Data Communications

Principles
Applications of Communications Theory
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Data Communications
Principles
Richard D. Gitlin
AT&T BeII Laboratories
Holmdel, New Jersey

Jeremiah F. Hayes
Concordia University
Montreal, Quebec

Stephen B. Weinstein
BeII Communications Research
Morristown, New Jersey

Springer Science + Business Media, LLC

 Llbr.r~ of Cangr••• Cltlloglng-In-Publlc.tlon Dati

Gltlln, RIchard D.
Data COllunlcatlonl prIncIpIal I RIchard D. Gltlln. ~ara.lah F.
Havas, Ind Staph.n B. Halnltaln.
p. ca. -- (Appllcltlons of cO.lunlcatlons thaorv)
Includas blbllogrlphlcil rafarancal Ind Indax.
ISBN 978-1-4613-8448-1 ISBN 978-1-4615-3292-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-3292-7
1. Dati trinsallllon svstals. 2. Coaputar nBtworks. 1. Haval,
~.rallih F., 1934- • II. Halnsteln, Staphan B. III. Tltla.
IV. Sarlal.
TK5105.G67 1992
621.382--dc20 92-19019
CIP

10 9 8 7 6 5 4

ISBN 978-1-4613-6448-1

C>1992 Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originally published by Plenum Presss in 1992
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1992
AII riJbts reserved
No part of this book may bc rcproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, elettronic, mechanica1, photocopying, microfllming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
To BARBARA, RACHEL, and DAVID
for their love, encouragement and patience.
R. D. Gitlin

To MARY, ANN, JEREMIAH, and MARTIN

with special acknowledgement to
MARGIE and NIKI.
J. F. Hayes

To JUDY; BRANT, and ANNA

for their love and understanding
s. B. Weinstein
Preface

This book was written during an era of remarkable development in the art
and technology of data communications, and it reflects our experience as
designers of techniques and systems for data communication over voice-grade
and broadband channels. Electrical data communication is as old as the tele-
graph, but the modem era began in the 1960s when telephone lines began to be
widely used to access and update computer-based information and to broaden
the availability of computer resources. Airline reservation, computer time-
sharing, sales, inventory, credit checking, military communications and other
wide-area networks, private and shared, began to grow rapidly. Expecting per-
formance comparable to that available in local computer environments, users
demanded better communications equipment, and vendors began a competition
to supply higher-speed, more versatile, and more cost-effective modems, multi-
plexers, and network controllers.
The telephone network, because it was in place and reached almost every-
where, was accepted by the early designers of data communication systems as
the principal switching and transmission medium, although its channels often
required improvement to meet operational requirements. These improvements
ranged from simple line conditioning to creation of computer communication
networks through organization of telephone links into networks with routing and
error control capabilities. Despite the evolution of high-speed digital networks,
voice-grade channels will continue for a long time into the future as components
of data communication networks, particularly for remote access from low-traffic
locations. Furthermore, the analytical models and practical techniques
developed first for voice-grade channels, where severely distorted channels
demanded attention and relatively low data rates permitted implementation of
advanced communication-theoretic concepts in available digital signal process-
ing, have more r~cently been applied to high-speed radio and lightwave chan-
nels. In the final analysis, all physical channels are analog and physical data

