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    Sclence and Mathematies Education Centre Science Education and the English Second Language Learner Judith Morris ‘This thesis presented for the Degree of (Curtin Univesity of Teehnaigy September 2006 Declaration ‘To the best of my knowledge and belie this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgment has been made ‘This thesis contsins no material which has been accepted forthe award of any other ogre or diploma in any university. Signatare: Date: ABSTRACT ‘The growing diversity of school populations around the world means that for many students the language of instruction in mainstream classrooms isnot their fist language. Content-based second language letming in a context suchas a sence classroom is considered advantageous sit enables the leamer to manipulate target language such a8 English in away which is meaningful, However, scence students ‘who have yet to achieve communicative competence in English are disadvantaged when it comes to developing a deep understanding of scent concepts. Many mainstream science teachers have concerns about this significant group of leamers who can be left on the periphery ofthe class to cope as best as they can. Very offen teachers aim to meet the ness af English Second Language (ESL) leamers without any specific knowledge of the sirategies which would enhance Teaming and ensure that learning environments encourage participation and interaction. The students "hemselves have not only to deat with language and sociocultural issues but must {ace the cognitive demands of science including negotiating its specialised language. ‘The study ha two main purposes. The first goal was to desribe the curent situation with respect to nine ESL leamers of science and thei teachers in selected Jeaming environments in Australia. The secondary purpose was to bring about improvement inthe students" situations by employing specifically designed interventions, The study had three focal areas: the language; the teaching and learning environment; and the ESL student. It was conducted in three phases. Phase ‘one involved investigating the current situations in the thre focal areas. Phase two involved reflection, planing and development ofthe broad interventions and specifi strategies which were uted to assist teaching and learning. Tn phase thee the ttraogice were implemented and their effectiveness was analysed using 2 ‘multidimensional interpretive framework, Changes in communicative competence, interactional and participative competencies and academic competence were ‘observed. The interventions which were intended to promote communicative ‘competence forthe language focus, involved integration of language and liteacy instruction with science education. To improve participation and interaction in the teaching ané learning environment, individual assistance was provided. In order to promote academic competence forthe students, content, process andor product modifications were made to science courses, Data forthe qualitative case studies was colleted using classroom observation, teacher and student interviews, checklists of strategies and language eors, and portfolios of student work, (Observations ofthe science classes in phase one revealed tha, even for the students ‘with very limited English language profcieney there was litle BSL specialist support available, Mainstream subjects lke science provided opportunities for language development, with biology lessons consistently including more activities which Jnvolved «combination of specking, listening, reading and waiting than did chemistry or physics classes. However, there was no coordinated approach to integrating lagoage education with ssience education, The development of cognitive! academic language took longer than 10 years for some of the students in the study. The nontechnical language used in science lessons afected the students’ understanding much more than the teachers were aware. Teachers atitudes and beliefs strongly influenced the interaction and participation of BSL students in science classrooms. Developing language skills prevented ESL students asking and snswering questions in class and academic progress in science was impeded by limited opportunities for ESL students to clarify their understanding. Achievement in soience was affected by assessment instruments which were infused wit specific linguistic or cutural knowledge. ‘After the introduction ofthe interventions, improvements in communicative ‘competence occurred forall student with the greatest progression oocurrng in the students with less developed language skils. Interaction and parseipstion improved ‘markedly inthe science classrooms where teachers provided individual assistance to sadents, Academic competence increased in all casee, The most promising approaches included: addressing the specific language needs in a particular unit of| work; the development of eustomized materials; the provision of weekly tutorials; and the revision of assignment drafts. ‘Key Words ~ Science education, Science, Language, English Second Language (ESL) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This stady would not have been completed without the advice, support and cooperation ofa number of people, In acknowledgement of the help, encouragement and support that Ihave received, I wish to express my sincere appreciation tothe following: ‘© My supervisor, Professor David Treegust and my associate supervisor, Associate Professor Grady Venville who challenged me and supported me ‘rough all the phases ofthis thesis development. Studying by distance can ’be lonely and sometimes frustrating and this experience was made easier by ‘heir patience, knowledge and guidance ‘+ Curtin University of Technology, who provided me with a scholarship which allowed me to pursue my studies while working ina part-time capacity ‘+ My husband, Bill, and my son, Davi, who gave me confidence and believed in my ability to complete ths study. Bill provided me with practical support and listened critically as talked about my work. David, with his endless good furnour and patience has encouraged me in his own special way, ‘+ The tachers who welcomed me into theirclassrooms. [as privileged to ‘watch so many interesting lessons and leat much from the experience. ‘© Finally, the students whose stores make up tis thesis They took me into their confidence, taught me all sbout the difficulties of studying science in sevond language and in the process became my friends. ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS Aburact Acknowledgments Table of contents List of eppendices List oftables List of figures CHAFTER1 INTRODUCTION Insrodctory remarks Rationale Background, Purpose Research questions Definitions Significance of the study Overview ofthe thesis CHAPTER? LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Language ‘The teaching and eaming environment ESL learners Chapter summary Page No. 4 4 16 45 3s Page No. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY CHAPTERS ‘Conceptual issues surrounding the use of qualitative methods ‘Theoretical framework Research design Method Data interpretation ‘Trustworthiness Ethical Tesvee (Chapter summary ‘THE CURRENT SITUATION tiers story Min’s story Aya’s story Chire’s story ‘Simon's story Patricia's story Yan's story Sulia’s story Lenny’s story ‘Anna's story Response to Research Question 1a ‘Response to Research Questions 1b Response to Research Question le ‘Summary ofthe findings in phase 1 RATIONALE FOR STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT ‘Overarching goals for phase 2 Needs Analysis 0 n 85 38 95 ” 106 7 123 126 130 136 Mat 144 46 15 153 135 137 137 138 CHAPTER6 Specific needs ofthe students Development ofthe interventions Integration of language and literacy instruction with science education Providing individual assistance in the learning environment Modifications to science courses Materials development Response to research question 28 Response to research question 2b Response to research question 2e IMPROVING THE SITUATION ‘The interpretive framework Clif’ story continued ‘Min’ story continued ‘ya's story continued (Clare's story continued ‘Simon's story continued Patricia's story continued ‘Yan's story continued Jia’ story continued [Lenny's story continued ‘Anna's sory continued Response to research question 3a. Response to research question 3b ‘Response to research question 3c. Summary wt Page No. 160 163 176 181 183 190 190 19 193 194 195 198 206 210 213 216 220 23 26 230 234 239 241 (CHAPTERT Chapter 8 REFERENCES APPENDICES DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ‘The design of the study ‘The factors affecting the impact ofthe interventions ‘The language ‘The teaching and learning environment ‘The students ‘The outcomes of study Other research CONCLUSIONS Overview ofthe study ‘The research questions and responses Limitations aisational implications ‘The final word Page No. 22 mar 2 27 2s2 255 258 265 265 266 26 Td 280 282 298 Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Appendix F Appendix G Appendix H ‘Appendix 1 Appendix J Appendix K Appendix Appendix M Appendix N LIST OF APPENDIXES Glossary ‘Strategy checklist Aya’s Words Aya’s glossary Patricia's glossary Genetics Geology Elecisisy ‘Short Beology Unit Disease Microscopes Calls Reproduction Beology Page No. 298 308 315 18 339 358 392 ans 437 2 500 sul 535 355 (Please note that because of thelr sive appendices F to N are presented on CD Rom rather than as part ofthe document itself) LIST OF TABLES Page No. (CHAPTER? Table 2.1 Summary ofthe literature review 16 Table22 Taxonomy of words in stience 2 Table23 TESOL standards 50 (CHAPTER3 Table 3.1 An outline ofthe research approach teken in this study 6 ‘Table3.2 The students and thie teachers who were involved in phase | 73 Table33 Overview ofstudent profiles us Table3.4 Theteachers and students involved in phase 3 5 Table3.5 Observation schedule n Table36 —ISLPRLevels 2 Table3.7 Summary of cutoffs for achievement levels for Years 11 and 12 84 Table38 Summary of cutoffs for achievement levels for Years 8,9 and 10.4 Table39 Summary of methodological framework and data collection 86 instruments CHAPTERS Table 4.1 Summary of Min's academic results in Phase 1 104 Table 4.2 Summary of Aya's academie results in Phase 1 us Table 43 Summary of Clsire's academic results in Phase 1 12 Table 44 Summary of Patricia's academic resuits in Phase 1 19 Table 4.5 Summary of Yan's academic results in Phase 1 135 Table 4.6 Summary of ISLPR ratings in Phase 1 7 Table 4.7 Summary of language difficulties 155 Table 48 Summary of teacher sratogios 136 ‘Table49 Summary of academic difficulties 156 CHAPTERS ‘able 5.1 Summary ofthe proposed intervenon® CHAPTERS ‘Table6.1 CLP SISLPR levels at the end of phases 1 and 3. Table62 — Min's ISLPR levels atthe end of phases 1 and 3 Table 63 Summary of Min's academic results in chemistry in phases 1 and’3 Table 6.4 Summary of Min’s academic results in physics in phases 1 and 3 Table 65 Summary of Min's academic results in biology in phases 1 and 3 Table 66 Aya's ISLPR levels atthe end of phases I and 3 Table 6.7 Summary of Aya’s academic resus in chemistry in phases 1 and 3 Table6.S Summary of Aya's academic results in physis in phases | and’3 Table 69 Summary of Aya's academic results in biology in phases 1 and 3 Table 6.10 Claire's ISLPR levels atthe end of phases 1 and 3 Table 6.11 Summary of Claire's academic results in chemistry in phases 1 and 3 Table 6.12 Summary of Claire's academe results in biology ‘in phases 1 and 3 ‘Table 6.13 Simon's ISLPR levels a the end of phases 1 and 3 Table 6.14 Summary of Simon's academic results in year 9 science in phases 1 and3 Table 6.15 Patricia's ISLPR levels at the end of phases 1 and3 Table 6.16 Summary of Patricia's academic esults in chemistry in phases 1 and 3 Page No. 164 196 199 201 201 201 205 206 206 207 209 209 210 a2 a4 as Table 6.17 Table 6.18 Table 6.19, ‘Table 6.20 Table 621 Table 6.22, Table 6.23, Table 6.24 Summary of Ptrcia’s academic results in biology in phases | and 3 Yan's ISLPR Levels atthe end of phases I and 3 ‘Sumnmary of Yan's academic results chemistry in phases 1 and 3 ‘Summary of Yan's academic results physics in phases 1 and 3 ‘Summary of Yan's acadenti results biology in phases 1 and 3 Sammary ofinterventions ‘Summary of ISLPR levels atthe end of phses ! and 3 forthe high choo students Summary of acedemic achievement atthe end of phases 1 sand 3 forthe students in Years 11 and 12 it Page No. as a7 219 219 219 230 21 239 LIST OF FIGURES Page