lines shall be pressure tested with fresh (drill) water whenever feasible. A small
amount of soluble oil should be added to the test water. This has the benefit of
minimizing injection of corrosive fluids into components at high pressure, and assists
in leak detection. To prevent excessive pressuring of the kill and choke lines, the BOP
stack may be tested through the string by using a perforated test sub or test joint
connected to the Plug Type Tester (PTT).
• The PTT or combination Cup Type Tester (CTT/hang-off tool) is landed inside the
wellhead housing and packs off the hole below the test tool seals. Caution is required
to ensure that the casing below the test tool, or the casing/casing annulus, is not
pressurized should the test tool or casing hanger seals fail to seal. This can be done by
monitoring accurately the fluid volume pumped during each pressure test.
• The test single of drill pipe must be rated to withstand the collapse pressure applied.
Heavyweight pipe with center upset removed is often suitable.
• The test single of drill pipe should be painted white when run for the first pressure test.
The rams will leave imprints on the white paint and the depth of each relative to Rotary
Table (RT) and the wellhead landing shoulder should be noted.
• The pressure applied on the initial test should be the rated working pressure of the
wellhead or the ram type preventers, whichever is lower. It shall also be pressure tested
to a low pressure in the order of 1725kPa to 3450 kPa ( 250 to 500 psi).
• Subsequent pressure tests of the wellhead and/or ram preventers should be to the
maximum anticipated wellhead pressure (as per original well design if not subsequently
modified). They should also be pressure tested to a low pressure in the order of
1725kPa to 3450 kPa ( 250 to 500 psi)Subsequent pressure tests for the annular
preventers should be to maximum anticipated wellhead pressure with a maximum limit
EP 2002-1500 - 206 - Restricted
of 70% of the rated working pressure. They should also be pressure tested to a low
pressure in the order of 1725kPa to 3450 kPa (250 to 500 psi)All equipment shall hold
the applied test pressure for at least 10 minutes.
• The opening/closing times and the volumes of hydraulic operating fluid required for
the operation of the various underwater stack components (i.e. rams, kill and choke
line valves, annular preventers, hydraulic connectors, etc.) should be recorded during
testing of the stack underwater and compared with the normal opening/closing times
and volumes required of the hydraulic system.
• Any major differences are an indication that the system is not operating 'normally' and
requires further investigation and possible repair.
• All pressure tests should be done according to a schedule drawn up to ensure that all
components are tested and it is done in the most efficient manner.
6.3.4. Tests For Accumulators

• The accumulator bottles pre-charge pressure (nitrogen) should be checked at minimum
30-day intervals.
• Unless otherwise specified, the pre-charge pressure for a 20,700kPa (3000psi) WP
system should be 6900kPa (1000psi) ±10%.
• Accumulator tests shall be performed prior to first use of BOP's, or after repairs have
been made to the accumulator system, i.e. bottles, bladders, pumps, etc.
• The accumulator unit performance test is made by operating all BOP's on the stored
energy in the accumulator, i.e. the pressure and the volume available without
recharging.
• The complete test procedure is as follows:
a. Check accumulator fluid pressure
b. Check accumulator reservoir level
c. Position a joint of drill pipe in the blowout preventer stack.
d. Switch off the air and electric power supplies to the accumulator pumps.
e. Record the initial accumulator pressure.
f. Operate all BOP functions as listed below. For each step record time to
close/open, volume used and remaining accumulator pressure.
1. Close Annular Preventer - record data
2. Close all Pipe Rams one by one - record data at each function
Note: After step 2 the remaining accumulator pressure must be sufficient to hold the pipe
ram closed against a well bore pressure equal to the maximum rating of the BOP
3. Open all Pipe Rams one by one - record data at each function
4. Open Annular Preventer - record data
5. Open hydraulic valves on one choke line - record data
6. Remove the joint of drill pipe from the BOP stack
7. Close the Blind/Shear rams - record data
EP 2002-1500 - 207 - Restricted
Note: After step 6 the remaining accumulator pressure must be at least 200 psi above the
pre-charge pressure of the accumulator bottles.
8. Open the blind/shear rams and close the hydraulic choke line valves
g. Turn on the accumulator pumps and record the time taken to re-charge the
accumulators to the maximum operating pressure. Record the re-charge time and
the accumulator pressures at which the electric and air driven charge pumps cut
out.
- It is recommended to check the recharging capacity of the air pumps with the electric
power switched off prior to start up of a newly contracted rig.
- Check BOP closing times and accumulator recharge time with manufacturer's data for
the system in use.
- Cycle the annular preventer and check that the pumps will automatically start when the
closing unit pressure has decreased to less than 90 percent of the accumulator
operating pressure. This should be checked with only the electric pumps operative.
- Should an emergency control system be employed, this should also be tested at the
same time as the accumulator unit.
Results shall be recorded on the daily tour sheets and the Blowout Prevention Equipment
Checklist.
It is of utmost importance that the accumulator unit can be charged with only one of the
two power systems operative.
6.3.5. Test Frequency

• The pressure tests of all blowout preventers, wellhead components and their
connections, BOP operating unit, choke manifold, kill and choke lines, kelly or top
drive and kelly stop-cocks shall be made in line with government regulations and/or:
1. After installation of wellhead and BOP assembly and prior to drilling.
2. Normally on a bi-weekly basis that may be extended to accommodate ongoing
operations or anticipated activities during an extension period of maximum one
week.
3. At any time requested by the Company drilling representative.
• Results of all pressure tests shall be recorded on the daily tour sheets and the Blowout
Prevention Equipment Checklist.
6.3.6. Functional Tests, Inspections and Precautions

• All preventers which close around pipe, all pressure and manually operated kill and
choke line valves, and all kelly cocks, shall be operated a minimum of once per week.
• All ram type BOP's should be function tested at a reduced operating pressure of not
more than 10,350kPa (1500psi).
• The blind/shear rams should be functioned at least once a week.
Should any of the above tests indicate faulty equipment, this equipment must be repaired
and re-tested before drilling resumes, or before any other operation related thereto is
continued.
EP 2002-1500 - 208 - Restricted
• Inspect the tightness of flange bolts and clamps frequently, particularly after BOP
pressure testing at surface.
• Pump through kill and choke lines at regular intervals (daily), and displace weighted
mud from choke manifold and kill lines.
• In freezing or hydrate conditions replace mud in lines with inhibited fluid.
6.4. Operations Related to Subsea BOP Systems

Floating drilling vessels are constantly in motion and subjected to environmental forces.
Special operations and procedures have been developed to enable them to safely survive
severe weather conditions and station keeping difficulties. This section reviews those
operations that involve the subsea BOP system.
6.4.1. Running The BOP Stack.

• The BOP stack can only be run if weather conditions are reasonable and vessel
movement is such that heavy lifts can be safely restrained. The rig operations manual
should specify maximum limits for heave, roll and pitch for these operations, otherwise
the contractor's Senior representative (Toolpusher) should be responsible for the final
decision.
• Stack running procedures are very much rig specific and the contractor must have a
detailed procedure included in the rig operations manual. Some special considerations
are listed;
- The rig must be moved away (minimum 15m - 50ft) from the wellhead and any
subsea installation before any part of the BOP assembly is moved over the moon
pool.
- Several joints of marine riser must be made up first so that when the stack is run it
can be lowered through the splash zone with minimal delay.
- New original manufacturers or approved gasket seals must be installed in the
LMRP connector and the wellhead connector.
- The kill and choke lines should be pressure tested when the stack is just below the
splash zone, at regular intervals whilst running, and prior to landing the stack on
the wellhead.
- After landing the stack and before nippling up the diverter, the wellhead connector
shall be checked with a test pull with the motion compensator and pressure tested
to 3500kPa (500psi) below the shearing blind rams.
6.4.2. Hanging-off
• Whether in DP mode or for moored vessels, the rigs operating envelope for station
keeping shall be clearly defined and known based on riser and mooring analyses.
Whenever forecasts predict that severe weather and/or current can be expected and
that there is a likelihood that it will exceed the operational limits of the drilling vessel,
the drill string should be pulled (or run) to place the bit at the casing shoe and hung-
off. There are three types of hang-off tool that can be used in different situations;
1. Emergency hang-off tool which lands in the wellhead. These tools are wellhead
specific and most cannot be used until after the first string of casing has been run
EP 2002-1500 - 209 - Restricted
and landed in the wellhead. i.e. It cannot be used while drilling 17-½" hole
through an 18-¾" wellhead.
2. Hang-off Donut which is landed on a lower pipe ram. These tools are suitable for
any hole/casing size provided the hang-off capability of the pipe ram is not
exceeded.
3. Storm Choke which is set in the casing. Usually reserved for sealing the well to
enable BOP repairs to be effected, but can be used for foul weather hang-off
when neither of the above two systems is suitable. This packer should be set in a
section of casing that is well cemented. Subsequent retrieval operations should be
performed with a section of the work string in the BOP that is pipe or VBR ram
compatible and suitable of being sheared by the SBR.
Only tools designed for this purpose can be used, and they must have left hand release and
centralized right hand recovery threads. It is not acceptable practice to hang off on a drill
pipe tooljoint and back out of the string.
• The appropriate tool should be made up to a stand of drill pipe and stood in the
derrick where it can be easily retrieved and run. An inside BOP should be run below
the tool.
• Space out is critical and it must allow a set of pipe rams to be closed around the body
of the tool and the shearing blind rams to be closed above the tool after the landing
string is disconnected.
• Well pressure must always be checked through the kill and choke lines before opening
the rams for retrieval of the drill string. There should be BOP outlets above and below
the ram used to seal around the hung off string so that both annulus and drill pipe
pressure can be checked.
6.4.3. Shearing Drill Pipe

• When faced with either well control or station keeping problems and where
conventional hang-off is impossible, it may become necessary to shear the drill string.
This may be achieved with pre-programmed emergency disconnect systems.
• The urgency of the problem will dictate the procedure to be used, but whenever
possible, the pipe should be hung-off on a tooljoint on the designated hang-off ram
before activating the shear rams. If this cannot be accomplished then it is better to set
the bit on bottom first rather than allow the string to drop after shear.
All well control operations should be conducted with the pipe hung off on a tooljoint on
the designated hang-off pipe rams and the ram lock closed. This is to allow the pipe to be
sheared immediately without loss off control of the well, in the event that it becomes
necessary.
• There must be absolute certainty that the tubular section opposite the shear ram can in
fact be sheared. If it cannot (i.e. Heaviwate through the BOP) then the string
(containing an IBOP) must be dropped and the shearing blind rams closed above the
dropped string. The dropped string should be planned to be below the BOP.
EP 2002-1500 - 210 - Restricted
6.4.4. Shearing Casing

• It is only possible to shear certain casing strings. The shear capabilities of the BOP
should be known before commencing any casing job.
• When shearing is not possible procedures must be developed for dropping the casing
string provided the hanger has not been made-up. It will not be possible to hang-off
the casing prior to shear.
6.4.5. Disconnecting
• The necessity to disconnect is dependent upon the prevailing and forecast weather
conditions, the rig's motion characteristics and station keeping ability. Whenever it has
been deemed prudent to disconnect at the LMRP connector, the drill string should
have been hung-off or it must be sheared. The BOP must be closed and the well
secured.
• Disconnection may not be possible if rig offset exceeds the design limits of the
connector. Alarms and auto-disconnect parameters should be defined in accordance
with wellhead specification, water depth etc.
• Once disconnected, the LMRP should be pulled well clear of the BOP. This may entail
laying down the telescopic joint if adequate clearance cannot be gained by ballasting.
The rig should be moved away from the wellhead and any subsea installations. The
guidelines (if used) should be slackened.
EP 2002-1500 - 211 - Restricted
7. SUBSEA WELL CONTROL: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES

Note:
This chapter covers ‘traditional’ subsea well control using BOPs on the sea bed.
Challenges associated with the use of subsea BOPs become very complex in deep water
(>1500 mtr. or 5000 ft.). The use of a surface BOP for deep water operations alleviates
many of these challenges. The principle of such a system is described in Section 5.5.
7.1. Subsea Well Control

There are serious well control challenges associated with drilling operations from floating
vessels in any water depth. This section reviews the major problems likely to be
encountered.
7.1.1. Introduction
Just as for drilling on rigs with surface stacks, well control problems can occur when using
floating rigs with subsea BOPs. Although most of these problems tend to increase in
complexity with increasing water depth, some can be more severe in shallow water.
7.1.2. Kick Detection

Two of the major early warning indications of kicks are relative changes in the return mud
flow, and change of mud level in the pits. Flow rate tends to fluctuate with vessel heave
and pit level tends to fluctuate with vessel pitch and roll, thus disguising the initial relatively
small changes which occur at the onset of a kick. Equipment that compensates for vessel
movement by averaging multiple sample points can minimise but not eliminate the
problem. In doubtful cases there is no substitute for a visual flow check.
7.1.3. Fracture Gradients

In deep water drilling operations, fracture gradients at any particular depth are considerably
less than those experienced at equivalent depths in shallow water or on land. One of the
reasons for this reduction in formation strength is the reduction in overburden stress from
the long, relatively light column of seawater overlying relatively unconsolidated sediments
before dense, well compacted rock is encountered. The net result of this is that kick
tolerance can be drastically reduced and hence the need for early kick detection.
7.1.4. Subsea Choke and Kill Lines

The length of the choke and kill lines extending from the subsea BOP to the drilling vessel,
causes two major problems for well control which increase in severity with water depth.
The first problem is the substantial circulating friction pressure loss which occurs in the
choke line during circulation of an influx from the well. The second problem is the
dramatic change of hydrostatic pressure when gas displaces mud in the choke line and
subsequently when the following mud displaces the gas. These topics are discussed in more
detail in Section 7.2.
EP 2002-1500 - 212 - Restricted
7.1.5. Shallow Gas

One of the most severe well control problems likely to be encountered from a floating rig
is that of safely handling a shallow gas flow. When water depths exceed 200m it is generally
reasonable to assume that riser-less drilling or diverting subsea in conjunction with
procedures to move the rig away from the plume is the safest alternative. However, in
shallower water there may be potential for a sudden gas eruption which is impossible to
avoid, and riser-less drilling or subsea diverting may not be a viable option. Surface diverter
procedures are covered in the Shallow Gas Procedure Guidance Manual (EP 88-1000).
7.1.6. Riser Margin

When drilling from a floating rig there is always the possibility that the marine riser may
part or have to be disconnected. When this happens the hydrostatic pressure of the mud
column in the riser from the BOP to the pitcher nipple will be lost and replaced with the
lower hydrostatic pressure of a column of seawater from the BOP to sea level. This
reduction of hydrostatic may be enough to cause the well to go under-balance and kick. It
is normal procedure to use mud slightly more dense than required during normal
operations so that the well will not go under-balance if the riser is disconnected. This
increment of density is referred to as the Riser Margin. In many cases the normal Trip
Margin will adequately cover Riser Margin requirements. Only the greater of these two
margins should be applied. In instances where fracture gradients are critical and it is not
possible to maintain a riser margin, procedures must be in place to ensure that the well is
secured in the event of loss of mud from the riser.
7.1.7. Riser Collapse

The marine riser is a large diameter conduit designed to provide an open flow path for
drilling mud between the subsea wellhead and the floating drilling vessel. It is not normally
designed to withstand high burst or collapse pressures. Evacuation of the riser (unloading
gas) or a significant drop in mud level (losses) will subject the riser to collapse differential
pressure. The hydrostatic pressure of the seawater may cause the riser to collapse. The
problem can be averted by maintaining liquid in the riser. This may be with a Riser Dump
Valve or by closing the BOP and filling from surface. Regular riser wall thickness tests are
advisable to monitor internal wear or corrosion that will reduce collapse resistance.
7.1.8. Trapped Gas

When a gas influx is circulated from the hole some gas may accumulate in the subsea BOP
below the preventer and above the side outlet that was used. This gas must be removed
before the BOP can be opened. This topic is discussed in more detail in Section 7.3 and in
Section Error! Reference source not found. for deepwater operations.
7.1.9. Killing the Marine Riser

After any well control operation that requires an increase of mud density, the well will be
dead when kill density mud fills the drill string and the annulus to surface. On a subsea well
part of the annulus that has been "killed" is the choke line. The density of the mud in the
marine riser has not been increased during the course of the well control operation. Before
opening the BOP it is necessary to circulate the riser to kill density mud.
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7.1.10. Hydrate Formation

Gas hydrates can form in the BOP and kill and choke lines on deepwater operations when
water based mud is used. This topic is discussed in Section 5.4 and Section Error!
Reference source not found..
7.2. Choke and Kill Line Effects

Long, relatively small diameter subsea choke and kill lines strongly influence secondary well
control procedures because of dynamic frictional effects and the effect of fluid
displacement on hydrostatic pressure in these lines. This section reviews these friction and
hydrostatic effects.
7.2.1. Friction Effect

