ID: 111926

Received: 2020-09-30
Reviewed: 2020-10-12
Accepted: 2020-11-16
OnlineFirst: 2021-01-15
Published: 2021-04-01 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3916/C67-2021-05

Cybergossip, cyberaggression, problematic Internet use

and family communication
Cibercotilleo, ciberagresión, uso problemático de Internet
y comunicación con la familia

Dr. Eva M. Romera

Associate Professor, Department de Psychology, University of Cordoba (Spain)
Antonio Camacho
PhD Student, Department of Psychology, University of Cordoba (Spain)
Dr. Rosario Ortega-Ruiz
Emeritus Full Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Cordoba (Spain)
Dr. Daniel Falla
Interim Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Cordoba (Spain)

Abstract
Research into risky online behaviour among children and adolescents is on the rise, with more studies being conducted
into the factors which can influence this phenomenon, above all in relation to school and family life. In the latter sphere,
one relevant factor is the degree of genuine trust children have in their parents when using the Internet. The main objective
of this study is to verify the effects of child disclosure about cyberaggression, in addition to the mediating role of problematic
Internet use and cybergossip, and the moderating role of gender and age. A total of 866 primary school children (53%
girls) between 10 and 13 years old (M=11.21; SD=0.90) were surveyed using self-reporting. The data processing followed
a moderated serial mediation model using “Process”. The results revealed the effects of child disclosure about
cyberaggression and the mediation of problematic Internet use and cybergossip. Unlike gender, age moderated the effects
of the mediation model. The results highlight the need to foster a climate of trust and communication in the family
environment to reduce involvement in risky online behaviour, in which children feel understood and supported by their
parents, which in turn encourages open communication about Internet use.

Resumen
La investigación sobre ciberconductas de riesgo infantil y juvenil se abre paso con estudios sobre factores que puedan
influir en estos fenómenos, entre los que se destacan los relacionados con la convivencia escolar y familiar. En esta última,
es relevante el nivel de confianza espontánea del hijo hacia su progenitor en el uso Internet. El objetivo de este trabajo es
comprobar el efecto de la revelación filial en la ciberagresión, así como el rol mediador del uso problemático de Internet y
el cibercotilleo, y el rol moderador del sexo y la edad. Un total de 866 escolares de primaria (53% chicas) de entre 10 y
13 años (M=11,21; D.T.=0,90) fueron encuestados mediante el uso de autoinformes. El tratamiento de datos siguió un
modelo de mediación serial moderada a través de «Process». Los resultados evidenciaron los efectos de la revelación
filial sobre la ciberagresión, así como la mediación del uso problemático de Internet y el cibercotilleo. A diferencia del
sexo, la edad moderó los efectos del modelo de mediación. Los resultados ponen de manifiesto la necesidad de establecer
un clima de confianza y comunicación en el entorno familiar para disminuir la implicación en las ciberconductas de riesgo,
donde los menores se sientan comprendidos y apoyados por los progenitores, facilitando la comunicación espontánea
sobre el uso de Internet.

