Location

Santiago, Chile

Natural Hazard:
Volcanic Activity

Spatial Significance

This satellite image depicts active volcanoes along the borders of Chile and its
surrounding countries, located on the west coast of the continent South America. Chile is known
for its rocky and rugged terrain and largely mixed climate from snowy mountains in the south to
world-renowned beaches in the north. However, along the Andes transverse mountain range on
the East side of the country is a location filled with active volcanoes (Nag​)​. Towns and villages
along the Andes help to contribute to the extraction of ores and other assorted metals,
amounting to nearly 50% of the country’s total annual exports. Volcanic activity in these areas
may present high danger to the greater population and their jobs. Although the nation is
presented uniquely as a large copper exporter to the globe, the volcanic effects present risk to
both tourism and life along the shore (from ash and smoke in the air after volcanic eruptions) but
also the mining industry in and along the Andes ​(Workman​)​.
Patterns and Trends:
The recorded volcanic activity follows a distinct linear pattern across South America.
There have been 60 recorded eruptions in Chile amounting across a period of 450 years
(“Volcanoes of Argentina/Chile”). This information helps to draw an observation that volcanic
activities occur sporadically (irregularly, generally with a larger amount of time between each
occurrence). There is no reason as to why a trend occurs between these eruptions, as humans
cannot stop or control an eruption (Layton) however, there is an obvious pattern that can be
drawn between tectonic plates and volcano locations. Most active volcanoes are located along
the border of the Nazca Plate and the South American tectonic plate. This relationship helps
scientists and other individuals understand the risk and danger presented along tectonic plate
boundaries and where volcanoes may be found (Prasad).
Interrelationships:
The features being studied are tectonic plate boundaries and the locations of active
volcanoes across the country of Chile in South America. Given that humans have no control as
to how a tectonic plate moves or how to start a volcanic eruption, the interrelationship presented
is clearly a natural-human interrelationship. Over millions of years, volcanoes have formed from
tectonic plates moving to create elevated rock structures filled with magma from the Earth’s
upper mantle (Wicker). These eruptions occur when a great amount of gas pressure has been
released through the magma, taking magma and ash into the air with it (“Why Do Volcanoes
Erupt?”). These eruptions present risk to nature as hot magma can scorch the surface of
ecosystems, ash can fall into water streams and off-balance minerals in the water, and large
amounts of gases such as carbon dioxide contribute to the greenhouse effect. Eruptions also
present an active lethal risk factor in human activity by covering an area in harmful and hot ash
and magma.

Geographic Perspectives:
Political
- A lot of government pressure to provide aid
- Aid is very expensive
- Lots of government pressure to respond to an eruption and disclose their plan for relief
- The government can lose important buildings, equipment, and roads.
- Perhaps an excuse for asking for help from other countries?

Economical
- Aid is very expensive
- Extraction of metals such as Copper may be put on hold, hurting exports.
- Damage for roads, buildings, and equipment is very expensive to replace in a short
amount of time.
- Released gases may danger crops for example which may make farming more difficult
and also hurt other areas of the countries GDP
- Photographers and tourism may see the area as a place to visit, increasing tourism
spending to view the results and magma from an eruption.

Social
- Lives are endangered or lost
- Homes are lost, along with work places, work is put on hold for many industries, and it is
difficult to leave the area if roads are blocked.
Environmental
- Greenhouse effect from CO2, SO2, and other harmful gases
- Ruined ecosystems from ash and magma
- Water bodies’ mineral levels are put off balance endangering underwater ecosystems

What is the risk of geologic hazards in the mountainous range of Chile?

Natural processes in the mountainous range of Chile:

GEOLOGIC

Chile is an epicenter of active natural processes. Santiago, located just a few kilometers
from the start of the Andes mountain range is a city located beside the Nazca and South
American convergent plate boundary. The convergent boundary alongside the oceanic coast
shows evidence of a subduction zone where there are frequent large earthquakes and high
volcanic presence.The Nazca plate has and is subducting underneath the South American plate
just barely offshore in the South Atlantic ocean. As the Nazca plate subducts, chemical changes
in combination with friction cause the adjacent land to buckle under pressure and release small
amounts of magma. This pressure releases water and carbon dioxide, lowering the melting point
for rising magma. This risen magma creates small changes and uneven land surfaces under the
water and small volcanic activity even though the closest volcanoes are further into the ocean
and further away from the shore on land. Tectonic forces have been at work in this area for
millions of years which have built up the coastal mountain ranges, a deep and very dangerous
subduction zone, and an offshore mountain range. Since these subduction zones are just barely
offshore, they are still deep underwater. If a large amount of pressure is released between these
two plates, the offshore mass movements may also have enough power to periodically spawn
tsunamis.

