Chapter 32A – AC Circuits

AA PowerPoint
PowerPoint Presentation
Presentation by
by
Paul
Paul E.
E. Tippens,
Tippens, Professor
Professor of
of Physics
Physics
Southern
Southern Polytechnic
Polytechnic State
State University
University

© 2007
Objectives: After completing this
module, you should be able to:
• Describe the sinusoidal variation in ac
current and voltage, and calculate their
effective values.
• Write and apply equations for calculating
the inductive and capacitive reactances for
inductors and capacitors in an ac circuit.
• Describe, with diagrams and equations, the
phase relationships for circuits containing
resistance, capacitance, and inductance.
 Objectives (Cont.)
• Write and apply equations for calculating the
impedance, the phase angle, the effective
current, the average power, and the resonant
frequency for a series ac circuit.
• Describe the basic operation of a step-
up and a step-down transformer.

• Write and apply the transformer equation

and determine the efficiency of a
transformer.
 Alternating Currents
An
An alternating
alternating current
current such
such as
as that
that produced
produced
by
by aa generator
generator has
has no
no direction
direction in
in the
the sense
sense
that
that direct
direct current
current has.
has. The
The magnitudes
magnitudes vary
vary
sinusoidally
sinusoidally with
with time
time as
as given
given by:
by:
AC-voltage Emax
and current imax
E = Emax sin  time, t
i = imax sin 
 Rotating Vector Description
The
The coordinate
coordinate ofof the
the emf
emf atat any
any instant
instant isis the
the
value
value of
of EEmax
max
sin
sin Observe
Observe for
for incremental
incremental
angles in steps of 45 00. Same is true for i.
angles in steps of 45 . Same is true for i.

E E = Emax sin 

 1800 2700 3600

450 900 1350

Radius
R = =Emax
Emax
 Effective AC Current
The average current imax I = imax
in a cycle is zero—
half + and half -.
But energy is expended,
regardless of direction.
So the “root-mean- I2 I
I rms  
square” value is useful. 2 0.707

The rms value Irms is The effective ac current:

sometimes called the
effective current Ieff: ieff = 0.707 imax
 AC Definitions
One effective ampere is that ac current for
which the power is the same as for one
ampere of dc current.
Effective current: iieff
Effective current: = 0.707 i max
eff = 0.707 imax
One effective volt is that ac voltage that
gives an effective ampere through a
resistance of one ohm.

Effective voltage: VVeff

Effective voltage: eff
=
= 0.707
0.707 V
Vmax
max
Example 1: For a particular device, the house
ac voltage is 120-V and the ac current is 10 A.
What are their maximum values?

iieff
eff = 0.707 iimax
= 0.707 max VVeff 0.707 VVmax
= 0.707
eff = max

ieff 10 A Veff 120V

imax   Vmax  
0.707 0.707 0.707 0.707

iimax
max== 14.14
14.14 AA VVmax
max== 170
170 VV

The ac
The ac voltage
voltage actually
actually varies
varies from
from +170
+170 VV to
to
-170 VV and
-170 and the
the current
current from
from 14.1
14.1 AA to
to –14.1
–14.1 A.
A.
Pure Resistance in AC Circuits
R Vmax Voltage
A V
imax Current

a.c. Source

Voltage
Voltage and
and current
current are
are in
in phase,
phase, and
and Ohm ’s
Ohm’s
law
law applies
applies for
for effective
effective currents
currents and
and voltages.
voltages.

Ohm’s law: Veff = ieffR

 AC and Inductors
i
I Inductor I i Inductor
0.63I Current Current
Rise 0.37I Decay

 Time, t  Time, t

The voltage V peaks first, causing rapid rise in i

current which then peaks as the emf goes to zero.
Voltage leads (peaks before) the current by 900.
Voltage and current are out of phase.
 A Pure Inductor in AC Circuit
L Vmax Voltage
A V
imax Current

a.c.

The voltage peaks 90 00before the current peaks.

The voltage peaks 90 before the current peaks.
One
One builds
builds as
as the
the other
other falls
falls and
and vice
vice versa.
versa.