No. (CHAPTER? Figure2.1 Cummins Quadrant Demonstrating the Dimensions of Language 21 Figure22 Kaplan’ graphical representation of paragraph developmentin 24 various linguistic systems Figue2.3 Cohen's methods of strategy taining 39 CHAPTER4 Figure 4.1 Csite's procedure forher Extended Experimental Invesigaion 119 CHAPTERS Figure $.1 Language objectives for the Ecology Unit 186 Figure$.2 Exercise focusing on the comect form ofthe word erypr 168 Figure5.3 Linguistic scaffolding 168 Figure 5.4 Focusing on form: writing complex sentences 169 FigreS.5 Decoding vocabulary and paying attention to non-technical words 170 Figure 5.6 Decoding vocabulary 170 FigureS.7 Decoding essential vocabulary and paying stenton to pronouns 171 FigueS8 Paying attention to articles and pronouns m FigureS.9 Providing visual scaffolding m Figure S.10 Highlighting important terms, simplifying, ‘summarizing nd reviewing mm Figure S.11 Increasing possibilities fr success; clearly identifying key terms; and avoiding overly detailed explanations 13 Figure 5.2 Focusing onthe use of prepositions 14 Figure'5.13._ Focusing on writing inthe passive voice, 174 (CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION A few years ago, Thad the good fortunate to meet three very interesting students ‘Thay were from very diffrent backgrounds and ranged in age from thirteen to thir ‘one years but they had two things in common. All were highly motivated science students who were eager todo well in their chosen fields and for all dee, English ‘was their second language. Their individual problems were very complex and new to me asa science educator. The following accounts outline how I met Clif, Lenny and Ann tosas my first day at anew school. The school, «private co-educational one was situated nthe stae of Queensland n Australia. Twas teaching a large Year nine Junior Science class. When I called the roll Inoticed one boy, Cliff failed to respond. The other students told me that he was new and could speak no English Because Iwas sill unfamillar with the administrative procedures, i took me afew days to establish tha he schoo! was without an English Second Language (ESL) teacher. It subsequently emerged that Cliff was from Tatwan and had only Been in Australia for ste weeks. Although Iwas an experienced teacher of scence in (Queensland sehools, ths stuation was a unigue one for me, Like all eachers in Australia, Iwas encountering more ESL students in my clases each year. However, Inother schools I had never Been responsible fora student whose mastery of English was suk that he was wnable to participate in bale classroom routines, Twas not prepared to leave Clif'to sink or swim. Cffforced me to think about the importance ‘of second language development within dhe science classroom Inthe same year Imet a second ESI. student who needed specialised assistance. Anna, who came to Australia from Hong Kong atthe age fifteen, had undergraduate degrees in Pharmacy and Dentistry. She was thirty-one years old, working part-time ‘asa general dental practioner and atthe end ofa three year Masters course in Dentstry which would make her an Orthodontist. Although her everyday communication was very good and her academic English was suck that her ‘examination results to date had been excellent, Anna was having difficulty withthe writing of her final thesis. She had designed and carried ou her research but was in despair as her Professor refused to asess her work, He sald it was 100 full of grammatical errors for him even to consider. She had taken her work fo an expert in selene writing but this was not suecesfil as it was necessary o have an understanding ofthe specialist dental language an the relevant practical experience In order to ensure thatthe meaning was clear and that there was proper continuity in ‘the writing, She flt she was in danger of not passing her course, Although Ino longer practise asa demist and have no postgraduate qualifications in that fel, my undergraduate degree isa Bachelor of Dental Science and Iam stil familiar with ‘the terminology, anatomical landmarks and base procedures involved. Anna was aware that I had done some academic writing and together we embarked on 2 revision of her thesis which iolved many hows of oral explanations, negoation and rewriting, From Aa I learnt about the difficulties that specialised academic writing pases for ESL students ‘The third student was Lenny, She was @ 28-year-old Columbian dentist who had been inthis cour for four years. Australia had become her permanent home since marrying a Brisbane architect two years previously. Consequently she wished to be able 1 pursue her chosen career of dentistry. To become registered asa dentist, Lenny was required bythe Australian Denial Council fo demonsrate her competence to practise dentistry Australia. The assessment procedure consists of tree components, The first isan Occupational English Test, which is designed to assess the candidate's understanding and use of English inthe workplace. The second component consists of tro papers in muliple-cholce question format and a paper of five short answer questions, The Final Examination tests she candidate's practical clinical skills, Tmer Lenny when she approached me, eight weeks prior fo the fist examination. She wanted my assistance to prepare forthe test. She hoped that I could act asa tutor. From Lenny I learnt about the difference benween language for everyday communication and that needed for academic stu. For me, the linguistic, sociocultural and academe struggles ofthese three students {formed the basis for what has Become a personal search fr strategies with which (0 help them and other ESE students During the past fow years Thave had the privilege of visting many science classrooms and working with different ESL students ana ther science teachers. Ithas been a very rewarding journey and allowed me 1 view my own teaching wth new eyes Rationale ‘In 2003, over 300,000 students from allover the world came to Australia to study in ‘vious educational inttations around the councy Latemational Eavcation "Network, 2003). Along with these international Jeamers here are also those students who ae refugees, immigrants and the children of immigrants for whom "English i second language. Inthe 2001 census, 11.5% of Queenslanders reported