HYDROLOGIC

As a result of tsunamis, flooding contributes as a small risk to hydrologic hazards when

caused as a byproduct of large waves. However, since parts of Chile are so close to the equator
and so close to a powerful large ocean, the coastal communities are at a great risk of severe
flooding from overwhelming heavy rainfall (​“​Chile Floods,​” ​2015). Snowfall among mountain
peaks in the Andes is nowhere near comparable to that of the Rockies or peaks in Europe.
However, sparsely populated areas near the peaks, in areas which specialise in the economies of
mining or mountain railway systems do still experience traumatic avalanches. For the most part
of the country, avalanches do not pose a great threat, but the closer one is to the Argentinian
border (the Andes), the more at risk they are to an avalanche. However, given that avalanches
commonly occur and fall in similar pathings, an individual would not be following a safe
lifestyle living in close proximity to a snowpit (Leon, 1976​)​.

CLIMATIC / ATMOSPHERIC

Climatic processes such as tornadoes and tsunamis do not strike and affect Chile often.
Tornadoes do not form mostly because the air filtering in from the southern Pacific
Ocean is usually too cold and heavy for a tornado to form. This does not mean that
tornadoes are impossible or unheard of, but the conditions in which they need to form are
a lot more rare in Chile (“​Unusual Tornado Strikes”​)​. Windstreams near the equator of
the Earth in the w estern hemisphere carry tropical cyclones either upwards and to the left
into the Eastern coast of North America, or downwards to the right into the South Pacific
Ocean. For this reason, hurricanes and other variations of tropical cyclones do not affect
Chile. There has never been a tropical cyclone recorded that has hit the western coast of
South America (​“​Chile never has hurricanes​”)​.
Landscape and Landforms:
LANDSCAPE:

Both geologic and hydrologic forces have worked coherently to build the landscape of
Chile. The terrain is primarily mountainous due to converging tectonic plate activity so close to
the coast. In fact, less than one fifth of Chile’s landscape is flat and suitable for farming and
building (“Geography,” 2014). The city of Santiago itself is nowhere near any rivers or active
water bodies other than the Pacific ocean approximately fifty kilometers away. The occasional
river streams in from the Pacific ocean, but given the terrain of Chile, rivers have an extremely
tough time continuing further deep into the country’s mainland. A large part of the hydrologic
forces that exist in Chile work the geologic forces of divergent boundaries to form oceanic ridges
far offshore.

Geologically speaking, the landscape of Chile is a landscape that has been formed over
millions of years of tectonic plate activity. Harsh cliffs located near the oceanic coast have
eroded over tens of thousands of years to become smaller and will continue to until reaching a
more relatively flat area. The following ArcGIS map is an image that shows the tectonic plate
activity both at shore and into the mainland of the country.
 For more reiteration and expansion on the idea of tectonic plate movement, the oceanic
trench observable above is a result of the Nazca plate subducting under the South American
plate. This geologic process holds a great amount of responsibility for the formation of the
mountainous landscape seen all over the country’s mainland. Over millions of years, the stresses
of colliding plates have driven the land upwards into folded mountains.

