The Impact of Geographical Phenomena

Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the study of the movement of the Earth’s Crust and its effects.
(Volcanoes and Tsunamis)
Plates move in three different ways;
Convergent   (Towards each other)
Divergent   (Away from each other)
Transform  (Side by side)
The Caribbean Plate is a small plate found under the Caribbean Sea. It is between
the North American Plate and the South American Plate. As it moves in an
eastward direction, it creates a volcanic zone (Lesser Antilles).
On the West boundary of the plate, there is another volcanic boundary (when the
plate interacts with the Cocos and Nazca Plates).
Transform fault – responsible for a tearing action which produces earthquakes
and the Puerto Rico Trench (8,400 miles).
The East boundary is a subduction zone of 17 active volcanoes.

Volcanoes
A vent in the Earth’s Crust, when lava, ash, steam and hot gas escapes the vent is
created over time.
There are about 17 active volcanoes in the Caribbean, including:
 Montserrat - Soufriere Hills – The Capital City had to be evacuated.
 Martinique - Mount Pele
 St. Vincent - Mount Soufriere
 In Trinidad, there are several mud volcanoes – D. Radix, Devil’s Woodyard,
Piparo (a submarine volcanoe)
 Kick’em Jenny in the eastern Caribbean, 8km North of Grenada, it has
erupted 12 times.
Montserrat (1995) – Soufriere Hills
 Became active in July 1995
 Eruptions destroyed the Capital, Plymouth
 Between 1995 – 2000, 2/3 of the island’s population was forced to migrate to
England.
 The Impact of Geographical Phenomena

Monitoring – research teams including geologists and volcanologists, went to

study seismic activity, evacuation plans and education of population.

Tsunamis
High waves triggered by earthquakes of volcanic eruption. Rarely occurs in the
Caribbean. Dominican Republic 1943 & 1946.

Earthquakes
Caused by Plate Tectonics and affects islands on the east of the volcanic arc
(western Caribbean).
Earthquakes are vibrations caused by sudden movement of crustal rocks. These
rocks move because of stress. When the rocks can no longer manage the stress,
they snap in new positions.
Reducing the effect of Earthquakes:
1. Planning and proper location of buildings –
a. Earthquake resistant buildings have shear walls (steel bars in walls)
b. Cross bracing (reinforced walls)
c. Shock absorbers
d. Brace isolators
2. Education of Population
3. Emergency Procedures
4. Warning Systems
Caribbean Earthquakes:
May 2nd 1787 Puerto Rico (Leewards 2004, Magnitude 6.3, November 2007
(Martinique) Haiti January (Magnitude 7.0)
Haiti 2010 – Magnitude 7.0
 Resulted from a contractional deformation by the Leogane fault
 Epicentre occurred 25km West of Point-au-Prince
 20% Civil Servants dead, 200,000 dead
 1 Million Homeless
 Caused a tsunami
 4000 Schools damaged
 The Impact of Geographical Phenomena

 60% of all government buildings destroyed.

 Cost 16 Billion U.S.

Hurricanes
A large, rotating storm occurring between June to November. Winds range from
120km per hour to 240km. It can be as large as 600 miles.
Warm air, created by warm water rises and is replaced by cool air which also rises
when it gets warm they form cumulonimbus clouds which gets in rotation
through the Coriolis Force – spinning of the earth.
Measured on the Saffir-Sampson scale: 1- 5. Hurricanes have 3 parts; 1 st Half, Eye,
2nd Half.
Caribbean Hurricanes:
 Harvey (2017) – 82 dead
 Sandy – 117 dead
 Ivan (2004) - Grenada
 Maria & Irma (2017) –
Occurred 2 weeks from each other. Mostly affected Dominica and Puerto Rico.
Wind speeds 175 mph, 2875 dead, 91 billion dollars in damages. Dominica cost
100% of crops and 62% of houses destroyed. One year later, in 2018, some
persons in Puerto Rico still without electricity.

