Disaster Mitigation Using GIS and RS

UNIT-5 Disaster Mitigation
Application of science and technology for disaster management

Thousands of people are killed every year in natural disasters. Rescue teams and aid agencies often
rely on technology to conduct rescue missions and help those who have been affected. Over the years,
new technologies have been developed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of first
responders, further deepening the role played by technology in disaster aid relief.
Geographical Information System (GIS)

Geographic Information System is a computer based system comprising hardware, software, data,
people and methodology that combine to provide answers to queries of a geographical nature as and
when required. GIS may be considering as the evolution of maps and Global Positioning System is a
satellite based system that gives accurate location information anywhere on earth. It can be useful for
risk assessment in a particular area. GPS can be useful for emergency response to locate dangerous
points and to find shortest route for the responders using network analysis. It can be very useful for
search and rescue operations in short term emergency response when coupled with GPS and Remote
Sensing. GPS can be useful for live GPS tracking and GIS tools of emergency resources. It can be used
for finding evacuation routes and choosing emergency operation centres. It is used to organize
damage information and evaluation of sites for reconstruction and used to forecast and simulate
disaster occurrences with reference to hazards in particular areas.
Use of GIS and RS Technology in Disaster Management
Use of remote sensing and GIS in disaster management
India is vulnerable to natural and manmade disasters. All disasters are spatial in nature. GIS techniques
act as a decision support tool. Decision-making can possible by the analysis of different GIS layers.
Currently, socio-economic and geo-spatial data is useful for the management and planning of disasters
as well as tackling disastrous conditions. Various departments and agencies are stakeholders using GIS
in the disaster management process. GIS, RS & GPS is useful in disaster management applications &
for decision making. The evolution of computer technology and the availability of hardware is helpful
for the rapid expansion of GIS in both disaster research and practice.
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GIS is useful for hazard zone mapping and during emergency conditions mitigation of people can easily
possible using these maps. GIS and RS are much beneficial in mitigation strategies and preparedness
plans. Real-time geographic data can improve the allocation of resources for response. GIS
technologies are much useful in the modeling of disaster risks and human adaptations to hazards. It
also provides a decision support system in disaster management.
Disaster Management is done by following steps
1. Planning and Analysis
2. Situational Awareness
3. Data Management
4. Field Operations
Planning and Analysis
GIS is the most complete information system for modeling, analyzing spatial data, and displaying
community vulnerability. When we identify hazard locations with critical infrastructure. Processed GIS
Models can be useful for the determination of event impact and necessary mitigation requirements.
Preparedness is important when a disastrous event occurs. An analysis of risk and hazards is beneficial
in an emergency management program.
Situational Awareness
Disaster and emergency management in situational awareness is an essential thing. GIS techniques
play a vital role to provide locational information of the event, that is, where does the event happens
and what happening exactly in real-time. Also by linking people, processes spatial information
situational awareness established. GIS map interfaces important in handling emergency conditions.
Data Management
To the achievement of preparedness, a gathering of information and its advanced data storing is
important. In GIS, the integration of information from other sources is possible. GIS solution is
standards-based. Accurate cataloguing of GIS data provides useful information during emergency
conditions.
Field Operations
Field data is very important in GIS applications and Mobile GIS provides crucial information. Field
teams capture information and sent it back to the user. So ground information useful for recognizing
actual event conditions. Then new data can be sent to operation teams in the field (where the disaster
occurs), so they have the information possible for protecting lives and providing safety to people.
Whether it’s a response or recovery phase, Mobile GIS provides the right information.
Important objectives of GIS database generation are,

Disaster managers from different state, city, village level using GIS database for disaster planning.
 Preparedness and planning of disasters
 Forecasting and early warning of a disastrous event
 For relief management, rescue operations
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GIS database with various themes is helpful to disaster managers in decision making process when
catastrophic event occur.
GIS database include following information which is beneficial in disaster management.
1. Use of different satellite imageries (Remote Sensing data) ex. Quickbird, SPOT, IKONOS for GIS
data creation.
2. Preparation of base map of different themes using satellite imageries.
3. Thematic maps such as a hydro geomorphologic map, slope map, terrain map, and DEM
generation in GIS. It is used for disaster planning.
4. Macro and micro-level maps used for identifying vulnerability and threat condition
5. Identification of safe locations and zones for rehabilitation
6. Road and location maps used for finding alternate routes, shelters, and locations
7. Planning of evacuation and operation
8. Management of Rehabilitation and post-disaster reconstruction.
9. Suitable locations identifying scientifically for construction of houses and shelters
10. No construction areas identified and rehabilitation of existing people can be done.
11. Hospitals and medical facilities identification for injured people.
GIS solutions for different hazards
1. Earthquake
 GIS can be useful for monitoring historical sites of the earthquake also for Response & data
management for recovery.
 It’s also useful for Impact assessment.
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2. Flood
 Flood mapping from Macro level to Micro level.
 Flood Zone mapping.
 Detecting Potential Site of Flood in reference with rainfall
 Elevation Mapping
 Preparing Response map in response to managing after flood situations
RS(Remote Sensing)
Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about the Earth's surface without actually
being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and
processing, analyzing, and applying that information and involves the following seven elements: i)
Energy Source or Illumination ii) Radiation and the Atmosphere iii) Interaction with the Target iv)
Recording of Energy by the Sensor v) Transmission, Reception, and Processing vi) Interpretation and
Analysis vii) Application
Mitigation of natural disasters can be successful only when detailed knowledge is obtained about the
expected frequency, character, and magnitude of hazardous events in an area. Many types of
information that are needed in natural disaster management have an important spatial component.
Spatial data are data with a geographic component, such as maps, aerial photography, satellite
imagery, GPS data, rainfall data, borehole data etc. Many of these data will have a different projection
and co-ordinate system, and need to be brought to a common map-basis, in order to superimpose
them. We now have access to information gathering and organising technologies like remote sensing
and geographic information systems (GIS), which have proven their usefulness in disaster
management.
 Remote sensing data, such as satellite images and aerial photos allow us to map the
variabilities of terrain properties, such as vegetation, water, and geology, both in space and
time. Satellite images give a synoptic overview and provide very useful environmental
information, for a wide range of scales, from entire continents to details of a few metres.
Secondly, many types of disasters, such as floods, drought, cyclones, volcanic eruptions, etc.
will have certain precursors. The satellites can detect the early stages of these events as
anomalies in a time series. Images are available at regular short time intervals, and can be
used for the prediction of both rapid and slow disasters.
 Then, when a disaster occurs, the speed of information collection from air and space borne
platforms and the possibility of information dissemination with a matching swiftness make it
possible to monitor the occurrence of the disaster. Many disasters may affect large areas and
no other tool than remote sensing would provide a ma tching spatial coverage. Remote
sensing also allows monitoring the event during the time of occurrence while the forces are
in full swing. The vantage position of satellites makes it ideal for us to think of, plan for and
operationally monitor the event. GIS is used as a tool for the planning of evacuation routes,
for the design of centres for emergency operations, and for integration of satellite data with
other relevant data in the design of disaster warning systems
 Remote sensing can assist in damage assessment and aftermath monitoring, providing a
quantitative base for relief operations. In the disaster rehabilitation phase GIS is used to
organise the damage information and the post -disaster census information, and in the
evaluation of sites for reconstruction. Remote sensing is used to map the new situation and
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update the databases used for the reconstruction of an area, and can help to prevent that
such a disaster occurs again
Remote sensing data derived from satellites are excellent tools in the mapping of the spatial
distribution of disaster related data within a relatively short period of time. Many different satellite
based systems exist nowadays, with different characteristics related to their spatial-, temporal- and
spectral resolution. Remote sensing data should generally be linked or calibrated with other types of
data, derived from mapping, measurement networks or sampling points, to derive at parameters,
which are useful in the study of disasters. The linkage is done in two ways, either via visual
interpretation of the image or via classification.
Remote sensing has many uses in disaster management, from risk modelling and vulnerability analysis,
to early warning, to damage assessment.
Early warning
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Table 1: Ways remote sensing can help disaster management
EXAMPLE 1: FLOODING
Different types of flooding (e.g. river floods, flash floods, dam-break floods or coastal floods) have
different characteristics with respect to the time of occurrence, the magnitude, frequency, duration,
flow velocity and the areal extension. Many factors play a role in the occurrence of flooding, such as
the intensity and duration of rainfall, snowmelt, deforestation, land use practices, sedimentation in
riverbeds, and natural or man made obstructions. In the evaluation of flood hazard, the following
parameters should be taken into account: depth of water during flood, the duration of flood, the flow
velocity, the rate of rise and decline, and the frequency of occurrence. Satellite data has been
succesfully and operationally used in most phases of flood disaster management (CEOS, 1999). Multi
channel and multi sensor data sources from GOES and POES satellites are used for meteorological
evaluation, interpretation, validation, and assimilation into numerical weather prediction models to
assess hydrological and hydro geological risks (Barrett, 1996). Quantitative precipitation estimates
(QPE) and forecasts (QPF) use satellite data as one source of information to facilitate flood forecasts
in order to provide early warnings of flood hazard to communities. Earth observation satellites can be
used in the phase of disaster prevention, by mapping geomorphologic elements, historical events and
sequential inundation phases, including duration, depth of inundation, and direction of current. Earth
observation satellites are also used extensively in the phases of preparedness/warning and
response/monitoring. The use of optical sensors for flood mapping is seriously limited by the extensive
cloud cover that is mostly present during a flood event. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) from ERS and
RADARSAT have been proven very useful for mapping flood inundation areas, due to their bad weather
capability. In India, ERS -SAR has been used successfully in flood monitoring since 1993, and Radarsat
since 1998. A standard pro cedure is used in which speckle is removed with medium filtering
techniques, and a piece-wise linear stretching. Colour composites are generated using SAR data during
floods and pre-flood SAR images. For the disaster relief operations, the application of current satellite
systems is still limited, due to their poor spatial resolution and the problems with cloud covers.
Hopefully, the series of high resolution satellites will improve this. Remote sensing data for flood
management should always be integrated with other data in a GIS. Especially on the local scale a large
number of hydrological and hydraulic factors need to be integrated. One of the most important
aspects in which GIS can contribute is the generation of detailed topographic information using high
precision Digital Elevation Models, derived from geodetic surveys, aerial photography, SPOT, LiDAR
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(Light detection And Ranging) or SAR (Corr, 1983 ). These data are used in two and three dimensional
finite element models for the prediction of floods in river channels and floodplains.
Application of GPS in disaster management

