INVERSE SEGREGATION AND CENTRELINE SHRINKAGE

by

SAKAE MINAKAWA

B.E., Tohoku U n i v e r s i t y , Japan, 1977.

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF APPLIED SCIENCE

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Department of M e t a l l u r g i c a l Engineering

We accept this thesis as conforming

tp_ t h e r e q u i r e d standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

June 1984

© Sakae Minakawa, 1984

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the

r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of British

Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely

available for reference and study. I further agree that

permission for extensive c o p y i n g of t h i s t h e s i s f o r scholarly

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or her representatives. It is understood that copying or

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Department of Metallurgy

The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
2075 Wesbrook P l a c e
Vancouver, Canada
V6T 1W5

Date: June 8, 1984

 ii

Abstract

One of the major factors controlling macrosegregation and

shrinkage p o r o s i t y i n c a s t i n g s i s the extent of interdendritic

fluid flow which o c c u r s during s o l i d i f i c a t i o n . Interdendritic

flow results from movement o f l i q u i d to f i l l the v o i d s left by

solidification and t h e r m a l shrinkage, which i n the case o f many

alloys cast against a cold chill, results in inverse

segregation. In t h e p r e s e n t investigation, Inverse segregation

h a s been examined theoretically. Quantitative values for the

segregation both at and adjacent to the c h i l l f a c e have been

determined using a mathematical model and computer calculations.

The a l l o y s c o n s i d e r e d were A l - C u , Al-Zn and Sb-Bi, the latter

being of particular significance since it expands during

solidification. The model results show reasonable agreement

with published data of c h i l l face inverse segregation. In t h e

p r e v i o u s m o d e l s , t h e volume shrinkage used to c a l c u l a t e inverse

segregation did not i n c l u d e the thermal c o n t r a c t i o n which, i n

the present model predictions, was found to have more

significant role i n the s e g r e g a t i o n than expected. The results

from the present model differs significantly from those of the

earlier models, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the Al-Zn alloys.

Centreline shrinkage in a steel plate casting, associated

w i t h back flow of i n t e r d e n d r i t i c liquid, was examined u s i n g the

interdendritic fluid flow model combined with a heat transfer

model of the system. Regions of the plate Where centreline

porosity should occur were predicted w i t h t h e new model and

compared to published experimental results of p o r o s i t y i n steel

plates. E x c e l l e n t agreement was obtained between the predicted

and experimental results. In the fluid flow model, Darcy's Law

was used to determine the extent of flow in the interdendritic

channels. The p r e s e n t results indicate D a r c y ' s Law i s valid in

this application.
 Table of C o n t e n t s

Abstract i i
L i s t of T a b l e s .... vi
L i s t of F i g u r e s v i i
L i s t of Nomenclature x
Acknowledgement xiv

PART-A INVERSE SEGREGATION IN BINARY ALLOYS 1

Chapter A-I
INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW 2
1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 2
1.2 P r e v i o u s Models f o r C h i l l Face I n v e r s e S e g r e g a t i o n
3
1.3 I n v e r s e S e g r e g a t i o n away from t h e C h i l l Face
( p o s i t i o n a l Segregation) 7
1.4 P r e s e n t O b j e c t i v e s ,...11

Chapter A - I I
MODELING PROCEDURE 13
2.1 M a t h e m a t i c a l F o r m u l a t i o n 13
2.1.1 A l l o y D e n s i t i e s 16
2.1.2 Shrinkage Along The C h i l l Face 17
2.1.3 S e g r e g a t i o n i n the F i r s t Column A d j a c e n t To The
C h i l l Face 19
2.1.4 P o s i t i o n a l S e g r e g a t i o n 20
2.1.5 The Length of I n v e r s e S e g r e t a t i o n Zone 23
2.2 Computer Programming 24

Chapter A - I I I
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 25
3.1 The Aluminium Copper System 25
3.1.1 Volume Change d u r i n g S o l i d i f i c a t i o n 25
3.1.2 S e g r e g a t i o n a t t h e C h i l l Face 27
3.1.3 P o s i t i o n a l S e g r e g a t i o n 28
3.2 The Aluminium Zinc System 30
3.3 The Antimony Bismuth System 33
3.4 E x a m i n a t i o n Of P r e v i o u s Model P r e d i c t i o n s 36

Chapter A-IV
CONCLUSIONS 37

PART-B CENTERLINE SHRINKAGE IN STEEL PLATE CASTINGS 68

Chapter B-I
INTRODUCTION .69
1.1 Gross Shrinkage ........69
1.2 C e n t e r l i n e Shrinkage • ..70
1.3 P r e v i o u s Models 72
1.4 P e r m e a b i l i t y ...76
 V

1.5 P r e s e n t O b j e c t i v e s 79

Chapter B - I I
MODELLING PROCEDURE 80
2.1 M a t h e m a t i c a l F o r m u l a t i o n 80
2.1.1 Temperature C a l c u l a t i o n s 80
2.1.2 P r e s s u r e R e q u i r e d To Feed S h r i n k a g e 82
2.2 Computer Programming 84
2.3 V a l i d a t i o n Of The Heat T r a n s f e r Model 84

Chapter B - I I I
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 86
3.1 S o l i d i f i c a t i o n Sequence .' 86
3.2 P r e d i c t i o n Of C e n t e r l i n e S h r i n k a g e 87
9.3 The E f f e c t of an End C h i l l on t h e Length of t h e
P o r o s i t y Free Region 89
3.4 Proposed S o l i d i f i c a t i o n Parameters D e f i n i n g t h e
T r a n s i t i o n from Porous t o Nonporous C a s t i n g s 90

Chapter B-IV
CONCLUSIONS 92

BIBLIOGRAPHY 107

APPENDIX A - RECALCULATION OF THE SCHEIL-YOUDELIS MODEL

PREDICTIONS 110
APPENDIX B - DERIVATION OF NODAL EQUATIONS 111
APPENDIX C - FORTRAN PROGRAM FOR THE PREDICTION OF
CENTRELINE SHRINKAGE 113
 vi

List of Tables

I. The c o m p a r i s o n o f a l l o y d e n s i t i e s w i t h those
c a l c u l a t e d from d a t a f o r p u r e m e t a l s 39

II. The t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s employed f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of

temperature distribution 40

III. Physical data employed in calculations 93

IV. Dimension of the steel plate casting examined 94

V. C o m p a r i s o n of t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e s o f solidfication
parameters f o r c e n t e r l i n e shrinkage 94
 vii

L i s t of F i g u r e s

1. E q u i l i b r i u m phase diagram and s p e c i f i c volume f o r the

Al-Cu a l l o y s 41

2. Schematic d e s c r i p t i o n of s o l i d i f y i n g zone; (a) d e n d r i t e

morphology, (b) s o l i d and l i q u i d c o m p o s i t i o n s a l o n g
c h i l l f a c e , and ( c ) c o m p o s i t i o n of i n t e r d e n d r i t i c l i q u i d
42

3. D e n s i t i e s of copper and aluminium vs temperature 43

4. D e n s i t i e s of Z i n c , Aluminium and Bismuth vs temperature

44

5. Schematic c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e model i n v e s t i g a t e d and

the s u b d i v i s i o n f o r the n u m e r i c a l s i m u l a t i o n 45

6. Schematic c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e f e e d i n g sequence; (a)

F l u i d f l o w , and (b) p r o f i l e of t h e l i q u i d c o m p o s i t i o n
46
7. Summary of the f l u i d f l o w induced by the s h r i n k a g e
d u r i n g the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of t h e model w i t h 10X10
subdivisions 47
8. Schematic d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e d i l u t i o n e f f e c t of t h e
i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d flow during s o l i d i f i c a t i o n 48
9. Flow c h a r t f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n of i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n
49
10. Flow c h a r t f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n of the l e n g t h of
s o l i d / l i q u i d zone a d j a c e n t t o t h e c h i l l f a c e 50

11. C a l c u l a t e d volume change d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of A l -

1 0 % C U . The number on t h e curve denotes each element
solidified 51

12. C a l c u l a t e d volume change and l i q u i d c o m p o s i t i o n i n the

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume f o r A l - 5 % C u . The number on the
c u r v e denotes each element s o l i d f i e d 52

13. S o l i d i f i c a t i o n s h r i n k a g e r a t i o vs c o m p o s i t i o n of the A l -
Cu a l l o y s . The d o t t e d l i n e was d e r i v e d from F i g 1. ...53

14. P o s i t i o n a l s e g r e g a t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r v a r i o u s compositions
of t h e A l - C u a l l o y s 54

15. Comparison of the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t t h e c h i l l face

for the Al-Cu a l l o y s 55
 vi ii

16. E f f e c t of a i r gap a t the metal/mold i n t e r f a c e on t h e

l e n g t h of s o l i d / l i q u i d zone a d j a c e n t t o t h e c h i l l f a c e
56

17. Comparison of p o s i t i o n a l s e g r e g a t i o n f o r A 1 - 1 0 % C U ....57

18. E q u i l i b r i u m phase diagram f o r A l - Z n a l l o y s 58

19. T o t a l s h r i n k a g e r a t i o vs c o m p o s i t i o n f o r t h e A l - Z n
alloys 59
20. C a l c u l a t e d volume change and t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume f o r A l - l O % Z n . The number on t h e
c u r v e denotes each element s o l i f i e d 60

21. C a l c u l a t e d p r o f i l e s of temperature i n t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
volume f o r v a r i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n s of t h e A l - Z n a l l o y s
indicated 61

22. Comparison of the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n at the c h i l l face

for t h e A l - Z n a l l o y s 62

23. E q u i l i b r i u m phase diagram f o r Sb-Bi a l l o y s 63

24. T o t a l s h r i n k a g e r a t i o vs c o m p o s i t i o n f o r t h e Sb-Bi
alloys 64
25. C a l c u l a t e d volume change and t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume f o r S b - l O % B i . The number on t h e
c u r v e denotes each element s o l i d i f i e d 65

26. Comparison of t h e i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t the c h i l l face

for t h e Sb-Bi a l l o y s 66

27. C a l c u l a t e d volume change and t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume f o r S b - 2 0 % B i . The number on t h e
c u r v e denotes each element s o l i d i f i e d 67

28. F e e d i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y i n t h e
s t e e l c a s t i n g s ; (a) P l a t e s , and (b) Square b a r s
3 0
..95
3 1

29. Comparison o f measured p e r m e a b i l i t i e s vs volume f r a c t i o n

liquid ..96
30. C o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e system i n v e s t i g a t e d 97

31. Flow c h a r t of the computer program f o r the p r e d i c t i o n of

c e n t e r l i n e shrinkage 98

32. Temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e of t h e
plate casting 99

33. S o l i d u s movement a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e of p l a t e c a s t i n g
100
 ix

34. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n contour l i n e s a t the

( a ) i n i t i a l , (b) m i d d l e and (c) l a s t stages of
solidification 101

35. D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o feed shrinkage

at the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n (s=5cm) 102

36. D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o feed shrinkage

a t the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n (s=2.5cm) 103

37. D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o feed shrinkage

a t the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n (s=0.5cm) 104

38. Soundness of s t e e l p l a t e c a s t i n g s 105

39. D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o f e e d s h r i n k a g e
at the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n -end c h i l l e d c a s t i n g ...106

40. Comparison of the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t t h e c h i l l face

f o r the A l - C u a l l o y s 126

41. Comparison of the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t t h e c h i l l face

f o r the A l - Z n a l l o y s 127

42. Comparison of t h e i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t t h e c h i l l face

f o r the Sb-Bi a l l o y s 128

43. D i f f e r e n t types of nodes i n t h e model i n v e s t i g a t e d ..129

 List of Nomenclature

area,(cm ) 2

eutectic contraction coefficient,"

Biot number,*

mean composition of volume element,(wt%)

amount of segregation,(wt%)

segregation formed during the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n

of element (i,j),(wt%)

segregation in j-th column,(wt%)

compositions of l i q u i d and s o l i d ,

respectively,(wt%)

composition of l i q u i d at eutectic,(wt%)

sum of the composition dilution effects

in j - t h column when i - t h element solidifies,(wt%)

total dilution of composition in j-th

column,(wt%)

initial composition,(wt%)

specific heat,(cal/g°C)

local average composition of solid,(wt%)

mean c o m p o s i t i o n of cored solid at eutectic,(wt%)

length of p l a t e casting,(cm)

primary dendrite arm spacing,(cm)

grey body shape factor,*

Fourier number, +

weight fraction solid and liquid,respectively, +

temperature gradient,(°C/cm)
 xi

volume fraction of eutectic,*

volume fraction of solid and liquid,

respectively,*

acceleration due to gravity,981(cm/sec ) 2

latent heat of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , ( c a l / g )

heat transfer coefficient,(cal/cm sec°C) 2

heat transfer coefficient from sand mold and

metal to ambient a i r , respectively,(cal/cm sec°C) 2

permeability,(cm ) 2

thermal conductivity,(cal/cm.sec°C)

thermal conductivity of air,(cal/cm.sec°C)

thermal conductivity of sand mold and metal,

respectively,(cal/cm.sec°C)

equilibrium partition ratio,*

length of solid/liquid zone,(cm)

length of solid/liquid zone at steady state,(cm)

length of fluid flow,(cm)

capillary feeding distance,(cm)

solid and liquid masses, respectively, in a

representative volume,(g)

m g and ,respectively, at eutectic

temperature,(g)

radius of capillary,(cm)

pressure,(dyn/cm ) 2

ambient pressure,(dyn/cm ) 2

pressure d r o p due to fluid flow,(dyn/cm ) 2

pressure acting due to c a p i l l a r y flow,(dyn/cm ) 2

 X I 1

gradient of fraction solid,(1/cm)

heat f l u x , ( c a l / c m s e c ) 2

cooling rate,(°C/sec)

thickness of plate casting or size of square

bar casting,(cm)

temperature,(°C)

temperature after At,(°C)

interface temperature of ingot and mold,

respectively,(°C)

ambient temperature,(°C)

temperature i n metal and sand mold,

respectively,(°C)

initial temperature,(°C)

pouring temperature,(°C)

time,(sec)

representative volume or fluid volume to

flow,(cm ) 3

volume-to-area ratio of casting,(cm)

fluid flow velocity in a capillary,(cm/sec)

local flow velocity of interdendritic

liquid,(cm/sec)

superficial flow velocity of interdendritic

fluid,(cm/sec)

velocity of solidus,movement along the

centerline of a plate casting,(cm/sec)

local flow velocity of interdendritic

liquid in x-direction,(cm/sec)
 XI 1 1

element size,(cm)

metallostatic head,(cm)

thermal diffusivity,(cm /sec) 2

solidification shrinkage ratio,*

thickness of air gap,(cm)

emissivity, +

viscosity,(poise)

specific volume of liquid and solid,

respectively,(cm /g) 3

density,(g/cm ) 3

local mean density of solid and liquid,(g/cm ) 3

initial density of liquid,(g/cm ) 3

density of liquid and solid, respectively,(g/cm 3

solid density of eutectic composition,(g/cm ) 3

1 .37x10- 1 2
(cal/cm sec°K 2 f t
)

tortuosity factor,*

dimensionless
 xiv

Acknowledgement

I w i s h t o express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Fred Weinberg

and Dr. Indira V. Samarasekera for their invaluable advice,

guidance and immense encouragement t h r o u g h o u t the course of this

investigation.

Thanks are a l s o extended t o my f e l l o w graduate s t u d e n t s f o r

t h e i r v o l u n t a r y a s s i s t a n c e and c o - o p e r a t i o n . The assistance of

faculty members i n the Department of M e t a l l u r g i c a l Engineering,

U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia i s g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .

I am g r a t e f u l to RIKEN Corporation, Tokyo, Japan, for

p r o v i d i n g me w i t h t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y and financial support.

I w i l l not be d o i n g j u s t i c e t o myself without acknowledging

hard time and s a c r i f i c e s which my w i f e , Yuko, and my daughter,
Momoko, had t o s t a n d d u r i n g the c o u r s e of the p r e s e n t study.
 1

PART-A

INVERSE SEGREGATION IN BINARY ALLOYS

 2

A-I. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW

1 .1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

During the l o n g i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y of foundry technology,

the c a s t i n g p r o c e s s has been c o n s i d e r e d from an e m p i r i c a l point
of view rather than t h e o r e t i c a l l y . T h i s can be a t t r i b u t e d t o
the c o m p l e x i t y of the casting process which has discouraged
basic investigations of the process. For example, the
solidification of multiphase systems is heterogeneous, and
occurs under unsteady state and n o n - e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s .
D u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of s i m p l e binary alloys, solid of one
composition forms from liquid of another c o m p o s i t i o n . This
o c c u r r e n c e makes i t i m p o s s i b l e t o c a s t homogeneous alloys with
uniform structure and properties. Recently mathematical
m o d e l l i n g of the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s has enabled calculations
t o be made which g i v e the temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the solid
and liquid during non-equilibrium solidification. With
computers, t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s can be done reasonably, quickly
and cheaply. The r e s u l t s of the c a l c u l a t i o n have been shown t o
agree w e l l w i t h the c o r r e s p o n d i n g temperature measurements in
l a b o r a t o r y experiments and i n i n d u s t r i a l situations.

The major defects in castings are m a c r o s e g r e g a t i o n and

shrinkage. Both have a v e r y s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on the q u a l i t y of

the c a s t i n g s . I t i s g e n e r a l l y recognized that these d e f e c t s are

 3

largely related to fluid flow during solidification,

particularly interdendritic flow r e s u l t i n g from solidification

and thermal shrinkage.

The occurence of i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n , i n which the s o l u t e

gradient d i s t r i b u t i o n is opposite to that predicted by the

equilibrium phase diagram during solidification-, has long

interested metallurgists. Inverse s e g r e g a t i o n has been examined

by a number of r e s e a r c h e r s . I t i s g e n e r a l l y accepted that this

type of segregation is due to the back flow of s o l u t e rich

interdendritic liquid to f i l l the v o i d c r e a t e d by solidification

and thermal c o n t r a c t i o n s during solidification.

