Bernoulli’s Equation (Expressed as

Ch. 3 Elementary Fluid Dynamics pressures)

1 2

1
● Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure p   V 2   z  PT  Constant along a streamline
2
● Free Jets 1 2 1 2
p1   V1   z1  p 2   V2   z 2
2 2
● Confined Flows
Each term has the dimensions of FORCE per unit area or
● Siphon and Cavitation PRESSURE, psi, kN/m2, etc.
First term, p, is the static pressure (“static”) relative to the
● Flow Rate Measurement
moving fluid.
● Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line Second term, ρV2/2
/2, is termed the dynamic pressure.
Third term, γz, is termed the hydrostatic pressure, resulting
from elevation changes.

Static pressure, p Hydrostatic pressure, γz

3 4

 Static Pressure (p).
(p)
Actual thermodynamic
pressure as the fluid
flows. To measure it,
you could move along
with the fluid, thus
being “static” relative
to the moving fluid.
 Not actually a
p3 = γ h4-3 pressure, but
p1 = γ h4-3+ p3
represents the
p1 = γ h4-3+ γ h3-1 change in pressure
due to potential
p1 = γ h
energy variations of
the fluid as a result of
elevation changes.

1
 Dynamic pressure, ρV2/2 TOTAL pressure
5 6

 Create a stagnation point (2) by p2 + ½ρV22 + γz2 = p1 + ½ρV2 + γz1

inserting a small into a flowing
fluid with the end pointing
upstream. ELEVATION z = 0.
 After coming to equilibrium the
velocity everywhere inside the
tube will be zero.
 Using Bernoulli’s equation, the
pressure at the stagnation point
will be greater than the static
pressure up stream by the
amount of the dynamic pressure.
z2 = z1; V2 = 0
thus, p2 = p1 + ½ρV2 = γH
Thus, at the stagnation
point, p2, the pressure is
greater than the static
p2 = γ H
pressure, p1, by an amount
½ρV2, the dynamic pressure.

Stagnation Pressure
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p2 = p1 + ½ρV2 = γH

The term
p + ½ρ V2 is called the
stagnation pressure.
Solve for V, the velocity at
point (1).
1
 g h   V12   g H
2
V1  V  2 g ( H  h)
fig_03_05a

2
Stagnation point and stagnation pressure Measuring fluid speed with a Pitot-
Pitot-static tube
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 If elevation effects are ignored, the stagnation For (2)

pressure is the largest pressure attainable along a  Two concentric
streamline. tubes are attached to
two pressure gages.
 Represents the conversion of all kinetic energy into a For (1)
 The center gage
pressure rise.
i
measures the
stagnation pressure.
 The outside tube
measures static
pressure.
V  2( p3  p4 ) / 

Schematic of an airplane pitot tube.

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3
FA 18 Pitot Tube

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 Same aircraft flying at 30,000 ft elevation, gage pressure
difference indicated by the Pitot-static tube is 1.663 psi.
WHAT is the aircraft airspeed? ●
500 mph, 0.72
V  2( p3  p4 ) / 
At this elevation, p = 4.373 psia, T = -47.83 °F,
ρ = 8.907
8 907 x 10-44 slugs/ft
l /ft3.

V= [2(1.663 lb/in2)(144 in2/ft2)/(8.907 X10-4 slug/ft3)]1/2

V = 733 ft/sec = 500 miles per hour

p3/p4 or p1/p2 = 4.373/(4.373+1.667) = 0.72

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Examples of Bernoulli’s Equation

Free Jets Free Jets
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Flow from a large

reservoir having a Once outside the nozzle, continues to fall with
nozzle through
which a jet of velocity, V calculated as: WHERE H = the
fluid with distance the fluid as fallen outside the nozzle.
diameter d
emerges with
velocity, V.

