4a PERMUTATIONS Permutation Let x be non-empty set. Let /:X > X be a bijective function, then f is called a permutation on X. If f is a permutation on _ft 2 re(ay @r Example Let X ={1,2,3} Let f +X > X be defined by Mp2 @f=3 @f=t Clearly f is a bijective function, Thus f is a permutation on X = { 1,2,3) and is written as 1 2 3 \- ¥ fe(dy ey @)=G 3D Note (@) The total number of permutations defined on a set X =(1233,...,n) with n elements isn! 7 (ii) The set of all permutations defined on a set X with » elements is denoted by S, .. Number of elements of Sy = n! Let x = {1,2,3} ‘Then number of permutations defined on a set X is 31 i.e. 6 and ‘are given by 103 3) #9G 3 AH G 1 a) an 2 eG 3D aG 2D Thus Ss = {, fis fo far far fs) Gi) ie 3 3) is called identity permutation. Composition of Permutations oPihipiiaten 1 2 3» n Let a= (che aa Ba : a) 1 2 3 n and B=(a\p aye Gy: * ong) “The composition of a and f is denoted by aeff and is defined by ome 2 pn) ne ( 1 2 3 2B =(ayaop) (2)(aeB) Bab) Where (x)(@* B) = ()2)Ba2 7 oO pay 2) tet a=(2 3 panda i 3 1 2 | Thenel=(are@on ap) eeen) -( 1 2 3 “\(Dayp (2a) os) £ u(t 2 3 t = (op OB ap) a(i 2 3 aoe Practical Application _fl 2 3 _fl 2 3 Let a=(> 3 iad e-(G 3 3 Write @ and f irt such a way that 2»! row of a and 1* row of f are i same. . _(t 2 3y72 3 ke a= (9 3 dG 3 2) Now ignore 2» row of a and 1% row of B. 4 Note (i) Some times we write composition of « and B by af instead of aof. Gi) Nyiltiplication or product or composition of a and f are same. rem The set S,, of all permutations defined on a set X with n elements is a group under the operation of composition of permutations. Prot (1) Let f,g € Sy. We shalll prove that fog € Sy, Since f,.g are permutations on X. f:X +X and g:X — X are bijective functions then fg: X 7X is also a bijective function. fog isa permutation on X. e Hence f °g € Sy (Ml) Let f,g,he Sp. Weshall prove that (f°g)eh = fo (¢ oh) Weg eAl=(WEFoa)r| Cfo eA] =(@A@>h =((@fa)r =((Gof)a)h Q Ce eesi | 43 (WM) Let :X>X bedefined by (x) =x Then I: X + X is a bijective function thus / is a permutation on X. eS, We shall prove that / is an identity element of S,. Let f € Sq. We have to show that fol =lof=f Cored = (sr WUE =(@NF =F =@F Clearly fel=lof=f (IV) Let f © 5, then f:X + X is a bijective function. fri: X +X defined as (x)f = y @ ()f~ = xis bijective and hence a permutationonX. + f-* € Sy Now we shall prove that f~? is the inverse of f and for this we have to prove that feof 2 of ef) = (@AF* ONE A = (OFF =Of7 =f 7 =y = (x) =(y) Clearly fe ft =ftef Hence (Sp, 9) isa group. Symmetric Group The group S, of all permutation defined on a set X with n symmetric group of degree n. elements is calle Example Show that (Ss, °) is a non-abelian group. Solution Here Sy is the set of all permutation defined on a set X with three elements and is group under the composition of permutations. IfX = (1,23), then all the permutations defined on the set X are GE daa § aeG 2D oP 0-0 § DaeG dD novnennG 3 DG 7 DG 3 DG 3D “G32); minen-G DG 27 9G29 “GH Clearly fief #fach = (Ss, 9) isanon-abelian group. Example =(1 234 1234 ter=(2 34a rda=G fg a) Show that fog #gef Solution neefea=Q 54 0G 143 “C2iDG 343 afl 234 143 