The Lubrication of

Gears - Part III

Robert Enichell!o
GiEARTIECH. Albany,. leA

Introduction
This is the final part of a three-part series on such as those used in iron ore and cement mills,
the basics ofgear lubrication. It covers selection antenna drives. bridge drives. cranes, etc. 'Gears
of lubricant types and viscosities. the application in the e applications run slowly, and they are
of lubricants. and a case history. therefore boundary lubricated, The lubricant
mu t bond strongly to resi t being thrown off the
Selecting Lubricant. Type gear teeth. However. the queezing and liding
The choice of lubricant depend onthe type action of gearleeLh tends 10 push the lubricant into'
of gearing and enclo ure, operating speed and the root of the gear teeth where it is relatively
load. ambient temperature, and method oflubri- ineffective. These iubricants are applied by hand
cant application. Most gears are lubricated with brushing or by automatic systems which d sliver
one of the following types: oil. grease, adhesive an intermittent spray .. Some open gear lubricants
open-gear lubricant, Dr solid lubricant. The opti- are thinned with II quick-evaporating olvent/
mum lubricant for any application is the least diluent to make them easier to apply, Open-gear
expensive, considering both initial cost and main- lubricants share the disadvantages of grease lu-
tenance co ts, thai meet the requirements. brication, and they are especially costly (and
Oil is ihe rna 'I widely used lubricant because messy) to maintain. For these reasons. the 'trend
it is readily distributed to gears and bearings and i away from open gear toward enclo ed, oil-
has both good lubricating and cooling propertie . lubricated gearboxes whenever possible,
Also. contamination may be readily removed by Solid Ilubricants, usua\Jy in the form ofbonded,
filtering or draining and replacing the oil. How- dry films. are 1I ed where the temperature.i too
ever, it requires an oil-tight enclosure provided high ortoo [ow for an oil orgrea e: where leak age
with adequate haft eals. cannot be tolerated; or where the gears must
Grea e is suitable only for low-speed, low- operate in a vacuum. These lubricantsare usually
'load applications because il. does not circulate molybdenum disulfide (MoS ) or graphite in an
2
well, and it is a relatively poor coolant. Grease inorganic binder, which is appliedto the gear
lubricated gears are generally boundary lubri- teeth and cured 10 form a dry film coating.
cared becausethe grease is either pushed aside Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and tungsten
or thrown from the gear teeth, Contamination disulfide (WS ) coating are also used. Solid
2
from wear particles or other debris is u ually lubricants are expensive to apply and have limited
trapped in the grea eend require COSIly wear lives. However. in many applications, such
maintenance to-eliminate. Greaseis often used as spacec raft, they are the only alie mati ve and can
to avoid leakage from enclosures that are not provideexcelleut service.
on-light. However .. if all the factors are con- Only oil lubricants will be discus ed in greater
sidered, it is usually found that an oil lubricant detail. Gil should be used as the lubricant unles
is more economical and reliable than a grease the operating conditions preclude its use. Gener-
for gear lubrication. ally. the simplest and least expensive lubrication
Open-gear lubricants are viscous, adhesive system for gears is a totally enclosed. oil-bath
semi-fluids used on large. low-speed, open gears. of mineral oil.
1,4 GEAR TECHNOLOGY
 The lubrication requirements of pur. hell- ture. Ester and bydrocarbon synthetic lubricants
cat, straight-bevel. and spiral-bevel gearsare have high viscosity indices. giving them good
essentially the same. For thi clas of gears, the fluidity or low vi cosities at very low tempera-
magnitudes of the loads and .Iiding peeds are tures and acceptable viscositie at high tempera-
similar, and requirement .forvi cosity and anti- tures. The volatility of e ters is lewerthno that
scuffpropertie are virtually identical. Many of mineral oils ofthe same vi cosity, thus reduc-
indu trial spur and helical. gear units are lubn- ing oil loss at high temperature. Despite their
caeed with [U t and oxidation-inhibited (R&O) long service life. the extra co t of synthetic
mineral oils, The low viscosity R&O oils. lubricants generally cannot be ju tified for oil-
commonly called turbine ,oils, are used in many bath ystems unless there are extreme tempera-
high- peed gear unit, where the gear [Oath tures involved. becau e the oil mu l be changed
loads are relatively low. Mlneral oll without frequently to remove contamination.
anti- cuff additives are uitable forhigh-speed,
hghtly loaded gear where the high entraining Selecting Gear Lubricant Vi co it.y
velocity of the gearteeth developsthick EHD The recommendations of AGMA 250.042
oil films. In these COl e the mo t important ~hould be followed when electing lubricants
property of the lubricant i vi co ity, Anti- for enclosed gear drives that operate at pitch
scuff/EP additives are unnecessary because the line velocities up to 5,000 fpm. AGMA 421.063
gear teeth are separated, elirninatiag metal-to- should be consulted for high-peed drives (>
metal contact and the cuffing mode of failure. 5,000 fpm).
Slower speed gears, especially carbu rized gears, In our discussion of gear failure' modes, we
tendto be more heavily loaded. The e gears found that viscosity is one of the most important
generally require higher viscosity lubricants lubricant properties. and the higher the viscos-
with anti-scuff additives. ity. the greaterthe protection against the various
Hypoid gear. such as those used for auto- geartooth failures. However. the viscosity must
motive axles, are especially prone to scuffing be limited to avoid excessive heat generation
because they are heavily loaded and they have and power loss from churning and shearing of
high sliding velocities, For these reasons, the lubricant by high-speed gears or bearings.
hypoid gear oils have the higher concentrations The operating temperature of the gear drive
of anti-scuff additive. deterrmnes the operating viscosity of the lubri-
For critical applications ..the contact tempera- cant. U the lubricant is too vi cou , exce sive
tore hould be calculated with Blok' I equation heal i generated. T.he heal rai e the lubri-
and compared to the scuffing temperature of the cant temperature aad reduces its viscosity,
lubricant. Thi quantitative method is effective reaching a point ofdrrnini hing returns where
for selecting a lubricant with adequate cuffing increasing the starting viscosity of the lu-
resistanc e. bricant leads to 3. higher operating tempera-
Worm gears have high hdingvel.ocity ture and a higher oxidation rate, without a
which generates s.ignificant frictional losses. significant gain in operating viscosity,
Fortunately. their tooth load are relatively Gear drives operating ill cold climates must
light. and they are successfully lubricated with 11ave a lubricant that circulate s freely and does not
mineral oil. that are compounded with lubric- cause high starting torques. A candidate gear Robed ErricheUo
ity additives. These oils eontain 3% to 10% lubricant hould have a pour point at Jea t 5°C is lire principo; ;11
GEARTECI:{. a gear
fany oil or low acid tallow, The polar mol- (9°f) lower than the expected minimum ambient
('onsul'rill.qfirm in lbull.l'.
ecule of the additive form urface films by start-up temperature, Typical pour points :for CA. His article reprillled
phy ical ad orption or by reaction with the mineral gear oils are lOaF while synthetic gear here lias wall the STU's
1990 Wilber Deutcn
surface oxide to form a metallic soap which lubricantshave significantly lower pour point of Memorial Award [or Ihe
acts as a [ow hear strength film. improving the about -40QF, Pour point depre ants are u ed 110 best anicle on the
practiral aspect. 01
"lubricity" or friction-reducing properly. ta.ilor pour points of mineral lubricants for auto-
lubrication. Mr.
Synthetic lubricants are u ed for appJ ica- :motive hypoid gears to. be as low as -40°F. Errichello is a member of
tions, such as aircraft gas turbines, where the oil The pitch line speed of the gear is a good ASME. AGMA. and is (I
Registered Professional
must operate over a wide temperature range and index of the required viscosity. An empirical. Engineer in till' State of
have good oxidation stability at high tempera- equation for determining required viscosity is California.