GPS in full stands for, Global Positioning System which itself is a satellite navigation system made in a
way to provide time, information, accurate position, and velocity in any place around the world. In a
disaster, management GPS can be used in various places to show the exact expected events and
prepare the personnel on the countermeasures of such events.
1. Landslide Studying
Areas prone to landslide can use the GPS to monitor the landslides of little magnitude, eventual
changes in terms of distance, the difference in heights, and the coordinates of places under
observation.
2. Monitoring of landslides
GPS can be used to give the exact positions and coordinates of the areas suspected to be prone to
landslides.
3. Flood Management
GPS, in this case, can be used to determine how deep the waters are, it also helps in providing
information about the velocity and the rate of the waters that are the flow emplacement parameters.
Other Geomatic technologies used together with GPS include GIS and the RS all aid in locating
structures within the flooding areas.
4. Forest fire management
Locational information of places most likely affected by fires is acquired by the use of GPS. Besides, it
is also used to map the fire perimeters in conjunction with the GIS system. All structures damaged can
be easily traced by the use of GPS narrowing down to their total numbers. In conclusion, GPS is used
in the preparation of any forest fires and helping to reduce out in case there is one.
5. Earthquake
Having been used in some places that are susceptible to earthquakes, GPS has proved to provide
millimeter-level differential accuracy that monitors inter-seismic ground deformation and
displacement. GPS is used to provide measurements and data that help to understand the
earthquakes occurrences in areas prone to it.
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6. Tsunami Management
GPS is very important in locating the coordinates of the already damaged structures within the
tsunami-affected areas. It is also used to survey other Tsunami occurrences hence offering information
such as the tsunami runoff height as well as its flow depth among others. The provision of this
information helps in the management of other tsunamis likely to occur.
Figure: Tsunami Monitoring process
DISASTER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

An emergency communication system (ECS) is any system (typically computer-based) that is
organized for the primary purpose of supporting one-way and two-way communication
of emergency information between both individuals and groups of individuals. These systems are
commonly designed to convey information over multiple types of devices, from signal lights to text
messaging to live, streaming video, forming a unified communication system intended to optimize
communications during emergencies.
Disasters can be divided into Natural disasters and manmade disasters. Let us study the importance
of Communication during past disasters and the need to have a critical study to have effective and
timely communications in the event of disasters. Government agencies have to work along with
experts dealing disasters to save the lives of these disaster victims.
Communication Methods:
1. Social Media
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2. Mobile Applications (Apps)
a. Life360
Life360 is a free app that allows access to a specific user’s location and also contains a messaging
service feature. Automatic alerts can notify the user when a loved one arrives or checks-in at specified
destinations as well.
b. FEMA app
This application gives users access to preparedness tips such as survival advice, emergency checklists,
and meeting locations that can be saved to a mobile device. It gives the user access to weather alerts
from the National Weather Service tailored to a specific area. Users can retrieve information on
Disaster Recovery Centers, find locations of the nearest shelters and apply for assistance.
3. Cell phone
4. Landline telephone
5. Satellite phone (Satphones)
Satellite phones are on the pricier side of the emergency devices spectrum, but are beneficial
especially in remote territories where internet access is scarce at best. Some satellite phones have
coverage in all parts of the world due to Satphone’s reliance on orbiting satellites for their functioning
versus standard cell phone towers.
6.Two-Way radio
A two-way radio (also known as walkie-talkies) is a pair of handheld devices that can connect with
each other provided both are on the same frequency, within a certain distance. One user can talk
while the other listens and vice-versa. These are beneficial to have among emergency responders in
the field as a quick way to communicate with each other without clogging up cell phone lines.
7. Citizens Band Radio (CB Radio)
A CB radio is capable of short-distance communications on various frequencies. It is similar although

