pardons and could not recognize independence.

[118] On September 15, Howe seized

control of New York City when the British landed at Kip's Bay and unsuccessfully
engaged the Americans at the Battle of Harlem Heights the following day.[119] On
October 18 Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the Battle of Pell's Point, and
the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28
at the Battle of White Plains, and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic
value.[120]
Sailing ships on the Hudson River from afar, the scene emphases the two tall bluffs
overlooking either side of the Hudson Narrows.
British forced Hudson River narrows

Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Fort
Washington on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most
disastrous defeat with the loss of 3,000 prisoners.[121] The remaining American
regiments on Long Island fell back four days later.[122] General Sir Henry Clinton
wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to
commit 6,000 troops to capture Newport, Rhode Island to secure the Loyalist port.
[123][s] General Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to
halt, leaving Washington unmolested.[125]

The outlook was bleak for the American cause: the reduced army had dwindled to
fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when enlistments expired at the
end of the year.[126] Popular support wavered, morale declined, and Congress
abandoned Philadelphia for Baltimore.[127] Loyalist activity surged in the wake of
the American defeat, especially in New York state.[128]
Washington standing up in a freight boat crossing a windy river filled with winter
chunks of ice.
Washington Crossing the Delaware

In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with
festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak,[129] and King
George III awarded the Order of the Bath to Howe.[130] Strategic deficiencies among
Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the
face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and
American troops fled in the face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions
that the British could win within a year.[131] In the meantime, the British
established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed
campaigning the following spring.[132]

Two weeks after Congress withdrew to safer Maryland, Washington crossed the ice-
choked Delaware River about 30 miles upriver from Philadelphia on the night of
December 25–26, 1776. His approach over frozen trails surprised Hessian Colonel
Johann Rall. The Continentals overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton, New
Jersey, and took 900 prisoners.[133][t] The celebrated victory rescued the American
army's flagging morale, gave new hope to the Patriot cause,[135] and dispelled much
of the fear of professional Hessian "mercenaries".[136] Cornwallis marched to
retake Trenton but was repulsed at the Battle of the Assunpink Creek;[137] in the
night of January 2, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis and defeated his rearguard
in the Battle of Princeton the following day. The two victories helped to convince
the French that the Americans were worthwhile military allies.[138]

Washington entered winter quarters from January to May 1778 at Morristown, New
Jersey,[139] and he received the Congressional direction to inoculate all
Continental troops against smallpox.[140][u] Although a Forage War between the
armies continued until March,[142] Howe did not attempt to attack the Americans
over the winter of 1776–1777.[143]
British northern strategy fails
Main articles: Saratoga campaign and Philadelphia campaign
Map showing the movements of the opposing armies in the Saratoga campaign, and plan
of the Battles of Saratoga (inset)

The 1776 campaign demonstrated regaining New England would be a prolonged affair,
which led to a change in British strategy. This involved isolating the north from
the rest of the country by taking control of the Hudson River, allowing them to
focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial.[144] In
December 1776, Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain, proposing a
limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson
from Canada.[145] Germain received this on February 23, 1777, followed a few days
later by a memorandum from Burgoyne, then in London on leave.[146]

Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for
the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required
him to lead the main force south from Montreal down the Hudson Valley, while a
detachment under Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet
at Albany, leaving Howe to decide whether to join them.[146] Reasonable in
principle, this did not account for the logistical difficulties involved and
Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure
to make this clear meant he opted to attack Philadelphia instead.[147]

Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777 with a mixed force of British regulars, German
auxiliaries and Canadian militia, and captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5. As
General Horatio Gates retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges,
dammed streams, and stripped the area of food.[148] This slowed Burgoyne's progress
and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; on one of these, more than
700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington on August 16.[149] St
Leger moved east and besieged Fort Stanwix; despite defeating an American relief
force at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, he was abandoned by his Indian allies
and withdrew to Quebec on August 22.[150] Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates,
Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching
Saratoga on September 13. He constructed defenses around the town and asked Clinton
for support while constructing defenses around the town.[151]
In an American army camp, of two British red-coated officers with white pants on
the left, British General Burgoyne offers his sword in surrender to the American
General Gates in a blue coat and buff pants to the right-center, flanked to the
right by US Colonel Morgan dressed all in white.
"The Surrender at Saratoga", Gen. John Burgoyne (l.), to Gen. Horatio Gates

Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past
Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British
casualties.[152] When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's
subordinates advised retreat; a reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed
by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights, forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy
losses. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced the
camp to a "squalid hell" of mud and starving cattle, supplies were dangerously low
and many of the wounded in agony.[153] Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around
6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Riedesel, surrendered
their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to
England.[154]