The dynamic friction loss in long choke lines has been called the "hidden choke effect"
because the effect is the same as if a second, non-adjustable choke in the system was
generating a back pressure equivalent to the friction loss. It may also be considered as just
another hole section with very, very small annular clearance. The effects are the same, and
result in increased Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) whenever well circulation is
directed through the choke line rather than the open riser. The magnitude of this increase
in ECD depends on;
• The choke line configuration, internal diameter, length, tortuosity etc. These are fixed
for a particular system.
• Circulating fluid properties. e.g. density and viscosity. These will differ over the life of
the well and will also change dramatically during a kill operation, particularly if the
influx is gas.
• The rate of fluid flow through the line. Even at constant circulation rate this can
change substantially during the kill if the influx is gas.
During well killing operations, when surface shut-in pressures are also applied to the
wellbore, the danger of formation fracture increases markedly if no attempt is made to
compensate for choke line friction effects. For this reason all subsea wells should be killed
using a procedure which compensates for choke line friction.
On surface stack wells it is usually acceptable to ignore annulus circulating friction pressure
and commence kill circulation maintaining constant choke manifold pressure, by choke
manipulation, whilst the pump is brought up to speed. For subsea wells the initial
circulating choke manifold pressure must be reduced by the magnitude of the choke line
friction pressure for the particular circulation rate. During start-up the circulation rate, and
therefore friction loss, is changing so a pressure reduction schedule is necessary.
Choke line friction pressure can be measured during drilling operations by various
techniques, details of which can be found in section 7.6 of the Shell Distance Learning
Training Manual.
With this background data it should be possible to calculate approximate friction loss
values for a range of circulating rates and mud properties. These can be used to make an
approximation of the correct choke back pressure to apply when initiating circulation at
commencement of a kill. However, it should be stressed that these are at best only rough
approximations and will involve more complex calculations if the choke line is not filled
with original density mud prior to start-up.
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The preferred, more accurate and simplest method is to disregard choke manifold pressure
and hold BOP pressure constant, by choke manipulation, whilst the pump is brought up to
speed.
This technique is valid regardless of the contents of the kill and/or choke lines, is
appropriate for any circulation rate and does not require any pre-recorded, calculated or
estimated data. Furthermore, the BOP pressure (static kill line pressure or BOP pressure
monitor) should be held constant, by choke manipulation, whenever it is necessary to
change circulation rate, or to stop and restart during the course of the kill.
All floating rigs must have a static kill line pressure gauge or BOP pressure monitor
mounted at the choke control console.
In instances where it is advantageous to use both the kill and choke lines during well
control operations, a BOP pressure monitor should be installed, and this used in place of
the static kill line pressure.
During the course of the kill operation there will be a sequence of different fluids in the
choke line, each of which will have different circulating pressure characteristics. (water or
base oil, original mud, influx, original mud, kill mud). The choke must be manipulated to
compensate for these variations and so maintain the required standpipe pressure for the
particular circulating rate. However, when gas enters the choke line the choke line friction
pressure drops markedly as gas, even at very high flow rates, has very low flowing friction
pressure compared to mud or other liquids. At the same time, gas expansion is accelerating
the mud ahead of the gas which produces higher friction pressure and higher choke back-
pressure. These effects, to a large degree, cancel each other out so little choke manipulation
is necessary, but the choke manifold pressure will rise dramatically, as it must. Once gas
reaches the choke the choke opening must be reduced rapidly and substantially to replace
this loss of choke and choke line friction pressure with actual choke manifold back
pressure.
As the gas is vented the choke manifold pressure falls, again with little choke manipulation.
However, when all the gas has passed through the choke, and mud returns, the choke
opening must be increased rapidly and substantially to a diameter slightly larger than it was
before gas reached the BOP. If this is not done there will be a large pressure surge that
could fracture the well.
7.2.2. Hydrostatic Effect

In any well, whenever a gas kick is being circulated from the hole by a constant bottom
hole pressure method, choke manifold pressure increases as the gas approaches surface.
This is caused by the fact that the gas expands in the lower pressure environment, and as a
consequence of this expansion occupies a greater vertical height in the well to the exclusion
of mud. The higher choke manifold pressure must replace the lost hydrostatic pressure.
In subsea wells this gas expansion problem is greatly magnified when a gas influx enters
and occupies the relatively small volume, but substantial height, of the choke line. The mud
hydrostatic head of the depth from Rotary Table to the subsea BOP may be lost due to the
displacement of mud by low density gas. In order to maintain constant bottom hole
pressure, as indicated by the appropriate standpipe pressure, choke manifold pressure must
be increased by reduction of choke opening. This effect is in addition to the low gas
friction pressure mentioned above, which also requires rapid reduction of choke opening.
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7.2.3. Pressure Lag Time

The effects mentioned above can take place rapidly. When the objective is to maintain
constant bottom hole pressure by keeping standpipe pressure constant by choke
manipulation, it is possible that if the choke opening is not reduced as required, bottom
hole pressure may drop below formation pressure before there is any indication on the
standpipe pressure gauge. This is due to the fact that pressure transients through dense
mud and long gas columns can be very slow. There may be a lag of as much as 1 second
for each 300m (1000ft) of distance travelled. i.e. a change at the choke may not be reflected
on the standpipe gauge for 30 seconds in a 4,600m (15,000ft) well. It is therefore necessary
to anticipate the arrival of gas at the choke line and be prepared for rapid choke
manipulation.
As in start-up procedures, in the absence of a BOP pressure monitor, the most reliable
indicator of pressures in the annulus is the static kill line. This gives a value indicative of
the pressure at the BOP and will be a maximum when the gas influx first reaches the BOP.
As gas enters the choke line the pressure at the BOP drops. This is in marked contrast to
the choke manifold pressure which is rising rapidly. This is the warning signal to the choke
operator to prepare to reduce choke opening rapidly as gas presents at the choke. During
all other phases of the kill, the choke manifold pressure and the static kill line pressure will
track each other separated by the magnitude of the choke line friction pressure.
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Choke manifold
pressure
Static kill line

pressure
Choke
opening
Figure 7.1: Effect of gas in the choke line

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7.3. Trapped Gas in Subsea BOPs

When a gas influx is circulated from the hole some gas may accumulate in the subsea BOP
below the preventer and above the choke line side outlet that was used. This gas must be
removed before the BOP can be opened at the conclusion of the well killing operation.
7.3.1. Overview
Whenever an influx is being circulated from the hole from a floating rig, the drill string
should be hung off on the pipe rams and the closest side outlet below those hang-off rams
should be used as the choke line. The annular should only be used if there is a choke line
situated immediately below it. This will ensure that the volume of trapped gas is kept to a
minimum. If at all possible, it should not be allowed to accumulate under an annular with
no adjacent outlet as the distance from the choke line will result in a larger volume of gas
and make removal more difficult.
7.3.2. Removal of Trapped Gas

Traditional methods for removal of trapped gas, such as the Turbulence Technique, the
Back-surge Technique and the Toilet Flush Technique, have been demonstrated to have
minimal success. Based on a series of tests performed by Shell in the Gulf of Mexico the
following recommended procedure was developed. This procedure may vary in detail
slightly from rig to rig and area to area.
1. During the kill procedure, always use a preventer that has an adjacent outlet.
2. On completion of the kill operation, isolate the well by closing a preventer below the
trapped gas.
3. Start boosting the riser with kill density mud.
4. Open the preventer above the trapped gas whilst continuing to boost the riser. This
has the effect of stringing out and dispersing the gas bubble as it migrates out of the
BOP.
5. Stop boosting and wait 30 minutes for the gas to migrate/string out more through
the riser. Observe the well.
6. Circulate one third to one half of the riser volume.
7. Stop circulation and wait 30 minutes. Observe the well.
8. Continue circulation monitoring the flow from the top of the riser, looking for
indications of gas.
9. Upon indications of gas at any stage, circulate slowly, being ready to close the
diverter if necessary.
10. When the riser is dead and filled completely with kill density mud, check for pressure
under the lower preventer before opening and resuming operations.
Experience using this technique has shown that the worst "surge" of gas at the surface
occurs when the rig is operating in 300-600m (1000-2000ft) of water.
• In less than 300m (1000ft) the pressure of the trapped gas is not very great.
• In greater than 600m (2000ft) the riser volume is so large that the gas has time to string
out while coming up and does not arrive at surface all at once.
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• In water depths greater than 1200-1500m (4000-5000ft) there may be insignificant

impact.
7.4. Subsea Well Control Procedures and Calculations

The basic principles of well control are the same for any well. However, Subsea BOP
systems deployed from floating drilling vessels introduce complexities that may require
additional calculations and special procedures. This section addresses those complexities.
7.4.1. Measurements
It is vital for hang-off, shearing, stripping and all wellhead operations that the distance
from Rotary Table to the wellhead and to each ram and annular preventer of the BOP is
known accurately. These measurements are best taken when the test tool is run for the first
BOP test after landing the stack.
• There must be an accurate dimensional stack-up drawing of the wellhead and BOP
showing the distance of each component from a datum, usually the wellhead connector
seal gasket. The mid point of each ram preventer is always a useful dimension.
• Rig up a tide gauge connected to the telescopic joint outer barrel and set it to agree
with reference tide tables if available. Allowance should be made for fleet angle.
• Paint the test single with white or light coloured paint before running in for the BOP
test. The white paint will be marked by the rams and annulars when they are closed
around it during the pressure test.
• While the test tool is seated in the wellhead, mark the drill pipe at the rotary table
(heave average) and simultaneously note the tide.
• After completion of the BOP test and while pulling out, accurately measure the
distance from rotary table to each of the marks on the test single and to the landing
shoulder on the test tool. Correct these depths to tide datum and record and display
them prominently in the dog house.
• The depths should be checked when the wellhead bore protector is run after the BOP
test.
- With the motion compensator, lightly tag the top of the closed shear rams with the
bore protector on the running tool. Mark the pipe at rotary table and note the tide.
- Pick up, open the shear rams, land the bore protector in the wellhead. Mark the
pipe at rotary table and note the tide.
- Release the bore protector.
- Pull back above the BOP, close the shear rams, lightly tag the top of the closed
shear rams with the bore protector running tool. Note that the difference from
previous recorded tag depth confirms that the bore protector has been released.
- All these depths should be tide corrected and checked against the original
measurements.
• Determine the average drill pipe single length and using that in conjunction with the
measurements taken above, calculate the stick-up above rotary that places a tool joint
at every critical point in the BOP. This information must be readily available to the
Driller at all times.
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7.4.2. Shut-in Procedure
Offshore Floating Units (with drill string motion compensator operational)

1. With the pump ON, unlock rotary bushing and raise the kelly or top drive to the pre-
determined position for landing the string on the designated hang off rams. (with the
lower kelly cock above the rotary table, allowing for tidal condition). Note that the
motion compensator may be stroked out or locked so ample clearance must be
allowed for heave.
2. Stop the pump.
3. Function Close the upper annular preventer.
4. Simultaneously function Open the outer fail-safe valve of the choke line. The rest of
the choke line is always open to a closed choke under normal conditions. (Hard shut
in)
5. Close the valve upstream of the adjustable choke if it is a non-sealing choke. Do not
close valves that isolate pressure sensators.
6. Close the designated hang off pipe rams. These must have room below the shear
rams to cut the drill pipe above the hang-off tooljoint if a disconnect becomes
necessary.
7. Land the string on the rams, set compensator to mid-stroke position and close locks
on the rams (wedge locks).
8. Observe closed-in drill pipe pressure SIDPP (Pdp) and closed-in annulus pressure
SICP (Pa).
9. Open Kill line subsea valves to give a static BOP pressure reading.
10. Kill the well by the method previously determined as appropriate.
The use of a circulating head is mandatory for killing a high pressure well or when using
circulating pressures of over 27,600 kPa (4000 psi). Follow the same closing in procedure
as is described for offshore floating units with drill string motion compensator non-
operational. The circulating head assembly may be supported by the motion compensator,
constant tension winches, or tensioners.
Offshore Floating Units (with drill string motion compensator non-operational)

1. With the pump ON, unlock rotary bushing and raise the kelly or top drive to put the
lower kelly cock above the rotary table.
2. Stop the pump.
3. Function Close the upper annular preventer.
4. Simultaneously function Open the outer fail-safe valve of the choke line. The rest of
the choke line is always open to a closed choke under normal conditions. (Hard shut
in)
close valves that isolate pressure sensators.
6. Set the string in the slips.
7. Close the lower kelly cock, bleed off pressure in the kelly or top drive.
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8. Disconnect the kelly or top drive above the lower kelly cock.
9. Install the circulating head on one drill pipe single.
10. Attach the supporting system to the circulating head assembly (using constant
tension winches, or tensioners).
11. Pick up the string, remove the slips. Position pipe at pre-determined space-out for
hang-off.
12. Close the designated hang off pipe rams.
13. Land the string on the pipe rams with the circulating head assembly supported by the
elevators riding on the handling sub. Close the ram locks.
14. Pressure test the lines/hoses and connections to the circulating head and standpipe
manifold to the pressure rating of the manifold.
15. Remove the elevators (depending on heave) with the circulating head assembly
supported by the supporting system.
16. Pressure up the lines to the lower kelly cock to Pdp and open the lower kelly cock.
17. Observe closed-in drill pipe pressure (Pdp) and closed in annulus pressure (Pa).
18. Open Kill line subsea valves to give a static BOP pressure reading.
19. Kill the well by the method previously determined as appropriate.
7.4.3. Calculations
Once the shut in pressures and influx volume are known all the normal calculations
required for well control can be completed and well kill schedules prepared.
These include;
• Kill mud density
• Initial Circulating Pressure
• Surface to Bit Strokes
• Final Circulating Pressure
• Influx Gradient and hence influx type.
• Approximate strokes for influx to reach critical points. e.g. casing shoe, BOP, surface.
Start-up procedures must be modified to reduce Choke Manifold Pressure by choke line
circulating friction pressure as described in Section 7.2. If it is not possible to read static kill
line pressure or there is no BOP pressure monitor, then a pressure reduction schedule
must be calculated based on pre-recorded measurements of choke line friction pressure.
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7.5. Deep Water Well Control

This section captures the key topics for deep water well control operations. For the
purposes of this manual, deep water is a water depth >500m or 1500ft.
7.5.1. Overview
Summary
The methods and approaches described in this section are applicable to all deep water wells
with a subsea BOP.
However, when dealing with wells that have only a small margin between formation and
fracture gradients (as is the case in overpressured wells such as those found in the Gulf of
Mexico) a higher level of detail must be considered. In particular, the impact of procedures
and events on the annulus must be thoroughly understood, monitored and controlled.
Additional considerations for this type of well are given in Section 8 and Section 5.11. It is
suggested that for this type of well, well and rig specific engineering is carried out.
By contrast, for many wells there is sufficient margin between formation and fracture
gradients such that the well can be controlled. For these wells, industry methods in
existence for many years introduce safety factors into the circulating pressures and any
potential for additional flow is stopped. Because there is sufficient margin, there is no
negative impact on the well, such as lost circulation.
Overall Approach to Deep Water Well Control

• The “Hard Shut in Method” will be used (Typically using the Upper Annular)
• For all cases where there is a high SICP (or likelihood that this will result during the kill
operations), movement of pipe through the BOP because of weather, or there is the
potential for loss of rig position (e.g. use of Dynamic Positioning), the drill pipe will be
hung off on a dedicated hang off ram following initial shut in. If none of these
conditions apply, then it is possible to keep the well shut in on an Annular, with slow
movement of the pipe to prevent stuck pipe. In this instance an outlet should be
available below the annular used for shut in.
• When water base mud is in use, the Driller’s Method will be the normal method of well
control. If OBM (or SOBM) is in use, the Wait & Weight Method may be used.
However, if there is only a small margin between mud weight and fracture gradient, the
use of the Driller’s Method is suggested such that the pit levels can be very closely
monitored during the kill circulation. Alternative actions should be discussed between
the Rig and shore based operations teams. If immediate actions are required, the Rig
team has the full authority to proceed.
• If a kick is taken off bottom, the bit will be stripped to bottom wherever practical and
safe, prior to attempting to kill the well. Under no circumstances will the drill string be
run back to bottom with the well open and flowing.
• A kick will be assumed to be gas until shown otherwise.
• The major difference to well control with a surface BOP stack is the position of the
BOP and the impact of having to circulate through the relatively long, small choke
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and/or kill lines. These lines impose a significant backpressure upon the circulation
system with the pump on – this backpressure must be accounted for.
• Consideration should be given to installing the following:
- BOP pressure and temperature gauges
- Insulated choke and kill lines (near the BOP)
- Drill pipe tool joint positioning system (based on the delta distance of the rotary
table to top of riser)
• If SOBM is being used, a pressurized riser and a gas handler (annular preventer at the
top of the riser) is recommended.
• Hydrates have been considered a significant issue in deep water drilling. However, if
the simple mitigation methods outlined in this document are taken, hydrates should not
be a problem. Hydrates will not be a problem if SOBM is in use. Particular attention
should be taken with wells where massive lost circulation is possible.
For all wells, steps should be taken to ensure that gas is stopped from rising into the
wellhead connector and freezing the connector.
• Ballooning may be a problem for a deep water well. Procedures must be in place to
ensure that this phenomenon is dealt with in a safe, yet effective way.
See Section 8.3.5 Ballooning / Flowback / Backflow / Supercharging.
The overall Well Control Process (for a kick with the bit on bottom) is:
1. Flowcheck and shut well in.
2. Circulate out kick and kill well with kill weight mud.
3. Sweep the stack and clear the riser of gas.
For WBM, a small gas bubble can be very easily dispersed within the riser by shutting
down the pump and waiting. This approach is very effective for dealing with small gas
bubbles such as those trapped in the BOP after a well control incident.
For OBM (or SOBM) this will not be the case. Only one rig is known to have a
combination of pressured marine riser and surface mud gas handler/outlet to choke. This
is the Nautilus. For this rig a suspected gas bubble in the riser can be circulated out over a
choke, with the riser gas handler closed. For all other rigs, great care must be taken if a gas
bubble (dissolved in OBM) is suspected in the riser. Close attention must be paid to
limiting the size of any potential bubble, by following the appropriate stack sweeping
procedures etc.
Special consideration should be given to the contents of the choke and kill lines with
regard to:
• Fluid Type
• Temperature
• Hydrate inhibition
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7.5.2. Shallow Gas in Deep Water
Shallow Gas - Drilling the Top Hole Section (Riserless)

Shallow gas in a deepwater context is taken to mean encountering a gas bearing formation
when drilling the Top Hole section in a riserless mode. A gas influx may occur because the
formation is effectively overpressured or because of an action (such as swabbing) that
occurs during the drilling or tripping process.
For deep water, the combination of low temperature and high pressure (due to water
depth) should ensure that any gas pockets exist as hydrate. Hydrate will look like gas on a
shallow seismic survey. The approach taken in this work will effectively deal with the
situation whether the gas is in gaseous or hydrate form. If the gas is in hydrate form, there
will be very little (if any) impact upon the drilling performance – there may however be a
very significant impact on future development operations and the presence of hydrate must
be identified .
Under no circumstances will a top hole section be drilled with the riser attached.
As a general philosophy, on floating drilling rigs where there is any risk of shallow gas,
drilling to the first casing point below structural casing will be carried out without taking
returns to surface.
Kicks Once the BOP has been Installed

