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Ingredients of Concrete- Cement

 Overview
 History of Cement
 Manufacturing of cement
 Physical tests on cement
 Lab tests on cement

Lecture by: Prof. Poonam I. Modi

Assistant Professor, AMD, LDCE
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Why to study Cement and Concrete ???
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,
Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.
Because the wall had no cement at all
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What is Cement..
 Cement is a well known building material
 Its an important ingredient of the most
indispensable material “Concrete” used in
construction
 It’s a material with both adhesive and
cohesive properties
 Binds with other material like glue
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Functions of Cement..

 to bind the sand and coarse aggregate

together
 to fill voids in between sand and coarse
aggregate particle
 to form a compact mass
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Cement as an Ingredient of Concrete..
Active Group – Cement + Water
Inactive Group – Fine and Coarse Aggregates

Cement
Cement Sand Water
Mortar

Sand,
Cement Water gravel, Concrete
stones
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Types of Cement..

2 types of cement normally used in building

industry are as follows:

a) Hydraulic Cement

b) Non hydraulic Cement

Hydraulic Cement (Most common Portland
7
Cement)
 Hydraulic Cement sets and hardens by action of
water. Such as Portland Cement
 In other words it means that hydraulic
cement are:
“ Any cements that turns into a solid product
in the presence of water (as well as air)
resulting in a material that does not
disintegrate in water.”
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Non Hydraulic Cement

 Any cement that does not require water to

transform it into a solid product.
 2 common Non hydraulic Cement are
a) Lime - derived from limestone / chalk
b) Gypsum
 Origin of Cement 9
 Non hydraulic cement – oldest used in human history

 Romans used Gypsum + Lime

 Primal concrete used by Romans was mixture of Pozzolana, Animal

fat, milk and blood as admixtures.

 Egyptians started using Gypsum mortar as gypsum can be calcined at

lower temperature compared to Lime

 Hydraulic Lime was started by Greeks & Romans

 HL was obtained from Limestone containing argillaceous (clayey)

materials.
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 Origin of Cement 11

 In 1756, James Smeaton rebuild Eddystone Lighthouse in England with hydraulic lime
mortar. He prepared concrete mixing hydraulic lime + Pozzolana + Pebbles +
Powedered brick.

 In 1796, James Parker of England filed a Patent for a natural hydraulic cement made by
calcining nodules of impure Limestone containing clay.

 Portland Cement was invented by Joseph Aspdin

 Portland cement was prepared by calcining finely ground limestone and mixing it with
finely divided clayey particles and again calcining it in a kiln until CO2 was driven off.

 Name Portland was given because after hydration color of cement was similar to that of
Limestone quarried in Portland – samll town in Southern England
Origin of Cement 12

Pyramid built with Gypsum Mortar Chinese Used Lime Mortar in The Great
Wall
in Gaza, Egypt
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MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Ordinary Portland cement is obtained by intimately mixing

together a calcareous material such as limestone or
chalk and an argillaceous materials such as clay or shale
bearing silica, alumina and iron oxide) , by burning them at
a clinkering temperature of 1400 to 1500 degree celcius
and grinding the resulting clinkers with gypsum.
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MANUFACTURING OF PORTLAND CEMENT
 The 3 primary constituents of the raw
materials used in the manufacture of
Portland Cement are:
 a) Lime
b) Silica
c) Alumina
 Lime is derived from limestone or chalk
 Silica & Alumina from clay, shale or bauxite

Cont…
 Constituents of Portland cement & its role
15
Oxide Function Composition
%
Lime (CaO) Controls strength and soundness, if deficient 60-65
reduces strength and setting time
Silica ( SiO2) Gives strength, if excess reduces the setting time 17-25

Alumina ( Al2O3) Responsible for quick setting, if excess lowers the 3-8
strength
Iron Oxide ( Fe2O3) Gives colour and helps in fusion of various 0.5 – 6
ingredients
Magnesia (MgO) Imparts color and hardness, if excess if excess 0.5 -4
causes cracks in concrete
Na2O K2O These are residues, if excess causes efflorescence 0.5 -1
and cracking
 Manufacturing Process 16

 There are 2 chief aspects of the manufacturing process:

First
To produce a finely divided mixture of raw materials – chalk /
limestone and clay / shale
Second
To heat this mixture to produce chemical composition

 There 2 main process that can be used in

manufacturing of Portland Cement that is
i) wet process ii) dry process
 WET PROCESS 17

 Raw materials are homogenized by crushing, grinding and

blending so that approximately 80% of the raw material pass a
No.200 sieve.