more complex than a regular two-way radio as it contains more functionality. Because it is open for
use for both business and personal use, it is a good source of general information.
8. Amateur Radio (HAM Radio)
This product is similar to a CB radio besides that it requires the user to be a licensed American Amateur
Radio operator; thus giving it a bit more authenticity to the information that is being regulated across
the air waves.
9. Police Scanner
This device allows the user to hear all emergency communication between officials in the police,
rescue, fire, respondent, military, and aircraft industries. Although the user cannot broadcast on it, it
does allow access to important information during an emergency situation.
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A ham radio operator can carry on experiments with various communication equipment and systems
going deeper into the science of electronics and at the same time provide great service to the people
in general worldwide by way of organizing on-the-air emergency medical traffic, establishing
emergency communication network during natural calamities like flood, cyclone, storm, earthquake
or any other disaster. Amateur Radio stations act as the ‘SECOND LINE’ of communication when
existing public or government communication links fail to act. life-saving facet of amateur radio was
demonstrated in India with valuable public service activities during a Post & Telegraph Strike in 1960,
when radio amateurs passed important messages for the public.
Uttarkhand landslides subsequent floods had given as bitter lessons to be learnt. There was no
communication to the affected area and the government agencies could reach the disaster site only
after many hours. The places were on hilly terrain and were extremely difficult for the relief teams to
reach those places. Many constructions are seen built in an unsafe manner without following the
development control rules of the local land building development authority.
We need to communicate to the local people in a periodical manner about the potential danger in
constructing the building on the hilly terrain without following proper technical details. Verbal
communication should be given not to build any illegal constructions and should immediately
demolish any unauthorized construction built without adopting these details.
In September 1979, during the flash floods at Morvi due to the Machhu dam burst in Gujarat, more
than a dozen amateur radio stations of western India activated emergency radio stations to pro-relief
agencies, government officials and victims of the disaster in the cities of Rajkot, Baroda, Ahmedabad
andMumbai.
Similar services were rendered by hams during the cyclonic storms in Saurashtra and a number of
times in Andhra Pradesh-a state prone to cyclonic storms following weather distrurbances over the
Bay of Bengal.
You might recollect the earthquakes in Uttar-Kashi and more recently at Latur in Maharashtra and
adjoining areas where ham radio operators provided the essential communication network for
coordinating and organising relief operations, arranging medicines, food and clothing for the affected
people. This specialized technical sports or hobby is very much a national asset like any other non-
governmental public service organisation (e.g. the Red Cross). Ham Radio has reestablished its
importance during the recent Orissa disaster (the devastating cyclone), when all the communication
facilities broke down. A ham radio station set up at the Orissa Chief Minister’s residence maintained
contact with the nation’s capital for nearly a month. Amateur radio stations also come into action
during the major sports event like the ASIAD, the HIMALAYAN CAR RALLY to assist the sports officials
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as well as the rally operators. The Himalayan Expedition teams are getting assistance from the ham
radio operators.
Natural disasters cannot be prevented and we should be prepared to face them with confidence. Pre
disaster awareness and education will prevent major losses due to disasters. We should establish
proper communication system to handle crisis situations due to disasters to prevent loss of lives and
property.
(i) The government has to install dedicated community radio in AM wavelength, to take care of
disaster education as well as guide them in the event of a disaster.
(ii) Private and government technical institutions can install amateur radio, namely Hams Radio to get
information about the possible disaster events to communicate to the concerned government agency
and also to alert the people.
(iii) The police department should develop mobile satellite communication system in their control
rooms to monitor disasters and to get connected to developed countries to have expert opinion.
(iv) Places of worships as common area for the gathering of people should be provided with effective
battery operated communication system to alert the people.
(v) Even families can device system to meet at a common place or to communicate to a particular
place to have happy reunion of the members of the family after the disaster.
(vi) In nutshell we should develop communication system at family level, at colony level, at the village
level, at district level and at national level to receive the messages and to alert the people in the event
of a disaster.
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EARLY WARNINGS
An Early Warning System (EWS) can be defined as a set of capacities needed to generate and
disseminate timely and meaningful warning information of the possible extreme events or disasters
(e.g. floods, drought, fire, earthquake and tsunamis) that threatens people‘s lives. The purpose of this
information is to enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened to prepare and act
appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm, loss or risk.
Elements of Early warning
Early warning is the integration of four main elements :
1. Risk Knowledge: Risk assessment provides essential information to set priorities for mitigation and
prevention strategies and designing early warning systems.
2. Monitoring and Predicting: Systems with monitoring and predicting capabilities provide timely
estimates of the potential risk faced by communities, economies and the environment.
3. Disseminating Information: Communication systems are needed for delivering warning messages
to the potentially affected locations to alert local and regional governmental agencies. The messages
need to be reliable, synthetic and simple to be understood by authorities and public.
4. Response: Coordination, good governance and appropriate action plans are a key point in effective
early warning. Likewise, public awareness and education are critical aspects of disaster mitigation.
The purpose of early warning systems is to detect, forecast, and when necessary, issue alerts related
to impending hazard events . In order to fulfill a risk reduction function, however, early warning needs
to be supported by information about the actual and potential risks that a hazard poses, as well as the
measures people can take to prepare for and mitigate its adverse impacts. Early warning information
needs to be communicated in people friendly manner in such a way that facilitates decision-making
and timely action of response organizations and vulnerable groups. Early warning information comes
from different meteorological offices (for weather related disasters- flood, cyclone etc.); Ministries of
Health (for example, disease outbreaks) and Agriculture (for example, crop forecasts); local and
indigenous sources; media sources and increasingly from Internet early warning services.
Need of Early Warning System
Early Warning for disaster reduction is a legitimate matter of public policy at the highest national levels
for two main reasons:
 The first one, clearly, is public safety, and the protection of human lives.
 The second is the protection of the nation‘s resource base and productive assets (infrastructure and
private property or investments) to ensure long term development and economic growth. Conversely,
by reducing the impact of disasters, a government avoids the financial –and political- burden of
massive rehabilitation costs.
Investing in early warning and other measures of disaster reduction is neither simple nor inexpensive,
but the benefits of doing so, and the costs of failing to, are considerable. For instance:
- In terms of reducing economic losses, early warning and disaster preparedness ‘pay for themselves‘
many times over the life of the warning system.
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- The reduction of environmental losses can, if properly managed and publicized, have both long-term
benefits to the economy, and short-term benefits for the administration in-charge.
- A country can strengthen its stature and influence in international relations by a good handling of
‘externalities‘, or indirect effects, on neighboring nations.
Communication of early warning information
An effective early warning system needs an effective communication system. Early warning
communication systems are made of two main components:
- communication infrastructure hardware that must be reliable and robust, especially during the
natural disasters; and
- appropriate and effective interactions among the main actors of the early warning process such as
the scientific community, stakeholders, decision makers, the public, and the media.
Many communication tools are currently available for warning dissemination such as Short Message
Service (SMS) (cellular phone text messaging), email, radio, TV, and web service. Information and
communication technology (ICT) is a key element in early warning. ICT plays an important role in
disaster communication and dissemination of information to organizations in charge of responding to
warnings and to the public during and after a disaster. Redundancy of communication systems is
essential for disaster management, while emergency power supplies and back-up systems are critical
in order to avoid the collapse of communication systems after disasters occur.
Community Based Early Warning System
Community-Based Early Warning Systems (CBEWS) are anchored in the communities and managed by
the communities. It is based on a "people-centered" approach that empowers individuals and
communities threatened by hazards to act in sufficient time and in an appropriate manner in a bid to
reduce the possibility of personal injury, loss of life, damage to property, environment and loss of
livelihood. It provides communities, practitioners and organizations involved in disaster risk
management with advance information of risks that can be readily translated into prevention,
preparedness and response actions. CBEWS helps to reduce economic losses by allowing people to
better protect their assets and livelihood.
Early warning systems and policy
For early warning systems to be effective, it is essential that they be integrated into policies for disaster
mitigation. Good governance priorities include protecting the public from disasters through the
implementation of disaster risk reduction policies.
The information provided by early warning systems enables authorities and institutions at various
levels to immediately and effectively respond to a disaster. It is crucial that local government, local
institutions, and communities be involved in the entire policy making process, so they are fully aware
and prepared to respond with short and long-term action plans.
Key elements for successful implementation of early warning:
 Understand the most likely threats, likelihood of disasters and their potential consequences
 Establish proper priorities
 Developing institutional networks with clear responsibilities
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 Developing effective communication strategies
 Securing resources
Early Warning Dissemination
Warning services lie at the core of an early warning system. There must be a sound scientific basis to
the system and reliable technology for:
 monitoring and detecting hazards in real-time or near-real-time;
 a forecasting and warning system that operates 24 hours a day, 365 days/year which is
monitored and staffed by qualified people.
Common Alerting Protocol (CAP) is an international standard format for emergency alerting and
public warning. It is designed for “all hazards”, related to weather events, earthquakes, tsunamis,
volcanoes, public health, power outages, and many other emergencies. CAP is also designed for “all-
media”, including communications media ranging from sirens to cell phones, faxes, radio, television,
and various digital communication networks based on the Internet.
A flood early warning message is disseminated through different channels: Radio, flag, loudspeaker,
flashing light and mobile phone.
The use of a combination of different audio and visual mechanisms to disseminate early warning
messages is the best way to ensure everyone is reached in time.
To ensure an early warning systems is accessible:
 Use audio signals such as bells, alarms, sirens, drums, radio/TV or loudspeaker
announcements to reach people who are blind or have low vision.
 Provide visual early warning with flags or lights flashing together with alarms and sirens and
text messages on TV or by mobile phone to reach people who are deaf or hard of hearing.
Combine text with pictures, gestures and the use of body language where necessary;
 Combine oral information with pictures and sign language (or other forms of gestures or body
language, as not all deaf persons know sign language). Whenever possible identify the
preferred communication way of deaf and hard of hearing persons.
 Present printed materials (posters, leaflets) with short messages in easy-to-read format.
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 Use illustrations that include women, men, girls and boys with different disabilities, older men
and women and always positive images.
 Make sure early warning systems are installed, functioning and available in residential
institutions or hospitals where persons with disabilities, children and older persons reside.
 Involve community-based services which support persons with disabilities, older persons,
children and other disproportionately at-risk groups in early warning systems.
Generally, including men, women, boys and girls with different types of disabilities to develop and test
early warning systems. Analyse barriers in existing early warning systems and eliminate or mitigate
them.
Early warning dissemination protocol helps to reduce vulnerability and mortality for thunderstorm
and lighting. To comply the protocol, proper institutionalisation, notification of IRS system, assigning
accountability and co-opting of other voluntary organisations and NGOs and community is required.
The protocol also draws early warning/alerts communication and dissemination strategy along with
public awareness, community outreach and Information Education Communication (IEC) at various
levels, so that timely information reaches officials as well as the general public to reduce the impact
of extreme weather incidents. Pre-season consultations should be held at the State, District and local
level every year before the commencement of the season. Before onset of lightning, aggressive
community based communications and interventions should be in place. During the season, “Do’s-and
Don’ts” should be available in local languages and disseminated through various media channels.
Early Warning and Response
Forecasting of Disasters
Forecasting about climate change is pre requisite for taking preparedness measure to respond to the
disaster is the most important element of disaster management. The Ministry of Environment & Forest
(MoEF), Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Ministry of Science & Technology (MST), Ministry of
Agriculture (MoA), Ministry of Water Resources (MWR), Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD), Ministry of Non-conventional Energy (MNES), Defence Research & Development
Organization (DRDO), Ministry of Defence (MoD), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW),
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) promote and
undertake climate and climate change related research in the country.
Government of India has designated the offices as given below as the nodal agencies for early
warning of different natural hazards:
Disaster wise nodal agencies for Forecast
Cyclone Indian Meteorological Department