After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by

landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24.[155] He now compounded failure
to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent,
defeating Washington at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, then allowing him
to withdraw in good order.[156] After dispersing an American detachment at Paoli on
September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force
of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at Germantown.[157] Here they were
attacked by Washington on October 4, but repulsed.[158]
To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea, the Patriots
erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the
Delaware respectively, and placed obstacles in the river south of the city. This
was supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships on the Delaware,
supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy, commanded by John Hazelwood. An
attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red
Bank failed;[159][160] a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while
Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls.[161]
His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but
after inconclusive skirmishing at the Battle of White Marsh from December 5 to 8,
he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter.[162]
From the left armed with muskets, a standing rank of six US infantry, a kneeling
rank of six infantry, then standing facing them from the right are General von
Steuben instructing them with his arm outstretched, and two officers behind him.
General von Steuben training
"Model Infantry" at Valley Forge

On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at Valley
Forge; while Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield
success with Gates' victory at Saratoga,[163] foreign observers such as Frederick
the Great were equally impressed with Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and
determination.[164] Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low
morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of
shoes.[165] However, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to
introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to the entire Continental Army;
he did this by training "model companies" in each regiment, who then instructed
their home units.[166] Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made
no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended the
war.[167]
Foreign intervention
Main articles: France in the American Revolutionary War, Spain in the American
Revolutionary War, and Carlisle Peace Commission
French Foreign Minister Vergennes, who negotiated the 1778 treaties

Like his predecessors, French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace
a national humiliation and viewed the war as an opportunity to weaken Britain. He
initially avoided open conflict, but allowed American ships to take on cargoes in
French ports, a technical violation of neutrality.[168] Although public opinion
favored the American cause, Finance Minister Turgot argued they did not need French
help to gain independence and war was too expensive. Instead, Vergennes persuaded
Louis XVI to secretly fund a government front company to purchase munitions for the
Patriots, carried in neutral Dutch ships and imported through Sint Eustatius in the
Caribbean.[169]

Many Americans opposed a French alliance, fearing to "exchange one tyranny for
another", but this changed after a series of military setbacks in early 1776. As
France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with Britain, Congress had
three choices; making peace on British terms, continuing the struggle on their own,
or proclaiming independence, guaranteed by France. Although the Declaration of
Independence in July 1776 had wide public support, Adams was among those reluctant
to pay the price of an alliance with France, and over 20% of Congressmen voted
against it.[170] Congress agreed to the treaty with reluctance and as the war moved
in their favor increasingly lost interest in it.[171]

Silas Deane was sent to Paris to begin negotiations with Vergennes, whose key
objectives were replacing Britain as the United States' primary commercial and
military partner, while securing the French West Indies from American expansion.
[172] These islands were extremely valuable; in 1772, the value of sugar and coffee
produced by Saint-Domingue on its own exceeded that of all American exports
combined.[173] Talks progressed slowly until October 1777, when British defeat at
Saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced Vergennes only
a permanent alliance could prevent the "disaster" of Anglo-American rapprochement.
Assurances of formal French support allowed Congress to reject the Carlisle Peace
Commission and insist on nothing short of complete independence.[174]

On February 6, 1778, France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and
Commerce regulating trade between the two countries, followed by a defensive
military alliance against Britain, the Treaty of Alliance. In return for French
guarantees of American independence, Congress undertook to defend their interests
in the West Indies, while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace; conflict
over these provisions would lead to the 1798 to 1800 Quasi-War.[171] Charles III of
Spain was invited to join on the same terms but refused, largely due to concerns
over the impact of the Revolution on Spanish colonies in the Americas. Spain had
complained on multiple occasions about encroachment by American settlers into
Louisiana, a problem that could only get worse once the United States replaced
Britain.[175]

Although Spain ultimately made important contributions to American success, in the

Treaty of Aranjuez (1779), Charles agreed only to support France's war with Britain
outside America, in return for help in recovering Gibraltar, Menorca and the
Floridas.[176] The terms were confidential since several conflicted with American
aims; for example, the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod
fisheries, a non-negotiable for colonies like Massachusetts.[177] One less well-
known impact of this agreement was the abiding American distrust of 'foreign
entanglements'; the US would not sign another treaty until the NATO agreement in
1949.[171] This was because the US had agreed not to make peace without France,
while Aranjuez committed France to keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar,
effectively making it a condition of US independence without the knowledge of
Congress.[178]