speaking languages other than English in thei homes (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002). This growing diversity is by no means unique to Australia and ‘means that in many areas ofthe world mainstream teachers of content areas such as science are called upon increasingly to accommodate ESL students in their clases. As wel as leaning selenoe, the aim for these studens is thatthe science classroom, will provides meaningful use fr their English and through this medium they wll soquite the structures and forms ofthe language (Lrsen-Freemsn, 200). ‘Short (2000) stats that when the language of instruction is English, there persists significant difference between the academic achievement levels of ESL students and ‘those of native English speakers. This was supported by a study in Western Australia (Educelion Department of Western Australi, 1994) which reposted that the science achievement of ESL students in Year 10 was statistically lower than that of sdents who wore proficient in English, There are many reasons for this. Although ESL students often make up a significant component of many mainstream classes, [Lee and Luykex (2008) report, “most teachers working with culturally and Linguistielly diverse students fel tha they are not adequately prepared to meet their students’ leaming needs particularly in academicelly demanding subjects such as science” (p.21). According to Gutierrez (2002), secondary school teachers’ main loaty appears to be to their subject area, with the students’ other needs a secondary concern, Although ESL students are using science asa means of achieving communicative competence, her research showed that students Hinguiste experience plays an insignificant role inthe learning of content in subject areas. For the students themselves the challenge of mastering academic content ina language which they ae sll earning can be overwhelming and lead to felings of confusion and rustetion, Students who have not yet achieved communicative ‘competence in English sre certainly disadvantaged when it comes to developing a ep understanding of science with its specific cognitive demands and specil language. Achieving at a high academic level in science involves reading English ‘well, understanding ssientiie discourse, writing coherently and speaking English at cognitively abstract and complex levels. Additionally ESL students must deal with ‘the normal transitions of adolescence combined with the many sociocultural differences which they encounter. ‘The influence tha social and affective factors have on language aoquisiton forms the basis of Schumann's (1986) model of acculturation. Acculturation involves the social and psychological integration ofthe learmer with the target group. He ‘proposes thatthe learner will acquire the second language only tothe degree that he for she acculturates. The implications of this model forthe science classroom are that as well as acquiting communicative competence and academic competence, there is need forthe learner to acquire what Carrasquillo and Rodriguez (2002) tem “participative competence” and “interactional competence” (p. 14). Participative competence involves responding appropriately to class tasks and demands, and {interactional competence means tha the learner can follow social rules and interact propesly with poers and adults. Vine (1997) supports integration into mainstream classrooms asthe best means of achieving these competencies. ‘Although the leaming of seience poses many problems forthe ESL student whieh no amount of pior practice in ESL. classes can alleviate, there are many reasons why seience is well suited to seadents for whom English is ill developing. Rosenthal (1996) explains that it soften mathematically based, which removes some linguistic barriers. Commonly employed scientific earning experiences such as demonstrations, group work, collaborative and hands-on activities like experiment, and the use of visual sds like diagrams, specimens and videos al serve to reinforce ‘words and text, Language development is esisted bythe opportunites for speaking, listening, wing and reading which exist in most essons. Additionally, the technical language or argon of science is often foreign to all students, native speakers and ESL students alike. So if tis accepted thatthe science classroom can provide valuable learing experiences forthe ESL student, the challenge for science ‘educators is to assist the learners to close the seademic gap. To do this itis ncessary to acknowledge the importance and interdependence ofthe three areas of language soquistion, acculturation and academic progress forthe ESL science leamer. These will be elaborated upon in Chapter 2 Background ‘The educational research which informs this study is drawn from three main ares. Firstly, a knowledge of the theory on langeage and language acquisition provides the background to understanding the journey that all English language leemecs must ‘travel. The second area relates more specifically to matters surtounding content= ‘based language learning in mainstream classrooms. The third secks to outline the rajor issues specific to BSL learners of seienoe and thet teachers. The major points willbe summarised under tree research foci: 1. language; 2 the teaching and learning environment; and 3, the BSL stent. Language ‘Today's second language teachers have moved awey from explicitly teaching the rules, pattems, definitions and other knowledge about a language nd instead teach students to communicate genuinely and mesningflly inthe second language using the methodology known as communicative language reaching (Larsen-Freeman, 2000), The goal forthe ESL learner of content-based language instruction is the ‘development of communicative competence (Canale, 1983; Canale & Suan, 1980). ‘To achieve communicative competence ESL learners must improve thelr proficiency or skill in using the second language in different tasks (lis, 1994). Allwright and Bailey (1991) expisin that second language leaner ae thought fo progress along a continuum, the two poles of which re the fist language and the target language. (One ofthe goals of content-based language instruction must be to move the leamer towards the target language end ofthe scale. The continuum is masked by a series of stages which