Tsunami Indian National Centre for Oceanic Information Services
Floods Central Water Commission
Landslides Geological Survey of India
Avalanches Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment
Heat & Cold Waves Indian Meteorological Department
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Forecast of Rainfall
India receives 80 per cent of its annual rainfall during the southwest monsoon season of June to
September. Rainfall over the country during this season shows a wide range of spatial variation due
to orographic influences and preferential occurrence of rain-bearing systems in certain regions. India
has a very extensive rain gauge network and rainfall monitoring over the country.
The real-time monitoring and statistical analysis of district wise daily rainfall is one of the important
functions of the IMD at New Delhi. Based on the real time daily rainfall data, weekly district wise, sub-
division wise and state wise rainfall distribution summaries are prepared regularly by the Rainfall
Monitoring Unit. Maps showing weekly and cumulative rainfall figures in 36 meteorological
subdivisions of the country are prepared. This information is very important to many user agencies,
particularly for agricultural planning.
Forecasting and Warning of Cyclones
IMD is the nodal agency in the country to monitor and predict the cyclonic disturbances and issue the
warning and advisory bulletins. IMD,New Delhi also acts as a Regional Specialized Meteorological
Centre (RSMC) for providing tropical cyclone advisories to the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO)/ Economic and Social Cooperation for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) Panel members countries
viz Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pakistan and Oman. IMD, New Delhi also
works as a Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre (TCAC) for international civil aviation as per the
requirement of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
The cyclone warning is issued to State Government officials in four stages: i.e.
I. pre-cyclone watch issued 72 hours in advance,
II. cyclone alert issued at least 48 hours in advance,
III. cyclone warning issued at least 24 hours in advance, and
IV. as post landfall outlook issued at least 12 hours in advance of expected time of landfall.
V. IMD has prepared roadmap for cyclone genesis and further intensification, monitoring and
prediction.
Flood Forecasting
The flood forecasting and warning system is used for alerting the likely damage centre well in advance
of the actual arrival of floods, to enable the people to move and also to remove the moveable property
to safer places or to raised platforms specially constructed for the purpose
A beginning in scientific flood forecasting was made in November, 1958 by CWC (then known as
Central Water & Power Commission) when a Flood Forecasting Centre was set up at its Headquarters,
at Delhi for giving timely Forecasts and Warnings of the incoming floods to the villages located in the
river areas around the National Capital, Delhi. The network has been expanding and by now the Flood
Forecasting Network of the CWC covers the entire major flood prone inters State basins in the country.
The flood forecasting involves the following four main activities:

(i) Observation and collection of hydrological and hydro meteorological data,
(ii) Transmission of Data to forecasting centres,
(iii) Analysis of data and formulation of forecast, and
(iv) Dissemination of forecast.
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Landslide Hazard Warning
Geological Survey of India (GSI), established in 1851 is a government organization under the Union
Ministry of Mines with the Headquarter at New Delhi for conducting geological surveys and studies. It
is one of the oldest of such organizations in the world.
The GSI was designated as nodal agency for coordinating geological studies, landslides hazard
zonation, monitoring landslides, avalanches, studying the factors
responsible and suggesting precautionary and preventive measure on 29th January, 2004. The input
from GSI as nodal agency help the Ministries and Departments concerned in the Central Government
as well as the State Government for taking appropriate preventive and mitigation measures for
reducing landslide hazard and responding in the mountainous areas and hill in the Himalayan and sub-
Himalayan regions. GSI is the nodal agency responsible for early warning relating to the landslides in
the country.
Land Use Planning and Development Regulations

There is a fundamental need in disaster risk management to recognise the relationships between
population growth, the physical demands of human settlement, short- and longer-term economic
trade-offs and the most appropriate use of available land. While the application of informed and
consistent planning practices is crucial to minimise the potential loss of physical assets or
environmental capital, a greater principle lies in treating the landscape itself as a valued resource to
manage risk. Failure to act on this basis is to invite disaster.
Both the opportunities and the difficulties of employing land use and planning practices for disaster
risk reduction are reviewed in the following section:
• The importance and difficulty of land use planning

