MATRICES

Matrix Multiplication
Matrices are used to express relationships
between elements in sets. Matrices are used in a
wide variety of models. They are used in models
of communication networks and transportation
systems.
Definition:
A matrix is a rectangular array of
numbers. A matrix with m rows and n columns
is called an m x n matrix. A matrix with the
same number of rows and columns is called a
square matrix. Two matrices are equal if they
have the same number of rows and the same
number of columns and the corresponding
elements in every position are equal.
A product of two matrices is defined only
when the number of columns in the first matrix
(premultiplier matrix) equals the number of rows
of the second matrix (postmultiplier matrix). The
product of matrices is not defined when the number
of columns in the first matrix and the number of
columns in the second matrix are not the same.
Let A be an mxk matrix and B be a kxn
matrix. The product of A and B, denoted by AB,
is the mxn matrix with its (i,j)th entry equal to
the sum of the products of the corresponding
elements of the ith row of A and the jth column
of B. In other words, if AB = [cij] then cij = ai1b1j
+ ai2b2j + … + aikbkj.

1 0 4 14 4
2  
1    8 9
2 4
 a1 1 a1 2 ... a1n   1 
a 1 1   
a2 2 ... a2 n  3 1 0  7 13
A   21   3 0   
 ... ... ... ...  0 2 2  8 2 
 
 am 1 am 2 ... amn 
NOTE:
The (i,j)th element or entry of A is the element aij, Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
that is, the number in the ith row and jth column That is, if A and B are two matrices, it is not
of A. A convenient shorthand notation for necessarily true that AB and BA are the same. In
expressing the matrix A is to write A = [aij], fact, it may be that only one of these two
which indicates that A is the matrix with its (i,j)th products is defined.
element equal to aij.

TRANSPOSES AND POWERS OF

MATRIX ARITHMETIC MATRICES

The identity matrix of order n is the nxn matrix

Matrix Addition In = [ij] where ij = 1 if i = j and ij = 0 if ij.
The sum of two matrices of the same size
is obtained by adding elements in the 1 0 ... 0 
corresponding positions. Matrices of different 0
sizes cannot be added since the sum of two 1 ... 0 
matrices is defined only when both matrices have In  
... ... ... ...
the same number of rows abd the same number  
of columns. 0 0 ... 1 
Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be mxn matrices. Let A = [aij] be an mxn matrix. The transpose of
The sum of A and B, denoted by A+B, is the A, denoted by At, is the nxm matrix obtained by
mxn matrix that has aij + bij as its (i,j)th element. interchanging the rows and columns of A. In
In other words, A+B = [aij + bij]. other words, if At = [bij], then bij = aji for i = 1,2, .
. . , n and j = 1,2, . . . , m

1 4 
1 0  1  3 4  1 4 4  2 1 2 3 
2 2  3   1  3 0   3  1  3 A  At   2 5 
 
       4 5 6 3 6 
3 4 0   1 1 2  2 5 2 

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A square matrix A is called symmetric if A = At. LOWER TRIANGULAR MATRIX

Thus A = [aij] is symmetric if aij = aji for all I
and j with 1  i  n and 1  j  n. Note that a A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix in
matrix is symmetric if and only if it is square and which all entries above the main diagonal are
it is symmetric with respect to its diagonal. zero (only nonzero entries are found below the
main diagonal - in the lower triangle).
Example: 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
  2

0 1 0
  3 0


1 4 2

ZERO-ONE MATRICES
ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS
A matrix with entries that are either o or 1
is called a zero-one matrix. Algorithms using Row Switching
these structures are based on Boolean arithmetic. Rows can be switched around to put the matrix
This arithmetic is based on the Boolean into a new row arrangement
operations  and , which operates on pairs of
bits.

1 if b1  b2  1
b1  b2  
0 if otherwise

Row Multiplication
1 if b1  1or b2  1 Rows can be multiplied with a constant to
b1  b2   modify the row elements
0 otherwise

DIAGONAL MATRIX

A square matrix in which every element except

the principle diagonal elements is zero, it is called
a Diagonal Matrix. A square matrix D = [dij]n x Row Addition
n will be called a diagonal matrix if dij = 0, Elements of a row can be added to the elements
whenever i is not equal to j. of another row.

1 0 0
0 3 0
 

0 0 2


UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX

DETERMINANT
An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix in
which all entries below the main diagonal are In linear algebra, the determinant is a scalar
zero (only nonzero entries are found above the value that can be computed from the elements of
main diagonal - in the upper triangle). a square matrix and encodes certain properties of
the linear transformation described by the matrix.
The determinant of a matrix A is denoted det(A),
1 2 6 det A, or |A|.
0 3 4
 

0 0 2


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Determinants are like matrices, but done up in ADJOINT OF A MATRIX

absolute-value bars instead of square brackets.
The adjoint of a matrix A is the transpose of the
cofactor matrix of A . It is denoted by adj A .
An adjoint matrix is also called an adjugate
matrix.

