LEARN

the
CONCEPTS!
By:

Ms. Jenievie Espino :D

and
 Temperature is a measure
of the total kinetic energy in
a substance.
 Matter contains heat.

• Heat is energy in transit

from a body of higher
temperature to one of lower
temperature.
 Temperature and
Thermometers

A hot oven is said to

In everyday life,
have a high temperature,
temperature is a
whereas the ice of a
measure of how hot or
frozen lake is said to
cold something is.
have a low temperature.
Temperature and
Internal Energy
 MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Instruments designed
to measure temperature
are called
thermometers.
 TEMPERATURE SCALES
The temperature scales most widely used today are the
Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales.

The Fahrenheit scale is commonly used in the United

States.

The Celsius scale is used in countries that have adopted

the metric system and by the scientific community
worldwide.
TEMPERATURE SCALES

Every temperature on the

Celsius scale corresponds
to a particular temperature
on the Fahrenheit scale
TEMPERATURE SCALES
TEMPERATURE SCALES
TRY THIS!
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM AND
THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system,

then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

When objects are in thermal equilibrium,

no energy flows between them.
 However, the amount
Most substances
of expansion or
expand when heated
contraction varies,
and contract when
depending on the
cooled.
material.
Experiments indicate that the change in length ∆𝑙 of
almost all solids is, to a good approximation,
directly proportional to the change in temperature
∆𝑇 as long as is not too large.
• The change in area is proportional to
the original area and to the change in
temperature
BIMETALLIC STRIP
bimetallic strip, two strips of different
metals are welded or riveted together.
BIMETALLIC STRIP
Review!!
Review!!
 ASSIGNMENT
Explain the
behavior of water
on each phase in
this phase
diagram.
 The word heat is
sometimes used to refer
to the process by which
energy is transferred
between objects because
of a difference in their
temperatures.
 It is called the calorie
(cal) and is defined as the
First we note that a
amount of heat necessary
common unit for heat,
to raise the temperature
still in use today, is
of 1 gram of water by 1
named after caloric.
Celsius degree.
CONDUCTION
CONVECTION
 Convection currents produced by
unequal heating of land and water.
A dark object that absorbs a lot of
radiant energy must
emit a lot as well.
OINK! OINK! ;D
Capacity of a substance to store
internal energy.

• THERMAL INERTIA
– since it signifies the
resistance of a substance to
a change in its temperature.
Water has a higher specific heat capacity.
• Water has more thermal inertia and
takes a longer time to warm in the
hot sunlight and a longer time to cool
on a cold night.
If heat flows into an object, the
object’s temperature rises
(assuming no phase change).
 Specific Heat Capacity

A material requires a specific amount of heat to

raise the temperature of a given mass a specified
number of degrees.

The specific heat capacity of a material is the

quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 gram by 1 degree.
Specific Heat Capacity
SAMPLE
 Calorimetry
One technique for measuring specific heat involves heating a material, adding it
to a sample of water, and recording the final temperature.
This technique is known as calorimetry.
▪ A calorimeter is a device in which this energy transfer takes place.
The system of the sample and the water is isolated.
Conservation of energy requires that the amount of energy that leaves the
sample equals the amount of energy that enters the water.
▪ Conservation of Energy gives a mathematical expression of this:
Qcold= -Qhot
Calorimetry
 Sign Conventions
If the temperature increases:
▪ Q and T are positive
▪ Energy transfers into the system
If the temperature decreases:
▪ Q and T are negative
▪ Energy transfers out of the system
The negative sign in the calorimetry equation is critical for consistency with the
sign convention.
 Calorimetry, final
Tf is the final temperature after the
system comes to equilibrium.
The subscript w represent values for water
and x represents the values for the sample
whose spcific heat is to be determined.
Since each Q = mcT, the calorimetry
equation can be expressed as
mw cw (Tf −Tw ) = −mx c x (Tf −Tx )
▪ This can be solved for the
unknown specific heat.
▪ Technically, the mass of the container
should be included, but if mw >>mcontainer it
can be neglected.
Calorimetry, Example
An ingot of metal is heated and then dropped into a beaker of water. The
equilibrium temperature is measured:

mw cw (Tf −Tw )
cx =
mx (Tx −Tf )
(0.400kg)(4186 J/kg  o C)(22.4 o C − 20.0 C)
=
(0.0500kg)(200.0 C − 22.4 C)
= 453 J/kg C
Calorimetry, Example

cx
x x f

Section 20.2
Calorimetry, Example

Section 20.2
• PROBSET 5pts each
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
(a)How much heat must be absorbed by ice of
mass m = 720 g at -10°C to take it to the liquid
state at 15°C?
 FIRST 10
(a)How much heat must be absorbed by ice of
mass m = 720 g at -10°C to take it to the liquid
state at 15°C? Ans. 330 KJ