Keywords / Palabras clave

Cyberaggression, child disclosure, problematic Internet use, cybergossip, primary education, moderated mediation
model.
Ciberagresión, revelación filial, uso problemático de Internet, cibercotilleo, educación primaria, modelo de mediación
moderada.
1. Introduction
Cyberaggression is a problem that affects a significant number of boys and girls worldwide at an increasingly
younger age. Young cyberbullies engage in behaviour that harms their peers psychologically and morally,
damaging social connections, which are such a key influence at these ages. Internet provides a different
context from face-to-face bullying, although one partly feeds on the other, with even more damaging
consequences. Cyberaggressors are given the chance to bully others anonymously (Dennehy et al., 2020),
round the clock (24/7 attack), thus making the victim even more vulnerable to their attacks and instilling in
them a self-learned helplessness and psychological maladjustment (Zych et al., 2019). The publication of
embarrassing photos, hacking the identity of an individual on social media, sharing intimate personal details
or images, the threats of revealing private information, insults or spreading rumours through digital devices are
all typical of the aggressive behaviour which is facilitated by communication technology and its all-pervasive
digital software (Livingstone & Smith, 2014). A recent study in Spanish schoolchildren between 11 and 12
years old revealed a rate of cyberaggression of about 6.3% (Garmendia et al., 2019). Compared with
international figures, it should be noted that the figures for prevalence in Spain are lower than those found in
other European countries (Sorrentino et al., 2019), or between Europe and America (Herrera-López et al.,
2017; Smith et al., 2019). As well as descriptive studies, more research is needed to further our knowledge of
the causal, or at least correlational, factors. The existing research has focused mainly on personal factors and
factors related to the school context and the quality of coexistence, with less attention focused on the family
context and its differential factors (Álvarez-García et al., 2019). Some studies in this field have pointed to the
key role of intra-family communication, and particularly child disclosure, as one of the differential elements in
the quality of family life. The information which sons and daughters disclose to their parents, which is
understood as an indirect form of parental recognition and control (Kerr et al., 2012), has been shown to reduce
involvement in cyberaggressive behaviour (Buelga et al., 2017). We now need to go one step further and
analyse the factors that can help us understand how child disclosure can influence involvement in
cyberaggression. To achieve this, we analysed the mediating role of problematic Internet use and cybergossip,
whose link with cyberaggression has previously been established (Romera et al., 2018).
Most of the research work at this level has focused on adolescents, among whom the use of digital devices is
widespread (Wang et al., 2016), although they begin using them much earlier (Smahel et al., 2020): hence the
need to research the final years of primary school.

1.1. Child disclosure and cyberaggression

The influence of the family context on children’s Internet behaviour has focused mainly on studying the norms
of control and supervision of the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). These studies
show that parental control which imposes strict limits on children’s activities and continuously demands
information about what they are doing is in fact an ineffective strategy for reducing risky behaviour in
adolescence, including cyberaggression (Baldry et al., 2019; Sasson & Mesch, 2014). In particular, studies on
the forms of parental communication used to control their children’s online behaviour indicate that attempts to
obtain information through direct requests and questions and a certain level of intrusion is associated with
higher levels of cyberaggression (Shapka & Law, 2013). In contrast, the creation of a positive, trusting
relationship with both parents leads to better social adjustment and well-being in their children, and acts as a
protective factor, especially if child disclosure is encouraged, by which the family knows what the children are
doing because the children tell them, without the need for parental control (Machimbarrena et al., 2019). Here,
a number of studies have highlighted the fact that the risk of involvement in cyberaggression decreases with
the use of parental strategies based on communication and trust (Buelga et al., 2017).

1.2. Problematic Internet use and cybergossip as potential mediators

Over 24% of young people use their digital devices on a daily basis to communicate with friends on social
media, and over half of these connect several times a day (Areepattamannil & Khine, 2017). However, it
constitutes problematic Internet use when it becomes compulsive and produces cognitive concern and a
deterioration of intrapersonal and interpersonal relations (Caplan, 2010) and stronger symptoms of depression
(Lozano-Blasco & Cortés-Pascual, 2020). Although it has been noted that personal factors can influence this
excessive use of technology, other studies indicate that the family plays a key role in preventing and reducing
it (Garmendia et al., 2019; Sela et al., 2020). Various studies have revealed how parental mediation, which is