Once the BOP and drilling riser have been run all kicks must be treated in the conventional
manner - the BOP must be closed and the influx will normally be circulated out in the
conventional way (normally using the Driller’s or Wait & Weight methods).
Discussion of Shallow Gas Problems

• Shallow sands filled with gas are overpressured at the top of the sand.
• The pressure at the base of the sand or at the gas/water contact, if there is one, is
normally equivalent to hydrostatic pressure of seawater at that depth. In some
locations, rapid deposition may have resulted in geo-pressured sands.
• The pressure at the top of the sand will be nearly the same as the pressure at the
bottom, if the sand is gas filled.
• The amount of overpressure (if any) is directly a function of the height of the gas
accumulation above the gas/water contact.
• Shallow gas hazards drilled without either a weighted mud or a riser will kick.
• The time between the start of a kick and the complete unloading of the well will be a
matter of minutes. There is generally very little time to take corrective action.
• It is considered far safer to drill these top hole sections without a riser attached.
• When gas blows out it can produce a plume of aerated low density water. This can
affect the buoyancy of a floating vessel if the gas plume comes to surface beneath it. In
reality, problems have only occurred when hatches were left open on drilling vessels in
a plume and the vessel simply flooded when it lost freeboard or heeled over and sunk
as a result. Chain lockers can also be a danger if they can flood.
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• With increasing water depth and sea current the plume will tend to come to the surface
away from the rig. Mooring or positioning arrangements will be planned to enable the
rig to move clear of the gas plume from the well, should it be necessary to do so.
Other points to note are:
• If the sea water is heavily gas cut, there may be a substantial decrease in the buoyancy
factor making evacuation by sea with the standby boat very hazardous.
• Landing a helicopter on the rig with the wind blowing in the direction of the helideck
would be impossible due to the risk of fire or explosion.
• If the rig has to be evacuated, the main engines will be shut down to remove the
potential for a spark. This will cause the emergency generator to come on line. When
and if it is safe to do so, the OIM will then shut down the emergency generator on his
way to his point of evacuation.
• For most deep water situations, the combination of low temperature and high pressure
due to water depth will mean that if low gravity natural gas exists, then it will exist as
hydrates. As such there will be little or no danger of a gas blow-out. The existence of
such hydrates must be noted for future development consideration. It should be noted
that as temperature increases with drilled depth it is not impossible to drill into free gas
below a hydrate cap.
See Section 5.3 for further details on Shallow Gas
Typical Example of a Pre-Drilling Operations Safety Checklist:

Action √
1 Move off plan in place – Anchors prepared for emergency release (designated
winches depending on weather) – Direction set for DP drive off.
2 Constant monitoring of wind, current, sea state
3 HVAC shut down procedures and mode to be reviewed
4 Gas watch – ROV & Continuous “bubble watch”
5 Standby Vessel positioning
6 (Moored Rig) – Cables or chains marked for easy relocation
7 Radio review
8 Windsocks in place
9 Float valve to be run in string – as near to bit as possible
10 Monitoring of seawater suction points
11 No hot work unless absolutely necessary
12 Test all gas detectors and alarms
13 Prepare at least one hole volume of heavy mud
14 Hold safety meeting & explain procedures
Procedures for moving off in emergency
Prevailing weather conditions
Seismic data
Historical data for area
Use of LWD
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Maximum weather conditions for operations

Reporting procedures
Timing of drilling events
Crew responsibilities
Methods of preventing gas intrusion
Summary of radio channels in use
15 Emergency drill
16 Perform an emergency pull-off drill (if required)
17 Hold an abandon ship drill
18 Double check abandonment equipment
19 Engine exhaust sprays to be on (if fitted)
20 Close and dog deck level watertight doors and hatches
Drilling Operations
It is most likely that the rig can stay on location, even if a gas flow occurs. In deep water
any gas flow is likely to flow away from the rig. The rig should only be moved if it is
directly in the gas boil or downwind from the gas boil and in the gas pocket.
1. While drilling, have the mooring/dynamic positioning controls manned at all times in
case it is necessary to move vessel away from a gas boil in the event of a shallow gas
kick. Do not hesitate to move the vessel in this event, even if drill pipe has not been
withdrawn from the hole.
2. If a gas flow occurs, switch suctions to heavy kill mud and pump at maximum
obtainable rate.
Drilling Solid (in-situ) Hydrates

At the conditions to be encountered in the top hole section, it is possible to drill into in-
situ gas hydrates. In particular, the temperatures are low enough and the pressures high
enough for solid gas hydrates to have formed anywhere that free (methane) gas existed.
Typically 1 cubic foot of hydrate will release 170 SCF of gas as well as 0.8 cubic ft of water
on decomposition. By contrast, 1 cubic foot of formation (9ppg formation pressure at
5000 ft RKB, 30% porosity) will release about 50 SCF of gas.
Hydrates will dissociate to gas and water if the temperature is raised or if the pressure is
reduced. Dissociation may therefore take place as the solid hydrates cuttings are circulated
to the seabed and the pressure is reduced. However, as noted above, although the volume
of gas that could be liberated is about three times the volume that would be liberated as
drilled gas it is not significant and does not constitute a flow. Dissociation in the wellbore
can also occur when the mud gradient is less than the inherent (gas) formation pressure
and dissociation can also take place in the wellbore as the well is deepened and the mud
warms during periods of continuous circulation.
However, dissociation is a slow process and immediate disassociation of the hydrate will
not take place. As a result, there will not be a flow of gas into the wellbore from a
penetrated hydrate section in the same way that would be for a column of gas where the
formation pressure was greater than wellbore pressure.
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If a hydrate section is penetrated, proper consideration must be given to the long term
potential consequences. In particular, the potential for warming of the formation around
the wellbore and subsequent production of gas must be considered. If any signs of
potential in-situ hydrates are seen (drilling rate changes, gas at seabed etc..), these must be
reported to the Senior Drilling Supervisor.
Finally (and for all wells) it is most important to obtain a good cement job around the
conductor casing. This may prevent gas migration around the conductor and potential
hydrate formation in the BOP/Wellhead connector.
7.5.3. Shallow Water Flow

Shallow water flows are uncontrolled water flows which occur when drilling shallow top
hole sections. The flow may be from one formation to another or from a formation to the
seafloor through the wellbore or through the wellbore and then by broaching around the
previously set casing string.
General Information and Planning

Shallow water flows have been seen in some areas, in particular the GOM deep water in
water depths beyond 150m (500 ft) and at depths ranging from 60m (200 ft) to 600m (2000
ft) below the mudline. These flows may also be found in other similar depositional
environments. Once a shallow water flow starts it is very difficult to stop because of the
very small margin between pore pressure and fracture gradient.
Typically the sands within which such flow occurs are geo-pressured because of rapid
sedimentation.
The flow may start:
• After a sweep removes cuttings from the well and the hydrostatic pressure is reduced
• During a cement job with the cement in its transition phase
During the planning stage, potential shallow water flow zones may be identified using a
combination of seismic and offset well information. The potential for shallow water flow is
higher when sands are overlaid with sediments deposited at a high sedimentation rate. A
cut-off rate is about 150m (500 ft) per million years – if the sedimentation rate is greater
than this, treat the sands below as having overpressure.
If overpressures are suspected, it is prudent to consider relocating the surface location (if
possible).
A PWD tool may give a first indication of the existence of a shallow water flow. LWD can
be used to confirm the actual depth of seismic markers.
Potential Drilling Techniques for Shallow Water Flow (SWF) Zones

• Try to avoid potential shallow water flow locations – relocate if necessary
• Jet the conductor. Minimize seawater pumped before setting conductor
• Minimize the diameter of the hole drilled to allow for good cuttings removal. Pump
sweeps every stand. Tracers can be added to sweeps (dye, mica) to try to evaluate flow,
washouts etc.. The goal is to avoid charging of formations with cuttings load.
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• Use a weighted drilling mud – typically this may require shipping a heavy brine to the
location, with on-board dilution, such that the large volumes required can be kept up
with.
• When heavy mud is used to prevent a shallow water flow the mud weight should be
targeted to offset the potential hydrostatic pressure, but not too high to cause
fracturing or ballooning. The formation pressure may be 80-90% of the overburden.
Fluid loss should be kept low (<10 cc/30 min) along with low, flat gel strength (10 sec.,
10 min, 30 min.), YP – 10, PV – 15. The low gel strengths should allow for efficient
cement displacement at the low annular velocities.
• Dynamic kills (if required) should be pumped at the highest possible rate (the annulus
friction pressure will be low anyway, given the hole size). If not successful after 2 hole
volumes, then success is unlikely.
• Use LWD and PWD near the bit to correlate to seismic and monitor downhole
pressures.
• After penetrating a sand, clean the hole and check for flow. Allow time to observe if a
flow dissipates. Charging of a sand (cuttings) can give a false indication of a flow zone.
• The casing point should be as close to the shallow flow zone as possible.
• If flow is encountered and casing is to be set above the flow zone, then heavy mud can
be spotted below the proposed casing shoe.
• Pay very close attention to cementing practices. In particular, it is imperative to have as
short a transition time (time from the onset of hydration until the cement has sufficient
gel strength to prevent flow). Compressive cements are suggested, such as Microfine
and Nitrogen Foamed.
• Surging should be avoided when running casing.
• For development wells (with clustered locations), well spacing should be maximized.
• Consider using other “non-conventional” approaches, such as use of in-situ
polymerization, freezing the SWF zone etc.
A number of mechanical devices are available to help control SWF between casing strings.
It is beyond the scope of this manual to discuss these, but consideration should be given to
such devices.
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7.5.4. Pre-Kick Preparation

Note:– the following is taken from the IADC Deep water Well Control Guidelines
Casing • Measure pressure integrity of casing shoes, i.e. by leak-off/integrity tests
Shoe • Post both ppg equivalent and associated surface pressure for the mud weight in use
• Update this pressure periodically and when drill string, mud property, or other changes occur which may affect pressure.
Slow Pump • Post slow pump data (for at least two pumps) on both drill pipe friction loss and both C&K Line Friction Pressures (CLFP)
Rate • Take pressures on two gauges reading from separate sources to guard against gauge failure
• Note the pressure required to break circulation the first time, and record this value for use in kick detection and circulation procedures
• Ensure that cuttings in hole and riser do not affect slow pump data
• Additional methods can be employed at the time of the kick to update this data, i.e. using static C&K line or subsea pressure sensor
Note: Slow pump test rates should represent anticipated kill rates (which may be as low as 1-2 BPM in deep water).
C&K Line • Use CLFP to help establish initial circulating casing pressure
Friction • Recognize that in deep water the CLFP is likely to change such that test data are only estimates
Pressures • Measure and record pressure losses with low circulation rate through the lines in parallel*
One option to reduce friction losses during well control in a deep water wells is to circulate the kick using the two choke and kill lines in parallel.
Kill Sheet • Maintain an up-to-date kill sheet designed for a subsea BOP
Float Valve • Use a float valve to prevent backflow, i.e. when removing the top drive (or kelly) from the drill string
• Use a float valve to guard against backflow through drill pipe during an emergency disconnect and/or failure of the shear rams to seal
Note: Flow up from the drill pipe can impede the ability to stab a safety valve
C&K line • Show C&K line valve positions on a chart/white board indicating which valves are open/closed and C&K line fluid contents (mud versus
valve water)
positions • Show the relationship between the surface tool joint location and corresponding tool joint location opposite the BOP stack rams and annulars
• Calculate and post the distance and proper spacing for each stand to help with space-out, if variation in stand length warrants
Note: As water depth increases, the variation in drill pipe joint length can create too much uncertainty in tool joint position: this potential problem can be reduced by
arranging joints so that 10-stand average lengths do not vary by more than a set amount, i.e. 0.1 feet.
Mud Gas • Post liquid and gas handling capacity of mud-gas separator
Separator • Compare these to the maximum anticipated gas rates that would result from planned well control procedures and well and C&K line geometry,
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Capacity i.e. pumping rate, design kick

Diverter • Keep diverter insert packer installed and locked except when handling BHA larger than manufacturer’s stated diameter capacity
• Post diverter element status (in/out)
Designated • Identify designated hang-off ram
hang-off • If it is a VBR type, post the hang-off capabilities for the various DP sizes in the hole
ram • Specify if rams are to be locked after closure (independent locks)
Personnel • Perform BOP drills (pit and trip) regularly, including tool joint space out to ensure crew competency
drills • Consider having crews perform “stripping drills” prior to drill out of the casing shoes to ensure crew competency in handling stripping
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7.5.5. Flowcheck / Shut In Procedures
Flowcheck/Shut In Procedure - Drilling “Hard” Shut In – (Upper) Annular

1. Pick up to predetermined space out height with the pumps running
2. Stop pumping (incl. Boost pump)
3. Close the upper annular
Flow Increase
4. Set the compensator to mid-stroke to minimize movement through the
Pit Gain Stop drilling & raise pipe to
annular
shut in position with pumps on 5. Open the fail-safes corresponding to the closed BOP against a closed
Other choke
Indication: 6. Continue to flow check the riser and if flow continues Close the Diverter
Stop pumps (incl. Boost pump)
Pump Press. Drop and (Upper) Pipe Ram (reconfirm space out before closing the (U)PR)
Drill break 7. Record pressures at the BOP, Choke and Standpipe at 1 minute
Etc.. intervals. The cold environment and gelled mud within the choke line
Flow may preclude measuring SICP. If this is the case, it may be necessary
Check to close a second BOP and flush through the choke and kill lines before
Yes
(keep pipe
Obviously opening up below the lowermost closed BOP and measuring SICP.
moving) 8. Record the Volume of the influx
Flowing?
No If Flow 9. Close the standpipe back to the mud pumps
Increase or 10. Inform the Drilling Supervisor and Toolpusher
Pit Gain, 11. Confirm that the choke is closed
Line up on Trip 12. Check all surface systems for any leaks
Shut In
Tank & record level 13. Run the Trip Tank on the Annulus if the diverter has not been closed –
Immediately
note and record the level every 10 minutes
Monitor Trip Tank
Hang off the drill string on the Designated Hang-off Pipe Rams if:
A. there is movement of the drill string through the annular due to weather
B. the differential pressure across the BOP is greater than 1000 psi or
likely to become greater than 1000 psi. Any pipe movement with this
Flowing?
No high a pressure may cause premature annular wear
Yes
C. DP rigs
D. There is no choke line outlet immediately below the annular
Resume Operation Shut Well In

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“Hard” Shut In – (Upper) Annular

Flowcheck/Shut In Procedure - Tripping 1. Set the string in slips. Stab the FOSV and close the FOSV (unless
already done)
2. Pick up to the pre-determined space out height
• Prior to a Trip
3. Close the (Upper) Annular and open the Failsafe Valves corresponding to
• Incorrect fill-up the closed BOP against a closed choke
• Any indication that Flow Warning Sign Occurs, or 4. Continue to flow check the riser and if flow continues Close the Diverter
the well is flowing other requirement for Flow and other (Lower) Annular.
• Before the BHA Check 5. Reset the slips and make up the top drive – may need to strip a tool joint
reaches the BOPs through (Upper) Annular to enable make up (to strip: lower Annular
operating pressure to a value previously determined by the
OIM/Toolpusher – typically this may be 500 psi plus ¼ x SICP, but can be
Stab the FOSV (Open Position) measured in a drill (before drilling out casing) to determine actual
numbers.
6. Open the FOSV and confirm the top drive IBOPs are open. Pull the slips
7. Record pressures at the BOP, Choke and Standpipe at 1 minute
Pick up drill string to shut in Position intervals. The cold environment and gelled mud within the choke line may
preclude measuring SICP. If this is the case, it may be necessary to
close a second BOP and flush through the choke and kill lines before
Yes opening up below the lowermost closed BOP and measuring SICP.
Obviously Shut 8. Record the Volume of the influx
Flowing? FOSV 9. Close the standpipe back to the mud pumps
10. Set the compensator at mid –stroke to minimize movement through the
No Annular Preventer
11. Inform the Drilling Supervisor and Toolpusher
Line up on Trip Tank. Note 12. Confirm that the choke is closed
and record level of trip tank 13. Check all surface systems for any leaks
14. Run the Trip Tank on the Annulus if the diverter has not been closed –
note and record the level every 10 minutes
Monitor Trip Tank
15. Hang off the drill string on the Designated Pipe Rams if:
A. there is movement of the drill string through the annular due to weather
B. the differential pressure across the BOP is greater than 1000 psi or likely
Flowing? to become greater than 1000 psi.
C. DP Rigs
Shut D. There is no choke line outlet immediately below the annular.
No Yes FOSV
Resume Operation
Shut Well In
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7.5.6. Other Shut in Procedures / Considerations
Other Shut in Procedures/Considerations Shut In Procedure – No Drill String in BOP
Hang-Off on Designated Rams 1. Open choke line valve(s) – don’t wait for valve to open
2. Close the blind/shear rams
1. Reduce the (upper) annular pressure to allow free downward travel of the drill
string. Pick up until a TJ tags the annular preventer and confirm space out 3. Record pit gain – monitor and record casing pressure at 1 minute
intervals
2. Close the designated Pipe Rams, reduce the operating pressure as required
4. Notify Toolpusher and Senior Drilling Supervisor
3. Lower the drill string & hang the TJ off on the designated Pipe Rams (if
weather conditions indicate the potential for rough weather it may be prudent Once the well has been shut in, preparations can be made to run a kill string
to hang off on the (middle) pipe rams – for some BOP arrangements, such as into the well. Given the water depth, it should be possible to strip a drill string
the one shown, there would be a greater potential for dealing with pressure using the upper annular preventer, unless the pressure underneath the shear
underneath the shear rams following a disconnection) rams is very high
4. Increase the ram operating pressure to normal
5. Set down the desired weight on the rams, keeping the compensator at mid- Shut in Procedure – Drill Collars in BOP Stack
stroke
6. Start the trip tank pump and circulate over the well while recording for leaks This situation implies that a trip is in progress. The shut in procedure for
through the BOP or gas in the riser tripping should be followed. Once the well is shut in, preparations should be
made to strip in the hole to:
7. Prepare to kill the well as required (The annular is left closed in case of early a) put drill pipe across the BOP
gas at the BOP) b) strip to bottom and carry out a conventional kill (Driller’s Method)
Shut In Procedure – Wireline in Hole