1.2 Previous Models f o r C h i l l Face Inverse Segregation

S c h e i l was the f i r s t person to derive precise analytical

expressions for the amount of i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n which occurs

at the c h i l l face d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n . For a typical binary

eutectic alloy system, the s e g r e g a t i o n (AC) i s given by:

AC = c" - Co
(A-l)
with

"Wis
- — — + m s E c S E

c -- E

Kirkaldy and Youdelis 2

extended the S c h e i l equation (A-2)
 4

to determine the solute concentration profile both at the chill

face a n d i n t h e body of the metal as a function of distance from

the chill face for a unidirectionally solidified ingot. A

representative volume, V, i s related to mass and specific

volumes of l i q u i d and s o l i d as:

V = V
S S m + V
j A (A-3)

On the assumption that no c o n t r a c t i o n void forms, and that V i s

constant, equation (A-3) reduces t o ,

dnL. = - a dm„
X s
(A-4)
where

a = l s + ^
V
L V
L d m
S (A-5)

The solute mass balance f o r incremental solidification i n the

volume i s given by:

f V
T _ V
Q d v
T x
d(m C ) = - C d
L L s m s + | c L d m s ( - ^ j - ( A _ 6 )

where the change of s o l u t e mass in the liquid i s equated to the

change of solute mass in the solid plus the solute mass

transported into the volume by contraction. The contraction

contribution i s made up o f two t e r m s : contraction due to the

solid/liquid phase change, and c o n t r a c t i o n due t o the specific

volume change of the l i q u i d . Note that thermal contraction is

neglected in this model. Combining equations (A-4) to (A-6)

gives the basic differential equation;

d m
L dc

^""X
L

(A-7)
 5

where r

A.I.-SL
L
L (A-8)

The integration of equation (A-7) gives m L which when

s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o equation (A-4) gives a value for m. s The
change of t h e mass i n a c o r e d c r y s t a l i s r e l a t e d to that i n the
remaining l i q u i d as:
d ( m
S S
C ) = C
S S d m
(A-9)
Combining e q u a t i o n s ( A - 4 ) and ( A - 7 ) w i t h e q u a t i o n (A-9) yields:

d ( m
S S C ) =
^ V ^ L (A-10)

Accordingly, the substitution of m C , calculated by the

integration of equation ( A - 1 0 ) , together with m T and m into

IJ S

equation (A-2) w i l l g i v e t h e maximum i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t t h e

chill face.

For t h e Al-Cu system, t h e temperature dependence of t h e

s p e c i f i c volumes of the solid and liquid under equilibrium

conditions were c o m p i l e d by S a u e r w a l d . 3
These v a l u e s a r e shown

i n F i g 1 a l o n g w i t h c o n s t i t u t i o n a l phase diagram of t h e alloy.

Using this data, S c h e i l 1

c a l c u l a t e d t h e maximum s e g r e g a t i o n a t

the c h i l l face f o r a unidirectionally solidified ingot. The

calculated values were found t o be i n e x c e l l e n t agreement w i t h

measured v a l u e s of t h e s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t the c h i l l face

over t h e e n t i r e c o m p o s i t i o n range examined.

The above theory was a l s o a p p l i e d t o t h e A l - Z n and Sb-Bi

a l l o y s by Y o u d e l i s e t al" j 5
using the specific volume data

r e p o r t e d by P r e z e l and S c h n e i d e r . 6
Again the t h e o r e t i c a l values
 6

of the chill face concentration agreed well with the

e x p e r i m e n t a l measurements. In the A l - Z n a l l o y the scatter of

the experimental data i s l a r g e , making the c o m p a r i s o n between

t h e o r y and experiment l e s s d e f i n e d than i n other systems. Of

particular interest i n comparing t h e o r y and experiment are the

r e s u l t s f o r the Sb-Bi a l l o y . In t h i s system solidification is

accompanied by volume expansion a t the h i g h B i c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

and c o n t r a c t i o n a t low B i v a l u e s . The change from positive to

negative inverse segregation, corresponding t o the transition

from expansion t o c o n t r a c t i o n , o c c u r s at a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30%Bi.

In the S c h e i l and Y o u d e l i s development of the mathematical

formulation of inverse s e g r e g a t i o n , the f o l l o w i n g assumptions

were made.
1) The s p e c i f i c volume and composition of the primary
s o l i d i f i e d metal are c o n s t a n t .
2) The thermal contraction during solidification is
negligible.

These assumptions a r e i n v a l i d or o n l y approximately valid for

the f o l l o w i n g reasons. The model i s o n l y a p p l i c a b l e t o systems
w i t h n e g l i g i b l e s o l i d s o l u b i l i t y t o comply w i t h assumption (1)
and for alloys with short freezing ranges to comply w i t h
assumption ( 2 ) . Note t h a t , w i t h complete c o r i n g i n the solid,
the f i n a l s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o c c u r s a t the e u t e c t i c t e m p e r a t u r e , not
a t the s o l i d u s temperature.
 7

1.3 Inverse Segregation away from t h e C h i l l Face (positional

Segregation)

Assuming linear mass distribution of liquid i n the

solid/liquid mushy zone, and a specific gradient of liquid

composition i n the d i r e c t i o n of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , K i r k a l d y and

Youdelis 2
have extended S c h e i l ' s a n a l y s i s t o the c a l c u l a t i o n of

the p o s i t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n of i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n .

At the c h i l l face, during s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , interdendritic

liquid f l o w s i n t o t h e e l e m e n t a l volume w i t h ho outward flow.
Away from the c h i l l face i n t e r d e n d r i t i c l i q u i d f l o w s both into
and out of t h e e l e m e n t a l volume t o t a k e up volume change. To
account f o r t h e outward f l u i d f l o w t h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e s o l u t e
mass b a l a n c e , e q u a t i o n ( A - 6 ) , must be r e w r i t t e n by adding a term
due to liquid flow out a t t h e p o s i t i o n L:

d( V t ) - - C d.
s s + j C d^ ( )
L - _ i 1- ^ a s ^

where a C A'L i s t h e mean l i q u i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n g r a d i e n t and S i s

the inward flow d i s t a n c e past p o i n t L due to contraction i n

inner regions. Equation (A-6) was r e p l a c e d w i t h e q u a t i o n (A-11)

and the p o s i t i o n a l segregation p r o f i l e s f o r A 1 - 1 0 % C U and A l -

15%Cu were c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e s i m i l a r manner t o the calculation

of t h e maximum s e g r e g a t i o n a t t h e c h i l l f a c e as d e s c r i b e d i n t h e

previous section. With this theory, c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h e

p o s i t i o n a l segregation gave results which agreed well with

 8

experimentally measured v a l u e s of t h e s e g r e g a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n ,
of p o s i t i o n from t h e c h i l l face.

Prabhakar and W e i n b e r g 7
questioned the conclusions arrived

at by Kirkaldy and Youdelis 2

on t h e b a s i s o f t h e a c c u r a c y of

t h e i r measurements. Prabhakar and W e i n b e r g 7

carried out some

careful inverse segregation measurements using radioactive

tracer techniques and showed that the maximum inverse

segregation at the c h i l l face i s h i g h l y dependent of c a s t i n g

c o n d i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e superheat of t h e melt when c a s t . With

superheat temperature g r e a t e r than 40°C, the concentration at

the chill face drops r a p i d l y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g superheat for a

copper c h i l l . W i t h a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l c h i l l which has a lower

thermal conductivity than copper, the inverse segregation i s

higher a t higher superheats when compared t o t h e copper chill,

but a l s o drops w i t h i n c r e a s e d superheat. Moreover, t h e r e was no

indication of i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n w e l l away from

the c h i l l face as r e p o r t e d by Kirkadly and Youdelis . 2

These

results indicate t h a t v a r i o u s c a s t i n g p a r a m e t e r s , not i n c l u d e d

i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l model, can s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e t h e extent of

i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d f l o w d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n and a c c o r d i n g l y ,

the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n .

Based on the concept that a l l solute macrosegregation

r e s u l t s from i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d f l o w of s o l u t e r i c h l i q u i d to

feed solidification shrinkage and thermal c o n t r a c t i o n , the

S c h e i l - Y o u d e l i s model was extended by Flemings et a l ' 8 1 1

to

account f o r a wide range o f s e g r e g a t i o n e f f e c t s . This included

 9

centerline segretation, banding, under-riser positive

segregation, and t h e n e g a t i v e cone of s e g r e g a t i o n as w e l l a s

inverse segregation. C o n s e r v a t i o n o f s o l u t e mass i n t h e volume

element d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h a t :
£CpC) = - n^ C v) L L (A-12)

C o n s e r v a t i o n of t o t a l mass i n t h e volume element g i v e s ,

Combining e q u a t i o n s (A-12) and (A-13),

The change i n s o l u t e mass o f t h e volume element i s t h e sum o f

the changes i n t h e l i q u i d and s o l i d phases;

£(PC) =^(C P g s s s + C L P L g )
L (A-15)

S i m i l a r l y , t h e change i n t o t a l mass of t h e volume element i s ,

TT =
TT (
% s
8 +
PL L 8 )
(A-16)
Assuming l o c a l e q u i l i b r i u m a t the s o l i d / l i q u i d interface, no

d i f f u s i o n i n t h e s o l i d , and a c o n s t a n t s o l i d d e n s i t y , g i v e s :

at V s ^ = o L s T T
( k C p
(A-17)
and
dg = - dg

. L
(A-18)

S u b s t i t u t i n g e q u a t i o n s (A-17) and (A-18) i n e q u a t i o n (A-15), and

combining i t w i t h e q u a t i o n s (A-16) and (A-14) g i v e s t h e f i n a l

partial differential equation;

l^k = _ / lzg_i , vVT . L n

8

3C \l-k ) \ 1 +
C~ (A-19)
L o
T
L

For one d i m e n s i o n a l problem, t h a t i s u n i d i r e c t i o n a l

 10

solidification, equation (A-19) i s rewritten to:

9
e L 1 - e V G X g L

3 C
L =
(A-20)

Macrosegregation i s defined for a binary eutectic system as,

- m
C
S M S + p
SE% LE C

P (l-g ) +
s E p g E g E • (A-21)
AC = C - C
o

which i s analogous to S c h e i l ' s expression, equation (A-1) and

(A-2). Macrosegregation can now be calculated with equation (A-

21) and equation (A-19) or (A-20).

Two limiting cases can be easily studied. For steady

state, _

R ~ T-p" CA-22)

Substituting equation (A-22) into equation (A-20) and

integrating yields,

C L l-k Q

8
L (c;) =
° (A-23)

The other limiting case can be defined at c h i l l face where,

and similarly,
1- e
C . L l-k Q

8
L =
IC "/ 7
(A-24)
o
Assuming a constant partition ratio, k =0.172, f o r Al-4.5%Cu,
o

and taking the value for solidification shrinkage as /3=0.055

Flemings el a l 8
calculated t h e amount of segregation as:

AC = 0.43% at c h i l l face
 11

AC = 0 a t steady state

The c a l c u l a t e d i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t the c h i l l face agrees w i t h

the experimental v a l u e s r e p o r t e d by S c h e i l 1
and the c a l c u l a t e d

s e g r e g a t i o n a t steady s t a t e w i t h the r e s u l t s of Prabhakar and

Weinberg . 7

Note t h a t , i f the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n s h r i n k a g e i s defined by:

3 = —k = (A _25)

P
S V
L

as Flemings et a l 8
d i d , the v a l u e s of 0 o b t a i n e d from F i g 1 a r e
n e g a t i v e i n the alloys containing more than 9%Cu. When a
negative value of 0 i s adopted t o above t h e o r y , the resulting
s e g r e g a t i o n a t the c h i l l face i s a l s o n e g a t i v e , which does not
agree w i t h p o s i t i v e i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n r e p o r t e d by S c h e i l 1
and
K i r k a l d y et a l . To v a l i d a t e the model of F l e m i n g s e t a l ' ,
2 8 9
/3
must always be p o s i t i v e , t h e r e f o r e , the d e f i n i t i o n of /3 i s not
v a l i d f o r the Al-Cu system.

1.4 Present Objectives

In the segregation models thus far reviewed,the

s o l i d i f i c a t i o n shrinkage i s a c r i t i c a l variable. It i s believed

that this i s not c l e a r l y d e f i n e d i n the models, and the values

adopted t o c a l c u l a t e the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n are i n c o r r e c t . In

addition other assumptions made i n the t h e o r y a r e not entirely

satisfactory. In order t o c l a r i f y t h e s e problems and t o p r e d i c t

inverse segregation in a unidirectionally solidified ingot

 12

p r e c i s e l y , a new model, w i t h minimum a s s u m p t i o n s , was developed.

 13

A-II. MODELING PROCEDURE

2.1 Mathematical Formulation

In a unidirectionally solidified ingot three dimensional

c r y s t a l growth o c c u r s s i n c e a d e n d r i t e grows t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l l y

because of m i c r o s e g r e g a t i o n between d e n d r i t e s and t h e d i f f e r e n c e

of t h e r m a l d i f f u s i v i t i e s i n s o l i d and l i q u i d . To s i m p l i f y this

complex problem, i t i s assumed t h a t t h e p r i m a r y d e n d r i t e has a

pyramid shape without secondary or higher order dendrite

branches. The following assumptions are also made i n the

mathematical formulation;

1) No s u r f a c e e x u d a t i o n o c c u r s a t t h e c h i l l face.

2) There is no diffusion in the solid during

solidification.

3) Residual interdendritic liquid is completely

homogeneous i n t h e p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the growth

direction.

4) Local e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t a t the s o l i d / l i q u i d

interface.

5) The dendrite shape does not change during

solidification.

6) The m i c r o s e g r e g a t i o n i s not a f f e c t e d by i n t e r d e n d r i t i c

fluid flow.

7) No s h r i n k a g e p o r o s i t y o c c u r s during solidification.
 14

This r e q u i r e s low gas l e v e l s and u n r e s t r i c t e d f l o w of

l i q u i d through the d e n d r i t e channels.

Under these c o n d i t i o n s , t h e f i r s t s m a l l amount of s o l i d to

form i s of c o m p o s i t i o n \ C } Q a t the l i q u i d u s temperature. During

subsequent solidification, solute i s enriched i n the r e s i d u a l

l i q u i d which l e a d s t o h i g h e r s o l u t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e solid

as solidification progresses. Since d i f f u s i o n i n the s o l i d i s

assumed n e g l i g i b l e , t h e s o l u t e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e s o l i d does

not change a f t e r s o l i d i f i c a t i o n occurs.

A quantitative solute mass balance can be e x p r e s s e d by

e q u a t i n g t h e amount of s o l u t e rejected from the solid/liquid

i n t e r f a c e t o the s o l u t e increase i n the l i q u i d . This balance i s

(C - C ) d f _ = f d C T T
L
S L L s
(A-26a)
since C = k C and f = 1-f :
s o L L s
dC df„

C s
u
V l - f s (A-26b)

Integrating equation (A-26b) from C g = k CQ o at f =0 y i e l d s the

g

s o l i d c o m p o s i t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of f r a c t i o n solid

C
S " o k C
o ( 1
- f
S ) V 1
, CA-27a)

or i n terms of l i q u i d c o m p o s i t i o n and f r a c t i o n liquid,

C
L = C
o L °
f k 1
(A-27b)

Equations (A-27) have been d e r i v e d by S c h e i l 1 2

and P f a n n ,
1 3
are

called the S c h e i l equation or Pfann equation. The S c h e i l

e q u a t i o n has been used t o p r e d i c t microsegregation f o r normal

 15

conditions of c a s t i n g and ingot s o l i d i f i c a t i o n i n binary a l l o y s

by Brody et a l * and 1
Bower et a l 1 5
. They reported a good

c o r r e l a t i o n between the e q u a t i o n and e x p e r i m e n t a l results.

At the i n i t i a l s t a g e s of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , the solid/liquid

region can be represented schematically by solid pyramids

projecting into the l i q u i d as shown i n F i g 2a. F o l l o w i n g the

above d i s c u s s i o n , the m i c r o s e g r e g a t i o n i s governed by equation

(A-27) which give the solid and l i q u i d c o m p o s i t i o n profiles

a l o n g the c h i l l f a c e as shown i n F i g 2b. When the d e n d r i t e tip

reaches L, the fraction solid i n the volume element away from

the c h i l l face ( f ) can be r e l a t e d t o t h a t i n the volume element

s
adjacent t o the c h i l l f a c e (f ) by,
s
•P » — l*~ x
c
f
S " ~L~ f
S CA-28)
and the c o m p o s i t i o n profile i s g i v e n by the S c h e i l equation,
T
k
-1
C q = k C (i-ir* f) °
S o o \ L SJ (A-29a)

and

T
k
- 1

L L-x

Fig 2c shows the distribution of interdendritic liquid

composition in the growing d i r e c t i o n c a l c u l a t e d from e q u a t i o n
(A-29b). I t can be seen t h a t the f l o w of s o l u t e e n r i c h e d liquid
t o feed s h r i n k a g e r e s u l t s i n inverse segregation.

The next s t e p i s t o e s t a b l i s h the amount of fluid flow,

which is related to the amount of volume c o n t r a c t i o n . As

d e s c r i b e d i n the p r e v i o u s p a p e r s ' , 5 9
the volume change occuring
 16

i n the p r o c e s s of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n i s made up of t h r e e mechanisms.

1) The change due t o the l i q u i d / s o l i d phase change.

2) The change due t o the d e n s i t y change i n the r e s i d u a l

l i q u i d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o m p o s i t i o n changes.

3) Thermal contraction associated with temperature

changes.

The first two volume changes can be calculated from the

equations for microsegregation, equations (A-27) and (A-29).

The t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by the t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p .

2.1.1 Alloy Densities

The calculation of the t o t a l amount of c o n t r a c t i o n due t o

solidification and temperature changes requires accurate
i n f o r m a t i o n of the d e n s i t i e s of the l i q u i d and s o l i d a l l o y s as a
f u n c t i o n of both c o m p o s i t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e . The d a t a r e p o r t e d
by Sauerwald 3
(see F i g 1) and P r e z e l et a l a r e not a p p l i c a b l e
6

i n the p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s s i n c e the densities they gave assume

t h a t t h e a l l o y c o m p o s i t i o n a t a g i v e n temperature a r e d e f i n e d by
the equilibrium phase diagram, which i s not the c a s e . This i s
the reason t h a t the previo'us m o d e l s ' ' 1 2 8
were f o r c e d t o neglect
thermal contraction during s o l i d i f i c a t i o n .

The only reliable data which can be used i n the p r e s e n t

case a r e the p u b l i s h e d v a l u e s f o r the temperature dependence of

the density for pure metals. Fig 3 shows the temperature

dependence of the d e n s i t i e s of copper and aluminium c o m p i l e d by

 17

Smithells 1 6
and E l l i o t e t a l 1 7
. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e n s i t i e s f o r

zinc, antimony and bismuth a r e shown i n F i g 4. Provided that a

b i n a r y e x i s t s as a s i m p l e m i x t u r e of each component, t h e d e n s i t y

of t h e a l l o y can be determined from the percentage of t h e

components i n t h e a l l o y and t h e components d e n s i t i e s a t a g i v e n

temperature. C a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s of a l l o y d e n s i t i e s f o r the A l - C u

system u s i n g t h e component densites a r e compared to those

measured directly or compiled by Bornemann et a l 1 8

and

Smithels 1 6
i n T a b l e I . F o r both s o l i d s and liquids excellent

agreement is obtained between the c a l c u l a t e d densities

d e t e r m i n e d from t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s and the d i r e c t measurements

w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s of l e s s than 5% a t most.