vii
viii Preface

communication is the adaptation of digital signals to analog transmission chan-

nels. We are confident that the foundation technologies developed in the "tele-
phone era" of data communications will be of significant interest for many years
to come.
The revolution in data communication technology can be dated from the
invention of automatic and adaptive channel equalization in the late 1960s.
These mechanisms make it possible to improve the transmission characteristics
of a less than ideal analog channel to meet the requirements of high-
performance, and generally high-speed, data communication. Many engineers
contributed to this revolution, but the early inventions of Robert W. Lucky, par-
ticularly data-driven equalizer adaptation, were the largest factor in realizing
higher-speed data communication in commercial equipment. A whole new
industry for the manufacture of modems and related equipment resulted from
this striking new technology.
Progress has been steady since those early days, with inventive signal proc- .
essing algorithms and analytical results keeping pace with development in VLSI.
All of the functions associated with data transmission, including channel equali-
zation, modulation, echo cancellation, multiplexing, switching, coding, and net-
work routing and control, have been made more efficient and less expensive, and
researchers have discovered innovative combinations of techniques, such as the
trellis-coded modulation pioneered by Gottfried Ungerboeck. Data communica-
tion may become near-universal as personal computers and digital facsimile
machines proliferate, and as the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and
its broadband successors reach a large subscribing public. The Golden Age of
data communication engineering is not yet at an end.
The quantity of specialized knowledge accumulated in this area is already
huge. Rather than attempting to be encyclopedic, we have chosen to offer a
view through the filter of our experience, emphasizing basic principles and
highlighting the applicability of modulation, equalization, coding, and synchron-
ization techniques to a variety of communications media including the tele-
phone, twisted pair, radio, magnetic recording, and lightwave channels. There
are other topics of importance to data communication, but we believe that the
material offered here will give the reader a clear and substantive introduction to
the state of the art.
Our personal knowledge of data communication comes from many sources;
among these are Bennett and Davey's early textbook and the classic reference
work of Lucky, Salz, and Weldon. A great deal was learned in discussion over
many years with our colleagues at Bell Laboratories and in the industry gen-
erally. We would especially like to thank Bob Lucky and Jack Salz for the fruit-
ful associations we have had with them and the strong influence they have had
on our careers. We are also heavily indebted to our long-time friends and dis-
tinguished colleagues Paul Ebert, David Falconer, Gerard Foschini, Allen
Gersho, Edmond Ho, Irving Kalet, Victor Lawrence, Frank Magee, James Mazo,
Preface ix

Howard Meadors, Kurt Mueller, Marcus Mueller, Jean-Jacques Werner, Jack

Winters, and the late Tong Lim, for sharing their knowledge with us and work-
ing with us on a number of studies. We acknowledge with thanks the direct help
we have received in writing this book from many of those colleagues and from
Ender Ayanoglu, Vijay Bhargava, Israel Bar-David, Rob Calderbank, John
Cioffi, Glenn Golden, Ali Grami, Larry Greenstein, Zygmunt Haas, Mark Karol,
David Haccoun, Joseph Lechieider, Johannes Peek, Hemant Thapar, Lee-Fang
Wei, and Nicholas Zervos. We further would like to thank our students at Con-
cordia University, McGill University, Princeton University, the Polytechnic
University of New York, and UCLA for many helpful suggestions and criti-
cisms. A special thanks is due to Dave Falconer, who read and commented on
the entire manuscript. We are indebted to Judy McKelvey for her painstaking
text processing work, and to AT&T Bell Laboratories for its generous support of
this work. Finally, we are deeply appreciative of the support, encouragement,
and infinite patience of our Editor at Plenum Press, Sy Marchand. We are, of
course, entirely responsible for any errors or shortcomings of this book.
We hope, then, that the knowledge and insight drawn from our association
with so many talented colleagues and from our own efforts will come through in
the words and formulas of the next ten chapters. This book can be used on its
own as either a text or a reference work, and is a companion to the networking
book of one of us (J. F. Hayes, Modeling and Analysis of Computer Communi-
cation Networks, Plenum Press, 1984).
There are a number of ways that this book could be used in graduate-level
courses. The following are cited as illustrative examples for introductory, inter-
mediate, and advanced courses. For students who have had neither detection
and estimation theory nor error detecting and correcting codes, the first six
chapters would serve as a text for a first-level course. All that is required as
prerequisite is a knowledge of probability and random processes at the level
covered in Appendix 2A. An intermediate-level course would cover the material
in Chapters 4 through 8. In addition to detection and estimation theory, it is
essential that the students understand the Viterbi algorithm as presented in
Chapter 3. Finally, a course at the advanced level would cover the material in
Chapters 6 through lOin some depth. As is true in most texts, there is more
material than can be covered in a single course. According to the interests of the
instructor and the background of the students, material can be emphasized or
omitted. Exercises have been provided for all but the first and the last chapters.
Suggestions for improvements will always be welcomed, and we expect to
develop and change our own views of the world of data communication as it
continues its rapid evolution into the Information Age.
Contents