Drill Pipe Float Valve Pump Off Test
1. Stop logging
2. Open choke line valve(s) – don’t wait for valve to open 1. Line up the mud pumps to the drill pipe
2. Pump in small increments, 50-100 psi into the well
3. Close the (upper) annular preventer 3. Record DP and CP – if the CP does not increase, the float is still closed
4. Record pit gain – monitor and record casing pressure at 1 minute intervals and Shut in-Drill pipe Pressure (SIDPP) is less than the underbalance in
the drill string
5. Notify Toolpusher and Senior Drilling Representative 4. When CP is seen to rise, pumping should be stopped immediately
If at all possible, the wireline should be pulled or stripped out of the hole. If the line 5. Record SIDPP – this now reflects the amount of underbalance in the
must be cut and dropped, a surface cable cutter should be used (This must be string – this is the value to be used when calculating Kill Weight Mud
available during logging jobs). The shear rams should be considered as a last 6. Bleed off any induced pressure
resort and used only if the annulars fail to secure the well.
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7.5.7. Kill Procedure – General and Preparations
General
1. The objective of a conventional kill is to circulate out the influx while maintaining
the bottom hole pressure at slightly more than the formation pressure and displacing
the well to an adequate kill weight mud
2. The Driller’s method is the method of choice for WBM. This will enable any gas to
be circulated from the well as fast as possible and reduce the risk of hydrate
formation. For OBM (or SOBM) the Wait & Weight method may be used – there is
a negligible risk of hydrate formation. However, if there is only a small margin
between mud weight and fracture gradient, the use of the Driller’s Method is
suggested such that the pit levels can be very closely monitored during the kill
circulation.
3. Well control worksheets should be updated every 12 hours to reflect changes in the
drill string, hole geometry, mud weight increases, slow circulating rate pressures and
any other factors which will affect the kill calculations.
During the well kill operation, if anything appears to be wrong or unclear during the
procedure, shut down the pump, close in the well, and evaluate the problem.
7.5.8. Kill Calculations

1. The influx volume is taken to be equal to the pit gain. Accuracy in making this
measurement is required.
2. The bottom hole pressure is equal to the shut in drill pipe pressure plus the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud inside the drill string. If the kick is taken off bottom,
the drill pipe pressure is not a reliable indicator of formation pressure.
3. If the influx is taken with the bit on bottom, the influx density can be estimated
using the shut in drill pipe pressure (SIDPP) and shut in casing pressure (SICP) as
follows:
Influx Density (ppg) = MW – SICP-SIDPP
0.052 x H
Where H is the calculated vertical height (ft) of the influx above the bit determined
from influx volume and annular capacities. This calculation can be inaccurate and all
kicks should be handled as if they were gas until well conditions show otherwise.
4. The required kill weight mud density can be determined as follows:
Kill Mud Density (ppg) = Current Mud Density (ppg) + { SIDPP (psi)}
{TVD (ft) x 0.052}
5. Well control calculations (as shown above) should be updated with the SIDPP, SICP
and pit gain volume.
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7.5.9. Determination of Initial Circulating Pressure

If no slow circulating rate is available, or a change in mud weight or configuration has
occurred (e.g. blocked nozzle), then it will be necessary to determine the initial circulating
pressure. The recommended procedure is as follows:
1. Note the choke pressure and BOP pressure reading
2. Bring the pumps up to the new kill rate while adjusting the choke to maintain the
BOP pressure constant (the choke pressure should reduce by an amount equal to the
choke line friction loss at the selected pump rate)
3. As soon as the new pump rate is reached and the drill pipe pressure has stabilized,
note the drill pipe pressure. This is now the valid initial circulating pressure.
4. If during the constant drill pipe pressure phase of the Driller’s method the drill pipe
pressure changes unexpectedly, shut the well in and evaluate a new circulating
pressure using the above procedure
5. The pump should always be brought up to speed and shut down while maintaining
the BOP pressure constant. On bringing the pump up to speed on a subsea well, the
choke pressure should become smaller by an amount equal to the choke line friction
pressure at the selected pump rate. When the pump is shut down (with the BOP
pressure being maintained constant), the choke pressure should rise by an amount
equal to the choke line friction pressure at the selected pump rate. The choke
pressure can be used as a check on the BOP pressure readings.
7.5.10. Choke & Kill Line Friction - Maintaining a Constant BOP Pressure
Well control procedures as written for a surface BOP/Land well will state. ”Bring the
pump up to speed maintaining constant BOP or choke pressure”. For a subsea well, the
statement is correct if the BOP pressure is maintained constant as the pump is stopped or
started (see Figure 7.2). In this case, the choke pressure must be adjusted to allow for the
friction pressure in the choke and/or kill lines.
When starting a pump (at the start of a kill circulation, for example) the choke pressure
must be reduced by the amount of the choke and/or kill line friction pressure in order to
maintain a constant BOP pressure. When stopping a pump the choke pressure must be
increased by the amount of the choke and/or kill line friction pressure in order to maintain
a constant BOP pressure.
There are three alternatives (see Figure 7.3) for achieving this.
EP 2002-1500 - 235 - Restricted
Maintain constant BOP Maintain constant choke

pressure when bringing (BOP) pressure when
pump up to speed or bringing pump up to
adjusting pump speed or adjusting pump
Figure 7.2: Subsea vs. land / jack-up well control

EP 2002-1500 - 236 - Restricted
P
P
C. Back off choke

A. Utilize BOP B. Utilize kill line as pressure by amount
pressure gauge
monitor equal to measured
choke & kill line
friction pressure
Figure 7.3: Maintain constant BOP pressure when bringing pumps up to speed or
adjusting pumps
A. If a BOP gauge is available, then use it. The choke will still have to be manipulated, but
the control is achieved from the use of the BOP gauge.
B. If the choke/kill line friction pressure is low enough, either the choke or kill line can be
filled with fluid (less dense than the drilling mud) and lined up to a closed valve. This
line will register a positive pressure, even if there is no excess pressure (other than mud
hydrostatic) in the wellbore. The pressure reading on this line can be used as a measure
of the relative pressure at the BOP and can be kept constant as the pump is started or
stopped.
C. If no BOP pressure gauge is available and it is not possible to dedicate a choke or kill
line to BOP pressure monitoring then it will be necessary to back off (or increase)
EP 2002-1500 - 237 - Restricted
(start or stop) the choke pressure by an amount equal to the measured choke and/or
kill line friction pressure loss.
In reality, if A or B is chosen/available, use of the estimate generated for C. is probably
appropriate as there will be a small time delay from action taken at the choke and register
of the change at the BOP pressure gauge or at the surface pressure gauge being used to
monitor BOP pressure.
7.5.11. Selection of Kill Rate & Use of Choke and/or Kill Lines
Determine
SIDPP & Pit
Gain
No Yes
Is hang-off
required
Line up to Kill on Hang off on PR.
(upper) annular & Typically line up kill
using both choke & with both Choke &
kill lines Kill Lines
Select kill rate

Typically 3-5 bpm
Will friction loss in c/k Yes

line at selected rate Reduce
cause lost kill rate
No
No
Check circulating Kick Reduce
Tolerance – OK? kill rate
Yes
Will resultant gas rate at Reduce
surface overwhelm kill rate
No
Proceed with Kill Plan

and Kill the well
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7.5.12. Kill Procedure – Driller’s Method: 1st Circulation

Objectives: Return well to hydrostatic control (if a swabbed kick). Remove any gas from
the well quickly such that the gas does not cool and form hydrates
Well Shut In on Annular
Or Hung Off
Based on:
Select kill rate and use Surface Gas Rate
Choke operation
of Kill line or
Choke & Kill Line friction
Choke and Kill lines
Hang off Bad Weather
Bring Pump up to speed Maintain constant BOP

Pressure. Let a small
additional influx in, rather
than risk overpressuring
Maintain pump speed the well
and pump pressure
while circulating gas
from the well (one
complete circulation
l )
Maintain constant BOP

Shut- Yes additional influx in,
down Stop Pump rather than risk
required? overpressuring the well
No
Warning
Isolate well and The Choke and Kill
flush Choke & Line contents will cool
Kill Line and down to seabed
BOP cavity with temperature in about
mud / glycol 15 minutes. Unless
mixture. you act these areas
will be within the
Fix problem
Hydrate Formation
With gas at surface, Zone
monitor MGS pressure.
Be prepared to route
overboard if MGS
pressure rises to alarm
levels
SICP should = SIDPP &
also equal original
SIDPP at initial shut in.
If not, then further
With gas out, shut circulation required
down & confirm SIDPP
(check for trapped
& SICP
pressures).
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7.5.13. Kill Procedure – Driller’s Method: 2nd Circulation

Objectives: Return well to hydrostatic control
st
SICP=SIDPP=Initial SIDPP? Continue 1 Circ.@ constant
pump rate and pressure Maintain constant BOP
additional influx in,
Bring Pump Up To Speed rather than risk
overpressuring the well
Maintain pump speed and Monitor pump pressure

and compare to pre-
constant choke/BOP pressure determined pump pressure
while circulating Kill Weight Mud schedule (W&W). If
down the drill pipe to the bit different, stop & think

Shut-down Yes additional influx in,
required? Stop Pump rather than risk
No
Maintain pump speed and Isolate well, flush

constant drill pipe pressure Choke & Kill lines and
while circulating gas from BOP cavity with Mud /
the well (one complete glycol mix. Fix problem
circulation plus excess)

additional influx in,
Shut-down Yes Stop Pump
required? rather than risk
Isolate well, flush

No Choke & Kill lines and
BOP cavity with Mud /
glycol mix. Fix problem
With KW mud above BOP, monitor pump
pressure. If this is rising (with choke wide
open) be prepared to slow kill down (OR shut pressure while you slow
down, isolate well and flush kill weight mud the pumps down. This will
through choke & kill lines to avoid maintain the proper BHP
overpressuring casing shoe
With kill mud all the way With SIDPP & SICP=0, open choke
round, shut down and to mini trip tank and perform flow
confirm SIDPP &SICP=0 check. If no flow then well is dead.
If >0 continue circulation If flow then review, raise MW,
increase MW etc. circulate etc.
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7.5.14. Kill Procedure – Wait and Weight

Objectives: Return well to hydrostatic control in the most efficient manner
Well Shut In on Annular
Or Hung Off
Based on:
Surface Gas Rate
Select kill rate and use of Choke operation
Kill line or Choke & Kill Line friction
Choke and Kill lines Hang off Bad Weather

Bring Pump up to speed Pressure. Let a small additional
influx in, rather than risk
Maintain pump speed and

pressure following established
pump pressure schedule (adjust
based on measures pump
pressure with pump up to speed).
When kill weight mud reaches bit,
maintain constant pump pressure
Yes
Shut-down
Stop Pump
required?
Maintain BOP
pressure constant
No Isolate well, flush while slowing pumps
Choke & Kill lines
With gas at surface, monitor MGS and BOP cavity
pressure. Be prepared to shut with Mud / glycol
down / go overboard if MGS mix. Fix problem
Warning
pressure rises to alarm level The Choke and Kill
Line contents will cool
down to seabed
temperature in about
With KW mud above BOP, monitor pump 15 minutes. Unless
you act these areas
pressure. If this is rising (with choke wide will be within the
open) be prepared to slow kill down (OR shut Hydrate Formation
down, isolate well and flush kill weight mud Zone
through choke & kill lines to avoid over
pressuring casing shoe
With SIDPP & SICP=0, open

With kill mud all the way
choke to mini trip tank and
round, shut down and
perform flow check. If no flow
confirm SIDPP & SICP=0
then well is dead. If flow then
If >0 continue circulation
review, raise MW, circulate etc.
increase MW etc.
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7.5.15. Choke Adjustment Considerations

When using the Driller’s or Wait & Weight methods, it may be necessary to make
adjustments to the Drill Pipe Pressure by manipulating the choke. The correct method is:
1. When a change is desired on the Drill Pipe Pressure, note the amount of pressure
change required
For example, if the current Drill Pipe Pressure is 850 psi and the desired Drill
Pipe Pressure is 1000 psi, the amount of change is an additional 150 psi
2. Note the current Choke Pressure and by manipulating the choke, change the Choke
Pressure by the amount of change desired on the Drill Pipe Pressure.
For example, continuing from the example in 1 above, if the current Choke Pressure
is 1050 psi, the choke operator should close the choke to increase the Choke
Pressure by 150 psi to 1200 psi.
3. Wait at least two seconds for every 1000 ft of measured depth of the well for the
pressure change to come from the Choke to the Drill Pipe Pressure gauge. (this delay
time may be confirmed by using a choke reaction test, which would be performed
before drilling out of casing)
The Drill Pipe Pressure should now change (after 20 seconds or so) to the desired reading
(1000 psi). If it only comes up to 980 psi, the procedure is repeated (the Choke Pressure
raised by 20 psi etc.). The key to success is to allow a time lag between choke adjustment
and the change at the Drill Pipe Pressure gauge.
7.5.16. Preventing Hydrate Formation within the BOP Stack – Use of WBM
Gas hydrates, which are solid, ice-like crystals, can form when a mixture of gas (methane,
ethane etc..) and water is cooled below a hydrate formation temperature. The higher the
pressure, the more likely that hydrates will form. Conditions at the BOP are such that
hydrates could form. In particular the seabed temperature is close to 0 deg C. Hydrates do
not form at the instant that conditions fall below the formation temperature. It can take
some time while “nucleation sites” become available. Once hydrates have formed, they will
be very difficult and time consuming to remove.
There is a 3-part process to preventing hydrate formation within the BOP, consisting of:
1. Inhibiting the mud system. Salt and glycol when added to the mud system are
effective in lowering the hydrate formation temperature. It may not be possible (or
economic) to inhibit the mud system to the extent that hydrates will not form under
any potential temperature/pressure combination. Note: The computer program
WHYP (partly developed by Shell) can be used to determine the level of inhibition
that is appropriate.
2. Removing the gas from the wellbore as soon as possible – The Driller’s method has
been selected in preference to the Wait & Weight method in order to achieve this
objective
3. It is always best to maintain a constant circulation. However, if a shut down is
required for any length of time (more than 10 minutes), the well should be isolated
using the lower pipe rams and inhibited fresh mud (at the same weight as is in the
choke and kill lines) should be circulated down the choke line and up the kill line.
EP 2002-1500 - 242 - Restricted
This will ensure that hydrates do not form and block the BOP and choke lines. If the
shutdown is to be for an extended period, the choke and kill line should be displaced
to inhibited glycol/seawater mixture as per normal drilling practice. This action will
also prevent the settling of drill solids and subsequent blockage of the choke and kill
lines.
When SOBM is in use, the hydrates will not form unless water has been introduced to the
system.
7.5.17. Sweeping the Stack & Clearing the Riser- General Issues
Following a well control circulation there are three types of potential situation where gas
may be trapped in the BOP stack. These are:
a) Very small amount of potential trapped gas (< ½ barrel) at the BOP stack..
b) Able to pump down choke/kill line and flush trapped gas up kill/choke line. Although
there is the potential for a larger volume of gas to be trapped under the BOP, this
potential larger volume can be (and must be) flushed up the choke/kill line once the
kill circulation is finished and with the well isolated using the lower pipe rams.
c) Large volume of trapped gas – poor BOP configuration/valving inoperable. Here the
potential for a significant amount of trapped gas dictates that the BOP must be
“swept”.
These options are shown below
(A) Very small

trapped volume
CLEAR GAS
(B) Able to flush FLUSH BOP between
trapped volume Pipe Rams & (Upper) FROM RISER
Annular
(C) Large volume SWEEP THE

of trapped gas
STACK
Details of the approach to be taken are dependent on the BOP configuration. The
examples given below are based on the configuration shown in Figure 7.4.
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7.5.18. Clearing the Riser of Gas

The key to performing this operation safely is to allow time for any gas to disperse.
Dispersion will occur for gas in WBM – it is not the case for gas in OBM. FOR OBM IT
IS ESSENTIAL THAT THE REMAINING GAS/OBM VOLUME IS LESS THAN ½
BARREL
With the well still isolated – lower pipe rams closed

1. Displace the riser to kill weight mud through the booster line.
2. When complete open the annular preventer.
3. Pump 3 to 4 barrels kill weight mud down the kill line (choke line if UPR used) to
displace any remaining gas above the BOP.
4. Check for flow (15 minutes)
5. Line up and pump kill weight mud down both choke and kill lines & displace 1/4 of
the riser with kill weight mud.
7. Pump kill weight mud through the choke and kill lines and displace another 1/4 of
the riser volume.
the riser volume.
the riser volume.
12. Check for flow (15 minutes). Confirm kill weight mud throughout riser (mud weight
check at flowline plus BOP pressure gauge)
13. Circulate and condition kill weight mud in riser.
14. Close the upper choke line valves on the BOP. Line up the choke line to a closed
choke and open the lower choke line valves to check for any pressure build up below
the closed lower pipe rams. If no pressure proceed with step 15.
15. Close the lower choke valves on the BOP. Line up and displace the kill line and
choke line to unweighted inhibited mud. Close the fail safe valves on the BOP. Open
the lowermost pipe rams and condition the mud in the hole.
If at any time during this procedure, gas migration is indicated by an increasing flowrate
from the riser, shut the well in using the annular and close the surface diverter. Investigate
the cause of the flow and take the necessary steps (e.g. additional Driller’s method, clearing
the riser of gas) to regain control.
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7.5.19. Flushing the BOP

In this case there is potential trapped gas between the Pipe Rams and the (Upper) Annular,
but the (Upper) Annular has remained operable throughout the kill.
1. Isolate the well using the Lower Pipe Rams. This is done by:
a) Open the Upper Pipe Rams (if they were closed for the kill). Check the riser to
confirm that there is no flow. Reduce the upper annular pressure sufficiently to
allow free travel of the drill string. Pick up until a TJ tags the annular preventer
and confirm space out. Close the Lower Pipe Rams. Reduce the operating
pressure as required.
b) Lower the drill string and the TJ onto the Lower Pipe Rams. Hang the drill string
off on the Lower Pipe Rams. Increase the ram operating pressure to normal.
2. Line up to the mini trip tank and flowcheck the well.
3. Circulate (at least one volume of the combined choke and kill lines) kill weight mud
down the choke line, taking returns from the kill line through the variable choke,
until no more gas returns.
4. Leave the fail safe valves on the kill line open (all other fail safes closed) and line up
to a closed choke. Monitor BOP and choke pressures (should be constant).
At this point there should be a minimum of gas at the BOP. The riser can now be
displaced to kill weight mud and cleared of gas.
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Flushing The BOP: Typical Subsea BOP Arrangement