Similar comparisons were made f o r t h e A l - Z n and Pb-Sn

systems u s i n g t h e data of Bornemann e t a l 1 9
and Thresh et a l 2 0

(Table I ) . Very good agreement i s a g a i n e v i d e n t w i t h e r r o r s ,

l e s s than 1.6% and 1.2% i n the A l - Z n and the Pb-Sn systems,
respectively. These e r r o r s a r e n e g l i g i b l e i n the p r e s e n t c a s e .

2.1.2 S h r i n k a g e Along The C h i l l Face

Consider the representative volume a d j a c e n t t o t h e c h i l l

face ( F i g 2a). The s o l i d / l i q u i d interface i s plane and t h e

solidification advances unidirectionally because of t h e

microsegregation discussed previously. In the numerical

calculation, t h e volume was s u b d i v i d e d i n t o n e l e m e n t s . When

t h e i - t h element i ssolidified, composition of the remaining

 18

liquid i s :
i k
o - 1

C
L± = C
o ( 1
~ n }
° (A-30a)

and t h e average s o l i d c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e i - t h element i s :

5
S i - J L l V * • -=.{(1- ^ ) ° k
- (1- i)k°j < -30 >
A b

until C L reaches t h e e u t e c t i c c o m p o s i t i o n . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g

i
temperature of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume (T^ ) can be obtained " -

from t h e phase diagram as t h e l i q u i d u s temperature f o r the

composition C T . Once t h e e u t e c t i c c o m p o s i t i o n i s reached, no

s o l u t e r e j e c t i o n occurs a t the s o l i d / l i q u i d interface. From t h e

discussion i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , t h e d e n s i t y of each element

i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e average s o l i d c o m p o s i t i o n (C ) or liquid
i
composition (C ) a t temperature T . To c a l c u l a t e t h e volume
T. L.
change i n each element, a c o n s t a n t mass w i t h i n t h e element is
assumed. Then t h e s h r i n k a g e r a t i o i n each element i s :
l~ o P p

SH. = — - - ( A _ 3 1 )

and t h e . t o t a l s h r i n k a g e of the whole volume i s :

n
e
i = Z S H
i (A-32)
1=1

The shrinkage formed during the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of the i - t h

element i s :

Ae ± = e. - e _ i 1 (A-33)
 19

2.1.3 S e g r e g a t i o n i n the F i r s t Column A d j a c e n t To The C h i l l Face

C o n s i d e r the system shown in F i g 5. If the number of

subdivision in the x and y directions are e q u a l then the

assumption (3) d i c t a t e s t h a t the solidification proceeds one

element by one element in both directions. The growth of

the d e n d r i t e i n the x d i r e c t i o n r e s u l t s from the unidirectional

heat transfer and the growth i n y direction from the

m i c r o s e g r e g a t i o n e x p r e s s e d by e q u a t i o n (A-27).

The f i r s t column i n F i g 5 coresponds t o the representative

volume d i s c u s s e d i n the p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . The s h r i n k a g e formed
i n the f i r s t column i s c o m p l e t e l y fed by the liquid in the
second column. D u r i n g the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of the i - t h element i n
column 1, the liquid composition i n column 2 i n c r e a s e s from
C to C . T a k i n g the average f o r the liquid composition

in column 2, the s e g r e g a t i o n caused by the f e e d i n g f l o w d u r i n g

this period i s :

(A-34)

and the f i n a l s e g r e g a t i o n a f t e r complete solidification of the

f i r s t column i s :

AC
n (A-35)
1 " 2 A C
L
i=l i,l
 20

2.1.4 Positional Segregation

Based on the assumption that shrinkage due to

solidification and thermal shrinkage is completely fed with

residual liquid, interdendritic fluid flow should occur

continuously during solidification. The maximum segregation

occurs at the chill face since the l i q u i d r e q u i r e d t o f e e d

shrinkage i s concentrated i n s o l u t e and t h e r e i s no l i q u i d . f l o w

a c r o s s the c h i l l f a c e (note t h a t we n e g l e c t s u r f a c e exudations).

At an i n t e r i o r p o s i t i o n of the i n g o t , the c o m p o s i t i o n of liquid

f l o w i n g out of the e l e m e n t a l volume is higher than that of

liquid flowing in. Accordingly, the fluid flow across the

volume element away from the chill face dilutes the liquid

concentration in the volume, decreasing the amount of

segregation. F i g 6a shows the f e e d i n g sequence schematically.

The system is subdivided into thin columns in which the

interdendritic liquid i s assumed t o be c o m p l e t e l y homogeneous.

The dotted line in F i g 6a denotes the actual l o c a t i o n of

solid/liquid interface. Note t h a t the r a t i o of l e n g t h t o width

for the dendrite remains unchanged on the basis of the

assumption that dendrite shape does not change during

solidification. The corresponding profile of l i q u i d composition

in the solidifying direction is shown in F i g 6b. Fig 7

summarizes the occurance of a l l the i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d f l o w i n

the model w i t h 10X10 s u b d i v i s i o n s by the time the position L

reaches eutectic temperature, that is when the e n t i r e model

volume has s o l i d i f i e d . Each dotted line denotes the actual

 21

location of solid/liquid interface, and the digit i n each

element the number of columns whose s h r i n k a g e s cause f l u i d flow

across a p a r t i c u l a r column a t the c o r r e s p o n d i n g l o c a t i o n of the

interface. The number 5 a p p e a r i n g a t ( b , 6 ) , f o r example, means

that the s h r i n k a g e s i n f i v e columns, 1-5, induce the f l u i d flow

a c r o s s column 6 because of the f l u i d f l o w t o f e e d s h r i n k a g e s in

elements ( 9 , 1 ) , ( 8 , 2 ) , ( 7 , 3 ) , ( 6 , 4 ) and ( 5 , 5 ) . Thus the f l u i d i n - ~

f l o w t o f e e d i t s own s h r i n k a g e i s not i n c l u d e d i n t h i s figure.

When the element ( i , j ) s o l i d i f i e s , (j-1) f l u i d flows will

occur a c r o s s the j - t h column, which a r e induced by the f l o w s t o

feed s h r i n k a g e s i n t h e column ( j - 1 ) , ( j - 2 ) , ( j - 3 ) , - - - - , which

i s d e p i c t e d i n F i g 8 (Note t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n a p p l i e s for i+j ^

11). Then, the l i q u i d c o m p o s i t i o n s i n c r e a s e from C to C

L
i-1 L
i
i n the j - t h column and from C to C in the (j+l)-th
L
i-2 L _!
±

column. T a k i n g the a v e r a g e s f o r the c o m p o s i t i o n s , the l i q u i d t o

flow out of the column j i s (C +C )/2 and the l i q u i d t o f l o w
L
i-1 L
i
into is (C +C )/2 so t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e between them i s
L
i-2 L
i-1
g i v e n by (C -C )/2. Since the microsegregation is not
L
i i-3
L

affected by f l u i d f l o w , the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n s h r i n k a g e s formed i n

inner columns are the same as that in the first column
c a l c u l a t e d by e q u a t i o n (A-33). The d i l u t i o n e f f e c t of the above
flow induced by the s h r i n k a g e i n the ( j - 1 ) - t h column i n which
( i + l ) - t h element s o l i d i f i e s i s :

c —c

- (-V** - c
>«
 22

The sum of d i l u t i o n e f f e c t s f o r ( j - 1 ) flow occurances i s :

AC
i+j . V C
Lj
L. .. ( Z ** )(
± \ ^ - o)
C
CA-37)
i-i+1 ' 2

When t h e element (5,4) s o l i d i f i e s i n F i g 7 f o r example, t h e

shrinkages i n the f i r s t , second and third columns - w i l l cause

fluid flow a c r o s s the column 4. The c o m p o s i t i o n d i f f e r e n c e of

the l i q u i d f l o w i n g i n t o and out of t h e column 4 i s ( C -C, T )/2

and t h e sum of d i l u t i o n e f f e c t s i s :

C
L ~L C

A C
L 5 > 4 = <AB + AB 6 7+ AP )(-i—-cJ
8

T h i s k i n d of d i l u t i o n f l o w c o n t i n u e s u n t i l t h e whole column
solidifies completely, therefore, the t o t a l d i l u t i o n e f f e c t f o r
the j - t h column i^s g i v e n by:

X
i=i
AC L
a c
L ( A _ 3 8 )

S i n c e t h e f e e d i n g flow i n t o a column t o compensate i t s own

shrinkage increase the c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e column by t h e an
amount e q u a l t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e f i r s t column, t h e resulting
s e g r e g a t i o n i n t h e j - t h column i s :

AC. - A C l - AC _ L ( A _ 3 9 )
 23

2.1.5 The Length of I n v e r s e S e g r e t a t i o n Zone

On t h e assumption that the l o c a l e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s

e x i s t at the l i q u i d / s o l i d interface, the temperature at a

dendrite t i p corresponds t o t h e l i q u i d u s temperature o f the

alloy. Hence u s i n g the d e n d r i t e t i p temperature, t h e steady

state length of s o l i d / l i q u i d zone, L , can be d e f i n e d a s the

s
d i s t a n c e between l i q u i d u s i s o t h e r m and the c h i l l face when t h e

metal a t the c h i l l f a c e reaches the e u t e c t i c t e m p e r a t u r e . The

v a l u e of L„ can be c a l c u l a t e d n u m e r i c a l l y . The heat transfer

S
e q u a t i o n i s g i v e n by:
3 T = k 3 T
2
(A-40)
9 t p C . 2
p 3 x

for a s e m i - i n f i n i t e mold and i n g o t . During s o l i d i f i c a t i o n the

m e t a l s h r i n k s from the copper c h i l l p r o d u c i n g an a i r gap which
lowers the heat t r a n s f e r between the m e t a l and mould. The heat
t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t t h r o u g h the a i r gap can be d e t e r m i n e d from
the following expression:
k (T + 273)
T
4
- (T + 273) 4

h = -f- + OF T - T ( " ^)
A 4

I II

The latent heat of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n i s taken t o be r e l e a s e d

u n i f o r m l y between the l i q u i d u s and s o l i d u s t e m p e r a t u r e s . Values
f o r the t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s used i n the n u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n a r e
l i s t e d i n Table I I .
 24

2 . 2 Computer Programming

Based on the mathematical formulation and information

discussed in the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , c a l c u l a t i o n s of segregation

were performed n u m e r i c a l l y w i t h a computer. Fig 9 shows the

flow chart for the c a l c u l a t i o n of i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t and

a d j a c e n t t o the c h i l l face.

To c a l c u l a t e the l e n g t h of the inverse segregation zone,

the partial differential equation f o r heat t r a n s f e r , e q u a t i o n

( A - 4 0 ) , was s o l v e d i m p l i c i t l y w i t h the f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e method.

The n o d a l e q u a t i o n s f o r i n t e r n a l nodes a r e :
* * * *
T. - T. . T. N - 2T. + T. .a

At p
p (Ax) 2

and f o r s u r f a c e h a l f node:

At each time step, the Gauss-Jordan elimination method was

a p p l i e d t o s o l v e the t r i d i a g o n a l m a t r i x . The actual calculation

sequence i s shown i n F i g 10.
 25

A-III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The m a t h e m a t i c a l model e s t a b l i s h e d i n the p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r

was a p p l i e d t o the c a l c u l a t i o n of i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n in Al-Cu,

A l - Z n and Sb-Bi systems.

3.1 The Aluminium Copper System

The Al-Cu system i s a t y p i c a l eutectic a l l o y with nearly

l i n e a r l i q u i d u s and s o l i d u s l i n e s i n the phase diagram ( F i g 1).
The l i n e s a r e assumed t o be l i n e a r i n the c a l c u l a t i o n giving a
constant p a r t i t i o n r a t i o during solidification.

3.1.1 Volume Change d u r i n g Solidification

It is seen i n F i g 1 t h a t e x p a n s i o n i n s t e a d of contraction

at liquid/solid phase change appears over most stages of

solidification of the Al-Cu a l l o y . The c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s of

volume change f o r A 1 - 1 0 % C U , F i g 11, a l s o r e v e a l this phenomena

clearly, where the solid l i n e denotes the sequence of volume

change i n each s o l i d i f i e d element and the dotted line in the

residual liquid. Here the e q u i l i b r i u m p a r t i t i o n r a t i o was taken

t o have a c o n s t a n t v a l u e , k =0.171. Each element w i t h l e s s than

e u t e c t i c c o m p o s i t i o n shows expansion d u r i n g solidification. The

 26

volume expansion ratio increases with an increase of

c o n c e n t r a t i o n because the volume change i s h i g h l y dependent on

the d i f f e r e n c e i n copper c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n the l i q u i d and solid.

On the other hand, we can observe volume c o n t r a c t i o n d u r i n g

eutectic solidification because no composition change takes

place during solidification a f t e r the e u t e c t i c c o m p o s i t i o n is

reached. The total shrinkage of the whole r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume"

i s a l s o p l o t t e d as a dot dashed l i n e i n F i g 11. Of particular

importance here i s t h a t , even i n the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n process of

the r e g i o n with composition less than the eutectic, where

solidification expansion o c c u r s , the t o t a l shrinkage ratio for

the whole system c o n t i n u e s to increase almost steadily. This

phenomena can be a t t r i b u t e d t o the i n c r e a s e i n l i q u i d d e n s i t y as

a result of solute enrichment i n the r e s i d u a l l i q u i d , and to

t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n which i s observed i n F i g 11 as the slight

increase of the shrinkage in each element after its

solidification. Hence we can c o n c l u d e that, even though the

volume expansion occurs during the liquid/solid phase

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the sum of the c o n t r a c t i o n due to the solute

concentration in the l i q u i d and the t e m p e r a t u r e drop i s a l w a y s

g r e a t e r than the expansion.

Fig 12 shows the c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s of volume change of

each element in Al-5%Cu alloy t o g e t h e r w i t h the composition

profile of remaining liquid. Note t h a t the volume contraction

follows the l i q u i d / s o l i d phase t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n the beginning

of solidification, decreasing with increase of alloy

composition. The volume change eventually reverses from

 27

contraction to expansion between elements 4 and 5. The

corresponding composition of t h e r e v e r s a l p o i n t i s found t o be

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7%Cu which i s less than the critical value of

9%Cu, o b t a i n e d by Sauerwald . 3

The calculated t o t a l shrinkage r a t i o s are p l o t t e d a g a i n s t

the a l l o y c o m p o s i t i o n i n F i g 13. These can be compared w i t h the
volume change r a t i o s a t the l i q u i d / s o l i d phase change obtained
from the s p e c i f i c volume d a t a of F i g 1, a l s o shown i n F i g - 1 3 .
The t o t a l shrinkage ratio, differing from the local volume
change, i s always p o s i t i v e w i t h v a l u e s r a n g i n g between 5.2% for
A l - 2 5 % C u t o 7.2% f o r n e a r l y pure A l . The abrupt i n c r e a s e i n the
t o t a l s h r i n k a g e r a t i o near pure Al results from the thermal
contraction. N e g l e c t i n g t h i s volume c o n t r a c t i o n as was done i n
the previous investigation ' ' 1 2 8
would clearly result in a
significant error in the calculated v a l u e s of s h r i n k a g e and
segregation.

3.1.2 S e g r e g a t i o n a t the C h i l l Face

S e g r e g a t i o n p r o f i l e s of the a l l o y s can now be calculated

using the complete volume changes d i s c u s s e d above. Positional

i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n p r o f i l e s r e s u l t i n g from these calculations

are g i v e n i n F i g 14 f o r A l - C u a l l o y s as f u n c t i o n s of fractional

d i s t a n c e from the c h i l l face. The i n i t i a l s l o p e s of the curves

decrease with increasing alloy composition. The maximum

segregation i s obtained at the chill face. The calculated

 28

inverse segregation a t the c h i l l f a c e of t h e A l - C u a l l o y s as a

f u n c t i o n of c o m p o s i t i o n i s shown by t h e s o l i d l i n e in F i g 15.

As t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of copper i n the a l l o y i n c r e a s e s , the c h i l l

face inverse segregation i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y t o a peak v a l u e a t

about Al-l2%Cu, then decreases to zero at the eutectic

composition. Also plotted in F i g 15 are the experimental

measurements by S c h e i l 1
and Kirkaldy et a l 2
and theoretical -

predictions by Scheil 1
and F l e m i n g s e t a l . The agreement of
8

the model p r e d i c t i o n s w i t h the e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s i s e x c e l l e n t

for copper concentrations less than 15%. At c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

above 15% the calculated results are greater than the

experimental values.

3.1.3 P o s i t i o n a l Segregation

The length of the s o l i d / l i q u i d zone a d j a c e n t t o the c h i l l

f a c e i s dependent on the r a t e of heat e x t r a c t i o n from the metal

at the chill face. T h i s i n t u r n can be markedly i n f l u e n c e d by

the presence of an a i r gap between the metal and the chill

s u r f a c e s due t o the c o n t r a c t i o n of the m e t a l . The l e n g t h of the

solid/liquid region i s defined as the d i s t a n c e between the

l i q u i d u s and the c h i l l a t the moment when the metal a t t h e c h i l l

f a c e reaches the eutectic temperature. The calculated zone

length is plotted i n F i g 16 as a f u n c t i o n of t h e w i d t h of a i r

gap f o r t h r e e melt s u p e r h e a t s , as i n d i c a t e d . The l e n g t h of the

solid/liquid zone is observed to increase r a p i d l y with small

 29

i n c r e a s e s i n the a i r gap. The l e n g t h goes from n e a r l y zero to

15mm w i t h the f o r m a t i o n of a s m a l l gap of lO^m w i t h a superheat

of 4 0 ° C . The r a t e of i n c r e a s e i s h i g h e s t w i t h the lowest melt

superheat.

There are relatively few reliable measurements of the

l e n g t h of the s o l i d / l i q u i d r e g i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h - t h e length

b e i n g v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . Reliable

measurements have been r e p o r t e d by Prabhakar and W e i n b e r g 7

using

radioactive tracer techniques to measure the inverse

segregation. T h e i r r e s u l t s show t h a t the l e n g t h of s o l i d / l i q u i d

r e g i o n w i t h 4 1 ° C superheat i s approximately 5mm for A1-10%CU.

It is indicated from F i g 16 t h a t t h e r e was an a i r gap of 3MITI

between the a l l o y and the c h i l l in their measurements.

