IMPACT OF MATERNAL BEHAVIOR AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT

Maternal behavior has high influence on fetal development as well as the

growth of the individual. . The definition of behavior is given as “the way in
which a person behaves in response to a particular situation or stimulus.” .
For example, maternal consumption of essential fatty acids during pregnancy is
linked to lower birth weight and decrements in cognitive and motor function,
while fetal exposure to PCBs and methylmercury, via seafood in women’s diet,
is linked to neurocognitive deficits.
The objective of this paper is to understand the extend of influence of the
mother and her physical, social, mental, emotional and psychological state
during the development of fetus as well as the succeeding 1 year postpartum
state of the mother and to Determine the relation between mother-fetal
attachment and prenatal anxiety, depression, social support and parental
bonding.
FETAL ACTIVITY
Fetal activity, sleep pattern and movement have been shown to be influenced by
maternal psychological states, suggesting that maternal mood may also affect
central nervous system development. When observed with an ultrasound
monitor, fetuses of depressed mothers spent a greater percent of time active than
fetuses of nondepressed mothers explaining 35% of the variance in fetal activity
taken together, data from these studies, even with some contrary results, support
the fact that maternal psychological distress can affect the fetal autonomic and
central nervous systems. In particular, depression and multiple assessments of
daily stress are chronic mood states supporting the idea that, over the course of
pregnancy, repeated exposure to mood–based alterations in women’s
physiology shapes fetal neurobehavioral development.
Many independent prospective studies have now shown that if a mother is
stressed, anxious or depressed while pregnant, her child is at increased risk for
having a range of problems, including emotional problems, ADHD, conduct
disorder and impaired cognitive development. Both altered brain structure and
function have been shown to be associated with prenatal stress, and also the
mother’s experience of early childhood trauma. While genetic transmission and
the quality of postnatal care are likely to contribute to some of these findings of
association, there is good evidence that there is a causal influence of the
mother’s emotional state while pregnant also. Some studies have even found
that stronger associations with prenatal maternal mood than paternal thus the
role of mother’s mental state as important as the growth of the foetus. Thus,
although the mother’s postnatal emotional state and the quality of early
postnatal care are clearly important for many of these outcomes, the evidence
suggests that there are substantial prenatal effects also.
Within a normal population, the children of the most anxious mothers during
pregnancy (top 15%), had double the risk of emotional or behavioural problems,
compared with the children of the less anxious mothers. Most children were not
affected, and those that were, were affected in different ways. However, a
doubling of risk is of considerable clinical significance. Several studies have
finding that boys and girls can be affected in different ways.
It is clear that it is not just toxic or extreme prenatal stress that are important, as
several studies have shown that problems such as daily hassles, pregnancy
specific anxiety or relationship strains can have an adverse effect on the
developing foetus. For example, Increased vulnerability to schizophrenia has
been found to be associated with extreme stress in the first trimester. The risk
for other outcomes, such as ADHD, has been found to be associated with stress
later in pregnancy.
The mechanisms underlying all this are just starting to be understood; altered
function of the placenta, allowing more of the stress hormone cortisol to pass
through to the foetus, as well may be important, as may the function of the
maternal immune system.
MATERNAL NUTRITION
Nutrition is the major intrauterine environmental factor that alters expression of
the foetal genome and may have lifelong consequences. Maternal nutrition
plays a critical role in foetal growth and development. Available evidence
suggests that foetal growth is most vulnerable to maternal dietary
deficiencies of nutrients during the pre-implantation period and the period
of rapid placental development. Pregnant women may also be at increased risk
of under nutrition because of early or closely-spaced pregnancies. Since
pregnant teenage mothers are themselves growing, they compete with their own
foetuses for nutrients. Low birth weights and preterm deliveries in adolescent
pregnancies are more than twice as common as in adult pregnancies, and
neonatal mortality in adolescent pregnancies is almost three times higher than
for adult pregnancies. Further, placental insufficiency results in reduced transfer
of nutrients from mother to foetus, thereby leading to foetal under nutrition and
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Finally, due to competition for nutrients,
multiple foetuses resulting from assisted reproductive technologies(ART) are
often at risk of under nutrition and therefore foetal growth restriction.
A new study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine has
determined that poorer childhood cognition occurred, particularly in memory
and learning, when pregnant women or their offspring consumed greater
quantities of sugar. Substituting diet soda for sugar-sweetened versions during
pregnancy also appeared to have negative effects. However, children’s fruit
consumption had beneficial effects and was associated with higher cognitive
scores. maternal diet soda consumption was associated with poorer fine motor,
visual spatial, and visual motor abilities in early childhood and poorer verbal
abilities in mid-childhood.
EFFECT OF ALCOHOL AND SMOKING ON THE DEVELOPING FOETUS
Drinking alcohol when you're pregnant can be very harmful to the foetus
causing the foetus to have a range of lifelong health conditions. Drinking
alcohol during pregnancy can cause miscarriage, preterm birth and stillbirth.
When alcohol is taken in your body, it transfers to the foetus’ body too through
placenta. The same amount of alcohol that is in maternal blood is also in the
foetus's blood. The alcohol in mother’s blood quickly passes through the
placenta and to the feotus through the umbilical cord. Although the mother’s
body is able to manage alcohol in her blood, the baby's little body isn't. the
mother’s liver works hard to break down the alcohol in her blood. But her
baby's liver is too small to do the same and alcohol can hurt the baby's
development. That's why alcohol is much more harmful to the baby than to the
mother during pregnancy. Alcohol can cause the baby to have serious health
conditions, called foetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). The most serious
of these is foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Fatal alcohol syndrome can seriously
harm the baby's development, both mentally and physically.
Smoking during pregnancy affects the mother and the foetus before, during, and
after the foetus is born. The nicotine (the addictive substance in cigarettes),
carbon monoxide, and numerous other poisons the mother inhale from a
cigarette are carried through her bloodstream and go directly to the foetus
Smoking while pregnant will:
• Lower the amount of oxygen available to the mother and the foetus,
Increase the foetus heart rate.
• Increase the chances of miscarriage and stillbirth.
• Increase the risk that the foetus is born prematurely and/or born with low birth
weight.
• Increase the foetus’ risk of developing respiratory (lung) problems.
• Increases risks of birth defects.
• Increases risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
It's also important to stay smoke-free after the baby is born. Babies who are
exposed to smoke suffer from more respiratory illnesses, asthma, and ear
infections than do other babies. In fact, infants whose mothers smoke are 38
percent more likely to be hospitalized for pneumonia during their first year of
life than are babies of nonsmoking mothers.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES
Research has continued to demonstrate that exercise during pregnancy is safe.
Growing evidence supports that exercise during pregnancy is beneficial for
mother and fetus during gestation, with benefits persisting for the child into
adulthood. normalization of birth measures, such as birth weight, occurs when
women perform regular exercise throughout gestation. Measures of growth and
development further indicate that exercise during pregnancy does not harm and
may stimulate healthy growth throughout childhood. Measures of cognition and
intelligence demonstrate that exercise during pregnancy causes no harm and
may be beneficial. Overall, the benefits of exercise during pregnancy decrease
the risk of chronic disease for both mother and child. A study of well-being
during pregnancy reports that higher educational level and physical activity
increase well-being and the present study confirms these associations that
statistically significaSntly more pregnant women who reach the recommended
level of LTPA reported their health as very good/good and had a higher
educational level. Furthermore, studies indicate that physical activity before and
during pregnancy increases well-being and decreases depression and stress
levels in expectant mothers can also have negative effects on fetal development.
Music and singing has a soothing effect on the expecting mother and the unborn
baby alike and they contribute to a healthy and happy baby later in life.