(Potential Location of Trapped Gas)
CHOK KILL
LINE Original
LINE
Weight Mud
P/T
Upper Annular
Pressure/Temperature
Gauge at LMRP Package
LMRP
Upper Connector
BOP
Lowe
Lower Annular Annula
POTENTIAL
GAS
Blind/Shear #1
Spacer Spool Pressure/
Temperature
Gauge at BOP
Upper Pipe #2
P/T
VBRs
#3
Lower Pipe #4
Kill Weight
Mud
Figure 7.4: Flushing the BOP

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7.5.20. Sweeping the Stack

1. Isolate the well using the Lower Pipe Rams. This is done by:
a) Open the (Upper) Pipe Rams (if they were closed for the kill). Check the riser
to confirm that there is no flow. Reduce the upper annular pressure sufficiently
to allow free travel of the drill string. Pick up until a tool joint tags the annular
preventer and confirm space out. Close the Lower Pipe Rams. Reduce the
operating pressure as required.
b) Lower the drill string and the tool joint onto the Lower Pipe Rams. Hang the
drill string off on the Lower Pipe Rams. Increase the ram operating pressure to
normal.
2. Circulate (inhibited) seawater down the upper choke line taking returns from the
upper kill line through the variable choke with a backpressure to maintain the
pressure at the BOP equal to a kill line full of kill weight mud. The BOP pressure
gauge will confirm this. Stop when the choke line has been displaced with (inhibited)
seawater. There may have been some gas that was flushed to surface during this step.
Isolate the choke and kill lines against closed chokes.
3. Confirm the displacement of the kill line using the choke and BOP pressure gauges.
(The choke manifold gauge (choke side) should read the difference in hydrostatic
between a column of kill weight mud and a column of inhibited seawater - the BOP
gauges should read the hydrostatic of a column of kill weight mud.)
4. Close the kill line valves at the BOP. Line up the choke on the choke line side to take
returns to the mud gas separator. Open the choke, and allow any inhibited seawater
and trapped gas to blow back (AND OVERBOARD) through the mud gas
separator. Allow this process to occur until no more fluid or gas comes through the
choke.
5. Close the diverter and line up to the riser degasser.
6. Open the lower annular preventer and the choke. Because the fluid in the riser is
heavier than the inhibited seawater, U-tubing will occur from the riser into the choke
line. Continuously fill the riser (with mud) and using the riser boost pump during this
operation.
7. If there is no flow from the riser, open the diverter. Check the riser for flow (15
minutes).
During this period close the lower annular preventer and circulate kill weight mud down
the kill line and up the choke line, and through the choke and mud gas separator to
completely displace the choke and kill lines with kill weight mud.
At this point there should be a minimum of gas at the BOP. The riser can now be
displaced to kill weight mud and cleared of gas.
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7.5.21. Kick Off Bottom

The best chance of controlling the well is if the string can be stripped back to bottom
through closed preventers. Once the drill string has been stripped to bottom, standard well
control procedures can be employed.
Under no circumstances if the well is flowing, may the pipe be run back in the well without
stripping.
For a subsea BOP, annular stripping only will be considered.
The decision on whether to strip to bottom or not will depend on surface pressures,
distance from bottom and available equipment. In general for surface pressures less than
1000 psi, it should be possible to strip to bottom. For higher pressures, stripping should
also be considered as long as it can be accomplished without additional hazard to
personnel.
If stripping in is not possible due to high surface pressures, then for gas and WBM
combinations the preferred method is to use the Volumetric Method (see section 5.17) to
allow the expanding bubble to rise to surface. Bullheading of heavy mud into the annulus
may also be considered where the influx is likely to contain H2S or where surface pressures
are approaching 80% of casing yield strength. It may also be very effective for OBM,
where the bullhead injection rate can be quite slow. Circulation off bottom should only be
considered if it is known that the influx is 100% liquid which will not release gas as it
comes to surface or if all the influx is above the bit. DO NOT circulate off bottom if there
is a risk that there is any gas below the bit.
Because of the complicated nature of these types of operations, the rigsite supervisory
personnel should take the time to carefully think through the process and agree upon a
plan before beginning. If time permits, the plan should also be discussed with the Shore
based team. Be aware that (for gas and WBM) if the kill operation is not started shortly
after the kick is taken the gas will begin to migrate up the well.
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8. ADVANCED WELL CONTROL
8.1. Advanced Well Control – Overview

Advanced well control is different to “Normal” well control because the margin within
which all operations have to take place is very small. This very small margin is common in
deepwater wells with geo-pressure, (GOM deepwater wells are prime examples) and in the
reservoir section of an HPHT well. The approach to dealing with both of these types of
wells is similar.
Figure 8.1. shows the impact of this difference.
It should be noted that because of the very small margins, it is much easier (if the correct
attention is not given) to cross either the upper (fracture pressure) or lower (formation
pressure) boundary and therefore induce losses or gains.
The requirements for planning and carrying out operations within this type of well have
been extensively looked at with respect to HPHT drilling. One important key to preventing
well control incidents is by close attention to well pressure indicators and to ensure close
control of all drilling operations such as tripping. In addition, close control is required in
order to minimize any influx and avoid losses or any other complication.
The key difference between “Normal” and “Advanced” wells is that for “Normal” well
control, operations can be monitored and controlled using drill pipe pressures and
parameters. These “Normal” monitoring and control techniques have been taught for years
within company and industry well control schools. For “Advanced” well control it is
essential to both monitor and control the annulus.
Whereas the drillpipe is typically full of mud of known density and properties, by contrast
the annulus may contain:
• Mud
• Cuttings
• Oil
• Gas
• Water
In most cases it is somewhat uncertain as to the quantities, properties and position of these
components. In addition:
• There are some very complex relationships between the components (for example,
gas will readily dissolve in OBM or SOBM)
• Downhole mud weights and rheologies may vary significantly with temperature and
pressure
The key to successfully managing well control under these circumstances are:
1. Understanding pressures within the well, such that the appropriate control can be
applied – at this time a combination of engineering calculations and (incomplete)
PWD measurements are valuable.
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2. Understanding how events will develop, such that any signs of an escalating situation
can be recognized early and the appropriate corrective action taken at the earliest
possible opportunity
The diagrams below show what can happen with time for an operation of, drilling, Fracture Pressure
flow check, shut-in and conventional kill. The diagrams show pressure at the bit
over time. Note that until the flowcheck, the pressures are increasing (the bit is Formation Pressure
getting deeper), Following the flowcheck, the pressures and events are at a fixed
depth. Margin of Underbalance
Margin of Overbalance
Pressure
Normal Operations
Large margin
Kill-safety margin between formation
imposed & prevents pressure and fracture
additional influx – gradient – allows for
Formation Pressure still plenty of margin safety margins
to avoid losses (without losses) and
Increases, Kick taken
Shut simple control using
in drillpipe pressure
methods – little
attention paid to
annulus
Flow Check
Pressure
Normal Operations
applied to well with
small margin
between formation
pressure and
fracture gradient –
great potential for
losses and gains –
very serious if
Time annulus not closely
monitored
Pressure
Advanced Control
applied to well with
small margin
between formation
pressure and
fracture gradient –
Annulus closely
monitored and
Time control is based on
combination of
annulus and drill
pipe measurements
Figure 8.1: Normal and advanced well control: the difference

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The understanding that is required to master these wells has really only occurred following
the development of realistic rheology and well control (software) programs.. An example of
the use of such software is given at the back of this section.
As well as requiring software, it is typically required that well and rig specific calculations be
carried out both when planning such wells and during the drilling process. The costs of
performing such work are much smaller than the costs of the remedial work, which will
almost certainly follow operations carried out in the “normal” or industry standard manner.
Serious consideration should be given to combine specialists services with the support of a
Real Time Operating Centre (RTOC). Latest technology makes it possible to facilitate
remote monitoring. This offers an excellent opportunity for enhanced data evaluation,
trend analyses, pore pressure prediction and software modelling by expertise staff in the
RTOC combined with timely feedback to the well site on critical information.
For “Normal” well control operations, it should be assumed (confirmed etc..) that the
drilling contractor has in place procedures and training which will properly cover potential
events.
For “Advanced” well control operations, the understanding of the potential events should
be assumed to be beyond the capabilities of the drilling contractor. It will therefore be
imperative to formulate well and rig specific procedures and to properly communicate
these to the drilling contractor in discussion and in special training sessions. Failure to go
this extra step will put both the operation and personnel safety at risk.
8.2. Suggested Drilling Practices

Drilling operations on complex (advanced) wells require a greater attention to detail over
conventional wells. This section covers the main issues.
8.2.1. Introduction
In addition to the understanding that is required, it is necessary to be far more precise in
measuring and monitoring the drilling activity in general. For example, in a “Normal”
drilling operation it is quite normal to be adding chemicals to the active pit while drilling
ahead. Connections will be made as required and the time taken for connections may be
somewhat inconsistent, depending on several factors. By contrast, it will be important to
keep a much tighter control on operations when drilling in an “Advanced” status. The mud
pit levels should be kept as constant as is possible (so that an influx can be identified early
and therefore the size of any influx can be minimized) and connections should be
consistent in operation and in time, such that any connection gas trends can be readily
identified and any increase of formation pressure determined.
8.2.2. Drilling With Small Margins

1. Ensure that the flowline run-off volume (flowback) and the time it takes to drain
back (drainback) during connections is documented. Flowback must be accurately
monitored - this may require diverting flow from the well into the trip tank when the
pump is turned off and comparing against a base case when making connections.
Once back to drilling, the pit level after the connection should be compared to that
immediately before the connection. Any increase must be dealt with (Flow check – if
positive, shut in etc.. – if negative, put bottoms up over choke if no reason for the pit
gain can be found)
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2. Unless reservoir pressure has been confirmed, do not drill ahead if pit activities such
as weighting up mud, transferring, or centrifuging are in progress. These activities
could mask an influx from the well. Stop and circulate if these activities cannot be
avoided. However, simultaneous drilling and treating of the mud may take place in
circumstances where all parties involved in monitoring mud volumes are confident
that the instrumentation allows measurement of the total volume of mud (i.e. both in
the active and in the pit being bled in or treated).
3. The BOP and Choke manifold valves shall be lined up for the Hard Shut In.
4. Bit nozzle size shall be kept as large as practicable to facilitate pumping of LCM or
cement should the need arise.
5. Cross check well critical pressure gauges on the rig floor, mud loggers cabin and
cement unit to ensure accurate calibration and operation. This can be achieved
during a BOP or choke manifold pressure test.
6. Rotate slowly (about 30 RPM) and pick up drillstring prior to breaking circulation to
help break gels etc.
7. When not circulating for any significant period of time, the well should be monitored
by circulating across the trip tank.
8. The Trip Tank should be kept half full when not in use. This will provide a more
accurate reading for measuring returns and a supply of mud for pumping into the
well if required. If it is not being used, the contents should be pumped out and
replaced every tour to ensure it has the same properties as the mud in use.
9. At no time during any well control situation should the well be allowed to flow in order
to prevent the casing pressure exceeding the formation breakdown pressure. (i.e.,
There will be no automatic MAASP setting).
8.2.3. Mud Weight/Hydraulics Management

• Downhole mud density is dependent on both downhole pressure and temperature.
• Downhole pressure is heavily influenced by annulus friction as well as static mud
weight.
It will be important to accurately track both factors while drilling the well. This tracking
can be carried out using a combination of PWD measurements and results from drilling
hydraulics software (such as WellPlan for Windows). Additional support through an RTOC
is recommended.
The objectives of a mud weight/hydraulics management program are:
• Maintain sufficient downhole wellbore pressure at all times to overbalance any
potential producing formation
• Maintain, where possible, sufficient margin between formation fracture pressure
(weakest exposed formation) and the wellbore pressure such that mud losses and
subsequent flowback (ballooning) do not occur – this may not be possible
• Allow operations to be carried out in an efficient manner (e.g. allow reasonable tripping
speeds, circulating rates etc.)
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Note: The mud properties must also be managed to:

• Keep the hole clean
• Provide appropriate hydraulics (i.e. avoid excessive swab/surge and annular friction
pressure)
• Maintain suspension of barite even during long shut-down periods
• Avoid excessive pressures to break gels after a shutdown period
The can be achieved as follows:
Assess the formation pressures to be encountered
1. Measure the fracture pressure of the weakest exposed formation (perform a LOT at
the casing shoe)
2. Assess the overall margin for well operations, i.e. the difference between potential
producing formation pressure and weakest exposed formation fracture pressure.
3. Assess the impact of well operations (e.g. circulating, tripping on downhole
pressures)
4. Set the downhole static pressure (and then calculate the required surface mud
weight/temperature)
5. Monitor mud density and temperature at the flowline and in the pits – report any
deviations from required or any changes. Note that after a shutdown, the mud may
return at a different temperature and therefore different weight. This may not be a
“real” mud weight change and therefore action (to raise or lower the mud weight)
may not be required.
6. Adjust operating parameters (circulation rates etc..) as required.
7. Monitor well operations and continually reassess margins based on current mud
properties and ongoing operations.
8. Figure 8.2 below shows mud hydraulics management while drilling.
Hydraulics Management while Drilling
Total Margin Available
Margin of uncertainty in Circulating Pressure Safety Factor to Margin of

formation pressure plus @ Normal circulating avoid Lost Circulation uncertainty in
Overbalance to ensure static rates. Modify mud &/or Flowback or Leak Off
wellbore pressure > Formation properties if required Ballooning (100 psi Pressure
Pressure(>200 psi allowed for) allowed for)
Formation Target for Static Wellbore Pressure Fracture Fracture

Pressure Wellbore Pressure while Drilling with Pressure - Pressure -
Pumps on Actual measured by
(downhole) LOT
Figure 8.2: Mud Hydraulics Management While Drilling

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8.2.4. Combining PWD and Modelling

• The combination of PWD information and realistic hydraulics modelling is very
powerful and should be used to the maximum while drilling this well.
• The PWD readings (while available) will be used to “calibrate” the hydraulics modelling
software
• PWD information will indeed tell you the value of downhole static and circulating
pressures. It may also allow for the recognition of ballooning or flow back. However,
unless realistic modelling is utilised there is no means of checking the PWD data itself
and the reasons for such PWD information are not necessarily apparent. The
combination of the two tools provides a comprehensive picture of what is occurring
downhole and at other points in the wellbore. Activities in the RTOC will further
enhance the focus on pore pressure, hydraulics and bore hole pressure profiles.
• Finally, once there is confidence in the modelling (“fingerprinting”) it is possible to
continue drilling without the PWD information. In some wells (hot ones) there may be
no choice. In other wells, failure of the PWD may require stopping drilling and
replacing the PWD, unless it can be shown that hydraulics modelling can replace the
lost PWD information.
8.2.5. Pit Discipline

Pit discipline is always important in drilling operations, but in wells where is little margin
this becomes extremely important as the consequence of a mistake can be extremely
serious. The following precautions should be observed as a result:
1. All unexpected pit volume changes should be reacted to as if they were caused by the
well.
2. Always notify the Driller and Mud Loggers prior to transferring mud,
starting/stopping solids control equipment, making chemical additions, dilutions, or
any action that may effect the mud volumes.
3. Consider :
- never add anything to the active mud in quantities that will mask an influx from
the well bore. If large amounts of mud or chemical additions are to be made to
the active mud system, stop and circulate. The Mud Engineer should calculate
the volume increase to be expected.
- do not use the centrifuge on the active system, unless the pit level trend that this
operation produces can be accurately and systematically established.
- always have 2 competent persons at the shale shakers when circulating bottoms
up after trips, flow checks etc.
- be particularly careful to check the pit levels immediately before and after a
pump shut down
4. Once every shift ensure that PVT sensors are fully operational. In addition, confirm
that the volumes recorded by the mud loggers and Driller agree.
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8.2.6. Rate of Penetration

• The ROP should be controlled such that the bit is not too far ahead of bottoms up and
excessive formation pressures drilled into. The Shell supervisor will determine the
maximum distance ahead of bottoms up that the bit is allowed to be. The Mudloggers
will ensure that the Driller knows at all times where bottoms up are from.
• Drilling must be carried out in a consistent manner to enable trends and changes to be
recognized. To enhance the effectiveness of ROP-related pore pressure prediction,
ROP must be controlled by stopping and circulating rather than by altering drilling
parameters. The bit should be allowed to drill as fast as it wants provided WOB, RPM
and SPM remain constant until it is the maximum distance ahead of bottoms up as
determined by the Shell supervisor.
8.2.7. Weight Up Method

• If it is necessary to raise the mud weight in response to pore pressure increase
indicators, such increases in mud weight must normally be carried out by circulating the
mud without drilling ahead – this will allow pressure trends to be properly observed.
8.3. Pressure Indicators and Checks

The pressure indicators observed in standard drilling operations are also encountered in
complex wells (e.g. deepwater / low margin / HPHT) however their interpretation and
evaluation is more critical. In addition, there are a number of phenomena associated almost
exclusively with extreme well conditions.
8.3.1. Mud Gas Levels