Natural Hazards:
Given that Chile is entirely along a convergent plate boundary, the entirety of Chile,
especially closer to the mountains (like Santiago) is particularly at risk for earthquakes.
Earthquakes occur as a result of vibrations in between shifting tectonic plates. When two plates,
such as the Nazca and South America plates, push in towards each other, a little bit of land is
pushed higher before the magma in between solidifies and locks. The longer between a tectonic
plate’s movement, the more energy the next earthquake will have. Major earthquakes regularly
occur near Chile, and although they seem to have happened frequently within recent times, they
are unpredictable and may strike at any moment in time (​“​Magnitude 10​”​). In addition to
earthquakes, the convergent boundary is home to a plethora of active volcanoes, primarily
located in a linear pattern. A singular volcano rarely erupts frequently, and given that the last
major eruption from a singular volcano in Chile was in the 1970s, volcanoes propose a great
natural hazard risk to almost the entirety of the nation (Santiago, 2015). In addition to these
geologic processes, heavy rainfall at shoreside locations, and avalanches in the Andes also
propose a significant risk to the tourism and civilian community. Climatic and atmospheric
natural hazards rarely form in Chile and therefore pose no significant risk.
Spatial Significance concerning Human Activity:
The greater metropolitan area of Santiago is the most populated geographic area of Chile. The
challenging geologic structure of land makes the ground hard to traverse and construct on, yet
Chile boasts a current population of nearly seven million people living in one relatively small
metropolitan area (“Santiago…,” 2020). In the mountainous terrain of Chile, deep ores are
bound to be abundant at a higher elevation due to millions of years of tectonic plate movement.
These ores and the mineral rich soil beside active volcanoes are the contributing reasons why
mining (lithium, copper, and other minerals) and agriculture contribute to the largest percentage
of the nation’s GDP. The mountainous and volcanic terrain leads to opportunities for tourism
and cement production, allowing Chile to gain a relatively large income, despite its location.

Patterns and Trends concerning Human Activity:

In southern Chile, the Calbuco volcano erupted for the first time in more than five decades in
2015 (Sawe, 2018). Natural events such as volcanic eruptions do not happen often, but given
the prosperity of them in and beside Chile, the risk of an eruption is a lot more likely. Despite
their abundance, human activity has never played a part in the eruption of a volcano (Sawe,
2018).

In addition to its infrastructure, the human population of Santiago is the fastest growing
population in Chile (“Santiago…,” 2020). This information is important to note when relating the
risks of human activity near volcanoes as building settlements, utilising and locating farms within
the mineral rich soils, and using the rural areas as a tourist attraction dramatically increases the
risk of harm to people near an eruption. Large volcanic eruptions require the population within a
twenty kilometer radius at a minimum to temporarily relocate (Henning, 2015). The city of
Santiago is just tens of kilometers away from the linear settling of active volcanoes which have
not erupted in decades and therefore is at a great risk when one unpredictably blows. Although
volcanic eruptions are highly unlikely, they are still unpredictable therefore the great amount of
presumed active ones put major cities, populations, and population growth at risk for mass
destruction.

Human Activity and Interrelationships:

Human-Natural Interrelationships
Infrastructure Construction ----> Alteration of Land
Unsustainable Mining Operations ----> Unsustainable Development
Fossil Fuel Power Generation ----> Increased Pollution, Heat, and Debris after an eruption.

Human-Human Interrelationships
Infrastructure Construction ----> More lives at risk of an eruption
Increased Population and Structures ----> Increased cost to rebuild after an eruption

Increasing human activity directly impacts the natural environment in urban developments.
These interrelationships and hazardous risks take on increased economic and environmental
issues (such as floods and rising sea levels) within the native Chilean terrain and economy.
Geographic Perspectives:
The cultural growth of Chile heavily involves a profit driven economy. Despite the need for
genuinely important practices such as agriculture and mining, the risks of the mining and
tourism industries are astronomical and unsustainable. The risk of natural disasters, particularly
volcanoes, is not measurable. Given the fact that one of the tens of active volcanoes could erupt
at any moment without any notice, the risk of health complications and death is very risky for the
citizens in and around Santiago. Though the cultural practices of mining and tourism are risky in
and around the Andes, they are two of the easiest and most efficient ways to provide to the
nation’s economy, despite them being unsustainable. In the long term, Chile needs to look into
technological advancements to help reduce their carbon footprint and work towards keeping ski
resorts and volcano parks safe for tourism.

Global Connections to Volcanic Activity and other Natural Processes

in Santiago, Chile

Global Economic Connections

Santiago works as a distribution port for many cities and other regions across South America.
Any disruptions to their ports would greatly affect the supply of metals, fish, produce, and
technological imports dramatically across the country and its continent.