The reactance may be defined as the nonresistive

opposition to the flow of ac current.
 Inductive Reactance
The back emf induced L
by a changing current
A V
provides opposition to
current, called inductive
reactance XL. a.c.
Such losses are temporary, however, since the
current changes direction, periodically re-supplying
energy so that no net power is lost in one cycle.

Inductive reactance XL is a function of both the

inductance and the frequency of the ac current.
Calculating Inductive Reactance
L Inductive Reactance:
A V XL  2 fL Unit is the 
Ohm's law: VL  iX L
a.c.

The voltage reading V in the above circuit at

the instant the ac current is i can be found from
the inductance in H and the frequency in Hz.

VL  i (2 fL) Ohm’s law: VL = ieffXL

Example 2: A coil having an inductance of
0.6 H is connected to a 120-V, 60 Hz ac
source. Neglecting resistance, what is the
effective current through the coil?
Reactance: XL = 2fL L = 0.6 H
XL = 2(60 Hz)(0.6 H) A V

XL = 226 
120 V, 60 Hz

Veff 120V
ieff   iieff = 0.531 A
X L 226  eff = 0.531 A

Show that the peak current is Imax = 0.750 A

 AC and Capacitance
q Capacitor i Capacitor
Qmax I
0.63 I Rise in Current
Charge 0.37 I Decay
 Time, t  Time, t

The voltage V peaks ¼ of a cycle after the

current i reaches its maximum. The voltage lags
the current. Current i and V out of phase.
 A Pure Capacitor in AC Circuit
C Vmax Voltage
A V
imax Current

a.c.

The voltage peaks 90 00after the current peaks.

The voltage peaks 90 after the current peaks.
One
One builds
builds as
as the
the other
other falls
falls and
and vice
vice versa.
versa.

The
The diminishing current ii builds
diminishing current builds charge
charge on on CC
which
which increases
increases the
the back
back emf
emf of
of VVCC..
 Capacitive Reactance
Energy gains and losses C
are also temporary for
A V
capacitors due to the
constantly changing ac
current. a.c.
No net power is lost in a complete cycle, even
though the capacitor does provide nonresistive
opposition (reactance) to the flow of ac current.

Capacitive reactance XC is affected by both the

capacitance and the frequency of the ac current.
Calculating Inductive Reactance
C Capacitive Reactance:
A 1
V XC  Unit is the 
2 fC
a.c. Ohm's law: VC  iX C

The voltage reading V in the above circuit at

the instant the ac current is i can be found from
the inductance in F and the frequency in Hz.

i
VL  Ohm’s law: VC = ieffXC
2 fL
Example 3: A 2-F capacitor is connected to
a 120-V, 60 Hz ac source. Neglecting
resistance, what is the effective current
through the coil?
1 C = 2 F
Reactance: X C 
2 fC A
1 V
XC 
2 (60 Hz)(2 x 10 F)
-6

120 V, 60 Hz
XC = 1330 
Veff 120V
ieff   iieff = 90.5 mA
X C 1330  eff = 90.5 mA

Show that the peak current is imax = 128 mA

 Memory Aid for AC Elements
An old, but very “E L i”
effective, way to the
remember the phase “I C E”
differences for inductors man
and capacitors is :

“E L I” the “i C E” Man

Emf
Emf EE isis before current ii in
before current in inductors
inductors LL;
;
Emf
Emf EE isis after current ii in
after current in capacitors
capacitors C.C.
 Frequency and AC Circuits
Resistance R is constant and not affected by f.

1
Inductive reactance XL XL  2 fL XC 
varies directly with 2 fC
frequency as expected
since E  i/t. R, X
XC XL
Capacitive reactance XC varies R
inversely with f since rapid ac
allows little time for charge to
build up on capacitors. f
 Series LRC Circuits
VT Series ac circuit
A
a.c.
L R C

VL VR VC

Consider
Consider an inductor LL,, aa capacitor
an inductor capacitor CC,, and
and
resistor RR all
aa resistor all connected
connected in in series
series with
with an
an
ac
ac source
source.. The
The instantaneous
instantaneous current
current and
and
voltages
voltages can
can bebe measured
measured with with meters.
meters.
 Phase in a Series AC Circuit
The voltage leads current in an inductor and lags
current in a capacitor. In phase for resistance R.
V V = Vmax sin 
VL
 1800 2700 3600

VR 450 900 1350

VC

Rotating phasor diagram generates voltage waves

for each element R, L, and C showing phase
relations. Current i is always in phase with VR.
 Phasors and Voltage
At time t = 0, suppose we read VL, VR and VC for an
ac series circuit. What is the source voltage VT?