Mud gas levels will provide a good indication of pore pressure increase. A rise in
background gas level is a good qualitative indication of pore pressure increase, but care
should be taken when using gas levels to infer pore pressure. There are many factors other
than pore pressure that can alter the readings seen at surface. For this reason it is essential
that certain activities (e.g., connections and flow checks) be carried out in exactly the same
way each time.
Using the above, planned pump rate changes and pipe reciprocation in conjunction with a
knowledge of ECD and swab/surge pressures can be used to induce gas shows into the
annulus which can then be interpreted.
• A standard ‘Pump Off’ procedure should be adopted that can be used to produce an
identifiable response at surface. (e.g., carefully record the results of each such test - the
information the tests provide is only of use when compared with other tests carried out
in the exact same manner).
• Attempt to eliminate step changes in background gas level by maintaining a steady mud
flow rate.
• Attempt to eliminate step changes in drilled gas by maintaining consistent drilling
parameters (an increase in ROP with the same parameters provides additional
information for pore pressure prediction).
• Use quantitative gas level devices to measure gas if possible. Utilize one at the flowline
and one in the active system.
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Two types of verification test can be used. The “pump off” test is used simply to generate
a “dummy connection”. A more severe test (Swab Test) can also be carried out, though
great care is required for this latter test to ensure that a significant influx is not induced.
8.3.2. ‘Pump Off’ Test (Dummy Connection)

1. Drill interval and wipe hole.
2. Circulate for 3 minutes - To separate drilled gas from ‘pump off’ gas.
3. Turn pump off for 10 minutes slowly rotating pipe.
4. Circulate for 3 minutes.
5. Recommence Drilling.
This Pump Off procedure should also be as close as possible to a normal connection to
allow for gas readings to be compared. For example, if the Pump Off time during a normal
connection is 8 minutes, then 2 minutes of additional Pump Off time can be added to the
connection time in order to make the Pump Off time identical to the 10 minutes noted in
Step 3. above. The pipe should be slowly rotated during this additional 2 minutes.
The time interval stated above can be adjusted if it is found not to give a satisfactory
difference between drilled gas and pump off gas. If changed with the agreement of the
Contractor and Company representatives, the new times should be used consistently.
If it is decided that because of changes in drilling trends or behaviour that drilling should
stop while a cuttings sample is circulated to surface, then a Pump Off test may be carried
out once the sample is clear of bottom.
8.3.3. Swab Test

A swab test can be performed to confirm a static overbalance or trip margin. The
procedure is:
1. Pumps off (Top Drive still on). Pull one half-stand 15m (45 feet) at a moderate, but
known and recorded, speed.
2. Back to bottom, circulate for 30 seconds.
3. Pumps Off (Top Drive still on ). Pull one half-stand 15m (45 feet) at same speed and
back to bottom.
4. Back to drilling or circulate bottoms up. When bottoms up are at a designated depth
below the rotary table, returns should be routed through the choke and MGS. The
mud from the mud gas separator can be routed to the shaker where gas can be
measured with the conventional gas measuring device and also with a vacuum mud
still.
5. If close to balance, the test response will be two gas peaks approximately 30 seconds
apart. The reduction in ECD due to swab pressure at the pipe running speed and the
height of the gas peaks can be used to infer pore pressure.
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8.3.4. Other Guidelines

1. All mud weights must be adjusted for temperature to give an accurate reading; a
record of flowline temperature must be kept.
2. Full circulation rate must be established in a slow and controlled manner after a trip
or if the well has been static for an unusually long period. In particular, the drill
string should be slowly rotated and picked up before the pumps are turned on.
3. In smaller hole sections, it is likely that a kick will occur with the pump off. Special
attention must be given when the pump is turned off to accurately gauge the
flowback from the well. It is also imperative to check the pit level immediately after a
pump shut down against the pit level seen immediately before the pump shut down.
Any increase must be dealt with (Flow check – if positive, shut in etc.. – if negative,
put bottoms up over choke if no reason for the pit gain can be found)
4. Swabbing can occur any time the drill string is raised without the pump on. At
connections, the pump must be on while the drill string is raised unless it is intended
to perform a swab test. For floating operations, there will be a swabbing tendency at
connections in rough weather (with the rig heaving). This is acceptable as long as
connections are as consistent as possible and the time while the pipe is moving with
respect to the wellbore and with the pump off is noted.
5. Prior to any trip, the swab pressures and tripping rates will be calculated.
6. It is prudent following any trip, to circulate bottoms up over the choke.
7. At no time during any well control situation will the well be allowed to flow in order
to prevent the casing pressure exceeding the formation breakdown pressure. (i.e.,
There will be no automatic MAASP setting).
8.3.5. Ballooning/Flowback/Backflow/Supercharging
Various theories describe the mechanism by which Supercharging occurs. The most
common are that either there is outward ballooning of the wellbore sides due to mud
hydrostatic and imposed pressures or that these same pressures force mud into fractures in
the rock which increase in length as the pressure continues to be applied. When pressure is
released or reduced then either the ‘balloon’ deflates or the fractures close up, forcing fluid
back into the wellbore and causing an apparent ‘flow’ at surface.
In any well where there is only a small margin between formation and fracture pressures,
ballooning or flowback is a distinct possibility.
The term ‘FLOWBACK’ is not to be confused with ‘DRAINBACK’
Drainback is the term given to the rise in pit level seen when circulation stops and mud in
the tanks, ditches, lines and shaker trays downstream of the flowline, drains back to the
active pits. Flowback itself can also be confused with the normal decay of flow seen at the
flowline when the pumps are stopped. This residual flow is a combination of the time
taken for the moving column of mud in the hole to decelerate to a stop, the bleed off of
the drill string internal pressure through the bit nozzles and the effect of thermal expansion
of mud.
For this reason a measurement of these effects (Drainback and Flow Decay) at different
circulating rates will be done prior to drilling out the intermediate casing shoe (casing that
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is set prior to drilling the hole interval that is prognosed to be the transition zone) and the
well ‘fingerprinted’ for later comparison. Consideration should also be given to measuring
thermal expansion – this is done by simply monitoring any continuing flow at an extended
pump shutdown.
Flowback is not encountered in every high pressure or deepwater well, and the severity of
the problem will depend on the formations encountered, wellbore geometry and the typical
operating procedures used.
The classic supercharging situation encountered in 8-½" or similar size sections of a well
could be triggered by the ECD. Essentially, a flowback could be observed on shutdown of
the pumps, which would look identical to a well flow occurrence. If this flow were shut in,
the shut-in pressure would be equal to or less than the ECD.
It has been frequently observed that the bottoms up from a ‘flowback’ event often
contains sufficient gas to show a peak above normal connection, drilled and background
gas levels. This contributes to misinterpretation of the situation by implying that gas has
entered the wellbore due to insufficient hydrostatic overbalance.
The difficulty is in telling the difference between a flowback and a genuine kick. This is
particularly difficult because, given the high ECD, it is quite likely that the genuine kick will
only become apparent once the pumps are turned off and the ECD pressure taken off the
wellbore. Getting the interpretation wrong could mean that unnecessary rig time is wasted
in trying to kill a non-existent kick. (Making matters worse because the increased mud
weight leads to higher losses while pumping and more flowback with the pumps off).
Worse still if flowback is assumed and it is in fact a true kick, then a very dangerous
situation occurs.
For this reason, any flow from the well when the pumps have been shut down must be
treated as a kick unless careful analysis of all data and trends indicate otherwise.
Figure 8.3 shows the overall procedure that should be used to deal with ballooning.
Some important points should be noted:
• Flowback should be consistent from connection to connection. There should not be a
sudden increase in flowback between one connection or dummy connection and the
next. It is therefore possible to monitor what the flowback is after each connection and
produce a trend. The mud loggers should be rigged up to perform this service as a
support to the Driller's observations. Great caution must be exercised when
establishing the trend (i.e. when flowback first starts it is wise to treat it as a kick until it
can be shown to be otherwise), but once established a continuation of the trend may be
regarded as a flowback and drilling can continue.
• As one can never be certain that an event was flowback and not a kick, it is essential
that any positive flow indicators be shut in before being flow checked. The reason
being that it is impossible to tell the difference between a kick that is occurring at the
bit and an influx that was taken a while ago and is now expanding a short distance
below the rotary table. The first event may produce some danger to personnel at some
time in the future. The second event may produce a very dangerous situation
immediately. Note that the expansion below the rotary could be from a kick that was
mistaken as a flowback or the result of a kick from a tight formation that was simply
not picked up because of the low resultant flow.
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• The position of all flowback events and fluid influxes must be known at all times.
Because of this knowledge, special attention can be given as the flowback nears surface
to ensure that it is not expanding and to route returns through the choke as per the
flowchart procedures.
Loss/Gain While Drilling
DRILLING AHEAD
If in doubt the well may be shut in at any
time. The volumes that can be allowed back
Losses? into the well depend on kick tolerance
Y NOTES:
1. To avoid further losses,
Deal with losses further caution will be
before resuming N Low enough required to reduce the ECD.
to continue
drilling drilling? Consider: reducing flow rate,
rotary speed and mud
weight, adjust mud rheology,
See Note 1: Y add LCM, set drilling liner.
Reducing N
Losses
2. Monitor the well very closely
Record gains in gain while the flow check gas is
/ loss log book. Keep
update of NET loss being circulated out.
Compare to last Circulate over the choke if
pump shut-down
indications of a hydrocarbon
influx. Remember:
Shut down pump (for flow check, *May allow 10bbl if kick Hydrocarbons may come
Mudloggers connections etc.) Line up returns tolerance is sufficient back into the well with some
compare records to Trip Tank. Monitor flow decay at and flow back has mud returns.
trip tank and flowline. MAX 5 BBL* been consistent at
these levels. Must be 3. Compare pressures with
agreed upfront by ECD, trapped pressure test
Aberdeen. and thermal effect test.
Compare volumes
Record gains in gain Does flow decay
lost/gained since the well
/ loss log book. Keep the same as or was last static. Flush and fill
update of NET loss quicker than last N the MGS loop with mud.
pump shut down?
4. A max. of 30bbls total flow
from the well is allowed
N Y No, Slower without bottoms up, i.e. 10
Decay bbls from the initial flow plus
2 further 10 bbl flow backs.
Is the total
gain<NET loss plus This volume may be limited
Is this the
first time expected flow back further if kick tolerance is
at “normal” pump low
shut down?
5. Circulating bottoms up may
Y have to be repeated if more
than one bleed down is
performed. On the initial
Shut Well-In circulation of bottoms up:
and Record a) Circulate thru’ choke and
SIDPP & SICP MGS at a rate where losses
are not expected.
Y Suspect b) Monitor the well very closely
Review Situation Ballooning / for any indication of
With Shore Base Y Super Charging
hydrocarbons
c) To reduce the risk of
Open up well via differential sticking, the string
choke to trip Tank. Y Happened
Bleed off up to a Before? can slowly be reciprocated
maximum of 10 bbls (2m/6 ft max) Reduce the
operating pressure to the
And Stop?
Y minimum without leakage.
Does flow d) If high levels of gas are seen
Y decay? N
N at surface, it may be
N
necessary to reduce the
Circulate Shut Well In and N circulation rate.
Bottoms up record SIDPP & 6. If the bleed down process
&/or go back SICP
has to be repeated, then the
to drilling
volume to bleed down will be
Pressure reviewed after the results of
N the first circulation are
<Previous
known.
Y
Follow On Bottom
Well Control
Is the total N Procedures
gain <Net loss
Y
N
Y Is total mud
bled back <30
bbl
Figure 8.3: Balooning Procedure

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8.3.6. Recap
• All influxes and potential influxes should be treated as kicks unless it can be shown
otherwise.
• The first time that a flowback occurs it should be treated as a kick and circulated out
using the Driller’s Method.
• The Driller’s Method is preferred over the Wait and Weight Method, because it allows
for the influx/flowback to be brought to surface (to be looked at, while going through
the choke) without increasing the mud weight (and worsening the problem).
• If a flowback has occurred (and is confirmed) it should be circulated to surface and
then put over a choke, because it may contain associated gas.
8.4. Start-Up Technique for the Kill Circulation

This section presents a decision tree to aid in the process of breaking circulation during a
kill.
In many cases, this is the most likely time that lost circulation will occur – it is imperative
that all care and attention be paid to this operation. The overall procedure for pump start
up is:
• Determine the annulus friction pressure (casing shoe to BOP) at the kill rate
• Is this significant (see Kick Tolerance x-plot) and has a Kick simulation been run?
• If it is, reduce choke pressure when bring pump up to speed and/or use a slower pump
rate
• If not, keep choke pressure constant when bring pump up to speed
Note that for subsea wells, the choke line friction is a further complication. If the choke
line friction (at the selected kill rate) is less than the SICP, then, using industry standard
procedures, there will still be a positive choke pressure when the pumps are running at kill
speed. There is no impact from the choke line friction in this case. If however, the choke
line friction (at the selected kill rate) is greater than the SICP, the choke will be wide open
with the pumps up to speed and additional pressure will be placed upon the well and the
casing shoe in particular. If this is the case, it may be required to use both the choke and
kill line or choose a slower kill speed.
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Well Shut In Ready to Start Kill
Select Kill Rate
Determine Annulus Friction Select Lower Kill

Pressure Casing Shoe to BOP Rate
Yes
Margin of Fracture Pressure at Weak Point Mud Yes

Hydrostatic - Choke Pressure Annulus -Friction Able to Select
Pressure = Negative or too small? Lower Kill Rate?
No
No
Bring pump up to speed
Move pipe upwards
Bring pump up to speed and rotate (Annular).
backing off choke pressure
maintaining constant choke Let a small additional by 50-100% of Annulus
pressure influx-in rather than Friction Pressure (@kill
overpressure the well rate) Weak Point to BOP
Driller’s or W&W?
Once Pump Pressure is

Maintain Established established, use Measured
Pump Pressure/Rate Pump Pressure as starting
for 1st Circulation point for pump pressure
schedule
Monitor Pit Levels & other parameters for signs

of lost circulation or well unloading
Figure 8.4: Pump start up procedure for Kill Circulation

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8.5. Focus on the Annulus

This section concentrates on wells where there is only a very narrow margin between
formation pressure and fracture pressure.
8.5.1. Introduction
One of the keys to being able to successfully navigate within a small fracture margin is to
be able to fully understand what is going on. The use of realistic software allows this
understanding to occur. It is very difficult, if not impossible (given the complexity of the
issues being addressed) to succeed when relying solely on experience – typically, experience
is not up to the particular combination of mud properties, well geometry etc., which the
particular well and hole section has to offer. (Refer to Figure 8.1).
This software should be available during:
1. Planning phase
2. Operations phase
For the planning phase, the software should be very flexible – typically it will be used by a
subject matter expert. For the operations phase, the user is likely to be a Drilling
Supervisor or Wellsite engineer. In this case, the flexibility of the requirement can be
trimmed and the interface presented focused for the particular operation. In addition, it is
really helpful to present the software using a well known interface provided through a
specialists centre like the RTOC.
The software should be able to consider:
• Hydraulics
• Kick Tolerance
• Well Control
Given the small margins within which operations have to work, it is essential that the
software used provides realistic and accurate answers – simple equations and correlations
are just not sufficient and can lead to misleading and potentially disastrous results.
8.5.2. Hydraulics Software

Hydraulics software should take into account:
• Mud density (as a function of temperature & pressure)
• Mud rheology (as a function of temperature & pressure)
• Impact of cuttings
• Swab & surge
• Detailed well geometry
A number of packages exist which can be used in the planning stages. During the
operations phase, the software can be “calibrated” using the PWD. In effect, the PWD is
used to establish downhole static and circulating pressures. Because it is likely that there is
no PWD information available at low circulation rates, the software is used to interpolate
between the pump on/pump off pressures and to determine pressures at other points in
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the wellpath (such as at the casing shoe) where there is no PWD measurement. In addition,
the software is used to verify that the PWD is functioning somewhat correctly (i.e. is this
what we expect the PWD measurement to be?).
The services can be made available through an RTOC. Where this is not possible the mud
company can provide this software (e.g. Landmark WellPlan).
8.5.3. Kick Tolerance

Kick tolerance (KT) can be calculated in a somewhat simple manner. In particular, KT is a
function of how much mud has been displaced and the densities of the mud and displacing
fluid, as well as the pressure into which the bit has penetrated (SIDPP).
There are some vast unknowns in KT calculation – influx density and distribution of the
influx. However, the amount of mud that has been displaced is able to be measured (Pit
Gain). The assumption on input density can be changed and hence an idea of KT arrived
at.
What is important is to provide a full picture of the relationship between Pit Gain and
SIDPP. This is best done as a cross-plot as shown in Figure 8.5.
8.5.4. Kick Software

There are two distinct uses of this software:
• Planning
• Operations
For planning it is important that the software is as flexible as is possible to allow the
experienced user to fully examine the issues. During operations, the procedures should be
fairly well set and therefore it is better that the software is less flexible, allowing it to be
used by a less regular end user. When making use of an RTOC both planning and
operations monitoring can be provided.
8.5.5. Planning
Figure 8.5 to Figure 8.8 show the type of information that is available from realistic
modelling. Given the requirement that operations enable the wellbore pressure to be kept
within a small envelope, the objective of the modelling is to initiate and test a detailed set
of procedures, which will allow operations personnel to achieve the objective. The work
will also identify specific parts of the drilling operation that are critical.
In summary the work at this stage will provide:
• Detailed procedures
• Identification of areas of particular concern
• An understanding of what events at the well should look like
The results from this work can also be used to provide input to a training program.
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8.5.6. Operations
As previously noted, there must be a different approach during the operations phase of a
project. Many parameters are set by this time, including a set of detailed operations
procedures. The goal of work at this time is to provide help in monitoring events and in
“fine tuning” operational decisions, such as “how fast to pump”.
Figure 8.9 shows a typical approach to Kick Tolerance at this stage. The “X” marks the
shut-in condition on a cross plot generated at the time of taking a kick. It can be seen from
this plot, how close to breakdown is the well condition. This gives the operations
engineer/supervisor a clear view of how much margin he or she has and therefore how
important it is to amend the procedure to be taken.
Of course, it is still important to keep overall control using the tried and tested drill pipe
methods – this is shown in Figure 8.10, which shows the usual pump pressure schedule for
the Wait and Weight method.
Figure 8.11 shows a “Bargraph” approach to visualizing which part of the operation will be
within the available “window” and which (if any) is not. It also shows the margin that is
available for a particular step in the operation. If this type of view is available, it will be
possible to adjust the details of the procedures (such as skill rate, safety margin etc..) to
better stay within the “window”.
Finally, Figure 8.12a-d show the same type of information that was available during the
planning stage (see Figure 8.5 through Figure 8.8). However, and most importantly, this
type of information and arrangement must be available directly from the information kept
at the wellsite, including actual geometry, mud weight and properties, pit gain, SIDPP etc.
and must be based on the agreed well control procedures. It is essential that generating
such information is an integral part of the normal well control approach. Again, the
objective of performing such work is to provide a baseline of what events should look like
such that when deviations occur, these deviations can be recognized much sooner and the
appropriate corrective actions taken.
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Figure 8.5: Modelling Pit Gain
Figure 8.6: Modelling Choke Pressure