© COMUNICAR, 67 (2021-2); e-ISSN: 1988-3293; Postprint DOI: 10.3916/C67-2021-05

understood as how parents manage the relationship between their children and the media, is a major factor in
young people’s Internet use (Bartau-Rojas et al., 2018). Studies such as Saunders and Varma (2016) show
that an inductive or instructive parenting style favours less intensive Internet use and that young people
exposed to fewer hours on Internet have higher rates of parental support and communication (Tur-Porcar et
al., 2019). The recent meta-analysis by Chen and Shi (2019) argues that, although restrictive mediation is
more effective in reducing the amount of time children spend online, active parental mediation and joint use,
are more effective in reducing the incidence of online risks.
In addition, cyberaggression studies have highlighted that the mere fact of spending more time online and
making excessive and frequent use of Internet is considered a risk factor that could lead to negative effects
(Baldry et al., 2019). In addition, Spanish studies have indicated that problematic Internet use is linked to
cyberaggression (Cerezo et al., 2016).
Excessive Internet use seems to stimulate or exaggerate tendencies in social communication which exist in all
cultures, such as online gossip, making it available to a wider audience (Subrahmanyam et al., 2008).
Cybergossip is a type of online behaviour which involves sharing comments (positive, negative or neutral)
among a group of two or more people about another person who is not present. Although some research has
identified this type of behaviour as a kind of indirect aggression, the two are different, in that in cyberaggression
there is a clear intention to do harm that does not necessarily exist in cybergossip. In fact, it has also been
recognised as having the function of lending the group greater cohesion and improving interpersonal
relationships (Foster, 2004). This means that cybergossip and cyberaggression need to be studied in a
differentiated way and with instruments that adjust to the nature of their respective online behaviour (Romera
et al., 2018). It does not follow, however, that the practice of cybergossip is completely devoid of risky online
behaviour. Although there has been little research into the relationship between cybergossip and other risky
online behaviour, recent studies have shown that cybergossip can increase involvement in cyberaggression
(Kisfalusi et al., 2019). In the virtual context, it is more difficult for the sender of the comments to convey their
exact communicative intention and for the receiver to interpret it, and this could lead to misunderstandings
and, therefore, risky online behaviour such as cyberaggression.

1.3. The present study

Previous research has shown not only the negative consequences associated with being involved in
cyberaggression, an immoral practice in which a large number of adolescents, boys and girls alike, become
involved at an increasingly early age, but also the important role of the family in its prevention. However, further
research is needed looking into the family context in the development of this kind of online behaviour performed
by children and adolescents. Not only is it important to identify what family styles and strategies are most
effective in preventing online bullying, but also to explore how they can promote online behaviour that can help
reduce involvement in risky online behaviour and, therefore, foster positive online coexistence. In this context,
the present study aims to examine the mediating effect of problematic Internet use and cybergossip between
child disclosure and involvement in cyberaggression. Because a large number of studies have highlighted
which parental communication strategies, mainly those that enhance child disclosure, reduce the risk of
involvement in aggressive behaviour (Law et al., 2010), we expected to find that child disclosure about online
behaviour reduced cyberaggression (Hypothesis 1). Most previous work has focused on the effects of this
relationship, albeit without taking into account possible mediators. We also expected to find that problematic
Internet use and cybergossip mediated the relationship between child disclosure and cyberaggression
(Hypothesis 2). Due to the fact that boys tend to be more involved in risky online behaviour than girls throughout
adolescence, and that child disclosure is more common among girls and during childhood (Arpaci et al., 2020;
Smahel et al. al., 2020), we expected the effects of child disclosure on risky online behaviour to be lower in
late childhood (Hypothesis 3a) and in girls (Hypothesis 3b), compared to early adolescents and boys.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Participants

The incidental sample consisted of 866 schoolchildren (53% girls), from six state primary schools (58%) and
subsidized schools (42%), in both rural (36%) and urban (64%) areas in the provinces of Córdoba and Jaén
(Spain). The schools were selected through non-probability sampling for accessibility (Singleton & Straits,
2004). The children’s ages ranged from 10 to 13 years old (M=11.21; S.D.=0.90), with a distribution by primary
school year as follows: 28.8% in 4th year (n=249), 28.9% in 5th year (n=250) and 42.3% in 6th year (n=366).