Chapter 1. Introduction to Data Communications 1

1.0 A Perspective 1
1.1 Who Uses Data Communication? .3
1.2 Data Network Protocols 5
1.2.1 Protocol Layering 7
1.3 Data Network Architectures 12
1.3.1 Local Area Networks 12
1.3.2 Metropolitan Area Networks 16
1.3.3 ISDN and BISDN 19
1.3.4 Frame-Relay Networks 21
1.3.5 Application-Dedicated Data Networks 22
1.4 Data Communication at Voiceband Rates 24
1.4.1 Modems 27
1.5 Carrier Systems 27
1.5.1 Sonet. 34
1.5.2 ATM 36
1.6 Channel Characterizations 38
1.6.1 The Telephone Channel 38
1.6.2 The Twisted-Pair Digital Subscriber Line 44
1.6.3 Data Transmission Over Digital Radio Channels .48
1.6.4 Fiber-Optic Channel 52
1.7 Signal Processing for Data Communications 55
1.7.1 Modulation Techniques 56
1.7.2 Synchronization Requirements 58
1.7.3 Channel Equalization 59
1.8 Organization of This Book 60
References 62

Chapter 2. Theoretical Foundations of Digital Communications 69

xi
xii Contents

2.0 Introduction 69
2.1 Introduction to Decision Theory 71
2.1.1 Optimum Decision Regions 71
2.1.2 L-ary Transmission ; 76
2.1.3 Performance-The Union Bound 78
2.2 The Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) Channel... 79
2.2.1 The Matched-Filter Receiver 79
2.2.2 Nonwhite Noise 86
2.2.3 L-ary Signaling-Pulse Amplitude Modulation 87
2.2.4 Calculation of Performance-Binary Signals 90
2.2.5 Signal Design-Binary Case 93
2.2.6 Performance-PAM 95
2.2.7 Bandwidth and Transmission Rate 97
2.3 The Binary Symmetric Channel l00
2.4 Elements of Estimation Theory 104
2.4.1 Bayesian Estimate with Mean-Square Error Criterion 104
2.5 Fundamentals of Information Theory 108
2.5.1 Entropy of a Discrete Source 108
2.5.2 Entropy of a Discrete Memoryless Source 109
2.5.3 Joint Entropy and Equivocation 112
2.5.4 Entropy of a Discrete Markov Source 114
2.5.5 Source Cpding-The Huffman Code 116
2.5.6 More on Huffman Coding l19
2.5.7 The Lempel-Ziv Algorithm 120
2.5.8 Rate Distortion Theory 122
2.6 Channel Capacity 123
2.6.1 Bandlimited Channel. 125
2.6.2 Colored Noise Channel 127
2.7 Calculations of Channel Capacity for Selected Channels 130
2.7.1 Voice-Band Telephone Channel 130
2.7.2. Twisted-Pair Channel 130
2.7.3 PAM Signaling 133
2.7.4 PSK and QAM 135
Appendix 2A: Basic Concepts of Probability Theory 136
2A.l Axioms of Probability 136
2A.2 Conditional Probability 137
2A.3 Random Variables-Probability Distributions and Densities 138
2A.4 Joint Distributions of Random Variables 141
2A.5 Expectation of a Random Variable-Moments 143
2A.6 The Joint Distribution of Gaussian Random Variables 146
2A.7 Probability-Generating Functions and Characteristic
Functions 148
2A.8 Bounds and Limit Theorems 149
Contents xiii

2A.9 Random Processes 151

2A.I0 Stationarity and Ergodicity 152
2A.ll Power Density Spectra 154
Appendix 2B: Detection of Signals in Colored Noise 156
References 160
Exercises 162

Chapter 3. Error Correcting and Detecting Codes 167

3.0 Introduction 167

3.1 Block Codes 168
3.1.1 Parity-Check Codes 169
3.1.2 Generator and Parity-Check Matrices 170
3.1.3 Burst Errors and Interleaving 173
3.1.4 Hamming Distance and Error Correction 174
3.1.5 Code Structure-Bounds 176
3.1.6 Probability of Undetected Errors 179
3.1.7 The Hamming Code 181
3.2 Cyclic Block Codes 182
3.2.1 Relation to Galois Fields 182
3.2.2 Decoding Cyclic Codes-Burst Capabilities 186
3.2.3 Examples of Cyclic Codes 187
3.2.4 Linear Sequential Circuits 190
3.3 Performance 195
3.3.1 Hard-Decision Decoding 195
3.3.2 . Soft-Decision Decoding 198
3.3.3 Coding Gain 200
3.4 Convolutional Codes 201
3.4.1 General Form 201
3.4.2 Tree and Trellis Representations 204
3.5 Decoding Convolutional Codes-The Viterbi Algorithm 205
3.5.1 Dynamic Programming 206
3.5.2 The Viterbi Algorithm and Hard Decision Decoding 208
3.5.3 The Viterbi Algorithm and Soft-Decision Decoding 213
3.6 Performance of Convolutional Codes 215
3.6.1 Hard-Decision Decoding 218
3.6.2 Performance of Soft-Decision Decoding 218
3.7 Sequential Decoding Convolutional Codes 219
3.8 Block and Convolutional Codes Concatenated 221
3.9 Automatic Repeat-Request Systems 222
3.9.1 Performance 224
References 227
Exercises , 229
xiv Contents