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Figure 8.7: Modelling Pressures at BOP
Figure 8.8: Modelling Pump Pressures

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KICK TOLERANCE CALCULATIONS

Shell /wcsd.inc
(C) Well Control & Systems Design Inc. 2000
(Static & Circulating)

Wellname Deep Mensa Date (mm/dd/yr) 4/13/01
MD-ft TVD-ft Angle (deg) LOT/Frac Select Expected Influx Density (input on killsheet) (psi/ft) 0.1 GAS
Bit Depth 9200 9200 0 Grad (ppg) Option Expected Influx Density (ppg) 1.92
Casing/Liner Shoe Depth (Option 1) 7200 7200 0 10.1 (1 only) Current Mud Weight (ppg) (input on killsheet) 9 Measured @
Weak Zone A Depth (Option 2) 1 Current Mud pv 10 122
Weak Zone B Depth (Option 3) Current Mud yp 15 deg F
Hole Size (in) 22 Kill Rate - Drillers/W&W (input on killsheet) (gpm) 230
OD(in) ID (in) Length(ft) Ann Friction Press(Shoe to Seabed) @ Kill Rate (psi) 10 Input on Killsheet
Upper Drillpipe 5.5 4.78 6170 Results
Lower Drillpipe 5.5 4.78 2000 Available Pressure (psi) 412
Heavy Weight Drillpipe 7 3.25 630 OH Volume (bbls) 857
Upper Drill Collars 0 0 0 Lower Drill Collars/OH Volume (bbls) 163
Lower Drill Collars 8 2.75 400 Upper Drill Collars/OH Volume (bbls) 0
Total Length (ft) 9200 Heavy Weight DP/OH Volume (bbls) 266
Lower Drillpipe/OH Volume (bbls) 428
Calculate Kick Tolerance for a Specific Influx Size Upper Drillpipe/OH Volume (bbls) 0
Kick Volume (bbls) 20 Input Selected Kick Volume in 5 bbl Increments, up to 50 bbl.
Swabbed/Flowcheck Influx psi ppg Influx During Drilling Operation psi ppg
Static Kick Tolerance (100% Void) 394 0.82 Static Kick Tolerance 394 0.82
Circulating Kick Tolerance (100% Void) Same as Static Circulating Kick Tolerance Same as Static
20%void for 10" & smaller hole(100% larger hole)
Kick Tolerance - Daily Worksheet 13-Apr-01

Measured Depth (ft) 9200
Mud Weight (ppg) 9 Static Kick Tolerance Won't Breakdown <50 bbl
Input Kick Intensity (ppg) 0.4 Input - Suggest 0.5 ppg (100% Void with Input Kick Intensity)
500
480 1ppg
460
440
420
400
Circulating Static
380
360 0.75 ppg
X
340
320
300
0 10 20 30 40 50
Kick Volume (bbls)
0.25
0.5 ppg
ppg Static/strung out Selected Kick Circ/Strung
Intensity Out
Figure 8.9: Kick Tolerance Example
NOTE: View at high zoom or print out

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Well Name Deep Mensa MD-(ft) TVD-ft

Date mm/dd/yr 4/13/01 Depth of Bit (Total Depth) 9200 9200
(if the above is correct, proceed, if you need to update, go to cell C2
INPUTS AT TIME OF TAKING KICK
KILL METHOD Driller(0) or W&W(1) 0 Avail. Kill Rates
GAS(1) or OIL(2) Kick - Use GAS if not know 1 DRILLER'S METHOD SPM GPM
SIDPP (psi) 65 SELECT PUMP # (1,2,3 or4) 1 20 84
Current Mud Weight (ppg) 9 SELECT KILL RATE (SPM) 55 30 126
Pit Gain (bbls) 20 <^^BPM for CEMENT PUMP #4^^> 55 230
SICP (psi) 150 Choose Chk(1) , Kill (2) or Ch & Kill (3) 3 C/L Frict Loss
CALCULATIONS CHOKE & KILL LINE SELECTED (psi)
Kill Mud Weight (ppg)No Safety Factor 9.2 Surface Pipe Volume (strokes) 100 87
Kill rate (gpm) 230 Drillstring Volume (strokes) 1914
Circ Press. @ Kill Rate - psi 400 Open Hole Volume (Strokes) 8599
ICP (psi) 465 Cased+Liner Volume (strokes) 6367
FCP (psi) 408 Choke Line Volume (strokes) 2063
Bring pump up to speed at constant choke pressure or back off Total Annulus (strokes) 17029
choke/kill line friction. Maintain this pump pressure until kill Surface + Drillstring + Annulus(strokes) 19043
weight mud reaches RT, zero pump strokes & follow schedule Riser Volume (strokes) 17826
Strokes until Kill Weight Mud @ RT 100 Strokes=Barrels for Cement Pump
The Pump Pressure Schedule below is the Wait & Weight Method Pump Strokes Pump Press.
with NO Safety Factor. Follow it as closely as possible. 0 w/ KWM @ RT (psi)
0 465
Pump Pressure Schedule 100 462
200 459
300 457
470 400 454
500 451
600 448
460 700 446
800 443
900 440
450
1000 437
1100 435
1200 432
440
1300 429
1400 426
430 1500 423
1600 421
1700 418
420 1800 415
1900 409
2000 408
410 2100 408
2200 408
2300 408
400 2400 408
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 2500 408
2600 408
Pump Strokes (Barrels for Cement Unit) 2700 408
9200 408
Amore detailed pump schedule may be seen on the "PumpScheduleDetail" sheet, which can be changed
CALCULATION OF AVAILABLE MARGIN AT END OF KILL WITH KILL WEIGHT MUD IN CHOKE/KILL LINE
Casing Shoe/Weak Point TVD (ft) 7200 Kill Mud Weight (ppg) 9.2
Leak Off Test/Frac. Grad Selected (ppg) 10.1 Choke/Kill Line Friction Loss (psi) 87
Ann Friction Press (Shoe to BOP @ kill rate) 10
Check and Adjust above on kick tolerance spreasheet Check and adjust above on kill calculation (above)
AVAIL. MARGIN END OF KILL (psi)
239
>100 psi should be ok for normal circulation
Figure 8.10: Wait & Weight Method Pump Pressure Schedule
NOTE: View at high zoom or print out

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Margin and Requirement for Operat ion (psi)

Ava il abl e M argi n
Annulus Fri ct ion (Dri l ling)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 1
SIDPP
Los t Hydrostat ic due i nf lux
Margin
Ann. Fri cti on @ k il l R at e
Choke & Kill Li ne fri ct ion
Drilling
Shut In
Driller's Method - Start of 1st Circ.
Driller's Method - End 1st Circulation
Kill minus annulus friction (shoe to BOP) (start)
Kill minus ann fric (Driller's End 1st Circ.)
KWM at choke (Driller's OR minus ann fric)
Margin
© Well Contr ol & Syst ems Design Inc. 20 00
Figure 8.11: Bar graph Visualisation of Well Control Pressure Margins

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Pit V ol um e
Gas Flow Rate Out of System
60 3
50 2.5
40 2
MMscf / day
30
1.5
Bb l
20
1
10
0.5
0
0
0 10 0 20 0 3 00 400 50 0 60 0 700 800
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
-1 0
Time (minutes)
Tim e (min utes)
a) b)
Gas Flow Rate
Figure 8.12: Pit gain
Casing Shoe Differential Pressure Choke Pressure
80 600
60
500
40
400
20
0 300
PSI
PSI
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

-20 200
-40
100
-60
0
-80
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
-100 -100
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)

c) d)
Differential at casing Shoe Choke Pressure
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9. WELL CONTROL TRAINING , DRILLS AND ASSESSMENT
9.1. Training and Organisation

Well control drills provide an opportunity to assess the effectiveness of training and to
identify and make good any inadequacies.
9.1.1. Competency
All Company and Contractor supervisory staff shall hold a valid IWCF or WellCAP well
control certificate at the appropriate level.
Well control drills shall be performed under the supervision of an appropriately qualified
representative onsite and shall be initiated at unscheduled times when operations and hole
conditions permit. The simulated events shall be instigated by the Company drilling
representative, or by anyone authorised by him. For each well control operation, all crew
members should have a pre-assigned task appropriate to their function in the crew. Every
effort must be made to ensure that the drill is carried out in the most realistic manner
possible. Where practical, there should be no difference between the drill and actual
control procedures.
Crew training/drills records and Participation records must be maintained and available on
location complete with a listing of supervisor and crew member names.
9.1.2. Task Assignments

The tasks of each individual shall be included in a complete well control drill procedure to
be posted on the rig's bulletin boards. Circumstances at the rig site may dictate that these
responsibilities be modified in the event of an incident.
The full details of the Roles and Responsibilities of the Well Site Team during well control
situations are presented in Section 2.1, however the following reiterates the role of key
personnel.
The Person In Charge (PIC)
Once the well has been shut in and is being correctly monitored the PIC will organise a
pre-kill meeting for all those involved in the supervision of the well control operation. This
should be conducted to provide specific well control procedures. It is the responsibility of
the PIC to monitor and supervise the implementation of these procedures and to be
present on the rig floor at the start of the kill operation. (See Section 2.1)
Either the Toolpusher or the Company Representative (CR) should be present at all times
on the rig floor during the operation. It is also the responsibility of the CR to maintain
communication with the Operations base and to assign the responsibility of keeping a diary
of events.
9.1.3. Communication
A pre-kill meeting will be organised once the well has been shut in. The purpose of this
meeting is to ensure that all those involved in the supervision and implementation of the
well control operation are familiar with the procedures that will be used to kill the well.
This meeting is also the first stage in the process of communication during the well control
operation.
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Proper communication during all stages of well control operations is essential. The
objectives of a suitable system of communication are:
• To ensure that all information relevant to the well control operation is quickly and
accurately relayed to the Company Representative.
• To ensure that those involved in the supervision of the operation are at all times in
communication with the Company Representative.
• To ensure that all those involved in the operation are aware of the line and method of
communication that they should use.
• To ensure that communication equipment on the rig is adequate and is used during the
well control operation in the most effective manner possible
9.1.4. Drill Frequency

It may be necessary to repeat the drills each shift until the Company drilling representative
is convinced that the crews are adequately trained and responsive. Thereafter, the
frequency of the drills can be reduced to once a week with each crew, in order to maintain
their alertness and competence.
The timing of the drills should be selected so that each crew member can participate and
practice the following drills:
• Pit drill on bottom
• Pit drill while tripping
• Diverter drill
• Choke control drill
• Stripping drill
• Pit drill for floating rigs
Drills as above shall be recorded in daily reports and competency records on location shall
be updated as appropriate to reflect the relevant supervisor/ crew and individual
competencies.
9.1.5. Reaction Times

The following shall be recorded in the tour report and the morning report:
• The type of drill i.e. what type of situation and how was it simulated (such as a kick
while drilling indicated by a pit gain)
• The reaction time from the moment the kick is simulated until the designated crew
member is ready to start the closing procedure;
• The total time it takes to complete the entire drill.
The PIC must be in a position to judge the performance of the crew & the equipment and
to take the necessary steps for improvement.
Experience has indicated that well trained crews can perform well control drills in 3 to 4
minutes. Drills shall be carried out to achieve and maintain this performance standard.
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Notes:
• The objective of a drill is to increase responsiveness and highlight areas for
improvement.
• Drills must not be so frequent that they are perceived as ‘routine’. As they must be
conducted under ‘real’ conditions, it must be ensured that the Team becomes neither
apathetic or ‘shell-shocked’.
• A drill must NEVER be conducted during critical activities such as drilling reservoir,
coring or POOH with reservoir in open hole. The purpose of drills held during the
course of the well is to train the Team for optimum response prior to critical sections
of the programme being implemented.
9.2. Well Control Drills

This section discusses drills simulating well control incidents covering a number of
scenarios. The role played OR NOT by the mudlogging crew in each drill is discussed here.
9.2.1. Overview
One of the major factors that influence the well-bore pressures after a kick is taken is the
volume of the influx. The smaller the influx, the less severe will be the pressures during the
well kill operation. In this respect, it is important that the drill crew reacts quickly to any
sign that an influx may have occurred and promptly execute the prescribed control
procedure.
Drills should be designed to reduce the time that the crews take to implement these
procedures. The relevant drills should be carried out as often as is necessary, and as hole
conditions permit, until the Company Representative and the contractor Toolpusher are
satisfied that every member of the drill crew is familiar with the entire operation.
A mudlogging crew should be the ‘eyes & ears’ of a drilling operation. The sensor array,
particularly on a hi-spec rig-up will make a convincing influx simulation difficult.
Therefore, on operations utilising the services of a mudlogging contractor, individual drills
must be targeted at either
• The Drill Crew (mudloggers pre-warned)
• The mudloggers (Drill crew pre-warned)
• The Team (Drill Crew and mudloggers) to assess synergy
Every effort must be made to ensure that the drill is carried out in the most realistic
manner possible. Where practical, there should be no difference between the drill and
actual control procedures. Once satisfactory standards have been achieved, the Drills
should be held at least once per week, alternating between crews. If standards fall
unacceptably, the Company Representative shall stipulate that the drills are conducted
more frequently. It is important that returning drill crews have frequent drills, in particular
where composition of the drill crew has changed.
EP 2002-1500 - 273 - Restricted
9.2.2. Pit Drill On Bottom

The purpose of this drill is to familiarise the crew with the control procedure that will be
implemented in the event of a kick whilst drilling. This Drill may be conducted either in
open or cased hole. However, if the drill is conducted when the drill string is in open hole,
the well will not be shut in. When the pipe is on bottom, the following procedure can be
used as a guideline for the drill:
A. Without prior notice, the Shell Representative and Senior Contractor Representative
gradually increase the apparent pit level by manually raising the float. With
sonic/ultra sonic levelling systems this may be done using a board held above the
mud level (this must be done carefully to simulate a realistic gain and may be difficult
if the pit level is low)
B. The mud logger (if included in the drill ) is expected to detect the pit gain within a
reasonable influx volume (say 5 bbls or 3bbls during slow drilling) and do the
following:
- Contact the Driller and report pit gain volume and rate
- Contact the Shell Representative and report pit gain volume / rate and depth
- Mark chart recorders and re-set stroke counters to lag returns
C. The Driller is expected to detect the pit gain and together with the crew take the
following steps routinely to secure the well:
- Recognise the 'kick' and alert the crew.
- Pick up the kelly (or top drive) until the tool joint clears the BOPs and the kelly
- cock is just above the rotary table, and slow down the pumps
- Shut down the pumps.
- Check the well for flow.
Note: Steps below are not recommended in open hole. Well close-in procedure
(BOP drill) should be conducted with the bit inside the casing.
- Open the pressure-operated valve in the side outlet from the BOP stack to the
choke manifold (the inner valve is always open under normal conditions) and
close in the well.
- Take ‘readings’ of the closed-in annulus and drill pipe pressures.
- Measure the 'gain' in the active mud tank(s).
- Report to the Company Representative.
- Record the time required for the crew to react and conduct the drill on the
- IADC Drilling Report.
9.2.3. Diverter Drill

If shallow gas is encountered and the well kicks, blow-out conditions may develop very
quickly. It is therefore important that crew initiate control procedures as soon as possible
in the event of a shallow gas kick.
EP 2002-1500 - 274 - Restricted
Diverter drills should therefore be carried out to minimise the reaction time of the crews.
A further objective of the drill is to check that all diverter equipment is functioning
correctly. The time taken for each diverter function to operate shall be recorded.
A drill shall be carried out prior to drilling out of the conductor casing. The procedures
that should be implemented in the event of a shallow gas kick are covered in Section 5.3.
Drills should be designed in line with the specific procedure that will be adopted in the
event of a shallow gas kick.
The contractor Toolpusher must ensure that the drill crew and marine staff (offshore) are
correctly deployed during the drill and that each individual understands their
responsibilities.
The time recorded in the log should be the time elapsed from initiation of the drill until the
rig crew (and marine staff) are ready to initiate emergency procedures.
9.2.4. Choke Control Drill

The objective of this drill is to give drill crews the most realistic type of well control
training and a feel for the equipment and procedures that they would use to kill a well.
This drill should be carried out prior to drilling out the intermediate and production strings
and during abandonments once abandonment plug(s) have been set inside the casing. It
should never be carried out when open-hole sections are exposed. The following
procedure is recommended:
• Run in hole, wash down and tag the top of cement.
• Pull back one stand and install the kelly (or install top drive).
• Break circulation and establish slow circulating rate pressures. (Consider circulating
bottoms up prior to this if the annulus may contain contaminated mud.)
• Carry out standard BOP Drill, resulting in the well being shut in.
• Consider applying low pressure to the casing (typically 200 to 300psi), bring the pump
up to kill speed, controlling the drill pipe pressure according to a predetermined
schedule.
• Circulate well over the choke.
It is important that this opportunity to circulate across a choke is used to maximum effect.
A drill pipe pressure schedule should be drawn up and carefully adhered to. It is important
that the choke operator develops a feel for the lag time between manipulation of the choke
and its subsequent effect on the drill pipe pressure. The lag time should be recorded, so
that it can be used for reference should a kick be taken in the next hole section.
Although principally an exercise for the Drill Crew, the mud loggers should be involved in
these drills by:
• Running well control software to suit current conditions.
• Produce step-down / displacement graphs.
• Monitor influx and ‘kill-mud’ during displacement etc.
EP 2002-1500 - 275 - Restricted
9.2.5. Pit Drill While Tripping