© COMUNICAR, 67 (2021-2); e-ISSN: 1988-3293; Postprint DOI: 10.3916/C67-2021-05

2.2. Instruments

Cyberaggression was assessed using 8 items on a five-point Likert-scale ranging from 0=never, 1=once or
twice, 2=once or twice a month, 3=about once a week, to 4=more than once a week. Examples of the items
for cyberaggression included: “I posted embarrassing videos or pictures of someone online” or “I spread
rumours about someone on the Internet” in the last two months. This scale was part of an adaptation for
primary school of the European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire, ECIPQ (Del-Rey et al.,
2015), consisting of two dimensions, cybervictimization and cyberaggression. We used only the second
dimension for this study, taking the mean scores of the items, with higher values denoting a higher frequency
of being involved in cyberaggression. For this research, the validity indices were optimal: 𝜒2 S-B=56.4149;
gl=20; p<.001; NNFI=.98; CFI=.98; RMSEA=.04; SRMR=.05, and the reliability index was good for the
dimension of cyberaggression, ω = .74.
Child disclosure was measured with four items about how often the children told their parents about their online
activities, taken from the adaptation by Law et al. (2010) on Stattin and Kerr’s Parenting Questionnaire (Stattin
& Kerr, 2000). An ad hoc simple five-point Likert-type scale was used, ranging from “never” to “always”. The
following items were used: “I tell my parents when I open a new account on social media”, “I tell my parents
when I chat to new people on social media/WhatsApp”, “I tell my parents the content of the messages I send
or receive through social media/WhatsApp” and “I tell my parents before revealing information about myself to
other people through social media/WhatsApp”. Optimal indices were obtained for reliability (ω=.83) and
validity: 𝜒2 S-B=17.7493; gl=2; p<.001; NNFI=.98; CFI=.99; RMSEA=.06; SRMR=.02.
Problematic Internet use was measured using the Internet-Related Experiences Questionnaire scale (Beranuy
et al., 2009), which uses a 10-item Likert scale with 4 points of frequency, from “never” to “quite a lot”. The
items included the following: “I prefer to talk to my friends through social media/WhatsApp rather than in
person”, “I feel anxious when I cannot connect to social media/WhatsApp”. A unidimensional distribution of the
items was taken into account and optimal values were obtained with the study sample for reliability (ω=.78)
and validity: 𝜒2 S-B=51.3417; gl=35; p<.001; NNFI=.99; CFI=.99; RMSEA=.02; SRMR=.03.
Cybergossip was measured using the Cybergossip Questionnaire (Romera et al., 2018). This is a one-
dimensional survey consisting of nine items measured on a Likert scale with values from 0 (never) to 4
(always). The items included: “I tell my friends on social networks or WhatsApp about things I hear about that
happen to others”, “I talk about others on social networks or WhatsApp because it makes me feel closer to my
group of friends”. Optimal indices were obtained for the study sample for reliability (ω=.80) and validity, 𝜒2 S-
B=100.7370; gl=27; p<.001; NNFI=.96; CFI=.97; RMSEA=.05; SRMR=.05.

2.3. Procedure

The school management teams at the different schools were contacted to inform them about the aims of the
study. Those schools which expressed interest received detailed information on the data collection procedure.
Written consent was obtained from the students’ families and the participants gave their verbal consent. The
study complied with the Declaration of Helsinki on confidentiality, privacy and informed consent, and was
approved by the Ethical Committee for Bioethics and Biosafety of the University of Córdoba.
The questionnaires were administered individually on paper in the students’ classroom. The children were
informed that the test was voluntary and anonymous. Data collection was done by previously trained
researchers, who informed the children about the collection procedure and answered any questions they had
about how to complete the questionnaire. The teachers in charge of the class were absent during the process.
Response time ranged from 15 to 20 minutes. The data was collected in 2017.

2.4. Data analysis

Due to the skewness shown by the variables of cybergossip and cyberaggression, both were subjected to
square root transformation, following the recommendations by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007). All future
references refer to these transformed variables.
The preliminary analyses were performed using mean and standard deviation, together with the Spearman
correlation coefficient for each of the study factors which were to be verified in the theoretical model.
Similarly, Students’ t test was performed to contrast the existence of differences by gender and age (late
childhood=10-11 years old; early adolescence=12-13 years old), considering Cohen's d to control the effect
size. These analyses were performed using the IBM SPSS Statistics 20 statistical package.