ae defined by the types of errors thatthe learmer makes at each stage, Selinker (1972) use the term “interlanguage”(p. 201) 0 describe these various stages, From the constructivist point of view, language is the chief means used by children to build knowledge (Bruner, 1966). Vygotsky (1978) claimed that social interaction through language is @ prerequisite to cognitive development. Brown (2000) explains that cognitive end linguistic developments are inexticably itertwined with dependencies in both directions. ‘Wellington and Osbome (2001) believe that the special language of science is one of ‘he major barriers to developing an understanding of scientific concepts, not only for ESL learners but fr native speakers as well. O'Toole (1982) explains that the language used by scientists when they discuss stience as a specialised vocabulary and a distinct structure Because ofits specialization and attendant complexity, it causes dificulties fora wide range of students, with second language leamers experiencing particular diffiulis. The Teaching and Learning Environment The implications of Schumann's (1986) model of acculturation inthe science classroom mean thatthe ESL stadent must interact and participate appropriately in order to improve communicative nd academic competencies. Clegg (1996) ‘maintains that mainstream classrooms canbe harsh places for ESL leamers end Levine (1990) stresses the ned for teachers tobe hospitable. Indeed, Gutlemez (2002), Buck, Mast and Franklin (2008) and Lee and Luykx: (2003) state that many teachers have not developed teaching strategies to support ESL students, Carasquillo and Rodriguez (2002) sy thatthe first step is for teachers to craft their own sot of beliefs and guidelines. Gutierrez (2002) found that socessful mainstream teachers watched, listened and interacted with students in a way which respected their culture and encouraged psitveatindes in other students. Amaral, Garrison and Klentschy (2002) promote inquiry-based science as a good approach for ESL leamers because it involves cooperative learning and students share common, experiences. ESL Learners ‘The academic success of BSL stadens in science hinges upon how well they ean ‘manipulate language inthe variety of contexts and forthe specific purposes required by science instruction. Thats, to achieve academic competence students must be able to acquire new sills assimilate new information, and construct new concepts ‘As Cummins (1994) points out although ESL students may aequre basic ‘conversational skis in English quite quickly, it may take them up to five years to quite academic proficiency comparable to thelr native speaking pees. IFESL students are to catch up academically, their cognitive growth and mastery of academic content must continue while English is being learnt. Therefor, forthe [ESL science stadent,it is imperative that soience lessons become language lessons as vel Purpose “The thesis had two main purpeses. The first, which constituted phase oe ofthe _study was to interpret the experiences of ESL seience learners and ther teachers in ‘Queensland educational inatitutions with regard to the three foc: 1) language; 2) the ‘teaching end leaming environment; 3) the ESL student. Specific strategies were designed to promote language developmest, acculturation and understanding in science and tis constituted phase two. The second purpose, which was addressed in ‘phase thre, was to bring abou! change by introducing spevally designed strategies within the classroom seting and evaluating their effectiveness Research Questions Phase One Ta, What are the difficulties for ESL students with respect tothe language used in science classrooms? 1b, How do science teachers assist PSL students to interact and participate in ssienceJearing environments in Australian schools? Je, What difiulies do ESL students encounter when constructing an understanding of scientific concepts? Phase Two ‘2a. What taching and leaming stratogies are likely to assist the language development of ESL stents in science classrooms? ‘2. What teaching and learning strategies ae likely to improve the interaction ‘and participation of ESL students in science classroom? 2c, What leaming strategies ae likely tp enhance ESL students’ understanding of scientific concepts? Phase Three 3a, What impact do strategies specifically designed to adress language ‘development inthe science classroom have on ESL students’ communicative ‘competence? 3b, What impact do strategies specifieally designed to improve the science teaching and learning environment have on ESL students’ ntersetionl and participative competencies? 3c. What impact do siratogies specifically designed to assist BSL students! ‘understanding of science have on academic competence? Definitions ‘The terms used in the literature relating to culturally nd linguistically diverse students vary extensively fom author to author and country to country. A. glossary ‘of some of the commonly encountered terms related to the education of ESL stadents is provided in Appendix A. However, at this stage, a clear explanation ofthe key terms will serve to reduce ambiguity and justify some ofthe individual choices made in this popes, With reference tothe students themselves the most frequen encountered tems are: English second language (ESL): Language minority student (LMS); English language learners (ELL); Linited English proficiency (LEP); Non-English speaking background (NESB) and Limited Bnglish speaker (LES). Because in Australian isthe term most commonly used, twill classrooms, English second language or BI bbe employed inthis thesis. Ina busy science classroom, ESL students are sometimes not easy to identity. ‘Fugelman (1986) points out tat all ESL students have two things in common. ‘They all come from non-English speaking backgrounds and their understanding ad production of spoken and/or wetten English is limited enough to constitute a disadvantage at school ‘With respect to classrooms, avording to Rosenthel (1996), mainstream classrooms fre designed for ative speakers who inthis study are persons who speak English as their fist language. Mainsreaming oocurs when students are moved out of program of English a a second language and into content-area courses in which English isthe language of instruction (Rosenthal, 