 The mix will be turned into form of slurry by adding 30 - 40% of

water.

 It is then heated to about 2750ºF (1510ºC) in horizontal

revolving kilns (76-153m length and 3.6-4.8m in diameter

Natural gas, petroleum or coal are used for burning. High fuel
requirement may make it uneconomical compared to dry process.
WET PROCESS 18
 DRY PROCESS 19

 Raw materials are homogenized by crushing,

grinding and blending so that approximately
80% of the raw material pass a No.200 sieve.

 Mixture is fed into kiln & burned in a dry state

 This process provides considerable savings in fuel

consumption and water usage but the process is
dustier compared to wet process that is more efficient
than grinding.
DRY PROCESS
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DRY PROCESS - Precalciner 21
 THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
quarry 22

dumper
loader

Quarry face
1. BLASTING 2. TRANSPORT

crushing storage at
the plant
conveyor

3. CRUSHING & TRANSPORTATION

1. BLASTING : The raw materials that are used to manufacture cement (mainly limestone and clay) are
blasted from the quarry.
2. TRANSPORT : The raw materials are loaded into a dumper.
3. CRUSHING AND TRANSPORTATION : The raw materials, after crushing, are transported to Next
the plant by conveyor. The plant stores the materials before they are homogenized.
 THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Raw grinding and burning 23

storage at Raw mill

the plant conveyor Raw mix

1. RAW GRINDING
preheating

kiln
cooling
clinker
2. BURNING
1. RAW GRINDING : The raw materials are very finely ground in order to produce the raw mix.
2. BURNING : The raw mix is preheated before it goes into the kiln, which is heated by a flame that
can be as hot as 2000 °C. The raw mix burns at 1500 °C producing clinker which, when it leaves the
kiln, is rapidly cooled with air fans. So, the raw mix is burnt to produce clinker : the basic material
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 THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Grinding, storage, packing, dispatch 24

Gypsum and the secondary additives are added

to the clinker.
clinker
storage Finish grinding

1. GRINDING
silos

dispatch
bags

2. STORAGE, PACKING, DISPATCH

1.GRINDING : The clinker and the gypsum are very finely ground giving a “pure cement”. Other secondary
additives and cementitious materials can also be added to make a blended cement.
2. STORAGE, PACKING, DISPATCH: The cement is stored in silos before being dispatched either
in bulk or in bags to its final destination.
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 Stages of Burning in kiln
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Rotary kiln is one of the most important component of Cement factory.
The diameter of kiln is in range of 3m to 8m, lined with refractory
materials, mounted on roller bearings, inclined at about 3 degrees, length
of rotary kiln is in range of 30 m to 200 m, it is fired from lower end using
powered coal, oil or natural gas.

1st Stage – Dehydration zone ( upto 450 °C) – here moisture is driven of
2nd Stage – Decomposition or Calcination zone ( 450°C to 900°C) Lime
stone ( CaCO3) is calcine to CaO and CO2. ( this is the zone where 1 ton of
cement releases 1 ton of Co2)

At the end of this zone all the mix consists of oxides of the 4 main
elements i.e Cao, Sio2, Al2o3 and Fe2O3.
 Stages of Burning in kiln
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3rd Stage – Solid State reaction zone ( 900°C – 1300 °C) - here the CaO
reacts with Reactive silica to form C2S. Intermediate C3A and C4AF are
also formed. These two are the fluxing agents and allow C2S to form.

4th Stage – Clinkering zone ( 1300°C to 1500°C) – Hottest zone where the
most important compound C3S is formed. C2S + CaO to form C3S.

Clinkering is complete when all the silica is in from of C2S and C3S
crystals with amount of free lime is less than 1%.
Cooling Zone – as clinkers move down, liquid phase solidifies and C3A
and C4AF crystals are formed.
 DRY PROCES & WET PROCESS 27

 The rotation and shape of kiln allow the

blend to flow down the kiln, submitting it to
gradually increasing temperature.