I n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a d j a c e n t t o the c h i l l face (positional

segregation) c a l c u l a t e d from the p r e s e n t t h e o r y f o r A 1 - 1 0 % C U i s
shown in F i g 17. For comparison the results reported by
Prabhakar et a l 7
and the theoretical p r e d i c t i o n of K i r k a l d y
et a l a r e a l s o shown.
2
The i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n c a l c u l a t e d from
the present theory is a little lower than t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s u l t s of Prabhakar et a l . The results by Kirkaldy et a l
d e v i a t e f u r t h e r from t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s near t h e c h i l l and
maintain a p o s i t i v e v a l u e a f t e r 5mm when the measured v a l u e i s
zero. I n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n i s r e p o r t e d by Kirkaldy et a l well
away from the chill face, d i f f e r i n g from the r e s u l t s of the
p r e s e n t model and the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s of Prabhakar et a l .

Prabhakar and W e i n b e r g 7
have also found that with melt
 30

superheats above 40°C the c o n c e n t r a t i o n at the c h i l l face drops

r a p i d l y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g superheat a g a i n s t a copper c h i l l . This

occurance can be accounted f o r from the r e s u l t s g i v e n i n F i g 16.

The superheat reduces the t h i c k n e s s of a i r gap a t mold/metal

i n t e r f a c e which lowers the l e n g t h of the solid/liquid region.

It is quite difficult to measure the c h i l l face s e g r e g a t i o n

p r o p e r l y w i t h i n a v e r y narrow i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n zone.

3.2 The Aluminium Zinc System

The phase diagram of the A l - Z n a l l o y system is shown in

Fig 18. In t h i s case the s o l i d u s and l i q u i d u s l i n e s cannot be
assumed t o be l i n e a r . To a p p l y the s e g r e g a t i o n model to this
system, the phase diagram was d i v i d e d into nineteen p o r t i o n s ,
every 5% a l o n g l i q u i d u s . The s o l i d u s and liquidus lines were
assumed t o be l i n e a r i n each p o r t i o n g i v i n g a c o n s t a n t partition
ratio.

The calculated total shrinkage ratio is plotted as a

function of composition in F i g 19. The shrinkage ratio

decreases w i t h i n c r e a s e of c o m p o s i t i o n i n the low a l l o y r e g i o n ,

then increases slightly as it approaches the eutectic

composition. The increase of total s h r i n k a g e near pure A l ,

which i s much more prominent than t h a t in Al-Cu ( F i g 12), is

a l s o caused by the thermal s h r i n k a g e . In the r e g i o n between 10%

to 40%Zn, the d e c l i n e of s h r i n k a g e i s markedly a c c e l e r a t e d .

 31

Fig 20 shows the c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s of volume change f o r

Al-lO%Zn. Similar to the Al-Cu alloy, the reversal from

shrinkage to expansion in volume change d u r i n g liquid/solid

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s observed i n the low c o m p o s i t i o n region. This

critcial point lies between the elements 7 and 8. However,

independent of s h r i n k a g e or expansion d u r i n g the solidification

of each element, the t o t a l s h r i n k a g e keeps i n c r e a s i n g s t e a d i l y -

u n t i l the s o l i d / l i q u i d reaches the f i n a l p a r t of solidification.

D u r i n g the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of the f i n a l element, the shrinkage

for both, each element and their total, are significantly

raised. This occurrence can be accounted for by the large

thermal shrinkage r e s u l t i n g from the l o n g f r e e z i n g range of the

element 10. The l i q u i d composition in this element increases

from 31% t o 95%Zn because of the s o l u t e r e j e c t i o n away from the

solid/liquid interface during its solidification and so the

temperature of the system, as seen in the same f i g u r e , i s

r e q u i r e d t o drop from 600°C to 382°C. Considering that the

i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d t o feed s h r i n k a g e i s solute enriched during

s o l i d i f i c a t i o n and has the h i g h e s t c o m p o s i t i o n ( e u t e c t i c ) at the

end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , the s h r i n k a g e formed a t the l a t e stage of

solidification makes f a r more c o n t r i b u t i o n t o macrosegregation

than t h a t a t the i n i t i a l stage.

Fig 21 summarizes the temperature profiles in various

compositions of A l - Z n . I t can be c l e a r l y seen t h a t the thermal

c o n t r a c t i o n a t the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n r a p i d l y d e c r e a s e s with

increase of c o m p o s i t i o n i n the low a l l o y r e g i o n . I f we neglect

t h i s t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n as Y o u d e l i s e t a l " d i d , the resulting

 32

segregation for low alloy Al-Zn must be f a r l e s s than that

c a l c u l a t e d i n the p r e s e n t work.

The r a p i d d e c r e a s e i n ~ the - t o t a l shrinkage observed in

Fig 19 can be a t t r i b u t e d t o the d e c r e a s e i n t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n ,

proving t h a t the t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t role i n

s h r i n k a g e and m a c r o s e g r e g a t i o n in Al-Zn alloy. -The inverse

s e g r e g a t i o n a t the c h i l l face, i s p l o t t e d against composition i n

F i g 22. U n l i k e the smooth curve f o r Al-Cu a l l o y , the c u r v e f o r

A l - Z n c o n s i s t s of a r i s e and f a l l i n composition up to 40%Zn,

followed by a slow p r o g r e s s i v e d e c r e a s e i n c o m p o s i t i o n t o the

eutectic. The d e c l i n e of the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a f t e r t h e peak

a t 20%Zn i s due t o the a c c e l e r a t e d d e c r e a s e i n t o t a l shrinkage.

The p r o g r e s s i v e slower decrease i n s e g r e g a t i o n after 40%Zn is

due t o a n e a r l y c o n s t a n t and v e r y low s h r i n k a g e r a t i o ( F i g 19).

Also p l o t t e d i n F i g 22 a r e e x p e r i m e n t a l and t h e o r e t i c a l results

by Y o u d e l i s and C o l t o n * . The p r e s e n t model prediction agrees

with the r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s i n the r e g i o n up t o 23%Zn even though

thermal c o n t r a c t i o n was n e g l e c t e d i n the p r e v i o u s investigation.

Beyond 23%Zn t h e r e i s a s t r o n g d i s c r e p a n c y between the present

results and the r e s u l t s o f ' Y o u d e l i s and C o l t o n " . I t s h o u l d be

noted t h a t t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e s c a t t e r i n the reported data

which makes the comparison w i t h t h e measured r e s u l t s and the

models o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e . As has been demonstrated e a r l i e r , the

i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o the c a s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
 33

3.3 The Antimony Bismuth System

This alloy is- unique -

i n - t h a t both m e t a l s expand d u r i n g

solidification (see F i g 4 ) . The phase diagram for the Sb-Bi

system is shown i n F i g 23. There i s complete s o l i d solubility

of B i i n Sb over the e n i t r e c o m p o s i t i o n range, differing from

the other two systems investigated. Following the same

p r o c e d u r e used i n the A l - Z n system w i t h non l i n e a r solidus : and

liquidus lines, the phase diagram was divided i n t o twenty

s e c t i o n s , each of 5 % B i , and the solidus and liquidus lines

assumed l i n e a r i n each s e c t i o n w i t h a c o n s t a n t p a r t i t i o n ratio.

The t o t a l s h r i n k a g e r a t i o f o r S b - B i , a s a f u n c t i o n of a l l o y
composition is given in F i g 24. Two different shrinkage
sequences a r e c l e a r l y o b s e r v e d , one region between zero and
30%Bi where the shrinkage r a t i o d e c r e a s e d r a p i d l y , and above
30%Bi where the s h r i n k a g e d e c r e a s e s s l o w l y . The a b r u p t i n c r e a s e
i n the s h r i n k a g e near pure Sb is attributed to the thermal
contraction during solidification, which s h i f t s the n e g a t i v e
v a l u e of s h r i n k a g e f o r the pure Sb t o the p o s i t i v e side.

The d e t a i l e d volume change and temperature p r o f i l e f o r Sb-

lO%Bi is shown in F i g 25. The s o l i d l i n e denotes the volume

change i n each s o l i d i f i e d element and the d o t t e d l i n e the volume

change i n r e s i d u a l l i q u i d . E v e r y element shows e x t e n s i v e volume

e x p a n s i o n on s o l i d i f i c a t i o n e x c e p t f o r the last element whose

volume expansion is compensated by the t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n .

Although the remaining liquid continues to shrink during

 34

solidification because of the density change due t o s o l u t e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n and a s l i g h t temperature drop, t h e whole volume

expands steadily until the s o l i d / l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e reaches the

f i n a l element t o s o l i d i f y . The volume expansion as a total

system must cause the i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l o w of s o l u t e e n r i c h e d

f l u i d t o move away from t h e volume elememt r e s u l t i n g in normal

segregation. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e c o n t r a c t i o n o c c u r s during -

the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e l a s t element r e v e r s i n g t h e f l o w . The

temperature profile shown i n F i g 25 indicates that the

t e m p e r a t u r e drops from 530°C to 271°C during solidification,

which results i n a marked c o n t r a c t i o n , as c l e a r l y observed i n

the volume change. T h i s thermal c o n t r a c t i o n a t the late stage

of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n r e v e r s e s t h e t o t a l s h r i n k a g e from expansion t o

contraction, which r e s u l t s i n extensive macrosegregation since

the i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d which feeds the shrinkage has t h e

maximum c o m p o s i t i o n , lOO%Bi, a t t h e end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n .

The calculated inverse segregation p r o f i l e a t the c h i l l

f a c e f o r t h e Sb-Bi a l l o y i s shown i n F i g 26, as well as the

experimental and theoretical results r e p o r t e d by Y o u d e l i s . 5

Maximum s e g r e g a t i o n a t t h e c h i l l f a c e was observed a t 1 3 % B i , and

minimum segregation at 70%Bi. The reversal from inverse

segregation at t h e c h i l l f a c e t o normal s e g r e g a t i o n o c c u r s a t

approximately 30%Bi. The p r e s e n t r e s u l t s agree reasonably- well

with the experimental r e s u l t s , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e u n c e r t a i n i t y of

the measured d a t a .

Comparing the s e g r e g a t i o n p r o f i l e w i t h t h e t o t a l shrinkage

 35

ratio ( F i g 24) shows the c o m p o s i t i o n i n the s e g r e g a t i o n profile

a t which the s e g r e g a t i o n i s r e v e r s e d ( 3 0 % B i ) does not coincide

with the point a t which the s h r i n k a g e r a t i o i s zero (20%Bi).

Between 20% and 30%Bi, there is expansion associated with

solidification and yet i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n i s observed which i s

anomalous. T h i s can be a c c o u n t e d f o r by the volume change and

temperature sequence "for Sb-20%Bi which i s found t o have a r f

almost zero s o l i d i f i c a t i o n shrinkage ratio. In F i g 27, similar

distribution of volume change t o t h a t of Sb-!0%Bi ( F i g 25) can

be observed w i t h l a r g e expansion a t f r e e z i n g of each element and

s l i g h t decrease of t o t a l s h r i n k a g e d u r i n g solidification. The

integrated negative shrinkage is made up by the thermal

c o n t r a c t i o n due t o the temperature drop a t the late stage of

solidification. The same thing must occur during the

s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of Sb-Bi a l l o y up to 30%Bi. It can be now

confirmed t h a t , even though the t o t a l s h r i n k a g e r a t i o i s z e r o or

negative, the positive s e g r e g a t i o n r e s u l t i n g from the thermal

c o n t r a c t i o n a t the l a t e stage of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n always overcomes

the n e g a t i v e s e g r e g a t i o n formed a t the p r i m a r y stage i n the Sb-

Bi alloy with 20% to 30%Bi. Again i t i s reminded t h a t the

residual l i q u i d i s enriched in solute by the advance of the

solid/liquid interface. Of p a r t i c u l a r importance i s t h a t , i n

o r d e r t o c a l c u l a t e the m a c r o s e g r e g a t i o n i n the a l l o y a c c u r a t e l y ,

it i s e s s e n t i a l t o o b t a i n the i n f o r m a t i o n of volume change over

the entire solidification p r o c e s s as w e l l as the t o t a l volume

change. The behaviour of i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d f l o w a t the late

stage of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n c o n t r o l s the o v e r a l l segregation.

 36

3.4 Examination Of P r e v i o u s Model P r e d i c t i o n s

In the discussion of- t h e :

present computer calculated

r e s u l t s i t has been p o i n t e d out that the thermal contraction

plays a much more s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n the f o r m a t i o n of i n v e r s e

s e g r e g a t i o n than i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d . This is particularly

the case for the A l - Z n and Sb-Bi a l l o y s a t low compositions.

P r e v i o u s c a l c u l a t i o n s d i d not i n c l u d e t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n i n the

models ' ' " .

1 2 8 1 1
Without thermal contraction the calculations

w i l l g i v e low v a l u e s f o r the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n .

To clarify the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s found i n the comparison of

p r e s e n t work w i t h the previous calculations, calculations of
chill face inverse s e g r e g a t i o n v a l u e s were r e p e a t e d u s i n g the
models and a s s u m p t i o n s used previously ' '"' . 1 2 5
The repeated
calculations for the t h r e e a l l o y systems d i d not c o i n c i d e w i t h
the p u b l i s h e d c u r v e s , as shown i n Appendix A. It is not. clear
what i s the cause of the d i s c r e p a n c y .
 37

A-IV. CONCLUSIONS

The present r e s u l t s show i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n observed near

the c h i l l f a c e i s governed by t h e back flow of solute enriched

liquid through dendrite channels resulting from volume

contraction during solidification. A mathematical model is

developed which quantitatively determines the inverse

s e g r e g a t i o n a t the c h i l l f a c e , and a d j a c e n t t o t h e c h i l l face.

The model i n c l u d e s t h e e f f e c t of t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n due t o t h e

temperature changes as w e l l as c o n t r a c t i o n due to composition

changes. Comparing t h e v a l u e s of s e g r e g a t i o n d e t e r m i n e d from

the model f o r the Al-Cu, Al-Zn and Sb-Bi alloys with

experimental values shows reasonable agreement between the

p r e d i c t e d and observed values.

The f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s have been reached.

1) A b i n a r y a l l o y may be c o n s i d e r e d as a simple mixture
of t h e two componets i n o r d e r t o determine t h e d e n s i t y
of both s o l i d and l i q u i d .

2) The volume change during solidification c o n s i t s of

three p a r t s .

a) . The volume change due to the liquid/solid

phase t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
b) . Contraction i n t h e r e s i d u a l l i q u i d due t o
solute concentration.

c) . Thermal contraction due to temperature

changes.
 38

3) Volume expansion occurs over most stages of

s o l i d i f i c a t i o n i n both the A l - C u and A l - Z n systems due

t o l i q u i d / s o l i d change but t h i s i s compensated f o r by

the o t h e r two e f f e c t s p r o d u c i n g a net c o n t r a c t i o n .

4) Thermal contraction plays a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n the

i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n of A l - Z n and Sb-Bi in low alloy

composition regions since large temperature drops -

occur i n the l a s t stage of solidification.

5) To c a l c u l a t e m a c r o s e g r e g a t i o n i t i s e s s e n t i a l to know

the volume change over the entire solidification

p r o c e s s s i n c e the b e h a v i o u r of interdendritic fluid

flow a t the l a t e stage of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n c o n t r o l s the

overall segregation.

6) The s o l i d i f i c a t i o n s h r i n k a g e r a t i o of an alloy is a

function of the volume change on solidification,

c o m p o s i t i o n a l changes i n the liquid and temperature

changes, a l l of which must be considered i n any

s i g n f i c a n t model f o r s e g r e g a t i o n .

7) The l e n g t h of solid/liquid region adjacent to the

chill f a c e i s h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e t o the c o n t a c t t h e r m a l

r e s i s t a n c e a t mold/metal i n t e r f a c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

f o r m a t i o n of an a i r gap a t the c h i l l f a c e .
 39

T a b l e I - The comparison of a l l o y d e n s i t i e s w i t h those

c a l c u l a t e d from d a t a f o r pure m e t a l s

Alloy Temp(°C) p - s o l v e n t 1
p-solute 1
p-mean pmeasured E r r o r ( % )
Al-4.5%Cu 20 2.70 8.93 2.82 2.75 2
2.5
Al-4.5%Cu 800 2.34 8.15 2.45 2.45 3
0
Al-4.5%Cu 1000 2.29 7.99 2.40 2.40 3
0
Al-8%Cu 20 2.70 8.93 2.92 2.83 2
3.2
Al-10%Cu 800 2.34 8.15 2.60 2.55 3
2.0
A1-10%CU 1000 2.29 7.99 2.53 2.50 3
1 .2
Al-12%Cu 20 2.70 8.93 3.04 2.93 2
3.8
Al-20%Cu 1000 2.29 7.99 2.84 2.75 3
3.3
Al-40%Cu 800 2.34 8.15 3.62 3.45 3
4.9
Al-80%Cu 1200 2.25 7.84 5.76 5.60 3
2.9
Al-5%Zn 700 2.36 6.45 2.45 2.45" 0
Al-5%Zn 900 2.31 6.35 2.39 2.40* 0.4
Al-10%Zn 700 2.36 6.45 2.54 2.55" 0.4
Al-10%Zn 900 2.31 6.35 2.49 2.45* 1.6
Al-20%Zn 700 2.36 6.45 2.74 2.70* 1 .5
Al-40%Zn 700 2.36 6.45 3.24 3.20* 1 .5
Pb-5%Sn 315 10.68 6.91 10.36 10. 4 0 5
0.4
Pb-10%Sn 300 10.70 6.92 10.09 10. 1 5 5
0.6
Pb-20%Sn 275 10.73 6.94 9.58 9.70 5
1 .2
Pb-40%Sn 235 10.78 6.97 8.73 8.80 5
0.8
Note: 1. Smithells and E l l i o t e t a l
1 6 1 7

2. Smithells 1 6

3. Bornemann e t a l 1 8

4. Bornemann e t a l 1 9

5. Thresh e t a l 2 0
 40

T a b l e I I - The t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s employed f o r t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n of temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n

A1-10%CU Cu mold

t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y , k(cal/cm.s.°C) 0.43 0 .94

s p e c i f i c heat, Cp (cal/g.°C) 0.259 0 .093
density, p (g/cm ) 3
variable 8 .89
l a t e n t heat of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , Hs ( c a l / g ) 93.0 -

emissivity, e 0.1.8 0 .18

t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of a i r gap, ka 1.0X10-* c a l / c m .s.°C

shape f a c t o r through a i r gap 0.10

 41

SPECIFIC VOLUME, cmVqm

0.42 0.38 0.54 0.30

5401
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 33
CONCENTRATION, wt-<& Cu

Figure 1 - E q u i l i b r i u m phase diagram and s p e c i f i c volume

for the Al-Cu a l l o y s
 LI W-
4 *

CL

koC< " "

B
(b)

(a)
X

(c)
F i g u r e 2 - Schematic d e s c r i p t i o n of s o l i d i f y i n g zone? (a)
d e n d r i t e morphology, (b) s o l i d and l i q u i d c o m p o s i t i o n s a l o n g
c h i l l f a c e , and (c) c o m p o s i t i o n of i n t e r d e n d r i t i c l i q u i d
 43