• (b) If we supply the ice with a total energy of

only 210 kJ (as heat), what is the final state
and temperature of the water?
Heat Engines, Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
The study of heat and its
transformation into mechanical
energy is called
thermodynamics. The word
thermodynamics stems from
Greek words meaning “movement
of heat.” The foundation of
thermodynamics is the
conservation of energy and the
fact that heat flows from hot
to cold. It provides the basic
theory of heat engines.
Absolute Zero
As thermal motion of atoms increases,
temperature
There seems to be no upper limit of temperature
but there is a definite limit at the other end of the
temperature scale.
If we continually decrease the thermal motion of
atoms in a substance, the temperature will drop.

Absolute zero is the temperature at which no

more energy can be extracted from a substance.
Absolute Zero
At absolute zero, no further lowering
of its temperature is possible.

This temperature is 273 degrees

below zero on the Celsius scale.

Absolute zero corresponds to zero

degrees on the Kelvin, or
thermodynamic, scale and is written
0 K (short for “zero kelvin”).
 First Law of
Thermodynamics – Review
The first law is a statement of Conservation of Energy.
The first law states that a change in internal energy in a system can occur as a
result of energy transfer by heat, by work, or by both.
The first law makes no distinction between processes that occur spontaneously
and those that do not.
Only certain types of energy-conversion and energy-transfer processes actually
take place in nature.

Introduction
SPECIAL CASES OF
FIRST LAW
SPECIAL CASES OF FIRST LAW
 The Second Law of
Thermodynamics
Establishes which processes do and which do not occur
Some processes can occur in either direction according to the first law.
They are observed to occur only in one direction.
This directionality is governed by the second law.
These types of processes are irreversible.
▪ An irreversible process is one that occurs naturally in one direction only.
▪ No irreversible process has been observed to run backwards.
▪ An important engineering implication is the limited efficiency of heat engines.

Introduction
 Lord Kelvin
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin
1824 – 1907
British physicist and mathematician
First to propose the use of an absolute
scale of temperature
His work in thermodynamics led to the
idea that energy cannot pass
spontaneously from a colder object to a
hotter object.

Introduction
Heat Engine
A heat engine is a device that takes in energy by heat and, operating in a
cyclic
process, expels a fraction of that energy by means of work.
A heat engine carries some working substance through a cyclical
process. Example –
•Power plant produces electricity
• Internal Combustion engine of an automobile
The working substance absorbs energy
by heat from a high temperature energy
reservoir (Qh).
Work is done by the engine (Weng).
Energy is expelled as heat to a lower
temperature reservoir (Qc).
The working substance absorbs energy
by heat from a high temperature energy
reservoir (Qh).
Work is done by the engine (Weng).
Energy is expelled as heat to a lower
temperature reservoir (Qc).
Since it is a cyclical process, ΔEint = 0
▪ Its initial and final internal energies are the same.

So, from 1st Law of Thermodynamics

ΔEint = Q + W = Q - Weng = 0

Therefore, Weng = Qnet = |Qh| - |Qc|

The net work done by a heat engine equals the net energy transferred to it.

Section 22.1
 Thermal Efficiency
of a Heat Engine
Thermal efficiency is defined as the ratio of the net work done by the engine
during one cycle to the energy input at the higher temperature.

Weng Qh − Qc Qc
e = = 1−
Qh Qh Qh
We can think of the efficiency as the ratio of what you gain to what you give.
In practice, all heat engines expel only a fraction of the input energy by
mechanical work.
Therefore, their efficiency is always less than 100%.
▪ To have e = 100%, QC must be 0
For example, when the heat reservoir in a steam turbine
is 400 K (127°C) and the sink is 300 K (27°C), the ideal
efficiency is

Under ideal conditions, 25% of the internal energy of

the steam can become work, while the remaining 75%
is expelled as waste.
Increasing operating temperature to 600 K yields an
efficiency of (600 — 300)/600 = 1/2, twice the efficiency
at 400 K.
 Second Law:
Kelvin-Planck Form
Because efficiencies of real engines are well below 100% - the
Kelvin-Planck Form of the Second Law states -
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that, operating in a
cycle, produces no effect other than the input of energy by heat from
a reservoir and the performance of an equal amount of work.

W eng can never be equal to |Qh|

Means that Q c cannot equal 0

▪ Some energy |Qc| must be expelled to the environment

Means that e cannot be equal 100%

 Perfect Heat Engine

No energy is expelled to the cold

reservoir.
It takes in some amount of energy and
does an equal amount of work.
e = 100%
It is impossible to construct such an
engine.
 Heat Pumps
and
Refrigerators
Heat engines can run in reverse.
▪ This is not a natural direction of energy transfer.
▪ Must put some energy into a device to do this
▪ Devices that do this are called heat pumps or refrigerators
Examples

▪ A refrigerator is a common type of heat pump.