Chapter 4. Baseband Pulse Transmission 233

4.0 Introduction 233

4.1 Direct-Baseband Transmission 234
4.1.1 Splitting the Pulse Shape Between Transmitter and Receiver 236
4.1.2 Line Signal Codings (NRZ, AMI, Miller, Manchester) and
Power Spectra 237
4.2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) in a Distorted, Noisy,
Bandlimited Channel 248
4.3 The Nyquist Criterion 252
4.3.1 The Nyquist Channel. 254
4.3.2 The Equivalent Nyquist Channel (Excess Bandwidth Pulse) 255
4.3.3 Raised Cosine Pulses 257
4.3.4 Pulse Spectrum and Tail Behavior 258
4.4 Performance of Multilevel PAM with Raised Cosine Pulse
Shaping 260
4.4.1 More Levels vs. More Bandwidth 261
4.5 General Encoding Model. 263
4.5.1 AMI Coding 265
4.6 Correlative Level Encoding (Partial Response) 266
4.6.1 Class I Partial Response (Duobinary) 269
4.6.2 Class 4 Partial Response (Modified Duobinary) 271
4.6.3 Probability of Error with Symbol-by-Symbol Detection of
Modified Duobinary Signals 272
4.6.4 Higher-Order Pulses for Magnetic Recording 273
4.7 Block Codes: A Multirate Digital Filtering Approach 277
4.8 Signaling on the Digital Subscriber Access Line 279
4.8.1 Line Codes for the Digital Subscriber Line 282
4.8.2 Signaling through the Digital Subscriber Line at Faster than
160 kbps 286
4.9 Intersymbol Interference 287
4.9.1 The Eye Pattern 288
4.9.2 Peak Distortion Criterion for Intersymbol Interference 288
4.9.3 The RMS Error Criterion 291
4.9.4 The Saltzberg Bound 293
4.9.5 Other Bounds 295
Appendix 4A: Power Density Function of a Correlated Line Signal 296
References 298
Exercises .30I

Chapter S. Passband Data Transmission 305

5.0 Introduction 305

Contents xv

5.1 Complex Analytic Representations 306

5.1.1 The Equivalent Complex Baseband Channel... 309
5.1.2 The Complex-Analytic Transmission System 312
5.1.3 Equivalent Baseband Noise 313
5.2 Linear Modulation Formats 317
5.2.1 Linear Two-Dimensional Signals 318
5.2.2 Single Sideband (SSB) 322
5.2.3 Vestigial Sideband .325
5.2.4 Coherent Phase-Shift Keying (PSK) .325
5.2.5 Differentially Coherent PSK (DCPSK) .332
5.2.6 QAM and "Optimal" Two-Dimensional Signal Sets 334
5.2.7 90° Rotation Invariance 344
5.3 Direct Inband Signal Generation 345
5.4 Multitone Data Transmission 348
5.5 Higher-Dimensional Signaling 353
5.5.1 The Advantages of Multidimensional Signaling 355
5.5.2 A Procedure for Deriving an Efficient Four-Dimensional
Constellation 355
5.6 Frequency-Shift Keying 357
5.6.1 Binary FSK 358
5.6.2 L-ary FSK 362
5.6.3 Error Rate Performance .362
5.6.4 Minimal-Shift Keying 363
5.6.5 Continuous-Phase Modulation (CPM) 368
5.7 Trellis-Coded Modulation .371
5.7. I State Trellises for Trellis-Coded Modulation 374
5.7.2 Set Partitioning 379
5.7.3 Rotational-Invariant Trellis-Coded Modulation 382
5.7.4 Trellis Coding Based on Lattices and Cosets 390
5.7.5 Multidimensional Trellis-Coded Modulation .390
5.8 Conclusion .395
References 395
Exercises 399