JULV/AUGUST 19S' 15
 ,,1) up' by pitting fatigue. The empirical. equation for
7000 fhi's applicationgi ve
V40:::-·---- (2)
(V) O.S 7000
v ::: ::: 128 cSt
40
where ,(3000) 0.5
v 40 = lubricant kinematic viscosity at 40°C, cSt
V := operatingphch line velocity, ft/min This indicates that the viscosity per AGMA
v= 0.262 d n 42 L06 (68 cSt) is much too low, and the visco ity
=
d operating pitch diameter of pinion, in. per AGMA 250.04 050 cSt) is appropriate.
n= pinion speed, rpm Hence, definitions of high- peed ver us low-
Caution must. be 'u ed when using AGMA speed must be carefully con idered, and pitch
recommendation forviscosity. Theauthorknows line velocity is generally abetter index than
of an application where two gear drives were shaft peed. Thegear drives were rebuilt. with
considered to be high-speed. The pinion speed new gearsets and the ISO VG 68 oil was replaced
was 3.625 rpm, qualifying the gear units as high- with ISO VG 150. The gear drives now operate
speed gear drivesper AGMA 421.06. The gear without overheating. and the pitting ha been
drives were supplied with oil having the recom- eliminated.
mended viscosity per AGMA 421.06 of ISO 68. For critical applicatinns, the specific film
However, because the plnion was relatively small, thickness should be calculated with Dow 011 and
its pitch line velocity was only 3,000 fpm. This Higginson's" equation. The specific film thick-
qualifies the geardrives as slow-speed per AGMA ness Ii a u ef ul measure of the lubrication reg ime.
250.04, which recommends a viscosity of ISO It can be used with Fig. ~as an approximate guide
150. Both gear dri ves failed within weeks of start- to the probability of wear-rei ated surface distress.