2 andgot=( 5 4G 3 41) | “GTidG 274 i _fl 23 4 i -G 234) yy Clearly feg#gof Example wan itti QmeeG Pity i Show thata of # Boa u Solution EY a 5 6 345 bi Here a0 = (5 3 are NG anago i See) eccees 53264 V%6 145 2 3 fH 6 ees z 6145 2 3) 7 : 6) (1 2 andpee=(G 26s) 5264 1) ~ 12345 6)(3 26 5 “GiizesGesaa a Cre) eee Clearly op #foa45 CYCLES = |i Cycle Let X = {ay,42, Ifa isa permutation on X, such that 21 yy Ons = a, dy Ox OKs ay Az 3 ay Aes 2) Z 1 ‘Then ais called a cyclic permutation or simply a cycle of length fk i ‘Thus a will be called a cycle of length k if \ a= (a) a= az (a2) a = a3 (ax) @ = ay Qasr vy xeX— {ay ay The cycle a of length k can also be written as fbn Opens Oe ae (a a - a) Ax) In short a can be written as a = (a142 ~~ _71 23 4 5 6), : ee ue (o a eat 8) isa cycle of length 6 which can also bewrittenas a =(123456) 7 23 4 5 6). . And B=( 2 453 6) isa cycle of length which can also rittenas B= (345) B le Show by means of an example that the product of two cyclic permutations néed not be a cyclic permutation. nm Leta = (125) and B = (21456) be twocycles. Then af = (125)(21456) -GEDGLEED 25 C2348 9620562 plas espa ile ton cee -2 22459083549 2534164 635 42 ~ 2345 6 a = 3354 2 “This is not a cycle. ‘Thus product of two cycles need not be a cycle.46, Voy sade = 2 AL ff Every permutation of degree n can be expressed as a product of Un AZIZ” cyclic permutations acting on mutually disjoint sets. na Proof: Oe Let a be permutation on X with n elements. Suppose ay, @,-.mpdy X, on which a acts as % a (aj)a=a, ; 45a, (a) @= a5 a — Day a (ax) @ = a ‘pg@— > Oe Let = (Qi ge G8) here k S et a= (a) whereksn If k=n then a@=a, Hence the proof. If k ta is an odd permutation. :50 | Suppose a is an odd permutation. Then a =Product of transpositions. (Where nis odd.) / = Ta = Product of (n + 1) transpositions. © (Where (n +1) is even.) = tais an even permutation. ( freorem | For n > 2, the number of even permutations in S, is equal to the ; number of odd permutations in Sy. | Proof: . i We know that 5, is called symmetric group of degree n. Also the order of S,, = n! Let Pa, Pay wm sPy_ be even permutations, And dudgrmmeidg be odd permutations. i } Where r +5 =n! } Let 7 be a transposition. ; Then’ tpt Pym nmsTPy areall distinct odd permutations, : [+ ltt p= tp; fori # j then py =p; (cancellation law) = i = j a contradiction] i ‘Thus we have" ” odd permutations in S,. But number of odd permutations in S, is” 5” ser cesses ) ; Now 14st gmt Gp are all distinct even permutations. i ‘Thus we have " s” even permutations in Sy. But number of even permutations in S,, is" 7” 2) j 2 res From (1) and (2) itis clear that r= s Since r+s=n! > r= rem Prove that the set A, of all even permutations in S, form a subgroup of S, Explain why the set B, of all odd permutations in S, do not form a subgroup of S,,? Let A, be the set of all even permutations in Sn. We shall prove that Ay is a subgroup of Sp: Obviously A, S Sy : Let @,f € Aj. We have to prove that a8"? € An. Now «and f are even permutations. Also 8“? is an even permutation, (+ Inverse of an even permutation is an even permutation ) Hence @f-? is an even permutation. (Product of two even permutations is an even