Chapter 6. Synchronization: Carrier and Timing Recovery .403

6.0 Introduction 403

6.1 Optimum (Maximum Likelihood) Carrier Phase Estimation .406
6.2 The Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) .412
6.2.1 Linear Model of the Phase-Locked Loop 415
6.2.2 Effect of Noise on PLL Operation .417
6.2.3 Discrete-Time PLLs .421
6.3 Carrier Recovery: Non-Data-Aided Systems 422
xvi Contents

6.3.1 Carrier Recovery for QAM Systems: Non-Data-Directed

Systems 425
6.3.2 Output Phase Jitter for the Squaring Loop .426
6.4 Carrier Recovery: Data-Aided Systems ..427
6.5 Timing Recovery .433
6.5.1 Maximum Likelihood Timing Recovery System .434
6.5.2 Squarer-Based Timing Recovers .437
6.5.3 Symbol Rate All Digital Timing Recovery 441
6.6 Joint Carrier and Timing Recovery .444
6.6.1 Systems with Symmetrical Modulation 447
6.7 Periodic Inputs and Scramblers 449
6.7.1 Timing Recovery with Periodic Input Sequences .450
6.7.2 Scrambling Systems .452
6.7.3 The Scrambler as a Linear Sequential Circuit.. .454
References 460
Exercises .461

Chapter 7. Optimum Data Transmission 465

7.0 Introduction .465

7.1 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE):.The Viterbi
Algorithm 467
7.1.1 Minimization of the Log-Likelihood Function 470
7.1.2 The State Vector .472
7.1.3 The Viterbi Algorithm 474
7.1.4 Other Applications of the Viterbi Algorithm .476
7.1.5 Merges .477
7.1.6 Performance of the Viterbi Algorithm: Minimum Distance .478
7.1.7 ErrorEvents .482
7.1.8 Symbol Error Rate .483
7.2 Whitened Matched Filter Receiver .485
7.3 Suboptimum MLSE Structures .486
7.3.1 Memory Truncation and State Dropping .486
7.3.2 Motivation for Linear Receiver .487
7.4 The Optimum Linear Receiver (Equalizer) .488
7.4.1 Formulation of the Mean-Square Error .490
7.4.2 Minimization of the MSE .490
7.4.3 Interpretation of the Optimum Linear Receiver .491
7.4.4 Spectral Plans for Synchronous and Fractionally-Spaced
Equalizers 493
7.4.5 Determination of the Optimum Tap Weights for the
Fractionally-Spaced Equalizer 496
7.4.6 Minimized Mean-Square Error .498
Contents xvii

7.4.7 Optimization ofthe Synchronous Equalizer .499

7.5 Decision Feedback Equalization 500
7.5.1 Motivation and Structure 500
7.5.2 Optimum Decision Feedback Equalization .501
7.5.3 Performance Comparison between Linear and Decision Feed-
back Receivers 506
7.5.4 Error Propagation in Decision Feedback Equalizers 506
7.5.5 Modulo-Arithmetic-Based Transmitter Equalization That
.Eliminates Error Propagation 508
7.6 Chapter Summary 510
Appendix 7A: The Wiener-Hopf Decision Feedback Equation .511
References .513
Exercises .514

Chapter 8. Automatic and Adaptive Equalization 517

8.0 Introduction 517

8.1 Scope of Equalization Applications 519
8.2 Baseband Equivalent System .520
8.3 Minimization of the Mean-Square Error by the Gradient
Algorithm 523
8.3.1 How Many Taps Are Needed? 528
8.3.2 Steady-State Performance of Fractionally-Spaced Equalizers 531
8.3.3 Adaptive Equalization 535
8.4 The Least-Mean-Square (LMS) Estimated-Gradient Algorithm 541
8.4.1 The LMS Algorithm for Tapped Delay Line Equalizers 542
8.4.2 LMS Adaptation of Decision Feedback Equalizers 545
8.4.3 Convergence Rate and Residual Error of the LMS Algorithm 546
8.4.4 Bounds on the Step Size for Convergence 550
8.4.5 Residual Mean-Square Error 552
8.4.6 Speed of Convergence of the LMS Algorithm 552
8.5 Fast Convergence via the Kalman (Recursive Least-Squares)
Algorithm 554
8.5.1 Performance Measure for the Kalman Algorithm 556
8.5.2 Convergence of the Kalman Algorithm .560
8.6 Fast Kalman Algorithms: Kalman Algorithms with Reduced
Complexity 562
8.7 Lattice Filters: Another Structure for Fast-Converging
Equalization .562
8.8 Tracking Properties of the LMS and the Recursive Least-Squares
Algorithms 566
8.9 Complexity Comparison 566
8.10 Cyclic Equalization 567
xviii Contents