3 .•'0 ,

2.'0
,I: I II I

5%
,
I
,
I
II: '1 I I I

1.0
,

i
II' II, ___ II
I 40% II J
"'tnen'" I
I ,
,
,
. aD%.
,. , ., , ,
1..0.1
:z: 10.5 , I ,I 100' l,....... I I
~ ,

~
1
ht'Tttt __
1
-tI~"""1lli-li! JIll'
~, ·"~+I
~..f.",,7ot==¥-f"'__ ~~""-'~.""'-i-.l-
iPROBABIUTY OF WEA~ 1-'
i= I I
.I' ~ .~. ,:RELA.TeD' !ClSTRESS 1
I' Ii '1

vv
:::li:
.....,
1::.
0..2
w ~~I i' ' I

V
,
1..1.. I / ,I I II '
w 0.11
1

1..0.1
n,
I II I
U'l J' , I 11
I
./1
10.05 ,

V' 1/ I I I[
I I I , I 'I I
"" , I'
,
I
I
,

I I
I

0.02 III; 1

I
:

I
I,
I I ,I
I
0.01
50 100 500, 1000 5000 10000 50000
PITCH UNE VELOCITY. FPM

Fig. 1- Probability of wear distress, percent. (Fmm AGMA 2001-888, 1988.)

16 GEAFI TECH",OlOa'f
Fig, 1 i based on the data of Wellauer and For very high-speed gears" (above ]6,10100
Holloway,S which were obtained from several fpm), there is a danger that the amount of oil
hundred laboratory tests and field applications of carried to the incoming side of the gear me h
gear drives. may be inadequate. and it is prudent to add a
upplementary flow at 'IIIeincoming side of the
Applying, 'Gear Lubricants gear mesh. Generally, about 2/3 of the oil
The method of applying the lubricant to the flow should be supplied to the outgoing side
gear teeth depends for the mo. t pari. primarily on of the mesh for cooling. and 113 of the flow
the pitch line velocity, directed at the incoming ide for lubrice-
Splash lubrication y tern are tile irn- tion. The placement of the oil jets is a
plest, but Ihey are limited to a pitch line veloc- crucial factor when pitch line velocitiesex-
ity ofabout 3.000 fpm. T,IIe gears should dip ceed 20.000 fpm. At peeds this high. ex-
into the oil bath for about twice the tooth depth periment are required to find the optimum
to provide adequate splash for pinions and number and location for the oil jets.
bearings and to reduce losses due to churning. In pressure-fed ysterns, the followingpa-
The gear hou ing should have troughs to cap- rameten must be COli idered (Q ensure adequate
ture the oil flowing down the housing walls. lubrication and cooling of the gear mesh: Quan-
channeling it to the bearings. lity offlow.jet size. feed pressure, and number-of
The range of splash lubrication can be ex- jets. There are general guidelines, based on expe-
tended to about 5,000 fpm by using baffles and oil rience and experimentation, for specifying these
pans te reduce churning. However. above 3.000 parameters, but each application mil t be evalu-
fprn, providing auxiliary cooling with fans and ated independently ba ed on it particularoperat-
improving beat transfer by adding Ifill. to the ing conditions and requirements,
housing is usually necessary. All, empirical equation used to calculate the
Above 5.000 fpm, most gears are lubricated quantity of oil flow in gallons per minute is
by a pressure-fed syslem. For gearboxes with q;;;;; PIc
antifriction bearings, sprayingrhe oil al the gear where c is taken from Table t
mesh only and re.lying all pia h to lubricate the p= transmitted power. hp
bearings is permis ible up to a pitch line velocity q = oil flow rate, gpm
of 7 iOOO [pm maximum. Above this speed, and For a typical indu trial application transmit-
:for gear drives with journal bearings, both the ling 2· hp, where weight isnot critical, the
gears and bearings should be pre ure-fed. de igner might choose the constant c = 200hpl
Tile oil.jet should be placed on the incoming gpm, resulting in a copious flow of ] gpm. On
side of thegear mesh for pitch line velocities up the other hand, for a high efficiency aviation
to 8,000 fpm. Above 8.000 rpm. more oil is application transmitting 200hp. where weight ls
neededforceolingthan for lubricating. and the oil critical, c = 800 might be chosen. re ulting in a
flow removes heat best by being directed at. the lean flow of 0'.25 gpm, Some applications may
outgoing ide of the gear me h where the oil jets require different flow rate than tho e given by
can trike the hoI, drive-side of the gear teeth, _able I.. For instance, wide-face. high-speed