T E M P E R A T U R E CC)

Figure 3 - D e n s i t i e s of copper and aluminium vs

temperature
 44

200 400 600 800

TEMPERATURE CO

Figure 4 - D e n s i t i e s of Z i n c , Aluminium and Bismuth vs

temperature
 45

F i g u r e 5 - Schematic c o n f i g u r a t i o n of the model

i n v e s t i g a t e d and the s u b d i v i s i o n f o r the n u m e r i c a l s i m u l a t i o n
 46

Figure 6 - Schematic c o n f i g u r a t i o n of the f e e d i n q

sequence; (a) F l u i d f l o w , and (b) p r o f i l e of the l i q u i d
composition
 1 J " ^ 3 ""-.5 " -^6 v
" -^9 " ^ 10. N

-2 , -"9
y
1 ^
y
y
y
' y y y
."1
y
y y y
2 -"1 . y 2
-3 . . y . " 7 y
y y — •* y
y y y
3 ^ y y'\
y y y y -is . y
y y y y y
y
^2 „ - "5 " 7
y
''\ y y'7 . ^ 1 y
y y y
iii y y y y y y

-®.
y
>' 1 " 6 . " 6 - 6
y
y y y y y y
LU y y
<- 5 - 5 .
y
y
6 y
y y y y y
y
y y y
y

^1 . " 2 "V „ ' A . - "4

y

y y y y y
y y y

8°
y\
y
.^ 2 , " 3 - y
—3 . ' 3— . 3 . ^ \
•
y
y
y
y y y y
'
" 2 - '2 < 2
y
9 y
<'2
y
„ ''1
y
„ y
y y y y'
-" 1 .y i
y
10 ''1 y -"1 y y y y
1
y y
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ -
^ ^ ^ ..f^ ^
f ACTUAL
:
SOLIDIFICATION FRONT

Figure 7 - Summary of t h e f l u i d flow induced by t h e

s h r i n k a g e d u r i n g t h e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n of t h e model w i t h 1 0 X 1 0
subdivi sions
F i g u r e 8 - Schematic d e s c r i p t i o n of the d i l u t i o n e f f e c t of
the i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d flow d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n
 49

(START)
n r
( R E A D INPUT DATA

1CALCULATE MICROSEGREGATION]

CALCULATE MEAN SOLID COMPOSITION

AND LIQUIDUS TEMPERATURE
FOR EACH ELEMENT

I N I T I A L I Z E VARIABLES

L E T SOLIDIFY
I
CALCULATE SEGREGATION
I N THE F I R S T COLUMN
ONE ELEMENT

]
CALCULATE SHRINKAGE | CALCULATE D I L U T I O N EFFECT
DUE TO F L U I D FLOW

CALCULATE POSITIONAL
SEGREGATION

(STOP)

Figure 9 - Flow c h a r t f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of i n v e r s e
segregation
 50

(START)

READ INPUT DATA

INITIALIZE VARIABLES

TIME-TIME+At

CALCULATE TEMPERATURE FIELD

USING IMPLICIT FTfl

F i g u r e 10 - Flow c h a r t f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e l e n g t h of
s o l i d / l i q u i d zone a d j a c e n t t o t h e c h i l l f a c e
 51

F i g u r e 11 - C a l c u l a t e d volume change d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n
of A l - 1 0 % C u . The number on the c u r v e denotes each element
solidified.
 52

F i g u r e 12 - C a l c u l a t e d volume change and l i q u i d c o m p o s i t i o n

i n the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume f o r A l - 5 % C u . The number on the
c u r v e denotes each element s o l i d f i e d .
 53

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
C O N C E N T R A T I O N (wrtCu)

F i g u r e 13 - S o l i d i f i c a t i o n s h r i n k a g e r a t i o v s c o m p o s i t i o n
of the A l - C u a l l o y s . The d o t t e d l i n e was d e r i v e d from F i g 1.
 54

FRACTIONAL DISTANCE FROM THE CHILL FACE, x/L

F i g u r e 14 - P o s i t i o n a l s e g r e g a t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r v a r i o u s
c o m p o s i t i o n s of t h e A l - C u a l l o y s
F i g u r e 15 - Comparison of the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t the
c h i l l face f o r the A l - C u a l l o y s
 56

0 1
1 ' 1 1 r
2 4 6 8 10
AIR GAP (/M)

F i g u r e 16 - E f f e c t of a i r gap a t the metal/mold i n t e r f a c e

on the l e n g t h of s o l i d / l i q u i d zone a d j a c e n t t o the c h i l l face
 57

Figure 17 - Comparison of p o s i t i o n a l s e g r e g a t i o n for A l -

10%CU
 58

0 10 20, 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Concentration CCLt s (%Zn)

Figure 18 - E q u i l i b r i u m phase diagram f o r A l - Z n a l l o y s

 59

10 1

H I 1 1 1 1 1
0 20 HO 60 80 100
C O N C E N T R A T I O N (wtfZn)

F i g u r e 19 - T o t a l s h r i n k a g e r a t i o vs c o m p o s i t i o n f o r the
Al-Zn a l l o y s
 60

POSITION OF SOLID/LIQUID INTERFACE ( ELEMENT NO.)

F i g u r e 20 - C a l c u l a t e d volume change and temperature i n the

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume f o r A l - l O % Z n . The number on the curve
denotes each element s o l i f i e d .
 61

650 •

600

f 550

=3

500

450 -

400 -

POSITION OF SOLID/LIQUID INTERFACE (ELEfOfT NO.)

F i g u r e 21 - C a l c u l a t e d p r o f i l e s of t e m p e r a t u r e i n the
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume f o r v a r i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n s of the A l - Z n
alloys indicated.
Figure 22 - Comparison of the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t the
c h i l l face f o r the A l - Z n a l l o y s
 63

0 20 40 60 80 100
Concentration (wt % Bi)

F i g u r e 23 - E q u i l i b r i u m phase diagram f o r Sb-Bi a l l o y s

 64

C O N C E N T R A T I O N ( wrt Bi )

F i g u r e 24 - T o t a l s h r i n k a g e r a t i o vs c o m p o s i t i o n f o r the
Sb-Bi a l l o y s
 1 I 2 I 3 I » I 5 I « I 7 I 8 I « I 10

POSITION OF SOLID/LIQUID INTERFACE ( ELEMENT NO.)

F i g u r e 25 - C a l c u l a t e d volume change and t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume f o r S b - l O % B i . The number on the c u r v e
denotes each element s o l i d i f i e d .
 66

F i g u r e 26 - Comparison of the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t the

c h i l l f a c e f o r the Sb-Bi a l l o y s
 F i g u r e 27 - C a l c u l a t e d volume change and t e m p e r a t u r e i n the
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e volume f o r Sb-20%Bi. The number on the c u r v e
denotes each element s o l i d i f i e d .
 68

PART - B

CENTERLINE SHRINKAGE IN STEEL PLATE CASTINGS

 69

B-I. INTRODUCTION

A unique advantage of m e t a l c a s t i n g s i s t h a t h i g h l y complex

shapes can r e a d i l y be f a b r i c a t e d . This inherent advantage of

castings, however, i s o f t e n l o s t because of t h e d i f f i c u l t y of

c o n t r o l l i n g c a s t i n g d e f e c t s , among which s h r i n k a g e porosity is

one of t h e major d e f e c t s . S h r i n k a g e p o r o s i t y i s c o n t r o l l e d by

proper d e s i g n of t h e c a s t i n g , u s i n g s u i t a b l e g a t i n g and r i s e r i n g

t e c h n i q u e s and moulding materials. Since the c a s t i n g process i s

complex, the d e s i g n of these systems i s only approximate and

e m p i r i c a l so t h a t p o r o s i t y does occur i n c a s t i n g s .

1 . 1 Gross Shrinkage

Recent development of the numerical simulation of t h e

casting p r o c e s s 2 1
" 2 5
has e n a b l e d t h e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n sequence of
a simple casting to be calculated. J e y a r a j a n and P e h l k e 2 6

a p p l i e d a mathematical model to sand mold casting f o r the

prediction of gross shrinkage i n a r a i l wheel c a s t i n g due t o

insufficient mass feeding. Comparing their numerical

calculations with experimental o b s e r v a t i o n s i t was found t h a t

the observed g r o s s s h r i n k a g e c a v i t y agreed v e r y well with the

calculations which p r e d i c t e d t h e shape and p o s i t i o n of t h e l a s t

liquid to solidify. The r e m a i n i n g problem i n predicting gross

shrinkage i n castings i s t o extend t h e P e h l k e a n a l y s i s t o t h e

 70

h i g h l y complex shapes used i n normal foundry p r a c t i c e .

1.2 C e n t e r l i n e Shrinkage

Towards t h e end of solidification, the solidification

shrinkage must be f e d by l i q u i d f l o w i n g down h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r

narrow i n t e r d e n d r i t i c c h a n n e l s . I f complete back f l o w does not

occur, small scattered interdendritic pores forms, called

c e n t e r l i n e p o r o s i t y or c e n t e r l i n e s h r i n k a g e . A heat transfer

model g i v e s i s o c h r o n a l s o l i d i f i c a t i o n l i n e s assuming s i m p l e heat

flow patterns. In the l a t e r p a r t of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n t h e heat

flow l o c a l l y i s complex and t h e r e f o r e u n c e r t a i n when a p p l i e d to

the c e n t e r l i n e p o r o s i t y problem. In a d d i t i o n f l u i d flow of the

i n t e r d e n d r i t i c l i q u i d must a l s o be considered.

P e l l i n i et a l 2 7
" 3 0
carried out an extensive series of
measurements i n which t h e f e e d i n g distance of s t e e l c a s t i n g s i n
green-sand moulds was d e t e r m i n e d . I t was found for a plate
c a s t i n g , 2.5 t o 5.0cm t h i c k ( F i g 28a), that:

1) t h e maximum p l a t e l e n g t h c a s t c o m p l e t e l y sound by one

r i s e r i s 4.5s ( s = p l a t e thickness),

2) the length D of t h e end of t h e p l a t e f r e e o f p o r o s i t y

i s always 2.5s f o r t h e p l a t e c a s t i n g more than 4.5s

l o n g , and

3) t h e sound a r e a due t o r i s e r e f f e c t i s 2 s .

S i m i l a r l y t h e maximum l e n g t h c a s t c o m p l e t e l y sound i s 9.56 s and

the sound r e g i o n due to end e f f e c t s i s 1.5s-2s i n square b a r

 71

castings with 5 to 20cm section size ( F i g 28b). They also

examined the effect of end c h i l l on the f e e d i n g distance and

found t h a t c h i l l s contribute t o i n c r e a s i n g the sound region by

5cm and 1s i n p l a t e and square bar c a s t i n g s respectively.

Johnson and Loper 3 1

examined the c e n t e r l i n e p o r o s i t y of

t h i n s t e e l s e c t i o n s c a s t i n green-sand mould. Sections studied

included flat plates and square bars of t h i c k n e s s e s l e s s than

2.5cm which i s s m a l l e r than the range considered by Bishop

et a l 2 7
' 2 8
. They found t h a t the maximum l e n g t h which c o u l d be

cast without porosity was given by (16.1/s-14)cm for plate

c a s t i n g s and (12.7/s-8.4)cm f o r square bar castings.

Niyama et a l 3 2
p r e d i c t e d c e n t e r l i n e s h r i n k a g e on the bases

of a n u m e r i c a l s i m u l a t i o n of the p r o c e s s g i v i n g the isochronal

contours during solidification. They showed that the

temperature gradient at the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n is a simple

and effective parameter to predict porosity. However the

critical v a l u e of the g r a d i e n t i n the prediction can only be

determined e m p i r i c a l l y f o r each c a s t i n g as shown by Pellini 3 0

.

A f u r t h e r s t e p was taken by Niyama et a l 3 3

in proposing a new

parameter G//R to p r e d i c t p o r o s i t y w i t h the c r i t i c a l v a l u e of

1.0 /min.°C/cm f o r t h i s p a r a m e t e r , a p p l i c a b l e t o b o t h g r o s s and

centerline porosities. T h i s would be. independent of the a l l o y

composition and the size and shape of the steel casting

considered. T h i s has been c h a l l e n g e d by C h i j i i w a and Imafuku * 3

who q u e s t i o n e d the g e n e r a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h i s p a r a m e t e r . As

an a l t e r n a t i v e they proposed t h a t the g r a d i e n t of f r a c t i o n s o l i d

 72

at the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n has the c r i t i c a l v a l u e of 0.25 per

cm for c e n t e r l i n e shrinkage. The three parameters proposed to

predict porosity, G, G//R and the g r a d i e n t of f r a c t i o n solid,

might be e f f e c t i v e i n p r e d i c t i n g the formation of centerline

shrinkage industrially. However, they are all effectively

e m p i r i c a l p a r a m e t e r s l a c k i n g a c l e a r p h y s i c a l b a s i s i n which to

e s t a b l i s h a q u a n t i t a t i v e measure of the p o r o s i t y i n a c a s t i n g .

1.3 P r e v i o u s Models

P o r o s i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f e e d i n g d i s t a n c e i n the c a s t i n g
as well as the solidification structure. Feeding of liquid

through i n t e r d e n d r i t i c channels i s c o n s i d e r e d by D a v i e s 3 5
using
numerical simulation. The c a p i l l a r y f l o w t h r o u g h a channel is
given by:
dv = nr P 4

dt 8y 1 (B-1)
The amount of l i q u i d which must f l o w through the capillary to
compensate f o r s o l i d i f i c a t i o n c o n t r a c t i o n i s ;

"v * r2
"
(B 2)

Combining e q u a t i o n s (B-1) and ( B - 2 ) , g i v e s the c a p i l l a r y feeding

distance, l , f

< Pr 2

F r i c t i o n r e d u c e s the e f f e c t i v e p r e s s u r e , P=P -AP, where, f o r

Q
 73

laminar flow (r<<l):

A P
2 (B-4)

The f l o w v e l o c i t y i s g i v e n by,
v = Bv (B-5)
s
Combining e q u a t i o n s (B-3),(B-4) and (B-5) gives:

(P - A P ) r 2
P r 2

h =

s
=
~s 1 (B_6)

When s h r i n k a g e appears, l = l f and:

Pr 2

The c a p i l l a r y f e e d i n g d i s t a n c e was c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g e q u a t i o n (B-

7), incorporating an empirical correction factor B which
includes the f a c t o r s that are d i f f i c u l t to consider:

BYP r 2

1 = - — i _ (B-8)
f yBv s

The c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r , B, was chosen t o be 0.22 i n order that

the c a l c u l a t e d f e e d i n g d i s t a n c e f o r a s t e e l p l a t e c a s t i n green
sand mould has a f e e d i n g distance equal to that empirically
d e t e r m i n e d v a l u e of 4 . 5 s . 3 0

Based on t h e type of a l l o y , assumptions were made f o r t h e

f r a c t i o n s o l i d a t which p o r o s i t y due t o incomplete f e e d i n g would

occur. F o r example, D a v i e s 3 5
estimated t h a t incomplete feeding

could occur above s o l i d f r a c t i o n s of 95%, f o r 0.6%C s t e e l s and

99.8%Al; above s o l i d f r a c t i o n of 90% f o r nodular c a s t iron and

99% f o r pure Al. The above model (Davies') was a p p l i e d t o a

wide range of m a t e r i a l s and good agreement was o b t a i n e d between

 74

the c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s and t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d v a l u e s .

Shortcomings i n the Davies' model a r e t h a t an e m p i r i c a l

c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r B i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e model, and the a s s u m p t i o n

of when i n c o m p l e t e f e e d i n g s t a r t s which s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e s the

presence of centerline shrinkage. The value f o r B used i n

f i t t i n g t h e model t o e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s was d e r i v e d from the

experiments on cast steel. One would expect d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s

for B would be r e q u i r e d f o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l s s i n c e B i n e q u a t i o n
(B-8) i n v o l v e s a l o t of f a c t o r s not i n v o l v e d i n h i s model.

Another theoretical model for porosity was proposed by

Flemings 3 6
i n c o r p o r a t i n g D a r c y ' s Law for interdendritic fluid
flow. Assuming t h a t the mold/metal i n t e r f a c e r e s i s t a n c e i s of
o v e r r i d i n g importance and that the mold, being infinite in
extent, remains at i t s i n i t i a l temperature ( T ) , the r a t e o f
Q

heat f l o w a c r o s s t h i s i n t e r f a c e i s :

q = -h(T-T ) Q (B-9)

The heat e n t e r i n g the mold comes n e a r l y e n t i r e l y from the heat

of f u s i o n of t h e s o l i d i f y i n g m e t a l . Thus:
V 3 G L

q = (pH ) - ±
sV A 8t (B-10)
c

Combining e q u a t i o n (B-9) w i t h (B-10) g i v e s :

3t " ~ C
(B-11)
where A.T=T-T Q and c is a constant. S i n c e t h e heat f l o w i s

c o n t r o l l e d by the heat transfer coefficient h, there i s no

s i g n i f i c a n t t h e r m a l g r a d i e n t i n t h e s o l i d i f y i n g m e t a l and a ^ / S t

i s independent of p o s i t i o n i n t h e c a s t i n g . D a r c y ' s law i s g i v e n

 75

by:

v = - (VP + ( B _ 1 2 )

For one d i m e n s i o n a l f l u i d f l o w , e q u a t i o n (B-12) reduces t o :

„ _ K dP . .
v
x ~ " (
dx" + p
L r g }
(B-13)

Similarly, t h e mass balance equation i n t h e volume element,

e q u a t i o n (A-13), reduces t o :

3 t o~k~ L L x ^( p g V
(B-14)

where
P = P
s s
g + p
L L g
(B-15)

Equation (B-15) i s r e a r r a n g e d f o r c o n s t a n t d e n s i t i e s in liquid

and s o l i d a s :

_ __ - _ ( B _ 1 6 )

Equations (B-11), (B-14) and (B-16) y i e l d ,

3x ( 8
L V' " 1=3 C
(B-17)

Since g i s independent of p o s i t i o n , i n t e g r a t i n g e q u a t i o n (B-17)

gives the interdendritic flow velocity as a function of

position;
P cx
vX
" 1-3 g T (B-18)

Substituting e q u a t i o n (B-18) i n t o e q u a t i o n (B-13)

 76

and i n t e g r a t i n g y i e l d s t h e p r e s s u r e a t x;

? =
P
a AS + ( D 2
- )
x 2
+ p
L r
8 Y
(B-19)

This expression i s theoretically enough to describe the

formation of centerline shrinkage, but i s v a l i d o n l y f o r t h e
system w i t h homogeneous temperature a l l over t h e c a s t i n g and
without superheat, which i s not s a t i s f i e d under normal c a s t i n g
conditions.

