The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom – From “Orbit” to “Orbital”

Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics that addresses the motion and behaviour
of subatomic particles such as the electron. Applying classical Newtonian mechanics
doesn’t work as these particles are believed to exhibit wave-particle duality. What does
this mean for us in chemistry land? Well, we can no longer accept all postulates of the
Bohr model of the atom. For example, we can not say that electrons are simply orbiting
the nucleus in circular/elliptical paths called orbits. All we can do is talk about the
probability of finding an electron at a specific three dimensional coordinate outside of
the nucleus. This three dimensional space in which an electron occupies is called an
orbital. Orbitals vary in size, shape, and physical orientation in space. The exact centre
of an orbital is where the nucleus resides and as you already know electrons will not be
there. With respect to shape, there are 4 kinds of orbitals that are used to hold
electrons: s, p, d and f orbitals. Regardless of size, shape or physical orientation in
space, any orbital can only hold a maximum of 2 electrons. If an orbital has only one
electron in it, it is said to be half-filled. If an orbital has two electrons in it, it is said to be
filled. The exact location of an electron within an orbital is uncertain but each coordinate
within has a corresponding probability. Not all coordinates within an orbital have the
same probability and so there exists a variation in probability within an orbital. Although
there is varying probability, similar variations exist as one moves along any chosen
radial vector away from the nucleus. The graphical image of an orbital is really an image
of the variations in location probability for an e- that would be occupying it. Other than at
the site of the nucleus, there exist locations within some orbitals where the probability of
electrons being there is zero. These locations are called nodes. We sometimes like to
think of an orbital as a room that may be either empty, half-filled or filled, but remember,
if an e- is not present then the orbital doesn’t exist since the orbital is just showing the
coordinates in three dimension where electrons may be found.

Orbit, Energy Level (Shell) & Sublevel (Subshell):

The further away an electron is from the nucleus the more energy it has, so you can
simply think of an energy level as a distance marker for the maximum distance that an
electron can be away from the nucleus for that specific energy level. Electrons in energy
level 1 are closer to the nucleus than electrons in energy level 2 and so on. With the
Bohr model, a single orbit comprises the energy level. All electrons moving along this
orbit path belong to this specific energy level and the radial distances from the nucleus
to each electron is essentially the same. With the quantum mechanical model, it is
possible to have multiple orbitals comprise an energy level. The idea of a single 2D orbit
with all electrons of that energy level on it has been transformed into one with one or
more 3D zones called orbitals such that all electrons of that energy level are in the
orbital(s) and the location of electrons within their respective orbital can vary. Only the
first energy level for any atom is made up of only one orbital. Energy levels beyond the
first can be comprised of many orbitals. All orbitals of a given energy level and shape
that just vary in orientation in space are said to comprise a sublevel (subshell).
 • s orbitals are possible for any energy level, p orbitals are possible for energy
level 2 or beyond, d for energy level 3 or beyond, f for energy level 4 or beyond
• Only one s orbital is possible for the respective energy level it is for and alone
makes up the s sublevel of the given energy level
• Three p orbitals are possible for the respective energy level they are for and
make up the p sublevel of the given energy level
• Five d orbitals are possible for the respective energy level they are for and make
up the d sublevel of the given energy level
• Seven f orbitals are possible for the respective energy level they are for and
make up the f sublevel of the given energy level

The number of orbitals that an atom needs in order to "hold" all of its e- and the order in
which the orbitals are "called upon” will be discussed in detail in a future lesson.

Note:
The terms orbital, e- cloud, and wave function are synonymous. The first sentence on
the top of page 151 in the textbook is fine, but the definition on the side margin isn't. The
wave function aka orbital aka e- cloud is not the probability itself.