Table 1 .•.Typical. .on !Flows Per 'Gear Mesh

c Flow Comment
(hp/gpmj Conditions General indu trial
200 Copious Typical aviation
400 Adequate Light-weight, high-
800 Lean efficiency aviation
1000 Starved Only for unusual
conditions

JULY/AUGUST I &g, 1'1

 gearing may require a higher flow rate toensure
uniform cooling and full-face coverage.
The proper jet size, feed pressure ..and num-
ber of jets must. be determined to maintain the
proper flow rate.jetvelociry, and full-facecover-
age. The diameter of a jet can be calculated for a.
given flow rate and pressure ba ed on the viscos-
ity of the oil' at the operating temperature. 7 There
are practical limitations onjet: ize, and the mini-
mum recommended size is 0.03". U ajet smaller
than Ibis is used, contamilllailis in the osl may clog
it. Typicaljetdiarneters range framO.03"- 0.12".
provide complete Iubricationcoverage of tile face
width. More than. one jet for each gear me h is
advisable because of the possibility of clogging ..
The upper limit IOn the number of jets is deter-
mined by the flow rate and jet diameter; too many
jets for a given flow rate will resultin a jet
diameter less than the minimum. recommended.
Case History
Ill. an lndustrialapplieation, 24 speed-in-
creaser gearboxes were used to traasrnit 346
horsepower and increase speed from 55 rpm 10

The feed pressure determines the jet. velocity,
which in tum determines the amount of oil thai
penetrates the gear mesh. Typical feed pressures
range from 20.-WO psig. lndustrialapplicaticn
feed pressures are typically 3D psig, and high-
speed aerospace applications. are typically 100
psig. hl general, the higner the pressure. the
greater the cooling.,8 but the higher the pressure,
the smaller the jet diameter. Therefore, pressure
:is limited by the minimum recommended jet
diameter of 01.0.3".
The number of jets should be sufficient to
375 rpm. The gears were parallel-shaft, single
helical, carbunzed, and ground. The splasb lubri-
cation system used a mineral oil without anti-
scuff additives with ISO H>Oviscosity. After
about 250. hours of operation. two gearboxes
failed by bending fatigue .. The gear tooth profiles
were so badly wom determining the primary
failure mode was impossible .. Three other gear-
boxes with less service were elected for in pee-
lion. One had logged] 5 hours, while the other
IWO had operated for 65 hourseach. Upon disas-
. embly, no broken teeth were found, but all three

30 40 so 100 110 120,

200
100
SO
160
40
~..... 30
s, 20
:f
~,
0
10
E 8
,..: 6
I~
Ui 4
0
u.
Ul.
s
~ 2
:l
...J
!7!
!i
11.0

o.a
0.6
,6
"'
i'.... "i"', ~
t--... ~ " ................
<;
·11

Fig. 2 - Absolute vi cosily versus temperature for mineral gear lubricants with a viscosity index of 95.
(from AGMA 200 1-888, 1988.)