V  2 g h  H 
h
V  2  2 gh


5
 Horizontal Nozzles
21
 There are elevation
variations, therefore,
velocity variations in the
free jet.
jet
 If the diameter of the
nozzle, d <<< h, then we
can use the centerline
velocity as the average
velocity.
Vena Contracta Effect
23
Vena Contracta Effect
22
 If the exit is not a smooth, Cc = 0.61
well-contoured nozzle, but
a flat plate, then the
diameter of the jet, dj, will
be smaller than the
diameter of the hole.
 Assumption of uniform
velocity across the exit
plane is not valid, but is
valid across the plane of
the vena contracta(Cc)
Cc = Aj/Ah = (dj/dh)2
Vena Contracta Effect
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Cd = 0.96
6
 Confined Flows Mass flow rate
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 For steady flow so that there is no additional

  Q
m where Q (ft3/s or m3/s is
accumulation in the volume, the rate that the fluid The volume flow rate.
rate Q = VA, thus
flows in must equal the rate that the fluid flows out.
Conservation of mass).
(Conservation mass
mass)   VA
m (slugs/s or kg/s)

Thus conservation of mass requires that

ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 and if ρ a constant,
A1V1 = A2V2 , or Q1 = Q2 (Continuity
Continuity EQ)
EQ

Conservation of mass Conservation of mass

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ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 and if ρ a

constant,

A1V1 = A2V2 , or Q1 = Q2
Continuity Equation)
(Continuity Equation
1A1V1   2 A 2 V2
 So for incompressible flow:
A1V1  A2V2
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7
 Cavitation Cavitation
29
EXAMPLE 3.10 Siphon and Cavitation.
 In general, increases in velocity are
accompanied by decreases in pressure.

 When the pressure is reduced to vapor

pressure, cavitation occurs.

 Vapor bubbles form and collapse when they

move into a region of higher pressure.

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1 1 1
p1   V12   z1  p 2   V2 2   z 2  p3   V3 2   z 3
2 2 2

1 1
p1   V12   z1  p3   V3 2   z 3
2 2
Determine the maximum height of the hill, H, over 1
0  0   ( z1 )  0   V3 2   ( z 3 )
which the water can be siphoned without 2
cavitation occurring. Water at 60 °F.
Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psia V3  2 g ( z1  z 3 )  2(32.2 ft / s 2 )[15  (5) ] ft
31 V3  35.9 ft / s  V2 WHY?
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8
 FIND PRESSURE at POINT 2

1 1
p1   V12   z1  p2   V2 2   z 2
2 2 From Table B.1,
B 1 the vapor pressure of
1 1
p 2  p1   V12   z1   V2 2   z 2 water at 60 °F, is 0.256 psia. Hence,
2 2 the incipient cavitation the lowest
1 2 1 2
p 2  0  0   z1   V2   z 2   ( z1  z 2 )   V2 pressure in the system (located at
2 2 point 2) must be equal to 0.256 psia.
1 Thus p2 = 0.256 – 14.7 = -14.4 psig
p 2   ( z1  z 2 )   V2 2
2
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1
p 2   ( z1  z 2 )   V2 2
2

 (14.4lb / in 2 )(144in 2 / ft 2 )  (62.4lb / ft 3 )(15  H ) ft  1 / 2(1.94 slugs / ft 3 )(35.9 ft / s ) 2

H  (1759.6 lb / ft 2 ) /(62.4lb / ft 3 )  28.2 ft

VALUES of H > 28.2 ft, vapor

bubbles will form and the siphon
action may cease.
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 Flowrate measurement
41 VENTURI
METER
 Ideal flow meter- devoid
of viscous,
compressibility and
other real world effects.
 Three most commonly
used all involve a
restriction in the pipe 2(p1  p 2 )
and measures of Q  A2
pressure and velocity   A 2 2 
1   
upstream and A1  
downstream of the   
restriction.
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Flowrate measurement Flowrate measurement

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 Flowrate measurement SLUICE--GATE: Flowrate measurement
SLUICE
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46