8.11 Zero-Forcing Equalization 570

8.12 Passband Equalization .573
8.13 Joint Optimization of Equalizer Tap Coefficients and
Demodulation Phase .576
8.14 Adaptive Cancellation of Intersymbol Interference 581
8.15 Blind Equalization 585
8.15.1 Constant Modulus Algorithm (CMA) 585
8.15.2 Reduced Constellation Algorithm 587
8.16 Chapter Summary .590
Appendix 8A: Convexity of the Mean-Square Error 592
Appendix 8B: Asymptotic Eigenvalue Distribution for the Correlation
Matrix of Synchronous and Fractionally-Spaced
Equalizers 593
Appendix 8C: Derivation of the Matrix Inversion Lemma .597
Appendix 8D: Tracking Properties of the LMS and RLS Algorithms 598
References 601
Exercises 603

Chapter 9. Echo Cancellation 607

9.0 Introduction 607

9.1 The Dialed Telephone Circuit Echo Cancellation Model 611
9.2 The Echo Cancellation Model for Digital Subscriber Lines 616
9.3 FIR (Tapped Delay Line) Canceler Structures 619
9.3.1 Voice-Type Echo Canceler 619
9.3.2 Symbol-Interval Data-Driven Echo Canceler 623
9.3.3 Gradient Adaptation Algorithm 624
9.304 Stochastic (LMS) Adaptation Algorithm 628
9.3.5 Least-Squares (Kalman) Adaptation Algorithm 631
9.3.6 Data-Driven Echo Cancellation: The Fractionally-Spaced
Canceler 634
9.3.7 Adaptive Reference Echo Cancellation 639
9.3.8 Fast Startup Echo Cancellation 642
904 Other Canceler Structures 648
904.1 Lattice Filter Canceler 648
904.2 Memory Compensation Structures 65I
9.5 Passband Considerations 653
9.5.1 Complex Notation Formulation 654
9.5.2 Complex Canceler Alternatives 655
9.5.3 Phase Jitter!Frequency Offset Compensation 659
9.504 Performance Without and With Phase Tracking " 661
References 661
Exercises 664
Contents xix

Chapter 10. Topics in Digital Communications 667

10.0 Introduction 667

10.1 Effect of Digital Implementation on the Performance of Adaptive
Equalizers 668
10.1.1 The LMS Algorithm with Limited Precision 668
10.1.2 Required Precision 672
10.1.3 More on Fractionally-Spaced Equalizers: Stable Operation of
a System with Too Many Degrees of Freedom 676
10.1.4 Uniqueness of Solution for Finite Length FSE as the Noise
Vanishes 679
10.1.5 The Tap-Wandering Phenomenon 680
10.1.6 The Mean Tap Error and the Mean-Squared Error 682
10.1.7 The Tap-Leakage Equalizer Adjustment Algorithm 684
10.1.8 The Tap-Leakage Algorithm 686
10.1.9 Adaptive Transversal Filters with Delayed Adaptation 689
10.2 Adaptive Carrier Recovery Systems 690
10.2.1 Decision-Directed Phase Locked Loop (PLL) 691
10.2.2 An Adaptive FIR Phase Predictor.. 692
10.2.3 Performance of the FIR Predictive PLL 696
10.3 Signal Processing for Fiber-Optic Systems 697
10.3.1 Fundamental Limits on Lightwave Systems: Direct and
Coherent Detection 698
10.3.2 Overview of Transmission Impairments in Single-Mode
Fiber Lightwave Systems 703
10.3.3 Modeling of Fiber-Optic Communications Systems 706
10.3.4 Compensation Techniques 710
10.3.5 Numerical Results 717
Appendix lOA: A Comparison of the Quantization Error (QE) of a
Fixed Equalizer with the Achievable Digital Residual
Error (DRE) of an Adaptive Equalizer 718
Appendix lOB: The Effect of Linear Equalization on Quadratic
Distortion for Lightwave Systems 720
References 721

Index 725