 As the material moves through hotter regions in the kiln, calcium

silicates are formed

 These products, that are black or greenish

black in color are in the form of small pellets, called cement clinkers
 Cement clinkers are hard, irregular and ball
shaped particles about 18mm in diameter.
 DRY PROCES & WET PROCESS 28

 The cement clinkers are cooled to about 150ºF (51ºC) and stored
in clinker silos.

 When needed, clinker are mixed with 3-5% gypsum to retard the
setting time of cement when it is mixed with water.

 Then, it is grounded to a fine powder and then the cement is stored

in storage bins or cement silos or bagged.

 Cement bags should be stored on pallets in a dry place.

DRY PROCES vs WET PROCESS 29
 Chemical composition of Cement 30

 Anhydrous cement when mixed with water react with

each other to form hydrated compounds of very low
solubility
 Oxide composition of cement includes the following
oxides:

CaO, SiO3, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, SO2, K2O,Na2O

 Oxides when subjected to high temperature in kiln fuse

to form Bogue’s Compounds i.e C3S, C2S, C3A, C4AF
 Chemical Composition of Cement 31

All the oxides present in the raw material when subjected to high
clinkering temperature combine with each other to form Complex
compounds known as “Bogue’s Compounds” named after R.H.Bogue’s
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PORTLAND CEMENT
Chemical composition of Portland Cement:
a) Tricalcium Silicate (50%)
b) Dicalcium Silicate (25%)
c) Tricalcium Aluminate (10%)
d) Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (10%)
e) Gypsum (5%)
Schematic representation of Cement & hydration of cement
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 Hydration of cement 34

 Hydration reaction takes place through either “through

mechanism” or “ solid state” types.
Through mechanism is predominant in early stages of
hydration while the latter is during late stages of hydration.
Reaction of cement with water is exothermic. The reaction
liberates considerable amount of heat, known as “Heat of
hydration”.
 Hydration of cement
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 The reaction of cement with water is exothermic and it releases
considerable quantity of heat.

• This hydration product is also referred as Tobermorite Gel. It is

referred as C-S-H gel.
• C3S produces more heat of hydration and less dense get.
• C2S hydrates slowly producing denser gel
• C-S-H shows poorly crystalline fibrous mass
• It is estimated porosity of gel is 28%
• These gel pores are filled with water
 C3S vs C2S
36

Tricalcium Silicate ( C3S)

• Produces comparatively less quantity of C-S-H hydrates & more
quantity of Ca(OH)2
• C3S readily reacts with water and produces more heat of hydration. It
is responsible for early strength of concrete.
• A cement with more C3S content is better for cold weather concreting.
• The quality and density of calcium silicate hydrate formed out of C3S is
slightly inferior to that formed by C2S. The early strength of concrete is
due to C3S.
 C3S vs C2S
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Dicalcium Silicate ( C2S)

• C2S hydrates rather slowly. It is responsible for the later strength of
concrete.
• It produces less heat of hydration.
• The calcium silicate hydrate formed is rather dense and its specific
surface is higher.
• In general, the quality of the proudct of hydration of C2S is better than
that produced in the hydration of C3S.
 Calcium Hydroxide ( Ca (OH)2)
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• It constitutes 20 to 25 per cent of the volume of solids in the hydrated paste.

• The lack of durability of concrete, is on account of the presence of calcium
hydroxide. The calcium hydroxide also reacts with sulphates present in soils
or water to form calcium sulphate which further reacts with C3A and cause
deterioration of concrete. This is known as sulphate attack.
• The only advantage is that Ca(OH)2, being alkaline in nature maintain pH
value around 13 in the concrete which resists the corrosion of
reinforcements.
• To reduce the quantity of Ca(OH)2 in concrete and to overcome its bad
effects by converting it into cementitious product is an advancement in
concrete technology. The use of blendingmaterials such as fly ash, silica fume
and such other pozzolanic materials are the steps to overcome bad effect of
Ca(OH)2 in concrete.
 Calcium Aluminate Hydrates & C4AF
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• Hydration of C3A forms Cao- Al2O3-H2O

• Reaction of C3A with water is very fast that results in Flash Set.
• Gypsum is added at the time of grinding cement clinker to avoid this
flash set.
• Hydrates of aluminates do not make any contribution to strength rather the
presence might be harmful when concrete subjected to sulphates.
• C4AF on hydration forms CaO – Fe2O3 – H2O
• Compound is more stable, does not contribute to strength, has higher
resistance to attack of sulphates than C3AH.
 Structure of Hydrated Cement 40