permutation ) Thus af"? € Ay Since a, B €A, > af eA, V a8 An Even Even ~ Even al X odd = Even.51 ‘Let B, be the set of all odd permutations in Sy. Obviously By S Sp 7 Let fig © Bn Now f and g are odd permutations. Also g™? is an odd permutation. (+ Inverse of an odd permutation is an odd permutation ) But fg™? is not an odd permutation. ( Product of two odd permutations is an even permutation J ‘Thus fg ¢ By Since f.g © By ® fg? © By V fig € Br Thus B, is not a subgroup of S,.. Ee Find all the subgroup of Ss Solution Here 55 is set of all permutations defined on a set X with three elements also called symmetric group of degree 3. ‘Let X = {1,2,3). Then all the permutations on X are = 3 a) D @=G ta) 2 3 x a=G 7D -G 3 ee-G 2) Thus Sy ={1,a,a7,f,aB,07B } Where a? =f? = (ap)? = (ap)? =1 Trivial subgroups of Ss are 1,53 Non- trivial subgroups of S; are Let Hy =(a:a2=1)={(a,a7,09 = Hy = (B+ Bp? =1) Hy = (a8 + (a? = Hy = (a?B : (2B) ={a,a7,1} B,B? = 1} ={B1} y= (@B,1} = (aB,1} Order of a permutation Let @ be a permutation, Then the least positive integer m is called order of a if a = I, where | is an identity permutation. 1.2 3 231) oce Let ¢ =( “G5 0G12 “Gia52 => Orderofa=3 Since a? = ' Note ‘The order of a transposition is 2. i ao t=a.ct=( 3 2 7 3 i “G3 9G39 “GED! E Let r=(% °) bea transposition. 0 OG @ -G GS i b i al 5) Then 1? Since > Order oft =2 ‘Theorem : ‘The order of cyclic permutation of length m is m. Proof: Let a be a cyclic permutation of length m. Gmy(@ M2 os» Amy (3 84 Os @2)\a, as ag yy as as) Similarly Also Thus Order of a53 ‘Theorem ‘The order of a permutation is the least common multiple (L.C.M) of the orders of the disjoint tycles into whose product it is decomposed. Proof: Let a be any|permutation of degree n. ‘We know that a{cah be written asla product of disjoint cycles say Then a= qa Suppose m= = m= (+ Length Let L.C.M of a = aM Ap” wee 12 = L.C.M of (2,34) ‘a 12224 @=6 12=2q, q=6 = 4q, a=3 12 11 10 2H D-G2DCEIIOGD = (12.3 4YG 7 6 9 8)(11)(1012) Let a, =(123 4), a =(57.698), a= (11), a= (1012) Then lengths of @,a,03,a4 are 4,5,1,2 Orders of dy, 2, 5,0 are 4,5,1,2 ‘Thus order of a = L.C.M of [ O(a), 042), 0(@s), O(a) } = L.C.Mof[4,5,1,2] =2054 4 a ty a U| 4 g a ‘Multiply the following permutations. Solution aA ot ag aa w+ a Hee (354 0Gie2s @ +N in at u oS we aw 29 aS oo nw om oN aD (0.2 IN ) 1234 3142 Find the inverse of the perniutation ( Solution eee 2). find the inverse of a. Solution Show that fog55 Solution cn — be Nxae oo u W aN aA SO te Ot ne =fof= ae me EA GB ea aNmead aman ot ct ge TN ws Ue oo ds da St AR oF oO “Ay eman eg eag TN LS Yan ER eH NS mm agen wows ss 1 ow ae a oy meaty nen A daddy 2 fa Fa B mama avan 2 woes 2 wes F 3 S of= = § pose cas no % vs § aa ae 8 2 wo iy 2 2 oaae SUS ERE wart vane cad tes thn BAS meom morn eae BONER Aen & Oe wea weg ey gan We wes FS Zuo S CASAS CAERTS S £7 2 eonans annus eo 2 LS tusasa easten g |! E 2 Sm Omomm mim amin ae EER G aenenunnaunam Si gens peace cyueus Su gees vou om ow 8 oo g Smo 3 2 . 8 Raed 2 > a Canad ~ > 3) Sige 3 & & Zo oN bge 4 Bl 5! 9) a CaaS none ean me NtHo CASAS vanans Yeas matin eon aan eeuec9 now Also goh=i | Now hea=(5 ai 26 s)(54123) =(123456)(5.41263) gaaneparesss -Qies3s) tod anon QEESEOC TEED = ($2345 8)(5 42263) puuggpuzsass =(25431) '), Thisis a cycle of length 6. 