To find the determinant of a matrix, multiply the INVERSE OF A MATRIX

elements in the diagonal then subtract
For a square matrix A, the inverse is written A-
1. When A is multiplied by A-1 the result is
the identity matrix I. Non-square matrices do not
have inverses.

Note: Not all square matrices have inverses. A

square matrix which has an inverse is
The determinant is useful for solving linear called invertible or nonsingular, and a square
equations, capturing how linear transformation matrix without an inverse is
change area or volume, and changing variables in called noninvertible or singular.
integrals.

The determinant can be viewed as a function For 2x2 matrices, the inverse can be found using
whose input is a square matrix and whose output this formula:
is a number.

MINOR AND COFACTOR

A "minor" is the determinant of the square

matrix formed by deleting one row and one
column from some larger square matrix. Since
there are lots of rows and columns in the original
matrix, you can make lots of minors from it.

These minors are labeled according to the row

and column you deleted.

Example:

So if you were to go, say, to the a2,4 entry from

some matrix A and cross out the row and column
that pass through that entry (that is, if you
remove the second row and the fourth column of
the matrix), the determinant of the new (and
smaller) matrix is called "the minor M2,4".
Augmented matrix method
Use Gauss-Jordan elimination to
transform [ A | I ] into [ I | A-1 ].
Example: The following steps result in

Once the minor Mi,j, is found, take the subscript

on the name of the minor (the "i, j" part) and add
the two numbers i and j. Whatever result you get
from this addition, make this value the power
on –1, so you get "+1" or "–1", depending on
whether i + j is even or odd. Then multiply this
on the minor Mi, j.

This gives you the "cofactor" Ai, j. That is:

(–1)i+j Mi, j = Ai, j
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ADJOINT METHOD Example:

Solve the system of linear equations using
matrices
A-1 = (adjoint of A) or 7x – 8y + 5z = 5
-4x + 5y – 3z = -3
A-1 = (cofactor matrix of A)T x–y+z=0

Example:
 7 8 5 
The following steps result in A-1 for A   4 5  3
 1  1 1 

 x 5
X   y  B   3
The cofactor matrix for A is  z   0 

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCES
so the adjoint is
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers
such that the difference of any two successive
members of the sequence is a constant.

Since det A = 22, we get

Example

2,4,6,8,10….is an arithmetic sequence with the

common difference 2.

If the first term of an arithmetic sequence

is a1 and the common difference is d, then the nth
term of the sequence is given by:

Solutions of Systems 0f Linear Equations by an=a1+(n−1)d

Matrices
An arithmetic series is the sum of an arithmetic
sequence. We find the sum by adding the first,
Given the system: a1 and last term, an, divide by 2 in order to get the
a11x1 + a12x2 + . . . + a1nxn = b1 mean of the two values and then multiply by the
a21x1 + a22x2 + . . . + a2nxn = b2 number of values, n:
. . . .
. . . . Sn=(n/2)(a1+an)
an1x1 + an2x2 + . . . + annxn = bn

GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES
The system can be expressed as AX = B where A
= [aij], X is an nx1 matrix with xi, the entry in its
ith row, and B is an nx1 matrix with bi, the entry A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers
in its ith row. that follows a pattern were the next term is found
by multiplying by a constant called the common
If the matrix is invertible, the solution of the ratio, r.
system can be found using X = A-1B
an=an−1⋅r
an=a1⋅rn−1