1.4 P e r m e a b i l i t y

Towards t h e end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n when t h e f r a c t i o n solid

in the a l l o y i s high, fluid flow t o compensate f o r volume
shrinkage occurs through narrow tortuous interdendritic
channels. This flow i s analogous t o f l o w through packed beds
and, i f t h e f l o w o c c u r s under low p r e s s u r e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e flow
rate w i l l obey t h e "Darcy's Law" e x p r e s s e d i n equation (B-12).
For one d i m e n s i o n a l f l u i d flow without a metallostatic head,
e q u a t i o n (B-12) reduces t o :
v- = - ^ ( B - 2 0 )
y 1
where v' i s s u p e r f i c i a l f l o w v e l o c i t y and
v* = g v T (B-21)
L x

Flow v e l o c i t i e s through a s t r a i g h t c a p i l l a r y tube a r e g i v e n by

 77

Hargen-Poisulle' s equation:

_ ILL (B-22)
dt
=
8y 1

Introducing a "tortuosity factor, T" in the case where t h e

c a p i l l a r y i s not s t r a i g h t and f o r n c a p i l l a r i e s per u n i t a r e a :

v' = - (B-23)
8y T l

Equating e q u a t i o n s (B-20) and (B-23):

4
K = n 7 r r

8T (B-24)
and from geometry:
g = mrr x
2 (B-25)
L

rearranging gives:
2
r =
2 2 2 (B-26)
n IT x

S u b s t i t u t i n g equation (B-26) i n t o (B-24) y i e l d s :

2
K = —
Q 3 (B-27)

This shows that for a given dendrite morphology, the

permeability i s directly proportional to the square of t h e
volume f r a c t i o n liquid 3 7
" 3 9
.

The v e r i f i c a t i o n of e q u a t i o n (B-27) was f i r s t a t t e m p t e d by

Piwonka and Flemings 3 7

u s i n g Al-4.5%Cu porous media and molten

lead. The t h e o r y p r e d i c t s l n ( K ) i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o ln(g ) for

constant T with a s l o p e of 2. T h i s was found t o be t h e case

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y when the f r a c t i o n liquid was less than 0.3.

A p e l i a n , F l e m i n g s and M e h r a b i a n " 0
noted t h a t the p e r m e a b i l i t y i n

equation (B-27) i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the number of flow

 78

c h a n n e l s per u n i t a r e a . They compared K v a l u e s of A l - 4 % S i with

those of Al-4%Si-0.25%Ti, and found t h a t the p e r m e a b i l i t y i s

c o n s i s t e n t l y lower f o r the grain refined alloy, the latter,

which has more c a p i l l a r i e s i n a u n i t a r e a .

Interdendritic f l u i d f l o w was c a r e f u l l y measured by S t r e a t

and W e i n b e r g 3 9
in a partially solidfied columnar dendritic

casting. Assuming the number of f l o w c h a n n e l s i n the c a s t i n g i s

equal to the number of c h a n n e l s between t h e columnar primary

d e n d r i t e branches and the s p a c i n g between these c h a n n e l s equals

the p r i m a r y d e n d r i t e arm s p a c i n g , e q u a t i o n (B-27) i s reduced t o :

g (DAS)
2 2

K 3- (B-28)
8ITT

Measurements of permeability f o r a wide range of d e n d r i t e arm

spacing and a constant fraction liquid, 0.19, showed the
permeability K obeys equation (B-28) d u r i n g the e a r l y p a r t of
i n t e r d e n d r i t i c flow. After flow has occured the flow rate
changes due to the i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e f l o w i n g l i q u i d w i t h the
dendrite which changes the size and configuration of the
channels. However d e v i a t i o n from e q u a t i o n (B-28) i n the system
examined occured after a relatively long time period, in
comparison with the solidification times associated with a
normal c a s t i n g .

V a l u e s of p e r m e a b i l i t y as a function of fraction liquid

reported in the literature are summarized in F i g 29. The

r e s u l t s show t h a t e q u a t i o n (B-27) i s valid for interdendritic

fluid flow under steady state conditions f o r volume liquid

 79

f r a c t i o n s l e s s than about 0.3.

1.5 Present Objectives

Even though s h r i n k a g e p o r o s i t y is a major factor in the

quality of a c a s t i n g , no a n a l y t i c a l method has been developed

which c l e a r l y p r e d i c t s whether c e n t e r l i n e shrinkage will occur

in a casting. This is primarily because the mechanism f o r

centerline porosity i s complex, governed by interdendritic fluid

flow. To p r e d i c t the formation of centerline shrinkage, a

proper mathematical simulation is required c o m b i n i n g a heat

t r a n s f e r model w i t h an i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d f l o w model.
 80

B-II. MODELLING PROCEDURE

The formation of c e n t e r l i n e s h r i n k a g e i s associated with

insufficient flow of interdendritic l i q u i d t o compensate f o r

s o l i d i f i c a t i o n shrinkage. The mathematical model, therefore,

has t o i n v o l v e both heat t r a n s f e r and f l u i d flow.

2.1 M a t h e m a t i c a l F o r m u l a t i o n

2.1.1 Temperature C a l c u l a t i o n s

The c a s t i n g and sand mold geometry i n v e s t i g a t e d i s shown i n

F i g 30. The riser was chosen t o be the same s i z e as t h e one
used i n t h e experiments r e p o r t e d by P e l l i n i e t a l 2 7
' 3 0
, that is
3s wide and 5s h i g h . T h i s r i s e r s i z e i s l a r g e enough t o a v o i d
gross shrinkages i n the p l a t e c a s t i n g .

The basic mathematical relation used to calculate the

temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e system was t h e g e n e r a l equation
t h a t governs heat c o n d u c t i o n i n a s o l i d ;

fCpf^) = V(kAT) (B-29)

For c o n s t a n t heat c o n d u c t i v i t y and two dimensional heat flow,
e q u a t i o n (B-29)reduces t o ;

|T ( + lily (B-30)
3 t
3x 3y

Several key assumptions c o n c e r n i n g t h e c a s t i n g p r o c e s s a r e

 81

required to adjust equation (B-30) to a form suitable for

numerical s o l u t i o n ;

1) The mold i s instantaneously f i l l e d with l i q u i d metal

at the pouring temperature.

2) Once t h e mold i s f i l l e d , the l i q u i d metal i s stagnant.

3) The thermal contact resistance at the sand/metal

interface i s negligible.

4) Segregation i n t h e s o l i d and s o l u t e enrichment i n the

l i q u i d are n e g l i g i b l e .

5) The latent heat of solidification is released

uniformly between the liquidus and solidus

temperatures.

6) Liquidus and solidus are linear functions of

temperature so t h a t t h e weight f r a c t i o n s o l i d i f i e d i s

g i v e n by,

T
L " T

f
s =
£-Tir
L s
(B-31)

The i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s a t t=0 a r e ,
T = T
M (B-32)
M P
T = T (B-33)
s o

The boundary c o n d i t i o n a t t h e v e r t i c a l sand mold s u r f a c e i s :

- s rr> k
(
=V T
s -V (B-34)
and a t t h e h o r i z o n t a l mold s u r f a c e i s :

" s k (
^ ) = h
s ( T
s - a > T
< " >
B 35

and a t m e t a l s u r f a c e i s :
3 T

M ' 3"T
( )
^ " a > (B-36)
_k = ( T

C o n v e c t i v e heat t r a n s f e r from t h e m e t a l t o ambient air is

 82

neglected giving

(T + 273) - (T + 273)
A 4

\ =
° ^ ^-T a
8 ( B
" 3 7 )

There is continuity of heat flux across the sand/metal

i n t e r f a c e , which i s expressed at the v e r t i c a l i n t e r f a c e by

3T 3 T M

k (—- ) = k (— ) (B-38)
s 3x 'l
*M 3 x V ;

and at the h o r i z o n t a l i n t e r f a c e by;

9 T
s M
9 T
(B-39)

2.1.2 Pressure Required To Feed Shrinkage

It has been shown in the literature 3 8

'* ''
0 1
that

interdendritic fluid flow obeys Darcy's Law at steady s t a t e when

the volume f r a c t i o n l i q u i d i s l e s s than 0.3. To calculate the

pressure drop due to i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d flow i n s o l i d i f y i n g

c a s t i n g , Darcy's Law was a p p l i e d along the centerline of the

p l a t e on the assumptions that the Law i s also v a l i d f o r the flow

through the media with higher l i q u i d f r a c t i o n than 0.3 and f o r a

temperature gradient present in the alloy. The governing

equation without a m e t a l l o s t a t i c head i s ,

K dP
v
x =
~ ^ 7 dx" (B-40)
 83

rearranging gives,
yg dx L

dP = -
K
v
xx (B-41)

where u i s c o n s t a n t , K i s given i n F i g 29, and g L can be

calculated from,

- s L ( 1 f ) / p

*L-f /p.- (1-f.)/^

8 + <-">

Equation (B-41) expresses a pressure drop within an

i n f i n i t e s i m a l element as a f u n c t i o n of f l u i d v e l o c i t y .

The boundary condition f o r equation (B-41) appears at

solid/liquid interface where, i f t h e s h r i n k a g e i s f e d by the

l i q u i d , t h e r a t e of pore f o r m a t i o n i s e q u a l t o t h e r a t e of f l u i d

flow. This gives:

(v Ag )6 = -vAg
s L L , ( B _ 4 3 )

yielding,
V
x - " V (B-44)
and the c o n t i n u i t y of f l u i d f l o w g i v e s ,
V L = 3 c o n
^ant ( B _ 4 5 )

The t o t a l p r e s s u r e drop, c a l c u l a t e d by,

AP = Z AP (B-46)
j 3

denotes the pressure required to feed the solidification

shrinkage. S h r i n k a g e p o r o s i t y w i l l form when t h e t o t a l pressure

required to feed t h e s h r i n k a g e exceeds t h e p r e s s u r e a c t i n g on

the system, that i s the atmospheric pressure plus the

m e t a l l o s t a t i c head p r e s s u r e .
 84

2.2 Computer Programming

The explicit finite difference method is used f o r the

s o l u t i o n of heat t r a n s f e r e q u a t i o n s s i n c e a s m a l l time step is

required t o c a l c u l a t e s m a l l changes d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n . The

d e r i v a t i o n of the n o d a l e q u a t i o n i s g i v e n in Appendix B. The

calculation was first performed t o determine the temperature

d i s t r i b u t i o n and then t o d e t e r m i n e the p r e s s u r e d r o p . V a l u e s of

p e r m e a b i l i t y were t a k e n from the Piwonka and F l e m i n g s 3 7

data in

Fig 29 since they c o v e r a wide range of l i q u i d fraction, which

i s r e q u i r e d i n the p r e s e n t c a s e .

The a c t u a l c a l c u l a t i o n sequence used i s shown i n the flow

chart, F i g 31, and a sample of the F o r t r a n program i s g i v e n i n
Appendix C. The computer program a l s o i n v o l v e s the calculation
of temperature g r a d i e n t and the s o l i d i f i c a t i o n parameter, G/^R,
at the end of solidification.

2.3 V a l i d a t i o n Of The Heat T r a n s f e r Model

To validate the present model for calculating the

temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the c a s t i n g , some c a l c u l a t i o n s were

performed and the r e s u l t s were compared to the experimental

measurements of Bishop and Pellini 2 7

. F i g 32 shows t y p i c a l

c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s f o r the temperature distributions along the

centerline at different time i n t e r v a l s a f t e r p o u r i n g , f o r the

 85

p l a t e c a s t i n g w i t h 5cm t h i c k and 33cm l o n g . A l s o p l o t t e d i n the

f i g u r e s a r e the temperature p r o f i l e s d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y .

The measured l i q u i d u s and solidus temperatures for the low

carbon steel, having the following composition Fe-0.34%C-

0.68%Si-0.89%Mn were 1507°C and 1463°C r e s p e c t i v e l y . Reasonable

agreement can be observed between the model p r e d i c t i o n s and the

e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s over the e n t i r e l e n g t h of the p l a t e , e x c e p t

at positions close to the end s u r f a c e and t o the r i s e r . The

p r e d i c t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s are quite accurate especially in the

region of the liquid/solid co-existing zone which i s most

r e l e v a n t t o the f o r m a t i o n of c e n t e r l i n e s h r i n k a g e . It will be

noted from the c u r v e s i n F i g 32 t h a t the temperature g r a d i e n t s ,

e s t a b l i s h e d soon a f t e r s o l i d i f i c a t i o n s t a r t s by heat flow into

the plate from the riser and heat l o s s e s a t the end of the

p l a t e , t e n d t o p r o g r e s s toward each o t h e r d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n .

The movement of the solidus temperature along the

centerline is shown in F i g 33. The c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s a r e i n
good agreement w i t h the measured temperature p r o f i l e s except f o r
a small deviation. The f r e e z i n g r a t e , g i v e n by the s l o p e of the
c u r v e i n F i g 33 i s observed t o be very rapid in the central
r e g i o n of the c a s t i n g and r e l a t i v e l y slow a t e i t h e r end.

Values of the physical properties used in the above

calculations are listed in Table I I I together with other

physical data for the calculation of pressure drop due t o

interdendritic fluid flow.

 86

B-III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The mathematical model d e s c r i b e d i n the previous section

was applied to a range of s t e e l p l a t e s of d i f f e r e n t s i z e , t o

p r e d i c t t h e f o r m a t i o n of c e n t e r l i n e s h r i n k a g e . C a l c u a t i o n s were

a l s o c a r r i e d out t o e v a l u a t e the e f f e c t of t h e end c h i l l on the

c a s t i n g soundness. Table IV l i s t s the p l a t e s s i z e s c o n s i d e r e d .

3.1 S o l i d i f i c a t i o n Sequence

The temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e , F i g 32,

can be d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s . These a r e t h e r i s e r end w i t h a
relatively steep temperature gradient, the centre with
effectively zero temperature g r a d i e n t and t h e p l a t e end where
the temperature gradient is again steep. The centerline
shrinkage must form in the c e n t r a l r e g i o n where d i r e c t i o n a l
s o l i d i f i c a t i o n does not o c c u r .

T y p i c a l c o n t o u r l i n e s d u r i n g s o l i d i f i c a t i o n determined from

the model a r e shown in F i g 34. The vertical dotted lines

indicate the critical points f o r the f o r m a t i o n of c e n t e r l i n e

s h r i n k a g e determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by B i s h o p and P e l l i n i 2 8
. At

the intial stage of solidification ( F i g 34a) contour line

corresponding t o 70% s o l i d p r o j e c t s out a l o n g the c e n t e r l i n e of

the p l a t e toward the s o l i d u s . The r e m a i n i n g liquid within the

70% solid region will contain i n t e r d e n d r i t i c channels broad

 87

enough t o feed t h e s o l i d i f i c a t i o n c o n t r a c t i o n a t t h e bottom of

solid/liquid region. At t h e middle stage of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n

(Fig 34b), t h e s o l i d u s s t i l l p r o j e c t s out a l o n g the centerline

whereas t h e 70% and 90% c o n t o u r l i n e s move back toward the r i s e r

end of the c a s t i n g . The region between 90% s o l i d and t h e

solidus contains l i t t l e liquid making i t very difficult for

liquid to flow through the e x i s t i n g channel t o f e e d volume

shrinkage at the s o l i d u s along the c e n t e r l i n e . The bottom of

the solid/liquid region i s located i n the area where c e n t e r l i n e

shrinkage was found experimentally . 2 7

Near the end of

solidification t h e s o l i d u s and 70% s o l i d c o n t o u r line approach

each o t h e r ( F i g 3 4 c ) . Thus, t h e shape and position of t h e

solidification contour lines indicate whether centerline

porosity i s likely to occur. However the contour line

configuration cannot q u a n t i t a t i v e l y p r e d i c t t h e r e g i o n a l o n g t h e

c e n t e r l i n e where s h r i n k a g e p o r o s i t y w i l l occur.

3.2 P r e d i c t i o n Of C e n t e r l i n e Shrinkage

The calculated pressure required to feed the shrinkage

a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e f o r a 5cm t h i c k p l a t e c a s t i n g i s shown i n

Fig 35. The p r e s s u r e a c t i n g on t h e system i s d e f i n e d as the sum

of atmospheric pressure and t h e m e t a l l o s t a t i c head p r e s s u r e .

When t h e p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o feed t h e s h r i n k a g e formed a t the

end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n i s g r e a t e r than t h e p r e s s u r e a c t i n g on t h e

system, t h e s h r i n k a g e w i l l n o t be f e d c o m p l e t e l y .
 88

The pressure r e q u i r e d t o f e e d a 4.6s(23cm) l o n g c a s t i n g i s

a l w a y s l e s s than that acting on t h e system. The pressure

required to feed long castings, greater than 4.8s(24cm) i s

g r e a t e r t h a n the a c t i n g p r e s s u r e . The maximum l e n g t h which can

be cast completely sound u s i n g one r i s e r , d e t e r m i n e d from t h e

model, i s 4.7s f o r 5cm t h i c k p l a t e . This value agrees w e l l with

the e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d v a l u e of 4 . 5 s .3 0
In F i g 35 t h e

sound r e g i o n determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e f r e e end

of t h e p l a t e i s shown f o r c a s t i n g s g r e a t e r than 4.8s i n l e n g t h .

The l e n g t h f r e e of p o r o s i t y shown i n the f i g u r e ranges from

2.35s t o 2.7s, which a g r e e s w e l l w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e of

2.5s . 3 0
Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h a t t h e maximum required

pressure increases exponentially with casting length. I f the

casting was subjected to 2 atmosphere pressure during

solidification, for example, the e f f e c t would be small,

i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e g i o n f r e e of p o r o s i t y by 0.2s(1cm).

Calculated profiles of the pressure required to feed

shrinkage along the c e n t e r l i n e of 2.5 and 0.5cm t h i c k p l a t e

castings a r e shown i n F i g s 36 and 37, respectively. The

pressure p r o f i l e s f o r both p l a t e t h i c k n e s s a r e s i m i l a r t o those

i n F i g 35. I t i s found f o r 2.5cm t h i c k p l a t e t h a t t h e maximum

casting length which i s f r e e of p o r o s i t y i s 4.6s and t h a t t h e

sound r e g i o n a t the f r e e end o f t h e p l a t e i s 2.5s t o 2.7s.