6 L =6 (= Length ofa cycle = Order of cycle) 6 Sees eos Let a = (1634), and’ a = (25) Then lengths of a, are 4,2 Orders of a, are 4,2 ‘Thus order of g = L.C.M of [ O(a,),0(a2)] L.C.M of [4,2] 3 1 = 583) (2 S)=aseay24) Let f, = (1563), and B,=(24) = Then lengths of By,B2 are 4,2 Orders of f,,B2 are 4,2 ‘Thus order of h = L.C.M of [ 0(B:),0(B2)] = LCM of[ 4,7} =457 = L.C.Mof [4,2] 4 =GDG1)-0aee5 Let a, =(12),-and a = (345) \ ‘Then lengths of a, are 2,3 Orders of ay,a2 are 2,3 CM of [ (a), 0(@2) ] ‘Thus order of @ = | L.C.M of [2,3] 6 i + aS=1 (where /is an identity permutation.) \ Q..No.7 Write the multiplication table for the permutations | (4), (1.2.3.4),(1432),(13)(24)- Solution (1234 Let a, = (1) = 1234) | a,=0239=(2344) Sp meres G38 Gi29 | wnaseo=GDG9°G249°G419 § | We see that Hl maa “ o | a | @1| a2 | as i ay = Oy a, | a. | | a2 | a az = Ay ay | a | a3| @ | @ | z ad = @ a e E cA i | yt = Oy g | &s | @2| Oi | Be Femi QEEDGSED-G5IDGS 1D-GaiD-@ om G32 9GT29-CH1DG2 59-G 2dr wmeQSE GEE DCI DG Gide exptte =58 vo € a o3 BR eo oe ane wee uu ry nade toto oa oe onan uw How A ora am we os Fa Fa ds ue woo gs sos € fee 7 1 ooo A BR fA FARR ne Me aa awa a6 Bee ee Ww Mt w Uj EX SARA KR ae ee Am Sa em ee 29 eresed FA ER EATR ae mame oe ae oneaeae Pie mets igi ws uwow9w9 i 7 oro ER ERTBEA nr es ae awanae 9 useseo $a ERERER MN mama me Ne onwaeae es gue we ue ), find all the elements of the cyclic group oa we +A mo ns on ww ner aN G on & A at 5 5 wy OF uv 2 sg = 2 a8 Solution om ne wa mu at 9 oa ne a. min at 9 Now a? = aa =( ae on aw neo wt. QS om ne +0 min nwt <9 om we mo an on no tA an at oa we + me an @aaaa oS me wen ay Re os we me an oa nen wo at t9 oT on neo 0 at oe wo 234 412 G Also at =a3a BS mn at ony was) es oa a0 on as SS wo an Clearly at =J Available at www.mathcity.org Let G be acyclic group generated by a. Then G=(a: a*=1)id express them as a product of cyclic 59 {a,a7,a3,1} (124) (13654), (1234)(52341), (14)(235)(35)(45) permutations on mutually disjoint sets Find the following products an Q. No.9 Solution CBB none saan aaa SAGA BARA a mone Baers one wena wane anaea Someee S3e5 anam amam Benes etamas Coke Gane Feaaes oe caontt eww am ave Vee vey ReSSSSORBn eae SR ER _ 8A ES CR GAG AG ADAGABAHA POE RI Oe OL FAGA RAEN GS Gn VG BOBOR ND AO A se ae en Lee ae neg ge oe oe HENS ES UGS OS OTe Oe Oe mam ane ZR ae en OSE 1 Fen Gon SOT eT aR Om oo 29M eBeD In MDD snen un ED en. Oe) OA eee oe ASR RN MA NN TM SAN AN AA MON GA OA MANOS ONY Soap eeceee s WeSC CUES CII STU SUIS GSS ooo ee ew mw om bh ow we woo Hood woud oom ow u W 2 aa a a 4 = 2 & & 4 = S . S - un = wo g & g a & = = s gS o ei 2 = 8 S = 2 3 3 5 5 : z & Zz 2 860 G4312)-G24v@=4239@ Q. No.10 Express the following permutations as a product of disjoint cycles rm 12345678 @ ) a nao het oa Bats pate xge x a om ww ao oe La BO as ue 1 ee ne 2 ats ao me aa as xe W GA GREED ED aonw & nad 3 2 a Ss a Express the following permutations as a product of transpositions @ Pweeeet et) 241653897. ij) (12345678 (i) Gaaise7s) Solution. Hee (122456789) (1246 a/5)(7 89) 24165349 7/"\2463 V\S/\8 97) = (1246 3)(5)(789) = (1.2)(1 4)(1 6)(2 3)(7 8)(7 9). 