18: ClEAII TECHNO~OClV

 BULK TEMPERATURE, (0C)
';0 20 301 40 SO 60 7080 90 100 no 120 130140 1501 1:60 170
I, I
I I

I ------ I I
: ~ --- I

150 200 250 300 350

BULKTEMPEAATURE, (OF)

Fig. 3 - Pressure-viscosity coefficient versus temperature for mineral gear lubricants ..(From AGMA 200I-B88. 1988.)

gearboxe . had scuffed gear teeth. The primary
failure mode was scuffing, and the earlier bend-
ing fatigue failures were caused by dynamic load
generated by the worn gear teeth. Subsequent
in pection of the remaining gearboxes revealed
that ali had scuffing damage, which probably had
occurred immediately upon start-up because the
loads were not reduced during run-in,
Fortunately. a prototype gearbox had been
run at 1/2 load for about 50 hours. When these
gears were in peered, no signs of distress were
seen on any of the gear teeth. The tool.h profiles
were smooth, with surface roughness estimated
to be 20 j.J:inrrns, and the contact pattern indicated
100% face contact. This gearbox was reassembled
and run under 1/2 load until. its oil sump-tempera-
lure reached equilibrium at 200°F. For this appli-
cation, the ambient temperature was in the range
of 50°F to 125°F. The center distance of the gears
was 16 inches and the pitch line velocity was 400'
Using the empirical equation we get:
(3)
7000
V 40 "" :::::350 cSt
(400) 0.5
Hence, the empirical equation recommends a
viscosity close to ISO 320.. It is apparent that the
viscosity that was originally supplied (ISO VG
1(0) was too low.
The EHD film thickness was calculated with
a special computer program. 9 The gear bulk
temperature was assumed to be 230°F (30 de-
grees hotter than the measured oil sump tempera-
ture), The following data for the ISO YO 1.'00
lubricant was obtained from Figs. 2 and 3:
lJi. = 6,6 cP(O.96 x 10 -6 Reyns)
o
(J. =1.02 x 1O-4in21b

fpm .. Referring to AGMA 250..04, the recom- Fig ..4 shews a plot of the film thickness
mended viscosity for these conditions is ISO 1.50. versus position on the pinion tooth. The mini-
or ISO 220.. mum film thickness OCClUS low on the pini.on
JULY/AUGUST 1 gg I 19
 Min lambda = .'073
Probability of wear e >95%
5.5

.175

4.5
"
I
,tIS /
:g l
S ,.125 ..r.,1 3.5'
t'I:I;
",,'"
,.J,
LPSTC HPSTC

2.5

Pinion roll angle in degrees

fig. 4 - Film thicknes versus pinion roll angle for gear tooth geometry of cuffed gearset,

450

35'0

25'0
l.PSTC HPSTC

15'0
1- Max FIDash'Iernp = 439
"'" Scoring Probability e 63%
50.
I I II
Pinion ron angle in degrees

Fig, 5 - Flash temperature versus pinion mil angle for gear tooth geometry of scuffed gearset,

20 GE"R T!ECHNOlOG'I'
tomb near the lowest point of single tooth contact
(LPSTC) where h . = 2.1 micro inches. The
mID
specific film thickness, based on 20 uin rms
surface roughness for both profiles, is A. '" 0.073.
Fig. I. shows that the gears operate in the bound-
ary lubrication regime. The program predicts that
the probability of wear is greater than 95%.
The contact temperature was also calculated
with the program. The scuffing temperature for
the ISO BO 100 lubricant was calculated wkh the
equation for non-anti- cuff mineral oils:
Ts'" 146 + 59In(100);;;;; 418°F
Fig. 5 shows a plot of the comact temperature
versus position on the pinion tooth, The maxi-
mum contact temperature occurs high on the
pinion tooth near the highest point of single tooth
contact. (HPSTC) where Tc = 439°F. The pro-
gram predicts that the probability of cuffing is
63q(. This is considered to be at high risk of
scuffing. The relatively high temperature peak:
near the tip of the pinion tooth wa caused by the
geometr-y of the gears. TIle designer selected a
long addendum tooth for the pinion. Long adden-
dum pinions perform well in speed reducers.
where they increase the amount of recess action
an d decrease the am Oll ru of approach action of the
gear mesh. Since recess action :ismuch smoother
than approach action, long addendum pinions
give speed reducers smooth meshing characteris-
tics. When operated as a speed increaser, how-
ever, the approach and recess portions ofthe gear
mesh reverse, making a long addend lim pinion
rough running and vulnerable to scuffing.
To explore the possibilities for reducing the
scuffing risk. new gear tooth geometry was pro-
posed with the pinion and gear addenda designed
to minimize the flash temperature rise. The new
gearset.analyzed with the program, assumed the
lubricant was a mineral oil with anti-scuff addi-
tives, with a viscosity of ISO 220, and with the
following properties:
110::: 10 cP( 1.45 x 10-6 ·R• eyns)
a = 1.09 x 10- in2/lb
4
Ts = 245 + 59In(220) '" 563"F
Fig, 6 shows that the film thickness increases
to h _ = 2.7 !lin, and the pecific film thickness
mm
increases to A. = 0.097 ..Fig. I showsthat the gears
still operate in the boundary lubrication regime,
however, the probability of wear is reduced to
94%, Fig. 7 shows that the optimized gear geom-
etry reduced the maximum contact temperature to
Tc = 302°F. The combination of reduced contact