These values agree with experimental data, 4.5s and 2.5s

respectively. For 0.5cm t h i c k casting ( F i g 37), t h e maximum

sound length i s also 4.6s. There i s no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e

maximum f e e d i n g d i s t a n c e t o t h i c k n e s s ratio decreases with a

 89

decrease i n plate thickness i n the region l e s s than 2.5cm, as

Johnson and Loper reported . 3 1

P r e d i c t e d maximum f e e d i n g distances are plotted against

plate thickness i n F i g 38. E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s of t h e maximum

feeding distances are a l s o plotted i n the figure 2 7

' 3 1
. For

plates which are thicker than 2cm t h e agreement between t h e

c a l c u l a t e d and measured v a l u e s i s e x c e l l e n t . For the plates

thinner than 2cm the experimental values of the feeding

distances a r e l e s s than those p r e d i c t e d . T h i s can be accounted

for by t h e l a r g e drop i n temperature of t h e l i q u i d m e t a l a t t h e

f r e e end of t h e p l a t e as t h e l i q u i d m e t a l i s f i l l i n g t h e mold

during pouring. T h i s temperature d r o p i s not c o n s i d e r e d i n the

present model. The rapid cooling at t h e end lowers the

effective superheat of t h e melt and e f f e c t i v e l y reduces t h e

feeding distance.

9.3 The E f f e c t of an End C h i l l on t h e L e n g t h of t h e P o r o s i t y

Free Region

The c o n t r i b u t i o n of an end c h i l l t o increasing the sound

region i n a p l a t e c a s t i n g was a l s o examined by a p p l y i n g a s t e e l

c h i l l a t t h e c a s t i n g end of a 5cm t h i c k p l a t e . The c h i l l size,

5cm t h i c k , was chosen s i n c e i t i s r e p o r t e d by Myscowski e t a l 2 9

that I s c h i l l s a r e of s u f f i c i e n t t h i c k n e s s for plate castings

when i t s cross section i s t h e same as t h a t o f t h e c a s t i n g s

(Fig 30).
 90

The c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e s f o r t h e c a s t i n g w i t h an end chill

as a f u n c t i o n of d i s t a n c e from t h e edge a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e i s

shown i n F i g 39. Comparing t h i s f i g u r e t o F i g 35, t h e maximum

pressure in this case i s s h i f t e d towards t h e r i s e r because of

the c h i l l . The maximum l e n g t h of t h e p l a t e c a s t sound i s 5.7s

and the sound region due to end and chill effect is

approximately 3.5s. T h i s shows t h a t t h e end c h i l l i n c r e a s e s t h e -

sound r e g i o n by 1s (5cm) which c o i n c i d e s with the value, 5cm

determined experimentally. This distance i s r e l a t i v e l y small,

i n d i c a t i n g t h a t end c h i l l s will not signficantly improve the

soundness of p l a t e s c a s t i n sand molds.

3.4 Proposed S o l i d i f i c a t i o n Parameters D e f i n i n g t h e

T r a n s i t i o n from Porous t o Nonporous C a s t i n g s

As described i n the previous section three solidification

p a r a m e t e r s have been proposed t o d e f i n e when c e n t e r l i n e p o r o s i t y

w i l l occur in a casting. These are the temperature gradient

(G) , 3 0
the temperature g r a d i e n t d i v i d e d by t h e square r o o t o f

cooling rate (G/vfc) 33

and the gradient of fraction solid

(P^^) . 3 5
These parameters were calculated i n the present

computer program ( F i g 31) and t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e s f o r c e n t e r l i n e

shrinkage were obtained as the values at the position

corresponding t o t h e boundary f o r c e n t e r l i n e s h r i n k a g e predicted

by the present model. The c r i t i c a l v a l u e s f o r each parameter

a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e V f o r each p l a t e thickness. The critical

 91

values of both G and P a r e observed t o change w i t h p l a t e

thickness. The proposed v a l u e s a r e not applicable generally.

On the o t h e r hand, the c r i t i c a l v a l u e s f o r (G/^R) a r e v e r y close

t o the proposed v a l u e , u n i t y , independent of c a s t i n g s i z e i n the

range examined. A c c o r d i n g l y , the parameter G/ y/R i s a s i m p l e and

effective parameter to predict roughly the location of

c e n t r e l i n e shrinkage i n a plate c a s t i n g .
 92

B-IV. CONCLUSIONS

The l o c a t i o n of c e n t r e l i n e p o r o s i t y i n the plates cast in

sand molds has been examined u s i n g c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s of t h e

thermal f i e l d during s o l i d i f i c a t i o n and Darcy's Law to define

the interdendritic f l u i d flow. The c a l c u l a t i o n s were compared

with experimental r e s u l t s reported i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e from which

the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s may be made.

1) There i s good agreement between t h e c a l c u l a t e d and

o b s e r v e d v a l u e s of c e n t r e l i n e p o r o s i t y . This clearly

indicates t h e c e n t r e l i n e s h r i n k a g e can be a t t r i b u t e d

t o i n s u f f i c i e n t i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d flow t o f e e d the

volume c o n t r a c t i o n during solidification.

2) Darcy's Law can be used to calculate the

i n t e r d e n d r i t i c f l u i d flow i n a c a s t i n g even though t h e

system i s not a t s t e a d y s t a t e d u r i n g flow.

3) The p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o produce a sound p l a t e casting

increases exponentially as the c a s t i n g length is

increased. As a r e s u l t c a s t i n g under p r e s s u r e w i l l

not appreciably reduce c e n t r e l i n e porosity.

 93

T a b l e I I I - P h y s i c a l d a t a employed i n c a l c u l a t i o n s

Steel Mold

s p e c i f i c h e a t , Cp (cal/g°C) 0.20 0.25

d e n s i t y of l i q u i d , p i (g/cm ) 3
7.10
d e n s i t y of s o l i d , ps (g/cm ) 3
7.50 1 .65
thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y , k ( c a l / c m . s . °C) 0.074 0.0037
heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t , hs (cal/cm .s.°C) 2
5.0X10-*
l a t e n t heat of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n , Hs ( c a l / g ) 65.0
solidification shrinkage r a t i o , 0 0.03
liquidus temperature, T l (°C) 1507
solidus temperature, Ts (°C) 1463
pouring temperature, Tp _(°C) 1595
initial temperature, To (°C) 20
emissivity, e 0.45
v i s c o s i t y of l i q u i d , M (poise) 0.05

ambient t e m p e r a t u r e , Ta (°C) 20
 94

Table IV- Dimenstion of the s t e e l p l a t e c a s t i n g examined

thickness(cm) l e n g t h (cm)

s*5.0 4. 6s, 4 .8s, 5.0s, 6 6s, 9 0s, 12.0s

2.5 4. 4S, 4 .6s, 4.8s, 5 0s, 6 6s
1.25 4. 4s, 4 .6s, 5.0s, 6 6s,
0.5 4. 0s, 4 .4s, 4.6s, 4 8s, 5 8s
5.01
5. 6s, 5 .8s, 6.6s, 9 ,0s
Mote: 1. end c h i l l e d by 5cm t h i c k s t e e l

Table v ~ Comparison of the c r i t i c a l v a l u e s of s o l i d f i c a t i o n

parameters f o r c e n t e r l i n e s h r i n k a g e

proposed obtained v a l u e s f o r each p l a t e t h i c k n e s s

parameters value 5cm 2.5cm 1.25cm 0.5cm

G(°C/cm) 0.22-0.44" 1.8-2.2 3.6-4.4 6.6-8.0 14.6-19.7

Pj(/min°C/cm) 1 .0" 0.92-1.10 0.93-1.08 0.83-0.98 0.94-1.07
PJJ(1/cm) 0.25 15
0.037-0.042 0.072-0.082 0.12-0.14 0.37-0.41

Kote: P . - G/fR
 95

rvi V
MAXIMUM LENGTH CAST SOUND

4.5s

r \V
/i 2s
LENGTH GREATER THAN MAXIMUM

2.5s
* al u. -J

s
VARIABLE

rvi Y
MAXIMUM LENGTH CAST SOUND

•>

rvi
Y 2s
LENGTH GREATER THAN MAXIMUM

j I,
2s
-
'1 1'
c
S
1

VARIABLE ... VARIABLE

F i g u r e 28 - F e e d i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y
i n t h e s t e e l c a s t i n g s ; (a) P l a t e s , and (b) Square b a r s
3 0 3 1
 96

Figure 29 - Comparison of measured p e r m e a b i l i t i e s vs volume

fraction liquid
 * * t> X

RISER .GREEN SAND MOLD

CO

* • • • • *#
. a '

. * SOUND \ . :• SOUND * ;
*'v CENTERLINE. *
• DUE TO •••*•• DUE TO
" -SHRINKAGE.'.
RISER EFFECT! 1 *. END EFFECT • . '
1
vo

* •• CHILL f
to
«
•la—I*-—
*

•. 1. .
• ••
• - •• »
•.
p • •i CO
. •• »
• n i

3s 4s-12s

S = PLATE THICKNESS

F i g u r e 30 - C o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e system i n v e s t i g a t e d
 98

I START)

READ INPUT DATA

INITIALIZE VARIABLES

^TIMF=TlME+*t|*

CALCULATE TEMPERATURE FIELD

USING EXPLICIT FDM

CALCULATA 9u*& AND Vx

I
CALCULATE THE REQUIRED PRESSURE
TO FEED SHRINKAGE

YES

CALCULATE -SOLIDIF ICATION

PARAMETERS

(STOP)

F i g u r e 31 - Flow c h a r t of t h e computer program f o r t h e

p r e d i c t i o n of c e n t e r l i n e s h r i n k a g e
 99

LIQUIDUS

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
DISTANCE FROM RISER ( CM )

F i g u r e 32 - Temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e c e n t e r l i n e
of t h e p l a t e c a s t i n g
RISER "
30

c .34
MN .89
SI .68
CASTING SIZE : 2" x 13"
20 -

o
o

MPASII&FT) nv
10 •
BISHOP AND PELLINI 57

• CALCULATED RESULTS

0
-r- 15 2u"
10 TIME ( MIN )

F i g u r e 33 S o l i d u s movement a l o n g the c e n t e r l i n e of p l a t e
casting
 101

CASTING SIZE ! 5 X 33 CM

Z7
7055 SOLID
SOLIDUS

SOUND DUE TO
SOUND DUE TO RISER EFFECT
END EFFECT'

(b)

(c)

F i g u r e 34 - The d i s t r i b u t i o n of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n c o n t o u r
l i n e s a t t h e ( a ) i n i t i a l , (b) m i d d l e and (c) l a s t s t a g e s of
solidification
 102

F i g u r e 35 - D i s t r i b u t i o n of the p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o feed
s h r i n k a g e a t the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n (s=5cm)
F i g u r e 36 - D i s t r i b u t i o n of the p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o feed
s h r i n k a g e at the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n (s=2.5cm)
 104

F i g u r e 37 - D i s t r i b u t i o n of the p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o feed
s h r i n k a g e a t the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n (s=0.5cm)
 1 0 5

40-

° • EXPERIMENT BY BISHOP AND PELLINl' 7

° • EXPERIMENT BY JOHNSON AND LOPER 31

35 - EXPERIMENTAL BOUNDARY
PRESENT WORK

30 -

- 25 •

20 -

15 -

10 -

5 -

I 1 1 r T-

2 3 4 5 6
PLATE THICKNESS, s ( CM )

F i g u r e 38 - Soundness of s t e e l plate castings

 106

F i g u r e 39 - D i s t r i b u t i o n of the p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o feed
s h r i n k a g e a t the end of s o l i d i f i c a t i o n -end c h i l l e d c a s t i n g
 107

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. E.Scheil; Metallforschung, 2 ( 1 9 4 7 ) , p 6 9 .

2 . J . K i r k a l d y and W.V.Youdelis; T r a n s . AIME, 2 1 2 ( 1 9 5 8 ) ,

p 8 3 3 . -

3 . F.Sauerwald; M e t a l l w i r s c h a f t , 22 ( 1 9 4 3 ) , p 5 4 3 .

4 . W.V.Youdelis and D.R.Colton; T r a n s . AIME, 2 1 8 ( 1 9 6 0 ) ,

p 8 0 9 .

5. W.V.Youdelis; "The S o l i d i f i c a t i o n of M e t a l s " ( B r i g h t o n

C o n f e r e n c e ) , The I r o n and S t e e l I n s t . London ( 1 9 6 7 ) ,
p i 1 2 .

6 . E . P l e z e l and Z . S c h n e i d e r ; Z. Metallkunde, 3 5 ( 1 9 4 3 ) ,

p i 21 .

7. B.Prabhakar and F.Weinberg; Met. T r a n s . ASM, 9 B ( 1 9 7 8 ) ,

P 1 5 0 .

8 . M.C.Flemings and G.E.Nereo; T r a n s . AIME, 2 3 9 ( 1 9 6 7 ) ,

p 1 4 4 9 .

9. M.C.Flemings, R.Mehrabian and G.E.Nereo; i b i d , 2 4 2 ( 1 9 6 8 ) ,

p 4 1 .

1 0 . M.C.Flemings and G.E.Nereo; i b i d , 2 4 2 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , p 5 0 .

11. R.Mehrabian, M.A.Keane and M.C.Flemings; Met T r a n s . ASM,

1 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p 3 2 3 8

1 2 . E . S c h e i l ; Z.Metallkunde, 3 4 ( 1 9 4 2 ) , p 7 0 .

1 3 . W.G.Pfann; T r a n s . AIME, 1 9 4 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , p 7 4 7 .

1 4 . H.D.Brody and M.C.Flemings; ibid, 2 3 6 ( 1 9 6 6 ) , p 6 l 5 .

1 5 . T.F.Bower, H.D.Brody and M.C.Flemings; ibid, 2 3 6 ( 1 9 6 6 ) ,

p 6 2 4 .

16. C . J . S m i t h e l l s ; " M e t a l s R e f e r e n c e Book" 4 t h Ed.,

B u t t e r w o r t h s , London ( 1 9 6 7 ) , p 6 8 5 . .

17. J . F . E l l i o t and M . G l e i s e r ; "Thermochemistry of

S t e e l m a k i n g " , Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. ( i 9 6 0 ) .

1 8 . K.Bornemann and F.Sauerwald; Z . M e t a l l k u n d e , 14 ( 1 9 2 2 ) ,

p l O .

1 9 . K.Bornemann and F.Sauerwald; i b i d , 14 ( 1 9 2 2 ) , p ! 5 4 .

 108

20. H.R.Thresh, A.F.Crawley and D.W.G.White; T r a n s . AIME, 242

(1968), p 8 l 9 .

21. R.E.Morrone, J.O.Wilkes and R.D.Pehlke; AFS Cast M e t a l s

Research J o u r n a l , Dec (1970), p i 8 4 .

22. R.E.Morrone, J.O.Wilkes and R.D.Pehlke; i b i d , Dec (1970),

pl88.

23. G.Sciama; i b i d , Mar (1972), p20.

24. G.Sciama; i b i d , Dec (1972), p145

25. I.Ohnaka, Y.Yashima and T.Fukusako; Imono, 52 (1980), No

1, p l O .

26. A . J e y a r a j a n and R.D.Pehlke; AFS Trans." 86 ( 1 978), p457.

27. H.F.Bishop and W . S . P e l l i n i ; AFS T r a n s . 58 (1950), p l 8 5 .

28. H.F.Bishop, E.T.Myskowski and W . S . P e l l i n i ; i b i d , 59

(1951) , p171.
29. E.T.Myskowski, H.F.Bishop and W . S . P e l l i n i ; i b i d , 60
(1952) , p389.
30. W . S . P e l l i n i ; i b i d , 61 (1953), p 6 l .
31. S.B.Johnson and C.R.Loper,Jr; i b i d , 77 (1969), p360.
32. E.Niyama, T.Uchida, M.Morioka and S . S a i t o ; AFS
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Cast M e t a l s J o u r n a l ; 6 (1981), No.2, p16.
33. E.Niyama, T.Uchida, M.Morioka and S . S a i t o ; i b i d , 7 (1982),
No.3, p52.

34. K . C h i j i i w a and I.Imafuku; Imono, 55 (1983), No.5, p 2 7 l .

35. V . L . D a v i e s ; AFS Cast M e t a l s Research J o u r n a l , Jun (1975),
p33.
36. M.C.Flemings; " S o l i d i f i c a t i o n P r o c e s s i n g " , McGraw-Hill
Inc. (1974), p234.
37. T.S.Piwonka and M.C.Flemings; T r a n s . AIME, 236 (1966),
p1157.

38. R.Mehrabian, M.Kreane and M.C.Flemings; Met. Trans. ASM,

1 (1970), p1209.

39. N . S t r e a t and F.Weinberg; Met. Trans. ASM, 7B (1976),

P417.

40. D . A p e l i a n , M.C.Flemings and R.Mehrabian; Met. Trans.

 109

ASM, 5 (1974), p2533.