© COMUNICAR, 67 (2021-2); e-ISSN: 1988-3293; Postprint DOI: 10.3916/C67-2021-05

Finally, a serial mediation model was performed using “Process” v3.4 (Hayes, 2013) (Model 6) to evaluate the
mediating effect of problematic Internet use (first mediator) and cybergossip (second mediator) in the
relationship between child disclosure (independent variable) and cyberaggression (dependent variable). The
moderation effects were analysed using Model 92, in order to evaluate whether gender and age influenced the
associations between the study variables. “Process” is a macro used in SPSS which employs least squares
regression to estimate the importance and size of direct and indirect effects in mediation models. “Process”
performs better than the traditional causal step approach (both in terms of statistical power and detecting type
I error). The indirect effects were inferred using the Bootstrapping method, after generating an empirical
representation of the sample distribution of indirect effects. Bootstrapping is suitable for linear hypotheses
where the variables have a non-normal distribution (Chernick, 2008), as was the case in the present study. In
the mediation model, the total effect denoted the basic relationship between child disclosure and
cyberaggression. The relationship between the indirect effect and the total effect (PM) shows the measurement
of the mediation effect (Wen & Fan, 2015). All the variables were standardized before the analyses to facilitate
the interpretation of the results.

3. Results
Table 1 shows the descriptive analyses of the study variables. Boys and early adolescents showed a greater
involvement in cyberaggression and problematic Internet use. Early adolescents also showed greater use of
cybergossip. Girls and late childhood participants showed higher levels of child disclosure. The effect size was
low-moderate. A positive relationship was observed between the variables of cyberaggression, cybergossip
and problematic Internet use, with scores ranging between .39 and .55. Child disclosure negatively correlated
with all the study variables (Table 1).

Table 1. Correlations, descriptive statistics and differences by gender and age

Differences by gender Differences by age

Late Early
Variables Correlations Boys Girls Student-t Student-t
childhood adolescence
1 2 3 M SD M SD t1 d M SD M SD t2 d

1. CA - .29 .35 .23 .28 2.51* .17 .20 .29 .33 .33 -6.17*** .42

2. CG .53 - .47 .40 .45 .38 .34 - .39 .36 .57 .41 -7.00*** .49

3. PIU .35 .47 - .84 .74 .66 .61 4.30*** .29 .67 .66 .85 .69 -3.46*** .24

4. CD -.25 -.24 -.24 2.26 1.36 2.68 1.25 -4.69*** .32 2.59 1.35 2.35 1.27 2.63*** .18
Key. M=mean; SD=Standard Deviation; t=Student’s t; d=Cohen’s d; CA=Cyberaggression; CC=Cybergossip; PIU=Problematic Internet
Use; CD=Child disclosure; *p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001. 1 1=Boys; 2=Girls. 2 1=Late childhood; 2=Ealy adolescence.

A serial mediation analysis was carried out with 5,000 bootstrap samples. Table 2 shows the coefficients of
the mediation model. The total effect of child disclosure on cyberaggression was significant: β=-.27, t=-8.15,
p<.001. We then analysed the models of the mediating variables, problematic Internet use and cybergossip,
and of the dependent variable, cyberaggression. Child disclosure was significantly associated with problematic
internet use and cybergossip. Problematic internet use was significantly associated with cybergossip and
cyberaggression. Cybergossip was also significantly associated with cyberaggression. After controlling for the
effects of mediators, the direct effect of child disclosure on cyberaggression remained significant. The
bootstrap procedure was used to evaluate the indirect effect and the confidence intervals (CI). An indirect
effect was significant if the CI did not include the value 0. In addition, a significant indirect effect was obtained
for the Child disclosure → Problematic Internet use → Cyberaggression path, β=-.04, 95% CI [-.06, -.02],
Pm=.14. The Child disclosure → Cybergossip → Cyberaggression path produced a significant indirect effect,
β=-.05, 95% CI [-.09, -.02], Pm=.20. Finally, the Child disclosure → Problematic Internet use → Cybergossip
→ Cyberaggression path showed a significant indirect effect, β=-.15, 95% CI [-.19, -.10], Pm=.55. Thus,
problematic internet use and cybergossip were shown to have a partial mediating role in the effect of child
disclosure on cyberaggression.