• A delicate balance and measured benefits
• Principles regarding land use management and urban planning
• Case example
The importance and difficulty of land use planning
Land use planning that is carefully designed and rigorously implemented is the most useful approach
to managing urban or population growth and minimising associated risks. It is also one of the most
challenging to implement because of the often-conflicting values about land held by different
segments of the population.
In many societies, cultural, social or economic attributes associated with land can form the basis of
some of the most contentious issues among people, particularly at local levels. Reference has already
been made in the preface to the economic attractions which flood plains or volcanic slopes hold for
inhabitants. In other countries wetlands are drained to become industrial parks or housing estates.
The determination and wide acceptance of the most suited use of land, whether it is privately or
publicly held, is demanding enough. It becomes even more daunting if there are variously held views
about the role that land can, or should play in terms of reducing collective exposure to risk. Questions
invariably revolve around whose land, whose risk and who is to benefit. Too often, the desire for short-
term gains is prone to override anticipated benefits that stretch further into the future.
For these reasons, land use management and the related aspects of regional or territorial planning,
have to be considered as natural extensions of conducting hazard assessments and risk mapping. They
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essentially must take account of the spatial parameters of physical vulnerability considered in
accordance with the broader social and economic requirements of a society. Such forms of planning
used to be considered as a largely technical exercise, but planners and local political authorities are
increasingly realising that members of affected communities have to be consulted and involved
throughout the process.
Account also needs to be taken of neighbouring or adjacent communities which are not always of the
same country, kinship or socioeconomic standing. Actions taken in their own interest by one group of
people living along a river can easily have a significant bearing on diminishing the fortunes or
increasing the risks of others who live downstream or on the opposite shore.
Government authorities need to play an essential role in the judicious assessment of such relative
merits, but there is equally a requirement for popular involvement in determining the basic
parameters of what should constitute acceptable levels of risk. The informed participation of the
public is also essential in the development of municipal or territorial standards and the acceptance of
regulatory practices if otherwise seemingly intractable social, environmental and economic challenges
are to be addressed successfully.
A failure on the part of government to implement effective land use and planning practices is to invite
disaster. As one commentator has observed, while long a function of local governments, land use
planning regrettably has often been done with little reference to exposure to risk. Consequently,
inadequate, ill-informed or non-existent land use planning can contribute to increasing the
vulnerability of communities exposed to hazards. Landslides that destroyed a housing development in
the city of Santa Tecla, El Salvador following the January 2001 earthquake represent one such
example. Most likely, there are hundreds more examples in all countries.
balance and measured benefits
The conscious recognition of the role of land use management and planning practices as viable means
to reduce disaster risks are part of larger risk scenarios, best considered in local community contexts.
Regulatory approaches which emphasise land use planning to reduce future flood disasters have
proved effective in some countries with advanced economies, but evaluations reveal that they too are
being weakened in numerous ways. This in turn is leading to calls for refinements in regulatory
strategies. Unfortunately, regulatory approaches are much less applicable to developing countries
with the burgeoning of megacities, inadequate housing and basic services for large percentages of the
population, a rising tide of migrants and unmanaged, informal economies. Unfortunately, it is in such
places where the need for planning is greatest.
Principles regarding land use management and urban planning for risk reduction
The following principles apply not only to land use management plans, but in particular in the context
of risk reduction strategies.
1. Land use management plans form a shared basis for sustainable development and risk reduction
strategies.
• As the physical and spatial projection of the social, economic, environmental and cultural policies of
a country, land use management includes various planning tools and management mechanisms. They
are necessary for a productive but sustainable use of the national territory and provide for the
successful regulation of the economic life of a country.
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2. Land use management operates at different geographical scales which require different ranges of
management tools and operational mechanisms.
• At the national level, sectoral economic policies are tied into the administrative framework of
provincial or territorial jurisdictions.
• At the metropolitan level, strategic plans are formulated for sustainable urban development.
• At the municipal level, municipal ordinances and regulatory plans define local land use management
practices.
• At the local or community level, management plans encourage participatory management for
community works and urban projects.
3. Land use management involves legal, technical, and social dimensions.
• The legal and regulatory dimension includes laws, decrees, ordinances and other regulations
adopted by national and local governments.
• The technical and instrumental dimension includes planning tools and instruments that regulate uses
of land and strive for the best balance between private interests and the public good.
• The social and institutional dimension includes those mechanisms which include citizen participation
in land use management practices, such as consultations, public hearings, open municipal sessions
and plebiscites.
4. Land use management encompasses integral services and individual sectoral interests.
• Integral or dominant issues revolve around the provision of essential services or related
infrastructure, such as water, energy, transportation, communications - and as now recognised, risk
management.
• Individual sectoral issues include housing, health, education, agriculture, natural resources, the
economy and trade.
5. The practice of land use management proceeds through three stages.
• Strategic planning
• Administration and fiscal control
• Follow-up and monitoring
6. Successful land use management plans will confront challenges.
• Tensions or vested interests, that can occur between government and private interests, national and
local interests, or instruments of the state and the population.
• Dynamic factors, such as population growth, migration, conflicts over the use, demand for, or supply
of services.
• Factors specific to risk management, including the changing extent or nature of vulnerability, major
fluctuations in land values, urban services and environmental services.
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7. Successful strategic land use management requires essential resources.
• A clear legal and regulatory framework defines the competencies of the various stakeholders and
the “rules of the game”, including the role of each actor in the various stages of planning.
• Access to information on regulatory plans, land and property markets, public and private investment
projects is crucial for ensuring effective citizen participation in decision-making.
• A decentralised fiscal policy strengthens the capacity of local governments to raise revenue and to
consolidate their finances in the interest of effective local administration.
Case: India
In keeping with the objectives with the Yokohama Strategy, a Vulnerability Atlas of India was
developed and ready in 1997. It has proved to be an innovative tool for assessing district-wide
vulnerability and risk levels of existing building stock. The atlas has helped state governments and local
authorities to strengthen regulatory frameworks by amending the building by-laws, regulations,
masterplans and land-use planning regulations for promoting disaster resistant design and planning
processes. The documents and methodologies for vulnerability and risk assessment, along with
technical guidelines for disaster resistant constructions, have shown high potential for transfer,
adaptation and replication. After the Gujarat earthquake in 2001 the relevance of the Atlas have been
highlighted and additional assessments in a more detailed scale is now being developed. Indian pro-
grammes have met with success in modifying land use by seeking to address community requirements
so as to gain their commitment in ushering land use changes. A national policy backed by local effort
is crucial to the success of these programmes.
Indian state governments are responsible for development plans, in particular those that contribute
to natural hazards management, agriculture and land management. The first major initiative for
preventing flood hazards in the Gangetic plains was in 1960-61 in the form of a soil conservation
scheme in the catchment areas of the River Valley Projects as recommended by the National Flood
Commission. The National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas also aimed at promoting
appropriate land use and the development of farming systems on watershed basis. A National Land
Use Policy Outline adopted by the government of India presents a cohesive and coordinated strategy
of schemes by various government agencies and others to ensure the optimal use of land. In this
connection, a National Land Use and Conservation Board and State Land Use Boards have been
established.
Indian experience has shown that measures to prevent disasters like drought and floods succeed to
the extent that they focus on resource regeneration of the community living on the lands concerned.
The approach has to be holistic and needs to address both spatial and temporal dimensions of land
use. Sustainability and effectiveness of interventions depend on engendering appropriate land usage,
for which peoples’ participation in the planning and decision-making is an obvious requirement.
Disaster Safe Designs and Constructions