1996). ‘The Educational Resource Information Centre (ERIC) thesaurus defines competence as an individual's capacity to perform. Competence involves possession of | knowledge, skills nd personal characteristics needed to satisfy the special demands of particular situation In 1974, Hymes explained his term conomuicatine competence as that aspect of competence that enables a person to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate ‘meanings inerpersonally within specific eontexts. To achieve communicative competence four separate components need to be considered. Firstly, grammatical competence i the knowledge of lexical items and the rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar, sementios and phonology. Secondly, discourse competence involves intersentence knowledge. ‘Thitdly, sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge ofthe sociocultural rues of langusge and discourse. Finally strategic competence involves the strategies tht can be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication (Canale, 1983; Canale & Swain, 1980). Participative competence describes the extent to which stents are able to respond properly to class rules and to complete lass tasks. Ifstudents are able to interact sppropriaely with adults and peers by following classroom and social rules of Aiscourse, they ate demonstrating iveractional competence (Carrasquillo & Rodriguez, 2002). A snudens ability to acquire new skills, assimilate new information and construct new concepts contributes to academic competence (TikunofT & Ward, 1991). In this study, academie competence was measured against the criteria set out hy the various ‘work programs applicable tothe classrooms involved. In Years 10 to 12 this ‘measurement involved the thee assessment categories of Knowledge, Scientific Process and Complex Reasoning. In Year9, in one ofthe schools only the fst wo areas were used for assessment purposes. [A definitive definition ofa strategy is dificult. Oxford (1990) explain thatthe term ‘comes from the ancient Greek tem strategia which means generalship or art of war. In this set sense strategies involve the optimal management ofthe troops, ships, or aircraft in a planned campaign. A different but related word is tactics which are tools to achieve the succss8 of strategies, The terms are often used interchangeably, staring the common characteristics of planning, competition, conscious ‘manipulation, and movement towards goal. Oxford (1990) and O”Malley and ‘Chamot (1990) agree thet language leaming srntogies ae sctions, behaviours, steps ‘or techniques taken by language leamets to contol and improve their own leaming. However, for the purposes ofthis stady a wider definition is required asthe strategy users ae teachers and science leamers as wells language leamers. Therefore, strategies are defined as plans, steps, techniques or spevfie actions that are used, often consciously, towards the achievement of objectives. Significance ofthe Study [Bach year Australia weleomes large numbers of intemational students to its universities, institutes, colleges and schools. Internationally, Australia ranks in the top five of educational providers. Between 1994 and 2003, the number of international enrolments ineressed from 93722 to 303324 with an 11 % increase between 2002 and 2003. Students mainly come from the Asian Pacific region with students from China accounting for 19 % of total foreign enrolments, These students shave avery positive impact on the Australian economy. Provisional estimates are that revenue of 5.7 billion was derived from educational exports in 2003 (Australian Government, Department of Edvcation, Science and Training, 2003) In 2001, Australian exports of intemational education services generated more income than ‘wool and almost equlled that of wheat and beef in tems of valve, This makes ‘education Australia’s hid largest export service industry after tourism and 10 transportation and itis predicted that it wil grow faster than either of these industries in the coming decade (Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2003), ‘These students, for whom English is a second langusge, bring to Australian classrooms 2 wide range of educational experiences, and cultral and linguistic diversi. Its essential for teaches to learn more about the kinds of students they se teaching and to develop methods and stategies that are eflective for today's diverse students expecially thore studying new subject mater ike science in @ language they ae still acquiring, Revent science eduction reform efforts have emphasised scientific Iiteray for all, including BSL students, asa key goal of science edvcation (Goodrum, Hacking & Rennie, 2000; National Research Council, 1996; Rutherford & Aleren, 1993). Lee ‘and Fradd (1996) explain that becoming scientifically literate means being capable of | applying scientific knowledge to rea ite situations, recognising the diversity and ‘unity ofthe natural world, understanding strengths and weaknesses of technological applications, and exploring scientific questions. Scientific literacy is necessary for ‘people to participate fully in modem society. Investigating situations which might help ESL students achieve scientific literacy is therefore worthwhile on both an individual and societal level ‘Barbe and Reynolds (1998) state that science education should aim to produce a society in which al individusls have the opportunity to participate in science careers. ‘Mainstream science teachers recognise that PSL students have problems in coping ‘with the academic demands of science, however, the nature ofthe problems ate not always cleat, Given that Hassan and Treagust (2005) report that there are decreasing ‘numbers of students opting to study science both at school and university levels in Australia tis important not to exclude a significant group of potential seience students because of unspecified and ill-defined difficulties, Its important to investigate and clearly outline the problems faced by ESL science leas. (Curent research by Buck etal, (2003) and Lee and Luykx (2003) confims that most science teachers confes o feeling inadequately prepared to mest the earning needs u of their ESL students, Cacrasuillo and Rodrigues (2002) argu that preparing science educators to