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Example
Write the first five terms of a geometric sequence
in which a1=2 and r=3.
We use the first given formula:
a1=2
a2=2⋅3=6
a3=6⋅3=18
a4=18⋅3=54
a5=54⋅3=162
Just as with arithmetic series it is possible to find
the sum of a geometric series. It is found by using
one of the following formulas:
Sn=(a1−a1⋅rn) / (1−r)
Sn= [a1(1−rn)] / (1−r)
HARMONIC SEQUENCES
A harmonic progression, or harmonic sequence
is a progression formed by taking the reciprocals
of an arithmetic progression. Equivalently,
a sequence is a harmonic progression when each
term is the harmonic mean of the neighboring
terms.
The nth term of a HP series is
Tn =1/ [a + (n -1) d].
In order to solve a problem on Harmonic
Progression, one should make the corresponding
AP series and then solve the problem. nth
term of H.P. = 1/(nth term of corresponding
A.P.)
If three terms a, b, c are in HP,
then b =2ac/(a+c).
BINOMIAL EXPANSION
Expanding a binomial expression that has been
raised to some large power could be troublesome;
one way to solve it is to use the binomial
theorem:
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The expansion will have n+1 terms, there is
always a symmetry in the coefficients in front of
the terms.
Example:
Expand the following binomial expression using
the binomial theorem
The expansion will have five terms, there is
always a symmetry in the coefficients in front of
the terms. We use the binomial theorem to
expand our binomial:
Note that the coefficients in front of our terms are
1, 4, 6, 4, 1. One could have found the first three
coefficients and then used this symmetry to find
the last two. Also note that the powers of x and y
are reversed.
The coefficients in front of the terms could be
found in an easier way - using Pascal´s triangle.
The coefficients form a triangle called Pascal´s
triangle and this is used in order to expand a
binomial expression that has been raised to a
large power.
VARIATIONS
In problems relating to two or more variables, it
is seen that the value of a variable changes with
the change in the value ( or values ) of the related
variable (or variables).
Suppose a train running at a uniform speed of v
km./h. travels a distance of d km. in t hours.
Obviously, if t remains unchanged then v
increases or decreases according as d increases or
decreases. But if d remains unchanged, then v
decreases or increases according as t increases or
decreases.
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This shows that the change in the value of a
variable may be accompanied differently with the
change in the values of related variables. Such
relationship with regards to the change in the
value of a variable when the values of the related
variables change, is termed as variation.
Variation can be of different types according the
pattern of changing or relationships of variables.
Direct Variation: In a variation if variables
change proportionately i.e. either increase or
decrease together then it is called as direct
variation. If X is in direct variation with Y, it can
be symbolically written as X α Y.
Inverse or Indirect Variation: In inverse or
indirect variation the variables change
disproportionately or when one of the variables
increases, the other one decreases. So behavior of
the variables is just the opposite of direct
variations. That is why it is called as Inverse or
indirect variation. If X is in indirect variation
with Y, it can be symbolically written as
X α 1Y1Y.
Joint Variation: If more than two variables are
related directly or one variable changes with the
change product of two or more variables it is
called as joint variation. If X is in joint variation
with Y and Z, it can be symbolically written as
X α YZ.
Combined Variation: Combined variation is a
combination of direct or joint
variation, and indirect variation. So in this case
three or more variables exist. If X is in combined
variation with Y and Z, it can be symbolically
written as X α YZYZ or X α ZYZY.
Partial Variation: When two variables are
related by a formula or a variable is related by the
sum of two or more variables then it is called as
partial variation. X = KY + C (where K and C
are constants) is a straight line equation which is
a example of partial variation.
Here are some examples of direct and inverse
variations.
Direct Variation: Perimeter of circle C= 2πr
where 2 and π are constants and C increases if r
increases, decreases if r decreases. So C is in
direct variation with r.
Inverse Variation: If I need to go a distance of S
with velocity V and time T then T = SVSV. Here
the distance S is constant. If velocity increases it
will take less time so T decreases. So T is in
indirect variation with V.
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Illustrative Examples:
A precious stone worth 15,600 is accidentally
dropped and broken into three pieces the
weights of which are respectively proportional
to 2 : 3 : 5. The value of a stone of this variety
varies as the cube of its weight. Calculate the
percentage loss thus incurred by the breakage.
Let V be the value of a precious stone of weight
W.
V ∝ W3
V ∝ kW3 ……..... (1) [k = constant of variation]
Since the weights of the three broken pieces are
proportional to 2 : 3: 5, we assume their weights
as 2w, 3w and 5w respectively.
Hence, the weight of the unbroken piece of stone
= 2w + 3w + 5w = 10w.
V = 15,600 when W = l0w.
15,600 = k ∙ (10w)3 = 1000kw3
or, kw3 = 15,600/1000 = 15.6.
Let, v1, v2 and v3 be the values of the 3 pieces of
weights 2w, 3w and 5w respectively.
v1 = k(2w)3 = 8kw3;
v2 = k(3w)3 = 27kw3
and v3 = k(5w) 3 = 125kw3.
Therefore the total value of the 3 pieces
= (v1 + v2 + v3)
= (8kw3 + 27kw3 + 125kw3)
= 160kw3
= 160 × 15.6
= 2,496.
Therefore, the total loss incurred by the breakage
= (the value of the original stone) - (the total
value of the 3 pieces) = 15,600 - 2,496 =13,104.
Hence, the required percentage loss
(13,104/l5,600) × 100 % = 84 %.
The illumination from a source of light varies
inversely as the square of the distance. A book
is at a distance of 9 cm. from a lamp. Find how
much further the book is to be removed so that
it receives one-third as much light.
Solution:
Let l be the illumination at a distance D from the
source of light.
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I ∝ 1/D2 or, I = k/D2 (1)

[k = constant of variation]

Let i and be the illuminations at a distance of 9

cm. and x cm. respectively from the source of
light.

I = i when D = 9;
from (1) i = k/92 ……….. (2)

I = i/3 when D = x;
from (1), i /3 = k/x2 .………. (3)

Dividing (2) by (3) we get,

i ÷ i/3 = k/92 ÷ k/x2
i × 3/i = k/92 × x2/k
3 = x2/92
x2 = 92 ∙ 3
x = 9√3 (since x > 0)

Therefore, the book must be removed further

through a distance of (9√3 - 9) cm. = 6.6 cm.

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