A large portion of the wealth of any nation is invested in its built-up environment viz,, housing,
infrastructure, industrial and commercial facilities. The quality of this built-up environment, expressed
in terms of durability, safety and functionality, is a determining factor for the quality of life and
economic development of the society, and the competitiveness of its industry and services. Extensive
loss of this wealth is caused by natural disasters that strike periodically. A natural disaster is an event
of nature that causes sudden destruction, damaging the economy and social structure on a massive
scale. The clarity results in a huge financial burden in terms of relief and rescue operations. All-round
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decline in production, unemployment, indebtedness as well as increased cost of goods and services
are the other debilitating results of natural disasters.
On December 23, 1972, a series of earthquakes shook the Central American nation of Nicaragua. The
largest earthquake registered 6.2 on the Richter scale. The earthquake’s epicenter was located
precisely at the capital city of Managua. The earthquake resulted in the destruction of the heavily
populated central zone and damage to a total area of about 27 square kilometers (10 square miles).
Subsequent fires blazed throughout the city, compounding the damages. In the wake of the disaster,
at least 8,000 of Managua’s total population of 430,000 had died, 20,000 were injured, over 260,000
had fled the city, 50 percent of the employed were jobless, and 70 percent were left temporarily
homeless. At least 10 percent of the nation’s industrial capacity, 50 percent of commercial property,
and 70 percent of government facilities were rendered inoperative. Overall, the damage estimated in
US dollars was $845 million.
GROUND MOVEMENTS
The ground movements caused by earthquakes can have several types of damaging effects. Some of
the major effects are:
1. Ground shaking, i.e. back-and-forth motion of the ground, caused by the passing vibratory waves
through the ground.
2. Soil failures, such as liquefaction and landslides, caused by shaking;
3. Surface fault ruptures, such as cracks, vertical shifts, etc.
4. Tidal waves (tsunamis), i.e. large waves on the surface of bodies of water that can cause major
damage to shoreline areas.
EFFECT ON BUILDINGS
As the vibrations and waves continue to move through the earth, buildings on the earth’s surface are
set in motion. Each building responds differently, depending on its construction. When the waves
strike, the earth begins to move backward and forward along the same line. The lower part of a
building on the earth’s surface immediately moves with the earth. The upper portion, however,
initially remains at rest; thus the building is stretched out of shape. Gradually the upper portion tries
to catch up with the bottom, but as it does so, the earth moves in the other direction, causing a
“whiplash” effect. The vibration can cause structural failure in the building itself, or to an adjacent
building having different response characteristics. Taller buildings also tend to shake longer than short
buildings, which can make them relatively more susceptible to damage.
PROTECTION MEASURES
The primary objective of earthquake resistant design is to prevent collapse during earthquakes thus
minimising the risk of death or injury to people in or around the buildings. There are certain features
which if taken into consideration at the stage of architectural planning and structural design of
buildings, their performance during earthquakes will be appreciably improved. Some of these are
stated below :
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Building configuration
★ The building should have a simple rectangular plan.
★ Long walls should be supported by Reinforced Concrete columns.
★ Large buildings having plans with shapes like T, L, U and X should preferably be separated into
rectangular blocks by providing gaps in between.
Foundation
Buildings which are structurally strong to withstand earthquakes sometimes fail due to inadequate
foundation design. Tilting, cracking and failure of structure may result from soil liquefaction. Soil
liquefaction refers to transformation of soil from a solid state to a liquid state as a consequence of
increased pressure.
Control on openings in walls
Door and window openings in walls should preferably be small and more centrally located. Too many
or large openings will make the wall vulnerable to collapse during earthquakes. The location of
openings should not be too close to the edge of the wall.
Reinforced concrete bands in masonry buildings
For integrating the walls of an enclosure to perform together like a rigid box reinforced concrete bands
are provided which run continuously on all external and internal walls including fixed partition walls.
One or more of the following bands may be necessary in a building. Plinth band, lintel band, roof band,
and gable band are names used for the band depending on the level of the building where the band
is provided.
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Vertical reinforcement
Vertical reinforcement should be provided at corners and junction of walls. It shall be passing through
the lintel bands and floor slabs or floor level bands in all storeys.Earthquake doesn’t kill people. It is
the badly designed buildings that kill the people. So to prevent an earthquake hazard frombecoming
a disaster our buildings should be properly designed incorporating the earthquake resistant design
features into it.
Floods
Bangladesh is a riverine country where recurrent flooding is both common and necessary. Every
yearlarge areas are submerged during the monsoon season and fertilized by deposits of fresh alluvium,
i.e., the soil deposited by moving water. However, if the waters remain stagnant for too long, these
beneficial floods become major disasters. Such was the case in the summer and fall of 1974 when
flooding extended over nearly one-half of the country and stagnated for more than a month. At least
1,200 people died in the floods and another 27,500 died from subsequent disease and starvation.
Approximately 425,000 houses were destroyed or severely damaged. A total of 36 million people
suffered severe hardship and losses due to the disaster.
Water is a source for all life forms. Without water no life is sustainable. How tragic it is, when water
in the form of floods takes away thousand of human and cattle lives. More than one million huts and
poor houses are lost every year in floods in India. Can we prevent this loss?
MOST VULNERABLE HOMES
1. Buildings, which are constructed with earth-based materials or using stone and brick in mud mortar
are highly vulnerable to damage in heavy rains and/or floods.
2. The huts made from biomass materials like bamboo, leaves, thatch or light construction using metal
sheets are easily destroyed in floods and washed away.
3. The occupation of areas within the flood plain of rivers has increased the vulnerability, especially in
areas of high population concentration. Flood plains attract poor people because of inexpensive land
values.
EFFECT ON BUILDINGS
The damage to buildings due to floods are as follows:
1) Houses are washed away due to the impact of the water under high stream velocity. The houses
are commonly destroyed or dislocated so severely that their reconstruction is not feasible.
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2) Houses constructed out of light weight materials like wood float when they are not anchored
properly.
3) Damage caused by inundation of house. The house may remain intact on its foundation, but damage
to materials may be severe. Repair is often feasible but may require special procedures to dry out
properly.
4) Undercutting of houses. The velocity of the water may scour and erode the foundation of the house
or the earth under the foundation. This may result in the collapse of the house or require substantial
repair.
5) Damage caused by debris. Massive floating objects like trees, electric poles, etc. may damage the
standing houses.
PROTECTION MEASURES FROM DAMAGE TO BUILDINGS
The most effective measures for prevention against inundation are:
1. to avoid residing on river banks and slopes on river sides and the sides of gorges.
2. to build at least 250 meters away from the sea coast/river banks
3. to build proper drainage system in all flood prone areas, so that the water can be drained off quickly
to prevent accumulation.
4. to construct the building with a plinth level higher than the known high flood level.
5. to construct the whole village or settlement on a raised platform higher than the high flood level.
6. to construct buildings on stilts or columns with wall-free space at ground level permitting free flow
of water (inundation or flowing), provided that columns are circular and strong. In dry weather
condition the ground area could be fenced and used for cattle, sheep poultry farming, or storage etc.
Not only do we contribute to the causes of floods, but reckless building in vulnerable areas, poor
watershed management, and failure to control the flooding also help create the disaster condition.
Therefore there is an urgent need to mitigate the flood hazard by proper habitat management,
watershed management and incorporating flood resistant features in our buildings.
STRUTURAL AND NON-STRUCTURAL MITIGATION OF DISASTERS
The structural mitigation is defined as a risk reduction method performed through the construction or
altering of physical environment by using engineered solutions. Non-structural mitigation is defined
as a measure that reduces risk through the modification of human behaviour or natural processes
without requiring the application of engineered solutions.
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Structural Mitigation
Structural mitigation measures are those that involve or dictate a necessity for some kind of
construction, engineering, or other mechanical changes or improvements aimed at reducing hazard
risk likelihood or consequence. They often are considered at “man controlling nature” when applied
to natural disasters. Structural measures are generally expensive and include a full range of regulation,
compliance, enforcement, inspection, maintenance, and renewal issues. Though, each hazard a
unique set of structural mitigation measures that may be applied to its risk, these measures can be
grouped across some general categories.
The general structural mitigation groups to be described are:
 Resistance construction
 Building codes and regulatory measures
 Relocation
 Structural modification
 Construction of community shelters
 Construction of barrier, deflection, or retention systems
 Detection systems
 Physical modification
 Treatment systems
 Redundancy in life safety infrastructure
Where cultures have adapted to living with a hazard, construction styles may incorporate hazard
resistant design. This is often seen in areas with annual flooding, where houses are built on stilts. An
example of a culturally adjusted hazard resistant construction style is the houses built by the Banni in
India, which resist the shaking induced by earthquakes.
Building Codes and Resistance measures
One way that governments can ensure members of the population apply hazard-resistant construction
is by creating building codes to guide construction and passing legislation that requires those codes
be followed.
Regulatory structures are one of the most widely adopted structural mitigation measures, used in
almost every country of the world in some form. With sufficient knowledge about the hazards likely
to affect a region or a country, engineers can develop building codes that guide builders to ensure that
their designs are able to resist the forces of the relevant hazards. Though simple in theory, inherent
problems with codes and regulations can drastically reduce the effectiveness.
When properly applied building codes offer a great deal of protection from a wide range of hazards.
They are primary reason for a drastic drop in the number of earthquake deaths in the developing
world during the last century. They are so effective because they completely integrate protective
measures into the structure from the design phase onward, rather than applying the measures after
construction.
Relocation
Occasionally, the most sensible way to protect a structure or a people from a hazard is to relocate it
or them away from the hazard. Homes and other structures may be disassembling or transported
intact.
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Flooding is the most common reason that structures are relocated. Though destroying the original
structure and rebuilding it elsewhere is often less expensive and technically more feasible, in certain
circumstances such actions are either impossible or undesirable.
In some instances where the hazard area is especially great, moving entire communities may be
necessary. One such example is the town of Valdez, Alaska, which was relocated in 1967, after hazard
assessments showed that the entire town was built upon unstable soil.
Structural Modification
Scientific progress and ongoing research continually provide new information about hazards. This new
information can reveal that structures in identified risk zones are not designed to resist the forces of
the likely hazard. There are three treatment options for these structures. First is to do nothing. Second
the structure may be demolished and rebuilt to accommodate the new hazard information. Third,
often the most appropriate action is to modify the structure such that it resists the anticipated
external forces. This action is often referred to as retrofitting.
How the retrofit effects the structure depends on the hazard risk that is being dealt with. Some
Examples of hazards and their retrofits are:
 Cyclonic Storms: Wind resistant shingles; shutters; waterproofing; stronger from connections
and joints; structural elevation.
 Earthquakes: Sheer Walls; removal of cripple walls; foundation anchor bolts; frame anchor
connections; floor framing; chimney reinforcement; base isolation system etc.
 Wildfire: Replacement of external materials including decks, gutters, downspouts, panelling
doors, window frames and roof shingles, with those that are fire resistant.
 Hail: Increase roof slope; strengthen roof materials; strengthen load carrying capacity of flat
and shallow angle roofs.
Construction of Community Shelters
The lives of community residents can be protected from a disaster's consequences though the
construction of shelters designed to withstand a certain type or range of hazard consequences.
Shelters are usually constructed when it is either unlikely or unrealistic for all or a majority of
community members to be able to protect themselves from the hazard in their homes or elsewhere.
Two systems must be in place in order for shelter to work. First, there must be an effective early
warning system that would enable residents to have enough time to travel to the shelter before the
hazard event.
Second, there must be a public education campaign that both raises awareness of the existence of the
shelter and teaches residents how to recognize when travel to the shelter. During the Cold War, many
countries-built shelters or designed qualified buildings to protect citizens form the dangerous fallout
effects of a nuclear attack. For this reason, it is common for community development projects to
design community buildings like schools that double as a shelter in the event of a disaster.
Construction of Barrier, Deflection, or Retention Systems
The forces that many hazards exert upon man and the built environment can be controlled through
specially engineered structures. These structures fall under three main categories: barriers, deflection
system, and retention systems.
Barriers are designed to stop a physical force dead and its tracks .Their job is to absorb the impact of
whatever force is being exerted. They are, in other words, blocking devices. Barrier walls can be made
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of natural materials, such as trees, bushes, or ever existing soil or they can be constructed of foreign
materials, such as stone, concrete, wood, or metal. Depending upon the hazard type, barriers may be
built on just on side of a structure, or may completely surround it. Examples of barriers and the hazards
they are designed to protect against include:
 Seawalls (cyclonic storm surges, tsunamis, high waves rough seas, and coastal erosion)
 Floodwalls (Floods, flash floods)
 Natural or synthetic wind and particle movement barriers (strong seasonal winds, sand drift,
dune movement, beach erosion, snow drift)
 Defensible spaces (wildfires, forest fires)
 Mass movement protection walls (landslides, mudslides, rockslides, avalanches).
 Security fences, checkpoints (terrorism, civil disturbances)
Deflection systems are designed to divert the physical forces of a hazard, allowing it to change course
so that a structure situated in its original path escapes harm. Like barriers, deflection systems may be
constructed from a full range of materials, both natural and manmade. Examples of deflection systems
and the hazards they are designed to protect against include:
Avalanche bridge (snow avalanches)
Chutes (landslides, mudflows, lahars, rockslides)
Lava flow channels (volcanic lava)
Diversion trenches, Channels, canals, and spillway (floods)
Retention systems are designed to contain a hazard, thereby preventing its destructive forces from
ever being released. These structures generally seek to increase the threshold to which hazards are
physically maintained. Examples include:
Dams (drought, floods)
Levees and Flood walls (Floods)
Slit dams (sedimentation, floods)
Landslide walls (masonry, concrete, rock cage, crib walls, bin walls, and buttress walls)
Slope stabilization covers (concrete, netting, wire mesh, vegetation (landslides, mudflows, and
rockfalls).
Detection systems are designed to recognize a hazard that might not otherwise be perceptible to
humans. They have applications for natural, technological, and international hazards. As more funding
is dedicated to research and development of detection systems, their ability to prevent disasters or
warn of hazard consequences before disaster strikes increase. With natural disasters, detection
systems are primarily used to save lives. With technological and international hazards, however, it
may be possible to prevent an attack, explosion, fire, accident, or other damaging event. Examples of
detection systems are:
 Imaging satellites (Wildfires, hurricanes, volcanoes, landslides, avalanches, floods, fire risk,
terrorism, virtually all hazards)
 Chemical/biological/radiological/explosive detection systems (technological hazards
(chemical leaks, pipeline failures), terrorism)
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 Ground movement monitoring system (seismicity, volcanic activity, dam failure, expansive
soils, land subsidence, rail infrastructure failure)
 Flood gauges (hydrologic hazards)
 Weather stations (severe weather, tornadoes)
 Undersea and buoy oceanic movement detection (tsunamis)
 Information systems (epidemics, WMD terrorism)
Redundancy in life safety infrastructure is one last structural mitigation measure. As humans hand
evolved beyond substance living, they have become more dependent upon each other and societal
infrastructure. Today, private and government infrastructure may provide an individual with food,
water sewerage, electricity, communications, transportation medical care, and more. With such great
dependence on these systems, failure in any one could quickly lead in catastrophe. Example of life
systems into which redundancy may be built include:
 Electricity infrastructure
 Public Health Infrastructure
 Emergency management infrastructure
 Water storage, treatment, conveyance, and delivery systems
 Transportation infrastructure
 Irrigation systems
 Food delivery
Non-structural Mitigation
Non-structural Mitigation, as defined previously, generally involves a reduction in the likelihood or