The purpose of this drill is to familiarise the crew with the shut-in and kill procedures that
will be implemented in the event of a kick during a trip.
General
These drills should only be conducted when the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) is inside
the last casing string.
Before the trip is started, the Standing Orders to the Driller will have been posted. This
will be intended as an action item. This will detail the action that the crew should take in
the event a kick is detected.
When directed by the Company Representative, the contractor Toolpusher will instruct the
Driller to assume that a positive flow check has been conducted, and to implement the
prescribed control procedure as detailed in the Standing Orders.
Procedures
These drills can cover both awareness/reaction and the implementation of procedures.
On ALL trips both in and out of the hole, the Drill Crew (usually Assistant Driller) and the
mud loggers will monitor hole fill or pipe displacement. Simulation of an influx will
therefore be a gain in the trip tank (or in the active pit if displacing direct). Clandestine
mud-movements may be difficult if the mud loggers have a full suite of pit sensors
however due to the small volumes required for a ‘gain’ in the trip tank (+/-1bbl), a water
hose will suffice if WBM or a base-oil line if OBM.
On some rigs, if the trip tank is out of sight of the drill floor, the Company Representative
and Senior Contractor Representative may start the drill by manually raising the trip tank
float to indicate a rapid pit gain.
Shut-in procedures to be adopted in the event of a kick whilst tripping are detailed in
Section 3.5.5. However, as a guideline the following procedure should be initiated:
A. The contractor Toolpusher must ensure that the crew are correctly deployed and that
each individual completely understands their responsibilities.
B. The Driller in-conjunction with the crew are expected to take the following steps
routinely to secure the well:
- Recognise the 'kick' and alert the crew.
- Stop other operations.
- Lower the stand, install a kelly cock in open position and then close.
- Close in the well
- Install a Gray-type inside BOP (if stripping planned) or install circulating head,
kelly or top drive.
- Open the pressure-operated valve in the side outlet from the BOP stack to the
choke manifold.
- Take readings of the closed-in annulus and drill pipe pressures (IBOP may have
to be pumped open to read drill pipe pressure).
EP 2002-1500 - 276 - Restricted
- Measure the 'gain' in the trip tank (or active pit if displacing).
- Notify the Company Representative that the well is shut in.
- Record the time taken for the drill on the IADC Drilling Report.
The time taken for the crew to shut in the well shall be recorded. Having shut in the
well, preparations should be made to strip pipe. These preparations should include
lining up the equipment as required and assigning individual responsibilities.
C. Mud loggers (if on contract) will:
- Report and confirm the influx / anomaly with the Driller
- Report the influx / anomaly with bit depth and stand number to the Shell
Representative.
- Mark chart recorders and zero stroke counters, load well control software.
9.2.6. Stripping Drill

A stripping drill is recommended and should be performed prior to drilling out of the
casing shoe after the BOP has been installed and tested and during abandonments once
abandonment plug(s) have been set inside the casing. It will only be done with the joint
agreement of the Toolpusher and the Company Representative. A pre-stripping meeting
should be held with a minimum of the Company Representative, Rig Toolpusher, on-shift
Driller, AD and Derrick man in attendance.
Mud loggers would not normally be involved in a stripping drill unless mud was being bled
to the trip tank. If the trip tank is used then Mud loggers can participate using their own
sensors.
The recommended procedure for stripping is as follows:
(a) Run in hole with the drilling assembly until the drill-bit is +/- 10 stands above the
float-collar or at a pre-agreed depth. (In the case of a floater in deep water ensure
that drill pipe is below the BOP.)
(b) Install the full opening drill-pipe safety valve (kelly cock/TIW valve). Close the valve.
(c) Open the choke-line valves to a closed choke, close the (upper) annular preventer.
The well is now shut in. This is the same procedure as used for trip drills.
(d) Make up the top drive (kelly) or circulating head and open the drill-pipe safety valve.
This would be for the purpose of recording the shut-in drill-pipe pressure. Simulate
also the installation of the dart, if it was required to drop it. This would be as follows:
- Close the drill-pipe safety valve.
- Bleed off pressure above.
- Break off the top drive (kelly) and install the dart.
- Make up the top drive (kelly).
- Pressure up through the top drive to equalise the pressure.
- Open the drill-pipe safety valve to allow the dart to fall.
If a Gray valve is in use, it would be made up above the full opening drill pipe safety valve
and the safety valve then opened slowly to ensure that the Gray valve was holding.
EP 2002-1500 - 277 - Restricted
(e) Open the choke and circulate until returns are seen in the trip tank. This ensures that
you have a correct line up and all the lines are full from the choke manifold to the
trip tank. Close the choke.
(f) Pressure up the well to a value as agreed between the Toolpusher and Company
representative. This will normally be 400 to 500psi. Close the drill pipe safety valve.
Bleed off above to ensure it is holding, then remove the top drive (kelly). Alternately,
you may pressure up the well via the kill line, keeping the full opening safety valve
closed. This will eliminate the need for breaking a connection with pressure below
the valve.
The Toolpusher and Driller are to ensure that a stripping worksheet is completed
with bit depth, pressure and trip tank level recorded. Assign responsibilities.
(g) Agree an increase in the annulus pressure for the following:
- Choke handling safety factor (for example 350kPa/50psi)
- A working pressure increase for gas expansion (for example 350kPa/50psi)
- An allowance for drill-string entering influx (for example 175kPa/25psi). These
will be added to the initial shut-in annulus pressure when stripping commences
(h) Reduce annular closing pressure to a minimum to prevent leakage as directed by the
Toolpusher. Open surge bottle, if fitted.
(i) Commence stripping in the drill pipe at a lowering speed of approximately 30ft/min.
The operator on the choke is to allow the pressure to increase to the initial calculated
value. Once this value has been reached the choke operator is to bleed off fluid to
maintain this value as the Driller lowers each stand. As the slips are set, the choke
operator will close in the choke, maintaining the calculated value.
NOTE: The Driller to note string weight loss to strip the pipe through the annular, also
string weight loss for tool-joints to pass the annular. This is useful information to have in
the case of an actual stripping operation.
(j) Strip two or three more stands in the hole with the choke operator bleeding off fluid
to maintain the calculated pressure as the Driller is lowering the stand. Consider
stripping additional stands if required for the rig crew to establish a routine pattern
when stripping. Enter the relevant data on the stripping worksheet after each stand
has been run.
(k) Bleed off all annulus pressure and open annular preventer.
(l) Pull back and remove the grey valve/dart and drill-pipe safety valve. Line up all well
control equipment back to normal set up for drilling.
(m) Have a post-stripping meeting with all concerned discussing all aspects of the drill.
EP 2002-1500 - 278 - Restricted
9.2.7. Pit Drill For Floating Rigs

Kick detection and response drills are essentially the same regardless of rig-type, however
floating rigs require additional drills to train crews in spacing out the string in the BOP.
1. With the pump ON, unlock rotary bushing and raise the kelly or top drive to the pre-
determined position for landing the string on the rams (with the lower kelly cock
above the rotary table, allowing for tidal condition).
2. Stop the pump.
3. Open the outer fail-safe valve of the choke line (the rest of the choke line to the
closed choke is always open under normal conditions).
4. Close in the well on the upper annular preventer. (This could be simulated)
close valves that isolate pressure sensors.
6. Observe closed-in drillpipe pressure (Pdp) and closed-in annulus pressure (Pa).
9.3. Well Control Readiness Self Assessment and Audit
9.3.1. Well Control Readiness Self Assessment

With the aim to establish whether all controls for managing blowout risks are in place and
effective, each Operating Company, Single String Venture or other venture with drilling
and/or well intervention operations "under operational control", must conduct “Well
Control Readiness” self-assessments on a regular basis. For example:
1) At start-up for each new rig - Full assessment
2) At frequency commensurate with the risks (e.g. after major organizational/operational
changes, new field operation, unsatisfactory HSE-MS audit, unsatisfactory well control
audits, after well control incidents, etc.)
Following such assessments the venture will develop plans and rectify any gaps found
during the assessment. In order to facilitate such Well Control Self Assessment, a
Questionnaire has been developed by EPT-WN and is available at the following link:
Well Control Readiness Self Assessment
There are three main sections to the questionnaire:
1) Company Information
2) Generic
3) Rig Specific
Company information: Provides an indication on the scale, type and complexity of the
company and the well operations it is conducting. (e.g indication of risk profile).
The Generic section: handles issues such as Well Design, Risk Assessment, Well Integrity,
Well Intervention and Blow-out Contingency planning.
The Rig Specific: relates to Rig and/or operation specific Well control Hardware,
procedures and competencies and is to be completed for each of your rigs and well
operation.
EP 2002-1500 - 279 - Restricted
9.3.2. Audits
In addition to the Well Control Readiness Self Assessment mentioned above it is highly
recommended that:
1) Regular (e.g. at start of a new well) well control audits are conducted by site supervisory
staff. Focus of these audits should be on pre-defined well control related topics.
2) During management field visits to the operational sites specific areas of the well
control identified in the Well Control Readiness Self Assessment are audited by the
visiting manager.
EP 2002-1500 - 280 - Restricted
10. BLOWOUT CONTINGENCY PLANNING
10.1. Blowout Contingency Plan

For every Shell OU involved in well operations a blow-out contingency plan must be in
place at all times. The detail required in the plan will generally reflect the level of well
complexity (see Section 2.3 and 2.4 of this manual) however even on low risk wells,
adequate provision must be made.
10.1.1. Global Framework Agreements

Shell International Exploration and Production currently have Global Framework
Agreements (GFA) in place with four specialist Well Control companies on contract, these
are:
• Applied Incident Management Incorporated (John Wright)
• Wild Well Control
• Boots and Coots
• Alert Disaster Control
Each Opco/SSV should put in place (using the GFAs as template) its own
Agreements/Contracts with at least two of these companies. The most current GFAs are
available on the Wells Global Network / Special Interest Area / Well Control / Blowout
Contingency & Crisis Response.
These contractors should be consulted prior to commencement of operations for expert
advice on the details of a job specific plan. This section serves as a checklist of criteria to
be considered.
10.1.2. Hazards and Background Data

Each well, location or operation will have a unique set of hazards which will impact well
control in the event of a blowout. These must be identified at the well planning stage and
must be collated with additional data during the progress of the well.
Reservoir Specific Hazards

• H2S
• CO2 or high mercaptans
• Shallow gas
• High Pressure – High Temperature
• Gas well or high GOR
• Condensate
• Fluid PVT properties
• Potentially high flow rates
Well Data
• Casing schematic, including weights and grades (planned and actual)
EP 2002-1500 - 281 - Restricted
• Wellhead schematic including flange and outlet data plus cellar dimensions etc.
• Drilling fluid type and planned weight
• Perforated interval and thief zones
• Details of any fish, holed casing etc.
• Directional survey listing, planned and actual
NOTE: It is crucial that accurate survey listings are maintained in the event of a relief well
being required. Frequent multi-shot surveys should be considered in critical / high
complexity wells.
Rig Specification
• Rig type with footprint / deck schematic
• Hardware specification (pump output, gross nominal, rotary torque etc.)
• Water depth / drillfloor elevation
• BOP stack-up and rating (including diagrams)
Location
• Water depth
• Proximity to habitation / farmland / environmentally sensitive areas
• Topography
• Surface drainage (i.e. potential for well fluids to enter water courses)
• Road network: ease of access for materials and heavy plant
10.1.3. Key Considerations For The Plan

Having identified the risks and the factors which may potentially impact well recovery &
site remediation, a plan must be developed and configured to address a number of primary
issues. Plan development is discussed in detail in John Wright AIMI Blowout Control
"Blowout Control Technical reference", however the following topics should be addressed.
Relief well planning and ‘homing-in’ is also described in
EP 92-1785 Relief Well Homing in Manual.pdf
Communication
• Consider a single phone call approach from the well site, to activate the plan.
• This will allow field personnel to concentrate their efforts on personnel/equipment
protection and well control.
• Provision should be made for a back-up system (cell net, radio etc.) in the event of
primary communication failure.
Emergency Control Centre

• A potential control centre should be nominated for co-ordination of rescue and fire
fighting operations.
• This may or may not be at the well site, depending on location
EP 2002-1500 - 282 - Restricted
Emergency Response Teams

• A key requirement will be Roles and Responsibilities. These may be based initially on
Section 2.1 with additional personnel and duties as required.
• A Press Release Officer is an important role in blowout response. This will rarely be a
well site post, however the team must be made aware of his position and function as a
single point of contact between Shell and the media.
Typical Blowout Response Facilities

• Transport facilities.
• Multipurpose Service Vessels (MSVs).
• Other specially equipped emergency response vessels (i.e. supply vessels and aircraft).
• Medical facilities.
• Anti pollution vessels/aircraft.
• Fire fighting tenders.
• Computerised information system with up-to-date positions and classifications of
emergency response vessels.
Emergency Well Control Equipment

• This will comprise hardware which will not be mobilised unless required and will
normally be operated by contractor personnel.
• Services may include: snubbing, capping, coiled tubing or abrasive cutting etc.
• The local availability and contractor contact details must form part of the plan
• Typical equipment can be made available from Boots & Coots or Wild Well Control
Pollution Control Equipment

• This will include all material and equipment needed to contain released well fluids.
• The specific requirements will be determined by well location but may include
adsorbent material, dispersants, oil-skimmers, bunding and bulldozers used to build
containment lagoons.
• Hardware and chemicals alone are inadequate without a robust plan for their use /
deployment.
Specific Emergency Procedures

• These may include detailed evacuation plans for particular locations or non standard
equipment requirements.
10.1.4. Detailed Plan Development

Note: This section of the manual is an overview of Blowout Contingency Planning from a
well control viewpoint and does not include legal, contracting or financial issues. Consult
John Wright – AIMI Blowout Control (see Section 10.1.3) for greater detail and additional
considerations.
EP 2002-1500 - 283 - Restricted
The contents of that document are listed below:
10.1.5. Implementation
In the event of a blow-out situation, the services of a specialised blow-out contractor must
be called in. In order to react, the contractor will require information pertaining to the well
and the rig / installation.
Each contractor has its own pro-forma data sheet. Those produced by Boots & Coots are
referenced in this manual as examples due to their concise yet comprehensive nature.
Boots & Coots Onshore & Offshore Initial Action Plans are available at:
Initial Action plans (land) and Initial Action plans (offshore).
10.1.6. Feedback Loop

A formal audit of the entire plan should be conducted at least once a year. Among the
issues to consider are:
• Have the hazards and problem areas identified during the development of the plan
been sufficiently addressed?
• Does the plan reflect lessons learned from drills and actual events?
• Do members of the emergency management group and emergency response team
under stand their respective responsibilities? Have new members been trained?
• Does the plan reflect changes in the physical layout of the location? Does it reflect
changes in operations?
• Are photographs, maps, plans, diagrams and other records of the installation / location
assets up to date?
• Is the OPCO attaining its training objectives?
• Have the hazards changed?
• Are the names, titles and telephone numbers in the plan current?
• Have community agencies and organizations been briefed on the plan? Are they
involved in evaluating the plan?
10.1.7. Review Cycle

In addition to a yearly audit, the Contingency Plan and Emergency procedures should be
evaluated and modified after:
• Each training drill or exercise
• Each emergency
• Personnel or their responsibilities change
• The layout or design of the facility or operations changes
• Policies or procedures change
EP 2002-1500 - 284 - Restricted
NOTE: During all Emergency Response Exercises (and all actual incidents) there must be
a single nominated point of contact with the press / media to avoid inaccurate and
potentially damaging news releases. The ‘story’ WILL get out, but it must be ensured that
this takes place in a manner that is completely under Shell control.
EP 2002-1500 - 285 - Restricted
The copyright of this document is vested in Shell International Exploration and Production B.V., The Hague, The
Netherlands. All rights reserved.
Neither the whole nor any part of this document may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, reprographic, recording or otherwise) without the prior written consent of
the copyright owner.

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EP-2002-1500, Pressure Control Manual For Drilling and Workover Operations

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Restricted EP 2002-1500

Pressure Control Manual for

This version supersedes the previous version

SHELL INTERNATIONAL EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION B.V., RIJSWIJK

Procedures & Practices

USING THIS MANUAL

DED Website & Guide URLs

Updates and Change Management

Does a variance already exist? (Validate )

Review (To be completed by Variance Review Leader)

Approval (by) Date:

Feedback: (Comments on Variance Process?)

2. ORGANISATION OF WELL CONTROL OPERATIONS 7

3.2. Formation Strength 29

4.2. Surface Well Control Equipment 92

5.4. Gas Hydrates 138

5.14.2. Managed Pressure Drilling – Underbalanced 173

6.3.6. Functional Tests, Inspections and Precautions 207

7.5.21. Kick Off Bottom 247

10.1.5. Implementation 283

1. WELL CONTROL POLICY STATEMENTS

1.1. Safety of Operations

1.2. Minimisation of Environmental Impact

1.3. Minimisation of Loss

1.4. Compliance with Law

1.5. Reliable Communications

1.6. Safe Assembly and Briefing Areas

1.8. Shallow Gas

1.9. Maintenance of Primary Control

1.10. Underbalanced Operations

1.11. Person in Charge

1.12. Personnel Competency Standards

1.13. Personnel Complement

1.14. Well Control Drills

1.15. Dissemination of Information

1.16. Duty to Inform Driller

1.17. Duty to Inform Superintendent

1.18. Kick Tolerance

1.19. Pre-recorded Information

1.20. Course of Well (Well Path)

1.21. Integrity Testing Casing or Liner

1.22. Well Design

1.23. Classification of Wells

1.24. Special Circumstances

1.25. Equipment Standards

1.26. Temporary Pipe Work Standard

1.27. Industry Standards

1.28. Blow-out Prevention Review

1.29. Blind/Shear Rams

1.30. Accurate Records

1.31. Continuous Observation

1.32. Transfer of Mud

1.33. Driller’s Duty to Act

1.34. Flow Checks

1.36. Use of Trip Tank

1.37. Kill Technique

1.38. Material and Supplies

1.39. Dispensation from Procedures

2. ORGANISATION OF WELL CONTROL OPERATIONS

2.1. Personnel Responsibilities

2.1.1. Person In Charge of Well Control

2.1.2. Contractor Tool pusher (if not the Person in Charge)

2.1.4. Mud Engineer