work withthe growing numbers of SL students is serious cedveatonal concer. There is obviously a need to discover how a classroom teacher can develop asa science tescher of ESL students ‘The National Centre fr Educational Statistics (NECS) in Washington (1997) reported thatthe gap in sence achievement berween native speakers and ESL students continues, One ofthe contributing factors is that mainstream BSL stadents ace being cognitively taxed on several levels. There are the cognitive demands of science and the Linguistic demends of processing scientific discourse (Carrasquillo & Rodriguez, 2002). The students are also using content areas such as science asa vehicle fr increasing communicative competence. So forthe ESL leamer, unless the multiple roles of the science curiculum are given consideration the gep in achievement will nat close. Investigating the current situation in selected science elasstooms allows specific problems tobe identified. 1t is hoped that progress willbe made in develo effective strategies to address participation and interaction, understanding and achievement in science, while simultaneously developing English language abilities. ‘There is potential forthe language learning, the teaching, the learning environments, and the science lesming in the classrooms in question tobe enhanced. In order to promote interest, involvement and conceptual understanding in science {or ESL leamers it is necessary for the teacher to carefully design and implement ‘comprehensive leaning activities tose the stage for simultaneous language Acquisition nd acatemic mastery. Lynch (2000) reported that research-based curricula focussing oa science inguiy with diverse leamers were yet to be developed. As prt ofthis study several supplementary nits were designed. The approaches, materials, learning activities and practical activities were developed to ‘mest the needs of individual students and teachers. These are potentially useful for other teachers and students at the schools involved inthe study. Finally, ESL student like Clif, Anna and Lenny experienc fetings of loneliness, ‘sadness and frustration. Science teachers are often at loss as to how fo help them. 2 Its hoped thatthe strategies employed in his study may assis in eatering tothe students individual needs, 1 they alleviate some ofthe isolation experienced by these students they may go some way to improving their self-esteem. Overview of the Thesis ‘The study was carried out in three phases using an interpretive methodology based ‘ona modified action research approsch in naturalistic settings. The findings are ‘presente in part as case studies, in onder to provide the reader with aconerete sense of the personal and shared challenges the students and their teachers faced. “This fist chapter ha attempted to present an overview of the major themes that characterise this study and also to clearly define the key tems. Chapter 2 presents a literature review, The methodology is outlined in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 addresses Research Questions Ia, 1b and Le and consequently describes the situation st the ‘onset of he study with respect to language, the teachers and the leaming ‘environment, and the ESL students themselves, Findings are presented as case studies under the thesis themes of language learing environment and student ‘Chapter 5 outlines the strategies which were adopted to improve teaching and learning and provides a rationale for these by answering Research Questions 28,26. and 2c, Chapter 6 addresses Research Questions 3a, 3b and 3c by considering the effectiveness ofthe strategies against a multidimensional interpretive framework ‘which measures changes in communicative competence, participative and ‘interactional competences and academic competence. The findings are discussed in (Chapter 7. Finally, Chapter 8 provides an overview ofthe study, summarises its rain findings, and diseusses some possible implications. A glossary of terms is provided in Appendix A. The literacy materials which were developed as part of the research are contained in Appendices FtoN, 3 (CHAPTER? LITERATURE REVIEW Introduetion Research in both language eequisition and science education has been rich and roduotive during the past 30 years. Herel and Jordan (2004) explain that both Finguists and educators have discovered some effective methods of supporting students when they are learning anew language and content knowledge simaltancously, The literature which informs this study falls into three distinct areas: the theories on language and language learning; content-based language learning in mainstream classrooms; and the work which is specific to ESL students of science “The frst purpose ofthis thesis was to interpret the experiences of BSL science leamers and tei teachers in Queensland educational institutions and the second Purpose was to improve the situation for these students. Birch (1997) summarised the problems suecinetly when he found that to expect ESL students to adapt roa learning environment which i cultrally alien to them, fo undertake studies in scademic fields which are cognitively demanding and todo all his via a medium of a Janguage in which they lack fueney in ts spoken and or written forms “is to engineer for these students classic conditions of fulure™(p, 101), In order to address the dual purposes ofthe study, it was necessary (0 utilise a theoretical framework. ‘which supported the linguistic, sociocultural and academic needs ofthe stants ‘Short (2000) identifies a gap in the academic achievement levels of ESL students and ‘hose of native English speskers. Amongst the complex issues involved inthis inequality, the obvious difference between the two groups is their language skills. ‘The language in science classrooms forms an obvious focal point for investigation and represents the language leering aspect identified in the literature. To this end the theories on language and language learning were represented by the frst focus on language, The focus on teaching and learning environments corresponded to the body of itertur on content-based language learaing in mainstream classrooms. Erickson's (1986) explain that interpretive research should foeus on “the immediate and local meanings of actions as defined from the actors point