▪ An air conditioner is another example of a heat pump.
Energy is extracted from the cold
reservoir, |QC|
Energy is transferred to the hot
reservoir |Qh|, work must be done on
the engine, W

Heat Pump
Process
 Perfect
Heat
Pump
Takes energy from the cold reservoir
Expels an equal amount of energy to
the hot reservoir
No work is done
This is an impossible heat pump
 Reversible and
Irreversible Processes
A reversible process is one in which every point along some path is an
equilibrium state.
▪ And one for which the system can be returned to its initial state along the
same path.
An irreversible process does not meet these requirements.
▪ All natural processes are known to be irreversible.
▪ Reversible processes are an idealization, but some real processes are good
approximations.

Section 22.3
 Sadi Carnot
1796 – 1832
French engineer
First to show quantitative relationship
between work and heat
Published Reflections on the Motive
Power of Heat
▪ Reviewed industrial, political and
economic importance of the steam
engine
▪ Gave a definition of work
 Carnot Engine
A theoretical engine developed by Sadi Carnot
A heat engine operating in an ideal, reversible cycle (now called a Carnot cycle)
between two reservoirs is the most efficient engine possible
▪ This sets an upper limit on the efficiencies of all other engines.
 Carnot’s Theorem
No real heat engine operating between two energy reservoirs can be more
efficient than a Carnot engine operating between the same two reservoirs.
▪ All real engines are less efficient than a Carnot engine because they do not
operate through a reversible cycle.
▪ The efficiency of a real engine is further reduced by friction, energy losses
through conduction, etc.
Efficiency of a Carnot Engine
Carnot showed that the efficiency of the engine depends on the temperatures of
the reservoirs.
W Q
e = eng = 1− c
Qh Qh
Qc Tc
Again for Carnot Cycle, =
Qh Th

Hence the thermal efficiency for Carnot engine is

T
eC = 1− c
Th

Temperatures must be in Kelvins

All Carnot engines operating between the same two
temperatures will have the same efficiency.
Adiabatic Processes
A common example of a near-adiabatic process is the
compression and expansion of gases in the cylinders of an
automobile engine.
 Gasoline Engine
In a gasoline engine, six processes occur during each cycle.
For a given cycle, the piston moves up and down twice.
This represents a four-stroke cycle.

The processes in the cycle can be approximated by the Otto cycle.

Section 22.5
The Conventional
Gasoline Engine
 Otto Cycle
The PV diagram of an Otto cycle is
shown at right.
The Otto cycle approximates the
processes occurring in an internal
combustion engine.

Section 22.5
 Gasoline Engine –
Intake Stroke
During the intake stroke, the piston
moves downward.
A gaseous mixture of air and fuel is
drawn into the cylinder.
Energy enters the system by matter
transfer as potential energy in the fuel.
The volume increases from V2 to V1.
O → A in the Otto cycle PV diagram.

Section 22.5
 Gasoline Engine –
Compression Stroke
The piston moves upward.
The air-fuel mixture is compressed
adiabatically.
The volume changes from V1 to V2.
The temperature increases.
The work done on the gas is positive
and equal to the negative area under
the curve.
A → B in the Otto cycle PV diagram.

Section 22.5
 Gasoline Engine
– Spark
Combustion occurs when the spark
plug fires.
This is not one of the strokes of the
engine.
It occurs very quickly while the piston is
at its highest position.
The combustion represents a rapid
energy transformation from potential
energy to internal energy.
The temperature changes from TB to
TC but the volume remains
approximately the same.
B → C in the Otto cycle PV diagram.

Section 22.5
Gasoline Engine –
Power Stroke
In the power stroke, the gas expands
adiabatically.
Volume changes from V2 to V1
The temperature drops from Tc to TD.
Work is done by the gas
The work is equal to the area under the
curve.
C → D in the Otto cycle PV diagram

Section 22.5
 Gasoline Engine –
Valve Opens
This is process D → A in the Otto cycle
PV diagram
An exhaust valve opens as the piston
reaches its bottom position.
The pressure drops suddenly.
The volume is approximately constant.
▪ So no work is done
Energy is expelled from the interior of
the cylinder.
▪ It continues to be expelled during
the next process.

Section 22.5
 Gasoline Engine –
Exhaust Stroke
In the exhaust stroke, the piston moves
upward while the exhaust valve
remains open.
Residual gases are expelled to the
atmosphere
The volume decreases from V1 to V2.
A → O in the Otto cycle PV diagram
The cycle then repeats

Section 22.5
Two-stroke
Entropy
Entropy is the measure of the amount of disorder
in a system.
Disorder increases; entropy increases.