consequence of risk through modifications in human behaviour or natural processes, without
requiring the use of engineered structures. Non-structural mitigation techniques are often considered
mechanisms where man adapts to nature.” They tend to be less costly and fairly easy for communities
with few financial or technological resources to implement.
The following section describes several of the various categories into which non-structural mitigation
measures may be grouped, and provides several examples of each:
 Regulatory measures
 Community awareness and education programs
 Non-structural physical modification
 Environmental control
 Behavioural modification
Regulatory Measure
Regulatory measures limit hazard risk by legally dictating human actions. Regulations can be applied
to several facets of societal and individual life, and are when it is determined that such action is
required for the common good of the society. Though the use of regulatory measures is perspective,
compliance is a widespread problem because the cost of enforcement can be prohibitive and
inspectors may be untrained, ineffective, or susceptible to bribes.
Examples of regulatory mitigation measures include:
 Land use management (Zoning). This legally imposed restriction on how land may be used.
It may apply to specific geographic designation, such as coastal Zone management, hillside
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or slope management, floodplain development restriction, or microclimate siting of

structures (such as placing structures only the leeward side of a hill)
 Open space preservation (green spaces). This practice attempts to limit the settlement or
activities of people in areas that are known to be at high risk for one more hazards.
 Protective resource preservation. In some situations, a tract of land is not at risk from a
hazard, but a new hazard will be created by disturbing that land. Examples include protecting
forest that serves to block wind and wetlands preservation.
 Denial of services to high-risk areas. When squatter and informal settlements from on high
risk land despite the existence of preventive regulatory measures, it is possible to discourage
growth and reverse settlement trends by ensuring that services such as electricity, running
water, and communications do not reach the unsafe settlement. This measure is not only
acceptable when performed in conjunction with a project that seeks to offer alternative, safe
accommodations for the inhabitants (otherwise, a secondary humanitarian disaster may
result).
 Density control. By regulatory the number of people who may reside in an area of known or
estimated risk, it is possible to limit vulnerability and control the amount of resources
considered adequate for protection from and response to that known hazard. Many response
mechanisms are overwhelmed because the number of casualties in an affected area is much
higher than was anticipated.
 Building use regulations: To protect against certain hazards, it is possible to restrict the type
of activities that may be performed in a building. These restrictions may apply to people,
materials, or activates.
 Mitigation easements. Easements are agreements between private individuals or
organizations and the government that dictate now a particular tract of land will be used.
Mitigation easements are agreements to restrict the private use of land for the purpose of
risk reduction.
 HAZMAT manufacture, use, transport, and disposal. Hazardous materials are a major threat
to life and property in all countries. Most governments have developed safety standards and
procedures to guide the way that these materials are manufactured and used by businesses
and individuals, the mechanisms by which they are transported from place to place, and the
methods and devices that contain them.
 Safety standards and regulations. Regulations that guide safe activities and practices are
diverse and apply to more situations that could be described in this chapter. Safety
regulations may apply to individuals (seatbelt laws), households (use of smoke detectors),
communities, business, and governments. The establishment of building codes, as described
in the section on structure mitigation, is an example of a safely regulation.
 Natural resources use regulations. The use of common natural resources, such as aquifers,
can be controlled for the purpose of minimizing hazard risk (in this case, drought).
 Storm water management regulations. Storm water run-off can be destructive to the areas
where run-off can be destructive to the areas where it originates, through erosion, and to the
areas where it terminates, through silting, pollution, changes to stream flows, and other
effects. Development, especially when large amount of land are covered with impervious
materials like concrete, can drastically increase the amount of run-off by decreasing the
holding capacity of the land. Regulations on storm water management, imposed on private
and public development projects, help to manage those negative effect thereby reducing
both hazard risk and environmental vulnerability.
29
 Environmental Protection regulations. Certainly environmental features, such as rivers,