of view” (9.119). Consequently, itis clear thet the cognitive demands in mainstream science 1“ classrooms should be viewed fiom the students" perspective, As the titd important area identified inthe literature, the area of science and the ESL learner was represented by the focus on BSL students. ‘Selection of three foci des not imply that the author believes the issues to be separate entities, Indeed, once inside a classroom, their interdependence is ‘immediately evident. Although the choice ofthe foci would seem to evolve naturally ‘rom both the main bodies of literature and the problems identified by practitioners such as Birch (1997), further suppor of these eheices can be obtained from the cconstrutivst theorists. Piaget (1972) made the claim that language depends upon and spring ftom cognitive development, However, iis the work ofthe social constructivist ike Vygotsky (1963, 1978) which emphasis tat the three areas of language, social interaction and cognitive development are linked. The basic belief that the knowledge constructed by the ESL shat in a seince classroom isa result ‘of langauge use and th socal interaction between peers and teachers provides validity forthe selection ofthe thre fot of langauge, the teaching and learning ‘environment and the ESL student. ‘The literature review willbe presented under the three foci headings ofthe language; the teaching and leaning environment; and the ESL student. However, litereture relevant to this study falls nto tree quite distinct areas, The first involves the ‘theories on language and language learning. ‘The second is related to matters surrounding content-based language leaning in mainstream classrooms. The third outlines the specific issues for BSL learners of science and ther teachers. Together these three areas provide a theoretical basis or rationale for the strategies which were adopted to improve the teaching and leaming of science forthe PSL stadents inthis study. Table2.1 Stonmary of lterature review 1 Tanauage 2, The teaching and 3.ESL sadent fearing environment ‘Conmponents oflanguage The classroom Who are tev? environment [Language leaming ‘The teacher Science for all and scientific literacy. ‘Therole oflanguage in Language teaching in Specific lmguage science and science science acquisition issues education Characteristics of science Classroom strategies Sociocultural issues language Difficulties associated Assessment (Cognitive demands with science language Language ‘The possession of language distinguishes humans from other animals. To knowa language is to have an understanding ofa special sound system and structure to have aveess to an extensive mental dictionary, and to be able to use this knowledge creatively (Fromkin, Bair and Collins, 2000). However language is more than this. Language empowers an individual and is a vital part ois or her identi. According to Chomsky (1972), the sty of linguistics encompasses the stay of the Aistintive qualities ofthe mind or of human essence, For Lemke (1989), language is ‘resource system for making mesning. Corson (1988) explains that language only develops through purposeful use. For ESL students, focused lezning such as occurs in science occurs through talking, reading, writing and listening and contributes to language development as well as cognitive growth. In onder to promote understanding for ESL. stience students, the science educator rst first gain an overall view ofthe components ofa language, the role that language plays in science classrooms, the characteristics of scence language and the problems it poses for SL students. Purthermore, there are several important features of second language acquisition theory, which have implications for the teaching and learning of science. These wil be outlined where applicable. Components of language Fromkin etal. (2000) say that speakers of language use a finite set of rules to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences. These rules comprise the grammar ofthe language. When a person sequies a language they have access tor the sound system (the phonology); the structure ofthe words (the morphology); how words may be combined into phrases and sentences (he syntan) the ways in ‘hich sounds and meanings ar elated (the semantics); and the word (the lexicon). Prom the point of view of leering a language, Ur (1996) explains that teachers and leamers need fo tend tothe four primary skills (enown as macroskils) of listening, reading, speaking and writing and the associated mieroskls of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation and syntax. Language learning In he lat few decades considerable research has been caried out inthe area of second language (2) leaming. Much ofthe work has been based on studying how ‘competence in the frst or native language (L1) is acquired in the frst few years of lige and drawing analogies between this and L2 learaing. The works of Chomsky (1965; 1972), Krashen (1973; 1977; 1981; 1982; 1985; 1997), Cummins (1983, 1994, 1996), Kaplan (1966) and Canale and Swain (1980) are particularly relevant to the present sly. ‘Chomsky (1965) stressed the importance of inmate properties of language which ‘explain a child's mastery ofL1 in such a short time despite the highly complex and abstract rules involved. Inhis view each learner is eedited with a language ‘acquisition device (LAD) which dex the process of acquisition. This device "7 allows the lea o distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the ‘environment, to organise linguist data into various classes that can later be defined «and contains information sbout the possible form that the grammar of language can take, Universal Grammar isthe term used by Chomsky (1972) to refer to the abstract knowledge of language which children bring to the task of leaming their ative language and which constrains the shape ofthe particular grammar they ae ‘nying to lear, Universal Grammar consists ofthe various principles which govern ‘he form the grammatical rules can take, Although they are not universally accepted, Krashen’s hypotheses (1973; 1977; 1981; 1982; 1985; 1997) provide a comprehensible theoretical framework for “understanding the process of second language acquisition. In 1981 he suggested &

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