 Concrete phase can be divided into 3 phases i.e Paste phase

and the Aggregate phase, Inter transition phase (ITZ)
Fresh cement paste phase:
After one hour hardening paste consists of hydrates of
various compounds, unydrated cement particles and water.
With further lapse, hydrates of various compounds increase,
some mixing water occupies gel-pores and remaining water
remains in paste.
Thereafter 85-90% of hydrates & 10-15% of unhydrated
cement remains.
 Water requirements for Hydration 41

 23% of water by weight of cement is required for chemical

reaction.
This water that reacts with cement is called Bound water
Quantity of water in gel-pores is called gel-water
15% by weight of cement is required to fill gel-pores.
Hence 38% of water by weight of cement is required for
complete chemical reaction and occupy space between gel-
pores.
With 38% of water no extra water will be available that will
lead to formation of capillary cavities.
 Tests on Cement: Field Tests & Laboratory tests
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 Field tests:
• Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should not be
any visible lumps. The colour of the cement should normally be
greenish grey.
• Thrust your hand into the cement bag. It must give you a cool feeling.
There should not be any lump inside.
• Take a pinch of cement and feel-between the fingers. It should give a
smooth and not a gritty feeling.
• Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water, the
particles should float for some time before they sink.
 Tests on Cement: Field Tests & Laboratory tests
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Standard Laboratory tests:

 Freshness Test – Loss on Ignition ( LOI)
Fineness
Compressive strength
Tensile strength
Consistency
Setting time
Soundness
Chemical Tests
 Tests on Cement:
Fineness test:
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(a) By Dry Sieving

(b) By determination of Specific Surface by Blaine Air permeability
apparatus
The fineness of cement has an important bearing on the rate of hydration
and hence on the rate of gain of strength and also on the rate of evolution
of heat. Finer the cement, more is the surface area hence more heat of
hydration
Sieve test is done for fineness:
Sieve test is conducted with the standard BIS sieve no. 9. (90 microns)
100g is taken and sieved for 15 min
The residue (weight of cement on sieve) should < 10% (OPC)
 Tests on Cement: 45
Standard Consistency test: (P)
 For finding out initial setting time, final setting time and
soundness of cement, and strength a parameter known as
standard consistency has to be used.
 The standard consistency of the cement paste is some time called
normal consistency (CPNC).
 Standard consistency of cement is defined as that consistency which will
permit a Vicat plunger of 10 mm dia and 50 mm height to penetrate to a
depth of 33-35 mm from the top of the mould.
Tests on Cement: 46
Tests on Cement: 47
 Tests on Cement: 48
Procedure:
 Take about 500gms of cement and prepare a paste with a weighed quantity
of water (say 24 per cent by weight of cement) for the first trial. The paste
must be prepared in a standard manner and filled into the Vicat mould
within 3-5 minutes.
 After completely filling the mould, shake the mould to expel air.
 A standard plunger, 10 mm diameter, 50 mm long is attached and brought
down to touch the surface of the paste in the test block and quickly released
allowing it to sink into the paste by its own weight. Take the reading by
noting the depth of penetration of the plunger.
 Conduct a 2nd trial (say with 25 per cent of water) and find out the depth of
penetration of plunger. Similarly, conduct trials with higher and higher
water/cement ratios till such time the plunger penetrates for a depth of 33-
35 mm from the top.
 Tests on Cement:
Procedure:
49