The Greater Santiago Metropolitan Area is heavily involved in the mining industry of minerals
and other metals such as Lithium and Copper. If the extraction procedures were stopped in this
GMA, the global supply of these metals would be impacted. Floodings, tsunamis, tropical storms
and earthquakes are just some of the commonly occurring natural hazards that occur across
coastal Chile -- all of which would impact the global supply of Chile’s exports (Trujillo, 2019).

Global Environmental Connections

The effects of flooding, volcanic activity and earthquakes have a much broader impact on the
other ecosystems on our planet beyond Santiago, Chile. Across the various deltas and low-land
habitations, floodings could introduce harmful chemicals and debris into the water systems
across South America. In addition to flooding, the tremors of a large earthquake may be felt
hundreds of kilometers away, even in Brazil if strong enough. Finally, just one strong volcanic
eruption could result in polluted air quality and thick coverings of ash particles across South and
Central America.

Despite the fact that these natural processes are in no way controlled or influenced directly by
human activity, the products of the hazards present serious environmental issues across the
globe.
Natural Processes Creating Global Connections
As explained above, volcanoes are able to shoot large amounts of volcanic ash particles into
the air. These particles are able to be transported across the globe by means of natural
processes such as global winds and the jet stream.

The general tectonic activity across Chile is capable of releasing large amounts of pressure.
These earthquakes may encourage tsunamis affecting inundate coastlines on small islands or
other countries with large waves.

Global Political Connections

The largest first-world countries provided support in the past to help rebuild, structure, and
support the Chilean economy and healthcare system during floods and volcanic eruptions in the
past. Nations such as Canada, the United States, Germany, Australia and other developed
countries would be pressured to provide support during everyday life for emergency services
and funds to rebuild the impacted areas (Trujillo, 2019).

Culminating Part 5, CGF3M

Hazard Chosen:
Volcanoes

1) Observation and Forecasting

Volcanic eruptions are almost always predicted days or years before. Warning activity
measured using geographic devices such as seismographs determine the movement and/or
pressurization of magma. Identifying volcanoes which appear active but have not exploded in
many years are the prioritized volcanoes for monitorizacion as the longer it has been since an
eruption, the more powerful the next will be. Though these methods prove very useful, it is
impossible to study the unique and changing volcanic conditions at every possibly active
volcano.

I will add photos from my previous tasks here.

 2) Active Interventions

Computer modeling helps to determine which areas are most at risk from volcanic ash and
flowing lava. The only day-to-day intervention method existing to protect humans from
volcanoes is the technological evacuation and alert system where if deemed necessary to
evacuate people, the steps for protection can be conveyed easily and efficiently. This
technological system explains the steps for protection by sending information to cell phones,
websites, televisions, radios, etc.

3) Permanent Interventions

The amount of pressure released from a volcanic eruption is far too great to control or
withhold from exploding. For these reasons there is no practical way to prevent a volcanic
eruption.

4) Social Interventions

As volcanoes erupt far too infrequently to monitor consistently. The easiest way to reduce
injury or risk of death is through education about what to do during an eruption to the citizens
who are most at risk or within close proximity of one. This involves training on how to escape,
find shelter, following weather forecasts and warnings and being aware of the various signs
(such as earthquakes) which may later cause an eruption. Although the land close to a
volcano may be relatively flat and easy to build on, it’s important that populations cease
development so close to natural hazard prone areas.

Hazard Chosen:
Volcanoes

Expert Title and Brief Job Description:

Volcanologist: Volcanologists collect data on presumably active volcanoes and magma

pockets. They collect primary data and samples and study how volcanoes behave, what are
some correlating factors that contribute to eruptions, and how to predict when a volcano will
erupt.
 1) Field Data collecting techniques, tools, technology, and instrumentation particular
to their profession.

A volcanologist typically travels to an active volcano and collects rock, temperature, and gas
samples. These samples are examined and defined in a laboratory to understand the
concentration of gases such as gaseous sulfur which may indicate that a volcano is closer to
eruption.

2) Organizing, classifying, and categorizing the characteristics or effects of a natural

hazard. How is the hazard measured, categorized, etc.?

In the laboratories where the samples are studied, the hazard is measured not only by the
concentration of certain elements in the area but also measured before, during and after the
eruption using a scale called the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). This scale measures the
explosivity of historic eruptions using sampled data. The index allows volcanologists to
understand the volume of products, eruption height, and quality of the volcano using terms
allocated to the arithmetic index. These terms range from “gentle” to “mega-colossal.”