Flooding
Land is unable to absorb the continuous rainfall.
Areas most affected Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana because of the ITCZ (Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone)
Caused by manmade (littering & deforestation) and natural forces.
In 2014, 400 persons died in Haiti,
in 2005 in Guyana over 290,000 persons affected.
In 2017, insurance companies paid 47 million in flood damages. Annual cost to
government in Trinidad is 36 million dollars.
 The Impact of Geographical Phenomena

Soil Erosion
Removal of Top Soil by natural forces.
Erosion could be by wind, sheet or gully.
Causes deforestation (Haiti), cultivation of steep slopes (Tobago), over-grazing
(Guyana), mining and over-cropping (Jamaica).
Can be solved by terracing, crop rotation, strip-cropping, contour ploughing,
reforestation or creating windbreaks.

Drought
A reduced moisture in the soil, so it cannot support plant life - in Jamaica (1983)
79% less rain.
 The Impact of Geographical Phenomena

Coral Reefs
Coral are living communities. Coral polyps are tiny, marine creatures that secrete
a carbon shell which the live on. Corals grow in salty, shallow waters where
sunlight can penetrate freely, between 20 – 35oC.
Biodiversity
The coral reef is high in biodiversity. There are thousands of organisms that
benefit from corals (4,000 different species). Some organisms are found nowhere
else in the world. It is used to produce new medicine e.g. AZT, a drug to help HIV
patients.
Tourism
The reefs produce a wonder of colours, shapes and sizes and in addition, it
generates tourism. In Belize, tourism from reefs is the largest source of income. In
glass-bottom boats, tourists can snorkel or scuba dive or fish. Tourist can also be a
negative as hotels are built on the shorelines, and pollution from these hotels and
destroy the reefs.
Variety
There are thousands of fishes in the reef and fishermen depend on the reef for
their livelihood. Sea food provides a rich source of protein. However, killing of
fish, as the parrot fish and destroy the reef.
Threats
 Rise in sea level and temperatures lead to coral bleaching - It kills algae living
on the coral polyp.
 Global warming - sea levels rising causing not enough sunlight to penetrate the
corals, killing them.
 Building hotels and urban settlement also destroy the fragile coastal eco-
system. Industrial run-off also affects coral.
 Over-fishing – the parrot fish
 Harvesting of corals for building or jewellery.
Coral Reefs:
1. There are 3 types of coral reefs; fringing, atoll (found in Belize) and barrier
reefs (found in the Buccoo Reef)
2. Biodiversity: the reef provides habitats, shelter and food for thousands of
species of marine flora and fauna.
 The Impact of Geographical Phenomena

3. Coral polyps are the tiny marine organisms that secrete a calcium carbonate
shell or tube that remains after the polyp dies. They stick together to form the
massive structure of the reef.
4. Reefs are important to man because:
a. They break the force of the waves providing harbours and beaches.
b. They provide ideal environments for diving, photography.
5. Threats to the survival of coral reefs in the Caribbean:
a. Overfishing
b. Extracting corals, sand and limestone
c. Tourist traffic (walking on the corals, fuel from boats, dropping ancors)
d. Bleaching – global warming

Impact of Natural Disasters

Positive –
 Agriculture - Rich soils – ash from volcanoes
 Attractive landscape – Picton, St. Lucia
 Tourism - Sulphur Springs – St. Lucia
 Minerals – Gold (Dominican Republic), Bauxite (Jamaica), Gas (Trinidad and
Tobago)
 Geothermal Energy – Nevis
Negative –
 Destruction of buildings, trees and animals
 Disease – Flooding – Typhoid, cholera, etc.
 Psychological Impact
 Unemployment
 Mudslides (rain, hurricane, earthquakes, volcanoes)
 Pyroclastic clouds
 Pollution – water contamination, land pollution (Rubble – Haiti), poisonous
gas: affects respiratory system.
 Economic cost – Haiti: 18 billion, Maria: 19 billion
 Migration – displaced persons – Ivan: Grenada came to Trinidad and
Tobago, Maria: Dominica migrate to other islands, Hurricane Sandy (2012):
650,000 homeless.
 Loss of life – Haiti (2010): 200,000 killed, Maria (2017) 2975 dead.