12345678) _/(123 4)(5)(6)/7) (8 oe Gsaise7a-G3adQQG)@) = (123 4)(5)(6)(7)(8) =(12)013)0 4) Write (i) all even permutations in Ss (ii) all odd permutations in 5, Solution Available at Www. mathcity.org61 We know that 5; is the set of all permutations defined on a set with 3 elements. Let X = {1,2,3} ‘Then alll the permutations defined on the set X are G2 )-QO@-oa® n=( 3 3)=a23=an09 he? D=6 $ D=a2m-cn00 f=) 7 )-an@=an nat 3 = QE 2)=oe9-e9 oe se Ge We see that in the decomposition of identity permutation /, number of transpositions is zero, which is an even number. Since the permutations 1,f,,f; can be written as a product of even number of transpositions therefore, I, fy, fz are even permutations. Since the permutations f;, fy, fg can be written as a product of odd n Bs of transpositions therefore, fs, fy, fs are odd permutations. Axe the permutations (1. 2-3)(2 5 6)(43 5 4)and(1 4 7)(3 4 5)(8 7)(8 3 4 5) even or odd? Solution Since (123)(2 5 6)(435 1) = (12)(1.3)(2 5)(2 6)(4.3)(45)(4 1) 5 (Odd number of transpositions ) + (12.3)(2 5 6)(435 1) is an odd permutation. & (14 NB 4 58 7G 3 4 5) = (14) 7) 43 5)(8 708 3)(8 4)(8 5) (Even number of transpositions ) = 1 47)G 4 5) 7)(6 3 4 5)is an even permutation. 14 Find the orders of each of the following permutations. @ G74) @ Gard)62 a G3ED om GHEED ‘ Solution | @ te a=GF53)=G)G3)=09e0 Suppose a,=(12) and a, =(34) : ‘Then lengths of, a, and a, are 2,2 respectively. Orders of.a, and az are 2,2 respectively. (+ Length of cycle = Order of cycle) Thus order of a = L.C.M of [ O(a), 0(a2) ] = LCM of [2,2] =2 Gi) tet w= G27 9)=G3 DG)-049@ j Suppose f, = (143) ! Then length of +; is 3 Available at I ' & Order of f, is3 www.mathcity.org (+: Length of cycle = Order of cycle ) Thus order of 8 = order of =3 Gi tet = (5251) Gs IG 2)= 4922, Suppose y= (145) andy, = (23) Then lengths of 7, and yz are 3,2 respectively. Orders of y, and y2 are 3,2 respectively. (+ Length of cycle = Order of cycle) ‘Thus order of y = L.C.M of [ (11), 0(¥2) ] e beweels2] Gv) let b= GHD. G5DG ea)~G2mG50 Suppose 6,=(123) and 5, = (456) Then lengths of 6, and 5 are 3,3 respectively. Orders of 6, and 6; are 3,3 respectively. Thus order of 6 = L:C.M of [ 0(6,),0(52) ]63 = L.C.Mof[3,3] =3 QO. No.15 Determine whether the given permutations are even or odd. Fi 1234) yy (12345 ® Gias) ) 63241) 333) 123456 ms 1234567 ai) Qozi6es) ™ G3iz675) Solution 123 4)_(12\/3 4)_ @ te a=(Q759)-GDG3)-49e9 (Even number of transpositions ) Since a can be written as a product of even number of transpositions, ‘Therefore « is an even permutation. i) tet = 65242)" G)GIQ)-a9ea (Even number of transpositions ) Since B can be written as a product of even number of transpositions, ‘Therefore f is an even permutation. )-G25eeu) =(132564) = (13)(12)(1 5)(1 6)(1 4) (Odd number of transpositions ) Since y can be written as a prodiict of even nuinber of transpositions, Therefore y is an odd permutation. Gy wt (sera Grsdlera) = (14 2 3)(567) = (14)(1 2)(1 3)(5 6)(5.7) (Odd number of transpositions ) Since 8 canbe written as a product of even number of transpositions, Therefore 6 is an odd permutation. pe ed =