3) How does the expert monitor the environmental conditions in areas where her or
his natural hazard is likely to occur?

Volcanologists monitor the vertical changes using tools called tiltmeters or laser distance
finders to study the changing shape of a geologically active mountain. These tools indicate
where magma pockets may have opened and allows geographic scientists to estimate how
much pressure is left within the volcano.

4) What sort of early warning systems that keep people protected from natural
hazards does your expert utilize?

In addition to studying volcanoes, many volcanologists are tasked with helping the general
public understand the safety precautions to take in the case of an eruption in addition to
helping local and national governments create warning systems and protection plans to
safeguard the general public.

These early warning systems rely on detecting volcanic eruption signs such as heavy gas or
magma flow in addition to strong wavelengths within the ground in major municipalities and
cities. The information detected is then given to media outlets to convey evacuation orders if
needed in addition to cell phone broadcasts.
Global, National, and Local Responses:
Local:​ ​Present day Chile is fortunate enough that a great majority of the population has some
source of transmitting technology that can quickly alert citizens close to an active volcano of a
Volcanic Preparedness Strategy that will direct and inform civilians on the appropriate measures
to take in an unpredictable event.

National:​ In addition to broadcasting the eruptions across Chile, the national approach to
volcanic response includes providing evacuative and emergency support to large groups of the
public. Urban epicenters with large buildings are required to use resources which are not
susceptible to high temperatures and to build roofs which will not collapse under the heavy
weight of ash coverings (​“Chile's Calbuco Volcano Covers Town of Ensenada in Ash.,” 2015​).

Global:​ In 2008, the United States provided a Volcanic Disaster Assistance Program to Chaitén
eruption impacts. These included seismic monitoring, disaster relief, water filtration investments,
satellite images, and long-term assistance in instrument monitorization and installation (​Chaiten
- Volcano Disaster Assistance Program, n.d.​).

Natural Processes Changing The Physical Environment:

Santiago sits close to the Chilean subduction zone where the South America and Nazca
tectonic plates merge and fall beneath. These tectonic zones are known to create mountains, rift
valleys, and frequent small earthquakes. The periodic and gradual change in the dramatic
physical environment of Chile comes in part to millions of years of these sorts of geographic
processes.

Knowledge of when volcanologists can detect an upcoming volcanic eruption is vital to the
long-term safety of the quickly expanding Chilean population. With time comes technological
advancements and with money comes the ability to study volcanoes more in-depth for longer
and more frequent periods of time. For these reasons, Chilean preparation for large geographic
disasters is a must in the long-term, but these preparations depend heavily on the suffering
Chilean economy. Therefore, despite the natural processes which are severely impacting the
physical environment, the Chilean economy is not solely able to help study natural processes in
depth.
 Works Cited

Chaiten - Volcano Disaster Assistance Program.

“Chile's Calbuco Volcano Covers Town of Ensenada in Ash.” BBC News, BBC, 27 Apr.
2015.

Henning, B. (2015, April 23). Volcanoes and Human Populations. Retrieved May 4, 2020.

Layton, Julia. “Could Humans Force a Volcanic Eruption?” HowStuffWorks Science.

Nag, Oishimaya Sen. “Mountains In Chile.” WorldAtlas, WorldAtlas, 14 Oct. 2016.

Prasad, R. “Chile: Where Three Tectonic Plate Boundaries Meet.” The Hindu, The Hindu, 15
Dec. 2016.

Santiago Population 2020. (n.d.).

Sawe, B. E. (2018, September 6). What Are The Biggest Industries In Chile?

Trujillo, Jesus Leal, et al. “Global Santiago: Profiling the Metropolitan Region's International
Competitiveness and Connections.” Brookings, Brookings, 8 Aug. 2019.

“Volcanoes of Argentina/Chile (South) - Information / VolcanoDiscovery.” VolcanoDiscovery.

“Why Do Volcanoes Erupt? - CBBC Newsround.” BBC News, BBC.

Wicker, Crystal. Weather Wiz Kids Weather Information for Kids.

Workman, Daniel. “Chile's Top 10 Exports.” World's Top Exports, 16 Jan. 2020.