That particular percentage of water which allows the plunger to penetrate only
to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top is known as the percentage of water
required to produce a cement paste of standard consistency.
This percentage is usually denoted as ‘P’. The test is required to be conducted in
a constant temperature (27° + 2°C) and constant humidity (90%).
Initial Setting Time & Final Setting Time:
Initial setting time is regarded as the time elapsed between the moment that
the water is added to the cement, to the time that the paste starts losing its
plasticity.
Final setting time is the time elapsed between the moment the water is added
to the cement, and the time when the paste has completely lost its plasticity
and has attained sufficient firmness to resist certain definite pressure.
 Tests on Cement: 50
 In actual construction dealing with cement paste, mortar or concrete certain
time is required for mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and finishing.
During this time cement paste, mortar, or concrete should be in plastic
condition. The time interval for which the cement products remain in plastic
condition is known as the initial setting time. Normally a minimum of 30
minutes is given for mixing and handling operations.
 The constituents and fineness of cement is maintained in such a way that
the concrete remains in plastic condition for certain minimum time.
 Once the concrete is placed in the final position, compacted and finished, it
should lose its plasticity in the earliest possible time so that it is least
vulnerable to damages from external destructive agencies. This time
should not be more than 10 hours
Procedure:
51
 Take 500 gm. of cement sample and guage it with 0.85 times the water
required to produce cement paste of standard consistency (0.85 P).
 The paste shall be gauged and filled into the Vicat mould in specified
manner within 3-5 minutes.
 Start the stop watch the moment water is added to the cement.
 The temperature of water and that of the test room, at the time of gauging
shall be within 27°C ± 2°C.
 Lower the Initial Set needle (C) gently and bring it in contact with the
surface of the test block and quickly release.
 Allow it to penetrate into the test block.
The period elapsing between the time when water is added to the cement and
the time at which the needle penetrates the test block to a depth equal to 33-35
mm from the top is taken as initial setting time.
Final Setting Time 52
 Replace the needle (C) of the Vicat appartus by a circular attachment (F)
 The cement shall be considered as finally set when, upon, lowering the
attachment gently cover the surface of the test block, the centre needle
makes an impression, while the circular cutting edge of the attachment fails
to do so.
 In other words the paste has attained such hardness that the centre needle
does not pierce through the paste more than 0.5 mm.
Soundness Test
53
 The testing of soundness of cement to ensure that the cement does not
show any appreciable subsequent expansion.
 Certain cements have been found to undergo a large expansion after setting
causing disruption of the set and hardened mass.
 The unsoundness in cement is due to the presence of excess of lime than
that could be combined with acidic oxide at the kiln.
 This is also due to inadequate burning or insufficiency in fineness of
grinding or thorough mixing of raw materials.
 It is also likely that too high a proportion of magnesium content or calcium
sulphate content may cause unsoundness in cement.
 For this reason the magnesia content allowed in cement is limited to 6 per
cent.
 Unsoundness in cement is due to excess of lime, excess of magnesia or
excessive proportion of sulphates.
 Tests on Cement: 54

 Cement is gauged with 0.78P times the water

 Paste is filled into the mould kept on glass plate, it is then
covered with other glass plate on top
Le-Chatlier’s Apparatus
 The whole assembly is immersed in water at a temperature of 27°C– 55

32°C and kept there for 24 hours.

 Measure the distance between the indicator points.
 Submerge the mould again in water. Heat the water and bring to
boiling point in about 25-30 minutes and keep it boiling for 3 hours.
 Remove the mould, allow it to cool and again measure the distance
between the indicator points.
 The difference between these two measurements represents the
expansion of cement.
 This must not exceed 10 mm for ordinary, rapid hardening and low
heat Portland cements.
 If in case the expansion is more than 10 mm as tested above, the
cement is said to be unsound.
 56
 The compressive strength of hardened cement is the most important of
all the properties.
 Strength tests are not made on neat cement paste because of difficulties
of excessive shrinkage and subsequent cracking of neat cement. Strength
of cement is indirectly found on cement sand mortar in specific
proportions.
 The standard sand is used for finding the strength of cement. It shall
conform to IS 650-1991.
 Standard sand shall 100% pass through 2-mm IS sieve and shall 100% be
retained on 90-micron IS sieve with the following particle size
distribution:
 Particle size smaller than 2mm & greater than 1 mm – 33.33%
 Smaller than 1mm and greater than 500 microns – 33.33%
 Below 500 microns but greater than 90 microns – 33.33%
 57
 Mortar of cement & sand is prepared, 1:3.
 Water is added, water cement ratio 0.4:1
 It is placed in moulds & form cubes of sides 70.6 or 7.06 cm.
 Keep the compacted cube in the mould at a temperature of 27°C ± 2°C
and at least 90 per cent relative humidity for 24 hours.
 After 24 hours the cubes are removed from the mould and immersed in
clean fresh water until taken out for testing.
 Tests on Cement: 58

Compacted in vibrating machine in 2 min.

 Specimens are removed & placed in water for curing.
 It is tested in compressive testing machine after 3 and 7 days.
 Every side is calculated and average is taken.