..275 Min lambda = .097

Probability of wear = 94%

.225
6

/ =r'
3
/
/- s·
:3
.....
LPSTC HPSTC // ("')

.,.,....-- 4 "'I
0
....,,-
..125
------
--~~----~---
----- .....---
,-
..
::I

.075 2
I: 20 30 40

Pinion roll angle in degrees

Fig. 6 - Film thickness versus pinion roll angle for geartooth geometry optimized for maximum scuffing resistance.

JULY,AUGUST 1991 21
 350

250

LPSTC··
HPSTC

Max Flash Temp = 302

Scoring Probability = < 5%
50
20 I 30
Pinion roll angie in degrees

Fig. 7 - Flash temperature versus pinion roll angle for gear tooth geometry optimized for maximum scuffing resistance.

temperature and the increased scuffing resistance References;

provided by thehigher viscosity mineral oil with 1. .BLOK, H. "Les Temperatures de Surface dans les Cendi-

anti-scuff additives reduces (he scuffing prob- lions de Graissage sons Pression Extreme," Second World
ability to < 5%. Petroleum Congress, Paris, June, 1937.

Typical of many gear failures, this case his- Z. AGMA 250.04. "AGMA Standard Specification - Lubri-
tory shows that several factors contributed to the cation of Industrial Enclosed Gear Drives." Sept., 198 l,

failures: 3. AGMA 421.06. "Practice for High Speed Helical and

.The lubricant viscosity was too low. Herringbone Gear Units." Jan, 1969.
-No anti-scuff additives were used. 4. DOWSON. D. "Elastohydrcdynumics," Paper No. 10,

·A gearbox designed as a speed reducer was Proc. Inst, Mech.Engrs., Vol. 182.PT3A. 1967.pp. 1.51-167..

used as a speed increaser. 5. WELLAUER,EJ.&HOLLQWAY,G,A .."Applicationof

·The gear teeth were provided with a coat- EHD Oil, Film Theory to Industrial Gear Drives." Trans.

ing or plating to ease running-in, AMSEJ. Eng. Ind., Vol. 98, Series B. No.2, May. 1976. pp,

-The gears were not run-in properly under 626-634.

reduced loads. 6. A_KAZAWA,M.,TEJ'IMA,T.& NARlTA, T. "FuIlSca!e

Gear failures. as exemplified by the case Test of High Speed, High Powered Gear Unit - Helical Gears

history, can be avoided if designers and opera- of25,OOOPSat200m/sPLV." ASMEPaperNo.80-C2/DEl'-

tors recognize that the lubricant is an important 4.1980.

component of a gearbox, and appreciate that the 7. DRAGO, R.J. Fundamentals of Gear Design . Butterworth,

tribology of gearing requires the consideration 1988.

and control of many interrelated factors. 8. AKIN, L.. & TOWNSEND, D. "Study of'Lubricant Jetflow
Phenomena in Spur Gears." NASA TMX-7IS72, OcL, 1974.
Acknowledgement: Reprinted by permission of Society of 9. SCORING+. Computer Program. GEARTECH Software,
Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers. Inc., © 1985-1989.

22 GE ....R TECHNOLOGY