SLUICE--GATE: Flowrate measurement

SLUICE SLUICE--GATE: Flowrate measurement
SLUICE

Cc = z2/a (less than 1)

If 0 < a/z1 < 0.2, then
Cc = 0.61

1 1 2 g ( z1  z 2 )
p1   V1 2   z1  p 2   V2 2   z 2 Q  z 2b EQ 3.21
2 2 1  ( z 2 / z1 ) 2
Q  A1V1  bV1 z 1  A2V2  bV2 z 2 IF z1>z2
p1  p 2  0 Q  z 2 b 2 gz1
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EXAMPLE 3.12 Sluice Gate EXAMPLE 3.12 Sluice Gate

Q 2 g ( z1  z 2 )
 z2
b 1  ( z 2 / z1 ) 2
a/z1= 0.8/5.0 = 0.16. If 0 < a/z1 < 0.2, then
Q 2(9.81m / s 2 )(5.0m  0.488m)
Cc = 0.61. Cc = z2/a,  0.488
b 1  (0.488m / 5.0m) 2
THUS z2= 0.61 (0.8 m)= 0.488 m  4.61 m 2 / s
49 50

EXAMPLE 3.12 Sluice Gate EXAMPLE 3.12 Sluice Gate

IF z1>z2

Q
 z 2 2 gz1
b
 0.488m 2(9.81m / s 2 )(5m)
 4.84m 2 / s

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WEIRS: Flowrate measurement WEIRS: Flowrate measurement

Q  AV  C1 H b 2 gH  C1 b 2 g H 3 / 2
Let H vary by a factor of 3

Q3 C1 b 2 g (3H ) 3 / 2
  5.2
Q1 C1 b 2 g (1H ) 3 / 2
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WEIRS: Flowrate measurement WEIRS: Flowrate measurement

   
Q  AV  H 2 tan  C 2 2 gH  C 2 tan  2 g H 5 / 2
  2 2
Q  AV  H 2 tan C 2 2 gH
2   5/ 2
C 2 tan  2 g (3H )
  Q3
 2  15.6
 C 2 tan   2 g H 5 / 2
2 Q1  
C 2 tan  2 g (1H ) 5 / 2
63 2 64

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Flowrate measurement Flowrate measurement
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Flowrate measurement Flowrate measurement

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Flowrate measurement Flowrate measurement
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Flowrate measurement Flowrate measurement

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 Flowrate measurement Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line
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 The energy line (EL) is a line that graphically

represents the total head available to the fluid.

 The location of the EL can be obtained by measuring

the stagnation pressure with a pitot tube.
tube

 The hydraulic grade line (HGL) provides a graphic

representation of the piezometric head.

 The location of the static pressure can be measured

with a piezometer tube.

75

Figure 3.22 (p. 124)

The energy line and hydraulic grade line for flow from a tank. Figure 3.21 (p. 124)
Representation of the energy line and the hydraulic grade line.
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Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation-
Equation-
Compressibility Effects Mach 0.82
77

 Incompressible fluid assumption-reasonable for

liquids, can introduce errors for gases.
 Error associated with the assumption that a fluid is
p
incompressible increases with the square
q of the
velocity. p  RT
 For isothermal flow:
dp 1 2
RT   V  gz  constant
p 2
V12 RT  p1  V22
 z1  ln   z2
2g g  p2  2 g
Error
78 = (14.7-12.5)/14.7 = 15% error

Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation-

Equation-
Compressibility Effects
79

80

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FA--18 Hornet
FA

81 82

Rotational Effects
84

 Bernoulli’s equation applies from point to

point on the same streamline.
 Applying from a point on one streamline to a
point on another streamline can lead to
considerable
co s de ab e errors.
e o s.
 Why?

 There are some restrictions for which the

constant is the same throughout the flow
field.

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 Other Restrictions
85

 Inviscid fluid- let’s us assume constant

energy

 No mechanical devices (pumps or turbines)

consuming or producing energy between the
two points.

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