POSTPARTUM PSYCHOSIS
Some new moms experience a more severe, long-lasting form of depression
known as postpartum depression. Rarely, an extreme mood disorder called
postpartum psychosis also may develop after childbirth.
Symptoms usually start suddenly within the first two weeks after giving birth.
More rarely, they can develop several weeks after the baby is born.
Symptoms can include: hallucinations, delusions – thoughts or beliefs that are
unlikely to be true a manic mood – talking and thinking too much or too
quickly, feeling "high" or "on top of the world", a low mood – showing signs of
depression, being withdrawn or tearful, lacking energy, having a loss of
appetite, anxiety or trouble sleeping loss of inhibitions, feeling suspicious or
fearful restlessness, feeling very confused, behaving in a way that's out of
character. The cause of postpartum psychosis is not yet found, but the mother is
more at risk if she has a family history of mental health illness, particularly
postpartum psychosis (even if she has no history of mental illness), already have
a diagnosis of bipolar disorder or schizophrenia, she had a traumatic birth or
pregnancy or developed postpartum psychosis after a previous pregnancy.
Some mothers have difficulty bonding with their baby after an episode of
postpartum psychosis, or feel some sadness at missing out on time with their
baby. With support from their partner, family, friends and the mental health
team, they can overcome these feelings.
Many women who've had postpartum psychosis go on to have more children.
About half of women will have another episode after a future pregnancy. But
they should be able to get help quickly with the right care.

CONCLUSION
Placental and fetal growth is most vulnerable to maternal nutrition status during
the peri-implantation period and the period of rapid placental development (the
first trimester of gestation). Maternal undernutrition or overnutrition during
pregnancy can impair fetal growth. Promoting an optimal intrauterine
environment will not only ensure optimal fetal development, but will also
reduce the risk of chronic diseases in adults. Pregnancy outcomes depend upon
when during gestation the stress is experienced, with stress in early gestation
typically resulting in pregnancy loss, whereas later in gestation the pregnancy is
maintained, although birth weights of the newborn(s) are significantly reduced
and the prenatal stress has long-lasting programming effects on various systems
in the offspring. In later life, prenatal social stress is generally associated with
offspring that are hyper-responsive to stress and more anxious, as a result of
changes in their brain. There are also indicators that the capacity to reproduce
and reproductive/social behaviours may also be negatively affected. The finding
that prenatal stress can programme future maternal behaviour highlights the
potential for negative phenotypes to be transmitted to future generations.
Understanding how the effects of maternal stress during pregnancy are
transmitted to the foetus(es) and the mechanisms involved in foetal
programming as a result could aid the development of postnatal therapeutic
interventions to reverse the detrimental effects observed in the offspring.
Ongoing investigations into the neurobiology, diagnosis, and long-term
outcomes of PP will lead to better illness recognition and effective interventions
and will be essential to unravel the mystery of this fascinating but tragic
disorder. This will improve our understanding and treatment of mothers and
families who suffer this highly debilitating yet treatable disorder. Inappropriate
development of attachment would have an adverse effect on the regulating part
of child’s right brain; different related studies have reported lower emotional
and mental development, weak social interactions, school refusal, and more
aggressive and hostile behaviors during childhood, behavioral disorders during
adolescence and more tendencies toward drug abuse during adulthood.