© COMUNICAR, 67 (2021-2); e-ISSN: 1988-3293; Postprint DOI: 10.3916/C67-2021-05

 Table 2. Serial mediation between child disclosure and cyberaggression
Predictors Problematic Internet use Cybergossip Cyberaggression
β t β t β t
Child disclosure -.26*** -8.04 -.12** -3.89 -.12*** -4.19
Problematic Internet use .45*** 14.77 .14*** 4.45
Cybergossip .45*** 14.03
R2 .07*** .25*** .34***
F (1, 857) 64.68 (2, 856) 141.77 (3, 855) 145.11
Key. *p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001.

The moderation results indicate that there were no statistically significant differences between boys and girls
in the associations between variables (ps>.05). Age proved to be a determining variable in the effects of child
disclosure on problematic Internet use: ß=-.20, t=-2,95 p<.01. The effects were significantly greater in early
adolescence in comparison to late childhood (See Figure 1).

Figure 1. Moderating role of age in the effects of child disclosure on problematic Internet use

Age was found to influence the effects of problematic Internet use on cybergossip: β=.21, t= .51, p<.001. These
effects were significantly greater in early adolescence in comparison to late childhood (Figure 2). Indirect
effects show how the Child disclosure → Problematic Internet Use → Cyberaggression path was significant in
early adolescents, βEarly-adolescence= .07, 95% CI [-.12, -.03], but not in late childhood, βlate childhood=-0.02, 95% CI
[-.04, .00]. As regards the Child disclosure → Cybergossip → Cyberaggression path, there were no significant
differences between the two groups, βEarly adolescence – late childhood=.00, 95% CI [-.06, .06]. Finally, as for the Child
disclosure → Problematic Internet use → Cybergossip → Cyberaggression path, early adolescents showed
statistically greater effects, βEarly adolescence=-.09, 95% CI [-.13, -.06], βlate childhood=-.02, 95% CI [-.04, -.01], βEarly
adolescence – late childhood=-.06, 95% CI [-.11, -.03].

Figure 2. Moderating role of age in the effects of problematic Internet use on cybergossip

© COMUNICAR, 67 (2021-2); e-ISSN: 1988-3293; Postprint DOI: 10.3916/C67-2021-05

4. Discussion and conclusions
The aim of this research was to advance our scientific knowledge about the cyberaggression phenomenon,
which occurs in the digital world shared by boys and girls and which has its beginnings in the last years of
primary education. The problem was addressed by looking at the relationship of cyberaggression with the
possible risk and protection factors present in school and family settings. As mentioned in Hypothesis 1, we
expected the results to indicate that establishing family relationships based on communication and trust
reduces the risk of being involved in cyberaggression. Although the protective effect of child disclosure has
already been recognized in previous research (Buelga et al., 2017), it remains to be seen how this relationship
is enhanced, in particular, by finding out what types of online behaviour can mediate the effect of this
communication on cyberaggression. To achieve this, we formulated and examined a mediation model based
on the integration of problematic Internet use and cybergossip, two types of online behaviour whose
relationship with cyberaggression has been demonstrated (Cerezo et al., 2016; Kisfalusi et al., 2019).
This study enables us to advance in the identification of certain online activities that can potentially mediate
the relationship between child disclosure and cyberaggression: problematic Internet use and cybergossip.
These results suggest that both forms of online behaviour mediate the effects of such communication on
cyberaggression (Hypothesis 2). Previous studies have shown that a greater online presence increases
exposure to risks such as cyberaggression (Cerezo et al., 2016; Baldry et al., 2019), and in turn, that child
disclosure reduces problematic Internet use (Chen & Shi, 2019). Likewise, it has been shown how making
evaluative comments about other people on Internet increases the risk of cyberaggression (Romera et al.,
2018). The reason for this is that cybergossip is behaviour which is developed in a group and clearly fulfills a
function of enhancing group cohesion. The evaluative nature of the comments shared in that group not only
affects the behaviour of its members, but also serves as a stimulus to boost the kind of behaviour which is
valued within the peer group. By posting messages about others, these boys and girls normalise hurtful
behaviour in order to maintain their social position and status within the group. This is why it is so important to
address this kind of online behaviour, because, although it is not initially intended to do any harm, it is
susceptible to misunderstandings and therefore increases the risk of engaging in cyberaggression behaviour.
The relationship between parental educational practices and cybergossip has not yet been explored, so this
study represents an advance by stressing the need for parents to talk with their children about their online
activity: not just their individual behaviour, but the conduct and attitudes they assume as part of their peer
group, from which they learn their social conduct. Helping them to interpret the content of messages and
understand the emotional nuances behind them, while learning not to instinctively assign hostile intentions to
messages, are some of the key areas to work on, and this is especially vital at the age when children begin to
maintain interpersonal relationships online. The findings for mediation suggest that child disclosure about
children’s online behaviour can serve as a protective factor against involvement in cyberaggression by
reducing inappropriate Internet use and involvement in cybergossip, which are factors that also influence
cyberaggression.
As was expected, the moderation results show that late childhood is the key time for implementing educational
strategies aimed at promoting appropriate Internet use through open family communication. It has been
observed how, mainly in early adolescence, high levels of child disclosure are related to low levels of
problematic Internet use, just as more problematic Internet use is associated with greater involvement in
cybergossip (Hypothesis 3a). The fact that these relationships are strengthened in early adolescence highlights
the transition to the adolescent stage as a key evolutionary period to promote safe online use, as well as
underlining the need to pay attention at these vital, transformative ages to the most important variables that
can reduce problems of cyberaggression, which tend to increase considerably during adolescence (Smahel et
al., 2020). In contrast, gender did not moderate the associations between the study variables (Hypothesis 3b).
This suggests that, even though girls engage in more child disclosure and are less commonly involved in risky
online behaviour, being a boy or a girl does not increase the probability that problematic Internet use or
cybergossip is associated with cyberaggression. These results coincide with previous studies which reveal
that gender is not a differentiating variable in the effects of parental communication on Internet use (Huang et
al., 2019).
A number of limitations must also be taken into account in this study. First of all, although the sample is
relatively large, it comes from one geographical region, so these relationships would need to be explored with
participants from other regions and cultures in order to be able to generalise the results. In addition, the study
includes measurements taken on one single occasion, so that causal relationships between the study variables
cannot be established. In addition, although the child disclosure scale explores certain types of behaviour