stream lakes, and wetlands, play an important part of reducing the vulnerability of
community of country. Preventing certain behaviours, such as dumping of polluting, helps to
ensure that the resources continue to offer their risk reduction benefits.
 Public disclosure regulations. Property owned may be required to disclose all known risk, so
as flood or earthquake hazard risk, when selling their property. This ensures hazard
awareness and increases the chance that purchasers will take appropriate action for those
known risk when they begin construction or other activities on that land.
 Mitigation requirements on loans. Banks and other lending institutions have much at stake
when they lend money to developers. Therefore lenders should ensure that mitigation
requirements should be met, which require that hazard assessments have been conducted.
Governments can make it a policy that such actions are taken by those lending institutions.
Such policies limit the building of unsafe projects.
Community Awareness and Education Programs:
The public is most able to protect themselves from the effects of a hazard if they are first informed
that the hazard exists, and then educated about what they can do to limit their risk
 Public education programs are considered both mitigation and preparedness measures. An
informed public that applied appropriate measures to reduce their risk before a disaster
occurs has performed mitigation. However, a public that has been trained in response
activities has participated in a preparedness activity. Often termed “risk communication,”
projects designed to educate the public may include one or more of the following:
i) Awareness of the hazard risk
ii) Behaviour
iii) Pre-disaster risk reduction behaviour
iv) Pre-disaster preparedness behaviour
v) Post-disaster response behaviour
vi) Post-disaster recovery behaviour
 Warning systems inform the public that hazard risk which has reached a threshold required
certain protective actions. Depending upon the hazard type and the warning system's
technological capabilities, the amount of time citizens will have to act will vary. Some warning
systems, especially those that apply to technological and international hazards, are not able
to provide warning until the hazard has already begun to exhibit its damaging behavior (such
as a leak at a chemical production facility, or an accident involving a hazardous materials
tanker truck). The UN Platform for the Promotion of early warning (PPEW) state that four
separate factors are necessary for effective early warning.
1) Prior knowledge of the risks faced by communities.
2) A technical monitoring and warning services for these risks.
3) The dissemination of understandable warnings to those at risk.
4) Knowledge by people of how to react and the capacity to do so
Warning systems, therefore, are dependent upon hazard identification and analyze, effective
detection systems (as described in Structural Mitigation), and public education. Early warning systems
have been developed to varying capacities for the following hazards:
30
— Drought
— Tornados
— Cyclonic storms
— Epidemics
— Landslides
— Earthquakes
— Chemical release
— Volcanoes
— Floods
— Wildfires
— Air raids/attacks
— Terrorist threats
Risk mapping involves presenting the likelihood and consequence components in the format of a
physical map, with figures based upon a specific hazard of set of hazards. Risk maps are fundamental
to disaster management, and are very effective as a mitigation tool. Using risk maps, governments
and other entities can most effectively dedicate resources to areas of greatest need, and plan in
advance of incidents, so that adequate response resources are able to reach those highest-risk areas
without unforeseen problems.
Non-structural Physical Modifications
Several different mitigation option, while not structure in nature, involve a physical modification to a
structure or to property that result in reduced risk.
Examples include
 Security of furniture, pictures, and appliances, and installing latches on cupboards. In many
earthquakes, the majority of injuries are caused by falling furniture and other unsecured
belongings. Economic coasts also can be reduced significantly through this very inexpensive,
simple measure that generally requires little more than connecting items to walls through the
use of a specially designed thin metal strep.
 Removal or securing of projectiles. During tornadoes, items commodity found outside the
house, such as cooking grills, furniture, and stored wood, may become airborne projectiles
than cause harm, fatalities, or further property damage
Environmental Control
Structural mitigation involves engineered structures that control hazards. It is also possible to control
or influence hazards through non-engineered structural means. These non-structural mechanisms
tend to be highly hazard specific, and include:
— Explosive detonation to relieve seismic pressure (earthquakes)
— Launched or placed explosive to release stored snow cover (avalanches)
— Cloud seeding (hail, hurricanes, drought, and snow)
— Controlled burns (wildfires)
— Bombing of Volcano flows
— Dune and beach restoration or preservation (storm surges, erosion)
— Forest and vegetation management (landslide mudflow, flooding, erosion)
— Riverine and reservoir sediment and erosion control (flooding)
— Replacement of soils (expansive soils)
— Hillside drainage (landslides, mudslide erosion)
— Slope grading (landslides, mudslides, rockfalls erosion)
— Disease vector eradication (Epidemics)
31
Behaviour Modification
Through collective action, a community can alter the behaviour of individuals; resulting in some
common risk reduction benefit. Voluntary behaviour modification measures are more difficult to
implement than the regulatory measures listed above. Because they usually involve some form of
sacrifice. However, through effective public education behaviour modification is possible. Tax
incentives, or subsides, can help to increase the success of behavioural modification practices
Examples of mitigation measures that involve behaviour modification include:
 Rationing: Rationing is often performed prior to and during periods of drought. Because it
can be very difficult for governments to limit vital services such as water to citizens, it is up to
citizenships to limit their individual usage. Electricity rationings is also performed during
periods of extreme heat or cold to ensure that electrical climate control systems are able to
perform as required.
 Environmental conservation: Many practices to both urban and rural areas are very
destructive to the environment. Once the environmental feature be it a body of water, a
forest, of the hillside is destroyed, secondary hazards consequences may appear that could
have avoided. Though proper education and the offering of alternatives, destructive practices
can be halted before too much damage is done. Examples of environmental conservation
include and ornamentally friendly farming practices and harvesting that does not cause
deforestation and protecting coral reefs from dynamite fishing and other fishing practices.
 Tax incentives, subsidies, and other financial rewards for safe practices: Individuals and
businesses can be coaxed into safer practices that reduce overall risk through financial
incentive.
Examples of schemes that use financial initiative include lower insurance premiums,
housing buyout programs to move out of high- risk area and farm subsidies for allowing land
to be used for flood control during emergencies, and environmentally friendly farming
practices (no deforestation, responsible grazing practices, flexible farming and cropping).
 Strengthening of social ties: When a community strengthens its social ties, it is more likely to
withstand a hazard’s stresses. For many reasons the largest of which is urbanization, these
ties break and are not replaced. In Chicago in 1995 a heat wave caused the death of 739
people. It was later determined that weak social structures which have been prevented had
friends, family a neighbours checked on the victims.
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Disaster Mitigation Using GIS and RS

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Disaster Mitigation Using GIS and RS

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UNIT-5 Disaster Mitigation

Application of science and technology for disaster management

Geographical Information System (GIS)

Use of GIS and RS Technology in Disaster Management

Use of remote sensing and GIS in disaster management

Disaster Management is done by following steps

1. Planning and Analysis

Planning and Analysis

Important objectives of GIS database generation are,

GIS database include following information which is beneficial in disaster management.

2. Preparation of base map of different themes using satellite imageries.

5. Identification of safe locations and zones for rehabilitation

7. Planning of evacuation and operation

8. Management of Rehabilitation and post-disaster reconstruction.

9. Suitable locations identifying scientifically for construction of houses and shelters

11. Hospitals and medical facilities identification for injured people.

GIS solutions for different hazards

 It’s also useful for Impact assessment.

 Flood mapping from Macro level to Micro level.

 Flood Zone mapping.

 Detecting Potential Site of Flood in reference with rainfall

 Preparing Response map in response to managing after flood situations

Table 1: Ways remote sensing can help disaster management

Application of GPS in disaster management

4. Forest fire management

Figure: Tsunami Monitoring process

DISASTER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

2. Mobile Applications (Apps)

5. Satellite phone (Satphones)

7. Citizens Band Radio (CB Radio)

A CB radio is capable of short-distance communications on various frequencies. It is similar although

8. Amateur Radio (HAM Radio)

Elements of Early warning

Early warning is the integration of four main elements :

Need of Early Warning System

Communication of early warning information

Community Based Early Warning System

Early warning systems and policy

Key elements for successful implementation of early warning:

 Establish proper priorities

 Developing institutional networks with clear responsibilities

 Developing effective communication strategies

Early Warning Dissemination

 monitoring and detecting hazards in real-time or near-real-time;

To ensure an early warning systems is accessible:

Early Warning and Response

Disaster wise nodal agencies for Forecast

Cyclone Indian Meteorological Department

Forecasting and Warning of Cyclones

The flood forecasting involves the following four main activities:

Landslide Hazard Warning

Land Use Planning and Development Regulations

• The importance and difficulty of land use planning

The importance and difficulty of land use planning

balance and measured benefits

3. Land use management involves legal, technical, and social dimensions.

5. The practice of land use management proceeds through three stages.

• Administration and fiscal control

• Follow-up and monitoring

6. Successful land use management plans will confront challenges.

7. Successful strategic land use management requires essential resources.

Disaster Safe Designs and Constructions