Source voltage
Phasor
Diagram VT
VL VL - VC

VR VR
VC

We handle phase differences by finding the

vector sum of these readings. VT = Vi. The
angle  is the phase angle for the ac circuit.
 Calculating Total Source Voltage
Source voltage Treating as vectors, we find:

VL - VC VT
VT  VR2  (VL  VC ) 2

VR VL  VC
tan  
VR

Now recall that: VR = iR; VL = iXL; and VC = iVC

Substitution into the above voltage equation gives:

VT  i R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2
 Impedance in an AC Circuit
Impedance
VT  i R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2
XL - XC Z
 Impedance Z is defined:
R
Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2

Ohm’s law for ac current V  iZ VT

or i 
and impedance: T
Z
The
The impedance
impedance isis the
the combined
combined opposition
opposition to
to ac
ac
current
current consisting
consisting ofof both
both resistance
resistance and
and reactance.
reactance.
Example 3: A 60- resistor, a 0.5 H inductor, and
an 8-F capacitor are connected in series with a
120-V, 60 Hz ac source. Calculate the impedance
for this circuit.
1 0.5 H
X L  2 fL and X C 
2 fC
A 8 F
X L  2 (60Hz)(0.6 H) = 226  120 V
1
XC   332 
2 (60Hz)(8 x 10 F)
-6 60 Hz 60 

Z  R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2  (60 ) 2  (226   332 ) 2

Thus, the impedance is: Z = 122 

Example 4: Find the effective current and the
phase angle for the previous example.
XL = 226 XC = 332  R = 60 Z = 122 
VT 120 V 0.5 H
ieff  
Z 122 
A 8 F
iieff
eff
== 0.985
0.985 A
A 120 V

Next we find the phase angle: 60 Hz 60 

Impedance
XL – XC = 226 – 332 = -106 
XL - XC Z
 X L  XC
R = 60  tan  
R R
Continued . . .
Example 4 (Cont.): Find the phase angle for
the previous example.
60 
 XL – XC = 226 – 332 = -106 
-106  X L  XC
Z R = 60  tan  
R

106 
tan   = -60.5
= -60.500
60 

The
The negative
negative phase
phase angle
angle means
means that
that the
the ac ac
voltage
voltage lags
lags the
the current
current by
by 60.5
60.500.. This
This isis
known
known as as aa capacitive
capacitive circuit.
circuit.
 Resonant Frequency
Because
Because inductance
inductance causes
causes the
the voltage
voltage to to lead
lead
the
the current
current and
and capacitance
capacitance causes
causes itit to
to lag
lag the
the
current,
current, they
they tend
tend to
to cancel
cancel each
each other
other out.out.

XL Resonance (Maximum Power)

XL = XC
occurs when XL = XC
R
XC Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2  R

Resonant fr 2 fL 
1
fr 
1
XL = XC 2 fC 2 LC
 Example 5: Find the resonant frequency for the
previous circuit example: L = .5 H, C = 8 F
1 Resonance XL = XC
fr 
2 LC 0.5 H
1 A
f 8 F
2 (0.5H)(8 x 10 F
-6
120 V

Resonant
Resonant ffrr == 79.6
79.6 Hz
Hz ? Hz 60 

At
At resonant
resonant frequency,
frequency, there
there isis zero
zero reactance
reactance ((only
only
resistance
resistance)) and
and the
the circuit
circuit has
has aa phase
phase angle
angle of
of zero.
zero.
 Power in an AC Circuit
No
No power
power isis consumed
consumed by by inductance
inductance or or
capacitance.
capacitance. Thus
Thus power
power isis aa function
function of
of the
the
component
component ofof the
the impedance
impedance alongalong resistance:
resistance:
Impedance In terms of ac voltage:
XL - XC Z PP == iV cos 
iV cos

R In terms of the resistance R:
P lost in R only PP == ii22RR

The fraction Cos  is known as the power factor.