© COMUNICAR, 67 (2021-2); e-ISSN: 1988-3293; Postprint DOI: 10.3916/C67-2021-05

shared with families, it would be interesting to investigate the reasons that encourage children to talk about
their online behaviour, as well as how adults respond to this information. Another limiting factor is the type of
instrument used, self-report scales, not only because they are associated with desirability, but also because,
due to the age of the children taking part, some difficulties may be encountered in the reading comprehension
of the items. Further visual aids and qualitative studies could be used to support the reliability of the results
obtained, and an analysis of the family context (education, socio-economic level or parenting strategies) would
help us to understand better the established relationships. Further research could apply a longitudinal design
to allow us to explore the causal nature of the study variables. We need to delve deeper, too, into the role of
the peer group in online behaviour, following developmental studies which highlight the influence of social
media on individual social behaviour. Similarly, it would be of interest to explore cultural differences in the links
between parental educational practices and the prevention of online risks (Shapka & Law, 2013).
Despite these limitations, this is the first study to examine the mediating relationship between problematic
Internet use and cybergossip in the relationship between child disclosure about children’s and adolescents’
online behaviour and cyberaggression. The results we present here constitute a significant step forward for
research in this line, as well as providing guidance for the design of cyberaggression prevention programs.
They also highlight the importance of raising awareness in the family context in favour of building a positive
online coexistence that fosters communication and trust, which facilitate and encourage children and
adolescents to share their experiences on the social media with their parents, whose role it is to help them
reflect, experience emotions and make moral judgements. It is therefore vital that families are involved, so that
children can learn to manage their online relationships well. Not only is it a question of families worrying about
how to avoid cyberaggression, but they should also be involved in building a positive online coexistence,
striving to make the use of Internet problem-free and to ensure that the interactions and group dynamics set
up do not result in the bullying of others. These results can also provide guidance for designing
cyberaggression prevention programs, which would require training for families to help them manage the
relationships with their children about their Internet use, and to teach them about the different aspects of online
behaviour which may constitute a risk.

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