 Example 6: What is the average power loss for
the previous example: V = 120 V,  = -60.50,
i = 90.5 A, and R = 60 .
P = i2R = (0.0905 A)2(60  Resonance XL = XC
0.5 H
Average
Average PP == 0.491
0.491 W
W
A 8 F
The power factor is: Cos 60.50 120 V

Cos  =
Cos = 0.492
0.492 or
or 49.2%
49.2% ? Hz 60 

The
The higher
higher the the power
power factor,
factor, the
the more
more
efficient
efficient isis the
the circuit
circuit in
in its
its use
use of
of ac
ac power.
power.
 The Transformer
A transformer is a device that uses induction
and ac current to step voltages up or down.
An
An ac ac source
source ofof emf
emf Transformer
EEpp isis connected
connected to to a.c.
primary
primary coil coil with
with NNpp
turns. R
turns. Secondary
Secondary has has
NNssturns
turns and
and emf
emf ofof
EEss.. Np Ns

Induced
Induced  
EP   N P ES   N S
emf’s
emf’s are:
are: t t
 Transformers (Continued):
Transformer 
EP   N P
a.c. t
Np Ns 
ES   N S
R t

Recognizing that /t is the same in each coil,

we divide first relation by second and obtain:

The
The transformer
transformer
EP NP

equation:
equation: ES NS
Example 7: A generator produces 10 A at
600 V. The primary coil in a transformer has
20 turns. How many secondary turns are
needed to step up the voltage to 2400 V?
Applying the I = 10 A; Vp = 600 V
transformer equation:
a.c.
VP NP Np Ns
 20
VS NS turns R
N PVS (20)(2400 V)
NS   NNSS == 80
80 turns
turns
VP 600 V

This
This isis aa step -up transformer
step-up ; reversing
transformer; reversing coils
coils
will
will make
make itit aa step-down transformer.
step-down transformer.
 Transformer Efficiency
There is no power gain in stepping up the voltage
since voltage is increased by reducing current. In
an ideal transformer with no internal losses:

Ideal Transformer An ideal

a.c. transformer:
Np Ns iP ES
EP iP  ES iS or 
R is EP

The
The above
above equation
equation assumes
assumes nono internal
internal energy
energy
losses
losses due
due to
to heat
heat or
or flux
flux changes.
changes. Actual
Actual
efficiencies
efficiencies are
are usually
usually between
between 90
90 and
and 100%.
100%.
 Example 7: The transformer in Ex. 6 is
connected to a power line whose resistance
is 12 . How much of the power is lost in
the transmission line?
VS = 2400 V I = 10 A; Vp = 600 V
EP iP 12 
E i E i i  a.c.
ES
P P S S S
20
Np Ns
(600V)(10 A)
iS   2.50 A turns R
2400 V

Plost = i2R = (2.50 A)2(12 ) Plost = 75.0 W

Pin = (600 V)(10 A) = 6000 W
%Power
%Power Lost
Lost =
= (75
(75 W/6000
W/6000 W)(100%)
W)(100%) =
= 1.25%
1.25%
 Summary
Effective current: iieff
Effective current: = 0.707 i max
eff = 0.707 imax

Effective voltage: VVeff

Effective voltage: eff
=
= 0.707
0.707 V
Vmax
max

Inductive Reactance: Capacitive Reactance:

1
XL  2 fL Unit is the  XC  Unit is the 
2 fC
Ohm's law: VL  iX L Ohm's law: VC  iX C
 Summary (Cont.)
VL  VC
VT  V  (VL  VC )
2 2 tan  
R VR

X L  XC
Z  R  (X L  XC )
2 2 tan  
R

VT 1
VT  iZ or i  fr 
Z 2 LC
 Summary (Cont.)
Power in AC Circuits:
In terms of ac voltage: In terms of the resistance R:
PP == iV cos 
iV cos PP == ii22RR

Transformers:

EP NP
 EP iP  ES iS
ES NS
CONCLUSION: Chapter 32A
AC Circuits