 110

APPENDIX A ~ RECALCULATION OF THE SCHEIL-YOUDELIS MODEL

PREDICTIONS

The S c h e i l - Y o u d e l i s ' model p r e d i c t i o n s have been

r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r the A l - C u , A l - Z n and Sb-Bi systems and a r e

shown i n F i g s 40, 41 and 42, r e s p e c t i v e l y . C a l c u l a t i o n s from

t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n plus c a l c u l a t i o n s published and t h e

experimental r e s u l t s reported are included. For the Al-Cu

a l l o y s F i g 40 t h e r e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower

than t h e c u r v e p u b l i s h e d by S c h e i l and K i r k a l d y e t a l , a l t h o u g h
2

the g e n e r a l shape of the c u r v e i s t h e same. I t i s not c l e a r why

the r e c a l c u l a t e d curve d i f f e r s from t h e p u b l i s h e d one. In t h e

A l - Z n and Sb-Bi a l l o y s t h e r e a r e v e r y l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s between

the r e c a l c u l a t e d c u r v e s and t h o s e r e p o r t e d i n the l i t e r a t u r e , i n

p a r t i c u l a r a t t h e low a l l o y compositions.
 111

APPENDIX B ~ DERIVATION OF NODAL EQUATIONS

The p a r t i a l differential e q u a t i o n f o r two d i m e n s i o n a l

t r a n s i e n t problem ( e q u a t i o n (B-30)) and boundary e q u a t i o n s

( e q u a t i o n s B-34 t o B-36) were s o l v e d e x p l i c i t l y u s i n g f i n i t e

d i f f e r e n c e method. F i g 43 shows t y p e s o f nodes a p p e a r i n g i n t h e

model examined. The nodal d i f f e r e n c e e q u a t i o n s were d e r i v e d by

a p p l y i n g heat b a l a n c e f o r each element as f o l l o w i n g s ;

I n t e r i o r nodes (node type 10) '

T. . ,- T. . T. T. . T. . . - T. . i
k kL A y + k -JbJ±i i i i A y + k ^ l l t l iLL ^
Ax J
Ax J
Ay
*
T. . - T. . T . - T . .
+ k 1 + 1
>j Ax = AxAypC ^ (1)
Ay J
*p At

T* . = Fo (T. . ,+ T. ...) + Fo ( T . . .+ T . . . .)
i,J x i,j-l i.J+1 y i-l,J i+l,J
+ (1 - 2Fo - 2Fo )T. . (1)'
x y' i,j

Corner node i n t h e mold (node type 1)

T* = 2Fo T . . . . + 2Fo T . . . _ .+ 2(Fo B i + Fo B i )T

i,j x i,j+l y i+l,j x x y y' a

+ (1 - 2F6 - 2Fo - 2Fo Bi - 2Fo B i )T. . (2)

x y x x y y' i,j

S u r f a c e nodes i n t h e mold (node type 2)

+ (1 - 2Fo - 2Fo - 2Fo Bi )T (3)

x y y y I,J
 1 12

Boundary node i n t h e mold (node type 4)

1 T - T . T
(T, T, O A y + k c ^ Ay + k c

^Ax ±AX ^ ''I- 1

^ " S A X
' S

*
T. - T. T . - T.
+ k c
1 + 1
>l id. Ax = AxAyp C ± > J

S Ay J
p At
2
*
1, . = T - ~ F6 T. . - + Fo T. ... + Fo (T, . .+ T, ,)
i,j k
s
+ k
M x
y »J x i + 1

2k
M
+
( 1
~ TTTT F o
~ Fo - 2Fo ) T.
S M k + k X X
y

S u r f a c e boundary nodes i n t h e m e t a l (node type 6)

- (
T _ T \*L+ v T
i>j+l" T
l , j Ay_ ( _
1. 1. i , j - 1 U
±,j 2 ; +
*M Ax 2 " U
a 1

yAx yAx ' J

•=r— +
S

T - T T - T
^d id- & = C ^.1
+
*M "Ay " *< * ^ -p At

* 2 k
9
T. . = T—-P- Fo T. , + Fo T. . + 2Fo T._,_. . + 2Fo B i T
i,j kg+kj^ x i , j - l x i,j+l y l+l,j y y a A

s 2 k

+ ( 1 - V — r f Fo - Fo - 2Fo - 2Fo B i ) T. .
v
s M k + k x x
y y »J
y X

Corner nodes i n t h e m e t a l (node type 9)

2 k
s
T = (Fo T ,+ Fo T J M .) .+ Fo T 3 .,,+ Fo T. , .
A
i,j k
c
+ k
M « i . j - i y i+i.j x
y

2k
i - < V 4 ' < V V 1 i.a
1 I +
f
F
T
 113

APPENDIX C ~ FORTRAN PROGRAM FOR THE PREDICTION OF CENTRELINE

SHRINKAGE

C
C
r * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * > * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

C
C F I L E NAME : CENTO91 CALC. OF SOLIDUS PRESSURE AT GL=
C
C FEEDING DISTANCE DETERMINATION OF HORIZONTAL PLATE CA
C MOLD BY NUMERICAL SIMULATION.(APPLICATION OF 1 ~D DARC
C 2-D UNSTEADY-STATE PROBLEM.
C HANDLING OF LATENT HEAT = EQUIVALLENT SPECIFIC HEAT M
C
C ASSUMPTIONS; 1)CONST.SPECIFIC HEAT,CONDUCTIVITY A DEN
C 2)LINEAR SOLIDUS A LIQUIDUS
C 3)NO H.T.RESISTANCE"AT S/M INTERFACE
C 4)THE MOLD I S INSTANTANEOUSLY FILLED WIT
C METAL WHICH I S STAGNANT
C SYMBOLS; DX =GRID DISTANCE DY =GRID DISTANCE
C DT =TIME STEP H =HEAT TRANSF.COE
C TA =AMBIENT TEMP. TO =INITIAL TEMP.OF
C TP =POURING TEMP. N =NO.OF NODES(Y)
C M =NO.OF NODES(X) OTI=OUTPUT TIME INT
C OT =OUTPUT TIME CPM=SPECIFIC HEAT 0
C CPS=SPECIFIC HEAT OF SAN DM =DENSITY OF META
C DS =DENSITY OF SAND KM =CONDUCTIVITY OF
C KS =CONDUCTIVITY OF SAND TL =LIQUIDUS TEMP.
C TS =SOLIDUS TEMP. HS =LATENT HEAT OF
C TM =TIME TMS=SOLIDN.START T l
C TM7=70% SOLIDN.TIME TM9=90% SOLIDN. TIM
C TMF=SOLIDN.COMPLETE TIME TMLS=LOCAL SOLIDN.T
C CR =MEAN COOLING RATE GR =TEMP.GRADIENT
C P =SOLIDN.PARAMETER
C AM,AS =THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
C FMX,FMY=FOURIER NO.OF METAL
C FSX,FSY=FOURIER NO.OF SAND
C BSX,BSY=BIOT NO IN SAND
C DDX,DDY=1/DX**2,1/DY**2
C A1,A2 =2*(KS,KM)/(KS+KM)
C CPME =EQUIVALLENT SPECIFIC HEAT OF METAL
C T,TB =NEW A OLD TEMP.
C VSX=SOLIDUS VELOCITY VX =FLUID VELOCITY
C VXI,VXO=IN- A OUT-FLOW VELOCITY
C GL,GLB =NEW A OLD VOLUME FRACTION LIQUID
C TA =ATOM. PRESSURE AK = PERMEABILITY
C DP =PRESSURE DROP PR =PRESSURE AT SOL
C B =CONTRACTION RATIO
C
Q **********************************************************
c
c
REAL KM,KS
DIMENSION T(100,100),TB(100,100),AM(100,100),FMX(100,100),
 1 14

1 CP( 100, 100),TMS( 100, 100),PRR( 100, 100),

2TM98(100,100), GR(100,100),P(100,100),
3FMY(100,100),TMF(100,100),VSX(100,100),VX(100,100),
4GL(100,100),GLB(100,100),DP(100,100),PR(100,100)
C
C ' -
C ***** DATA INPUT
READ(5,1000) N,LC,DX,DY,DT,OTI
1000 FORMAT(//,2I12,4F12.5)
READ(5,1020) CPM,DM,KM,HS,B
READ(5,1020) TL,TS,TP,TA,TO
1020 FORMAT(/,5F12.5)
READ(5,1030) CPS,DS,KS,H1,E,VIS
1030 FORMAT(/,6F12.5)
C
M=25+LC
MM5=M-5
MM6=M-6
C
c ***** DETERMINATION OF INITIAL VALUES
DO 20 J=1,M
DO 10 1=1,N
10 TB(I,J)=T0
20 CONTINUE
C
DO 40 J=6,20
DO 30 1=1,25
GLB(I,J)=1.0
30 TB(I,J)=TP
40 CONTINUE
C
DO 60 J=21,MM5
DO 50 1=21,25
GLB(I,J)=1.0
50 TB(I,J)=TP
60 CONTINUE
C
TM=0.0
OT=OTI
JF=MM6
C
c ***** ITERATION START
70 TM=TM+DT/60.0
C
C ***** CHECK OF SPECIFIC HEAT OF METAL
CALL CPCHK(MM5,TB,TL,TS,CP,CPM,CPME,HS)
C
C ***** CALCULATION OF CONSTANTS
DDX=1/(DX**2)
DDY=1/(DY**2)
A1=2.0*KM/(KS+KM)
C A2=2.0*KS/(KS+KM)
DO 130 J=6,20
 115

DO '120 1 = 1 ,25
AM(I,J)=KM/(DM*CP(I,J))
FMX(I,J)=AM(I,J)*DT*DDX
120 FMY (I , J ) =AM(I , J ) *DT.*DDY
130 CONTINUE
C - .
DO 150 J=21,MM5
DO 140 1=21,25
AM(I,J)=KM/(DM*CP(I,J))
FMX(I,J)=AM(I,J)*DT*DDX
140 FMY(I,J)=AM(I,J)*DT*DDY
150 CONTINUE
C
AS=KS/(DS*CPS)
FSX=AS*DT*DDX
FSY=AS*DT*DDY
BSX=H1*DX/KS
BSY=H1*DY/KS
PA=1.0l3E+06
G=981.0
C
c
C ***** CALCULATION OF T'S AT TIME=TM
CALL TCALC(N,M,T,TB,TA,FSX,FSY,FMX,FMY,BSX,BSY,E,DY,KM,A1,A
C
c ***** CALCULATION OF SOLIDIFICATION TIMES
CALL TMSOL(TL,TS,MM5,T,TB,TM,TMS, TM98,TMF)
C
C ***** CALC. OF FLUID VELOCITY
C I F ( J F . L T . 2 1 ) GO TO 235
1=23
DO 165 J=21,JF
I F ( T ( I , J ) . G T . T L ) GO TO 155
I F ( T ( I , J ) . L T . T S ) GO TO 160
FS=(TL-T(I,J))/(TL-TS)
GL(I,J)=((1.0-FS)/7.1)/(FS/7.5+(1.0-FS)/7.1)
GO TO 165
155 GL(I,J)=1.0
GO TO 165
160 GL(I,J)=0.0
165 CONTINUE
C
C
185 IF(GL(23,JF).GT.0.02) GO TO 228
DO 190 L=1,30
IF((TM98(23,JF)-TM98(23,JF+L)).LE.0.0) GOTO 190
VSX(23,JF)=DX*L/ ((TM98(23,JF)-TM98(23,JF+L))*60.0)
GO TO 195
190 CONTINUE
C
195 VX(23,JF)=B*VSX(23,JF)
I F ( J F . L E . 2 1 ) GO TO 220
DO 200 L=1,50
VX(23,JF-L)=VX(23,JF)*GLB(23,JF)/GLB(23,JF-L)
 116

I F ( ( J F - L ) . E Q . 2 1 ) GO TO 220
200 CONTINUE
C
c ***** APPLICATION OF DARCY'S LAW
220 DPTX=0.0
1=23 - .
I F ( G L ( I , 2 1 ) . L E . 0 . 0 2 ) GO TO 235
DO 225 J=21, JF
IF(GLB(I,J).GT.0.3) GO TO 222
AK=6.89E-09*GLB(I,J)**2
GO TO 223
222 AK=1.0E-05*GLB(I,J)**8
223 DP(I,J)=VIS*GLB(I,J) *VX(I,J)*DX/AK
DPTX=DPTX+DP(I , J )
225 CONTINUE
C
PR(23,JF)=DPTX
PRR(23,JF)=PR(23,JF)/PA
WRITE(6,1032) JF,TM
1 032 FORMAT(//,' (23, ,12,') IS SOLIDIFIED AT',F10.5,' (MIN)',/)
1

WRITE(6,1033) (T(23,J),J=21,MM5)
1033 FORMAT(20F6.0)
WRITE(6,1034)
1034 FORMAT(/,'NO',5X,'T',7X,'GL',9X,'Vf',7X,'P.DROP')
WRITE(6,1035)
1035 FORMAT(7X,'C,16X,'cm/sec',5X,'dyn/cm2',/)
WRITE(6,1036) ( J , T ( 2 3 , J ) , G L B ( 2 3 , J ) , V X ( 2 3 , J ) , D P ( 2 3 , J ) , J = 2 1 , J
1036 FORMAT(12,F2.1,F3.4,F11.5,E12.4)
WRITE(6,1040) PRR(23,JF)
1040 FORMAT*/,5X,'PRESSURE REQUIRED =',F11.4,' atm',//)
C WRITE(6,1032) JF,TM
C1032 FORMAT(//,' (23, ' ,12,') IS SOLIDIFIED AT',F10.5,' (MIN)',/)
C WRITE(6,1034) (VX(23,J),J=21,JF)
C1034 FORMATO0E10.3,' cm/sec')
C WRITE(6,1036) (DP(23,J),J=21,JF)
C1036 FORMAT(10E10.3,' dyn/cm2')
C WRITE(6, 1038) DPTX,PR(2 3,JF)
C1038 FORMAT(/,5X, E12.4,' PRESSURE =',E12.4,' (dyn/cm2)')
C
JF=JF-1
I F ( J F . L T . 2 1 ) GO TO 235
C
IF(GL(23,JF).LE.0.02) GO TO 185
C
228 1=23
DO 229 J=21,JF
229 G L B ( I , J ) = G L ( I , J )
C
C ***** CALCULATION OF TEMP.GRADIENTS
235 CALL TGR(MM5,T,TB,TS,DX,DY,GR)
C
c ***** CHECK OF COMPLETE SOLIDIFICATION
IF(T(23,21).GT.TS) GO TO 239
 1 17

C
c ***** SOLIDN. PARAMETERS
1=23
DO 237 J=21,MM6
TMLS =TMF(I , J)-TMS(I , J )
CR =(TL-TS)/(TMLS *"-60..0)
237 P(I,J)=GR(I,J)/SQRT(CR)
C
c ***** OUTPUT OF T'S AT COMPLETE SOLIDIFICATION
WRITE(6,1050) TM
1050 FORMATC////,'TEMP DISTRIBUTION AT',F10.4,' MIN ',//)
WRITE(6,1080) ( ( T ( I , J ) , I = 1 6 , N ) , J= 1,M)
1080 FORMAT(15F5.0)
C
WRITE(6,1170)
1170 FORMAT(////,'COMPLETE SOLIDN. TIME : TMF (MIN)',//)
WRITE(6,1180) ((TMF(I,J),1=21,25),J=21,MM5)
1180 FORMAT(5F10.3)
C
WRITE(6,1190)
1190 FORMAT(////,'NO',6X,'T.GRAD',8X,'P',7X,'V(SOLID.M)',2X,
1'PRESSURE',7X,'PR/PA',
2/,9X,'C/cm',19X,'cm/sec',5X,'dyn/cm',9X,'atm',/)
1=23
WRITE(6,1200) ( J , G R ( I , J ) , P ( I , J ) , V S X ( I , J ) , P R ( I , J ) , P R R ( I , J ) ,
1J=21,MM6)
1200 F0RMAT(I2,3F12.4,E12.3,F12.4)
C
C
STOP
C
C
c ***** OUTPUT TIME CHECK DURING ITERATION
239 IF(TM.LT.OT) GO TO 240
C
c ***** OUTPUT OF T'S
WRITE(6,1245) TM
1245 FORMAT(////,'TEMP. DISTRIBUTION AT',F10.4,'MIN ',//)
WRITE(6,1246) ((T(I,J),I=16,N),J=1,M)
1246 FORMAT(15F5.0)
C
OT=OT+OTI
C
C
C ***** SUBSTITUTION OF TEMP. A ITERATION
240 DO 260 J=1,M
DO 250 1=1,N
250 T B ( I , J ) = T ( I , J )
260 CONTINUE
C
GO TO 70
C
END
C
 118

C
C
c
c
Q ************************************
C . :

SUBROUTINE CPCHK(MM5,TB,TL,TS,CP,CPM,CPME,HS)
C
C ASSIGN THE EQUIVALLENT SPECIFIC HEAT TO METAL IN THE RAN
C
Q *********************************************************
c
c
DIMENSION TB(100,100),CP(100,100)
C
C TLS=(TL+TS)/2.0
DO 30 J=6,20
DO 20 1=1,25
IF (TB (I , J).GT.TL.OR.TB(I,J).LT.TS) GO TO 10
C I F ( T B ( I , J ) . G T . T L S ) GO TO 5
C CP(I,J)=CPM+(TB(I,J)-TS)*(4.0*HS/(TL-TS)**2)
C GO TO 20
C 5 CP(I,J)=CPM+(TL-TB(I,J))*(4.0*HS/(TL-TS)**2)
5 CP(I,J)=CPM+HS/(TL-TS)
GO TO 20
10 CP(I,J)=CPM
20 CONTINUE
30 CONTINUE
C
DO 60 J=21,MM5
DO 50 1=21,25
IF(TB(I,J).GT.TL.OR.TB(I,J).LT.TS) GO TO 40
C I F ( T B ( I , J ) . G T . T L S ) GO TO 35
C CP(I,J)=CPM+(TB(I,J)-TS)*(4.0*HS/(TL-TS)**2)
C GO TO 50
C 35 CP(I,J)=CPM+(TL-TB(I,J))*(4.0*HS/(TL-TS)**2)
35 CP(I,J)=CPM+HS/(TL-TS)
GO TO 50
40 CP(I,J)=CPM
50 CONTINUE
60 CONTINUE
C
RETURN
END
C
C
C
C
C
Q ***********************************************************
c
SUBROUTINE TCALC(N,M,T,TB,TA,FSX,FSY,FMX,FMY,BSX,BSY,E,DY,K
1A1,A2)
C
 119

C CALCULATION NODES' TEMPS. BY EXPLICIT FINITE DIFFERENCE

C
Q *************************************
C
c
REAL KM -
DIMENSION T(100,100),TB(100,100),FMX(100,100),FMY(100,100)
MM1=M-1
MM2=M-2
MM3=M-3
MM4=M-4
MM5=M-5
MM6=M-6
C
C ***** TEMPS. IN SAND
C
C NODE 1
DO 15 J=2,4
DO 10 1=2,26
10 T ( I , J ) = F S X * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F S Y * ( T B ( I - 1,J)+TB(I + 1,J))
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX-2.0*FSY)*TB(l,J)
15 CONTINUE
C
1 = 26
J=5
20 T ( I , J ) = F S X * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F S Y * ( T B ( I - 1,J)+TB(I + 1 , J ) )
1 +(1.0~2.0*FSX-2.0*FSY)*TB(I,J)
C
DO 40 1=27,29
DO 30 J=2,MM1
30 T ( I , J ) = F S X * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F S Y * ( T B ( I - 1,J)+TB(I+1 ,J) )
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX~2.0*FSY)*TB(I,J)
40 CONTINUE
C
DO 45 1=2,19
DO 42 J=22,MM1
42 T ( I , J ) = F S X * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F S Y * ( T B ( I - 1 , J ) + T B ( I + 1 , J ) )
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX~2.0*FSY)*TB(I,J)
45 CONTINUE
C
1 = 20
J=MM4
50 T ( I , J ) = F S X * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F S Y * ( T B ( I - 1 , J ) + T B ( I + 1 , J ) )
1 + (1.0-2.0*FSX-2.0*FSY)*TB(I,J)
C
1 = 26
J=MM4
55 T ( I , J ) = F S X * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F S Y * ( T B ( I - 1 , J ) + T B ( I + 1 , J ) )
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX-2.0*FSY)*TB(I,J)
C
DO 70 1=20,26
DO 60 J=MM3,MM1
60 T ( I , J ) = F S X * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F S Y * ( T B ( I - 1 , J ) + T B ( I + 1 , J ) )
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX-2.0*FSY)*TB(I,J)
 120

70 CONTINUE
C
C NODE 2
1 = 1
J=1
1 00 T ( l , J ) = F S X * T B ( I , J+1 )+FSY*TB-(l+J , J ) + (FSX*BSX+FSY*BSY) *TA
1 +(1 .0-FSX-FSY-FSX*BSX-FSY*BSY)*TB(l ,.J)
C
C NODE 3
1 = 1

DO 110 J = 2,4
110 T(I,J)=FSX*(TB(I,J-1)+TB(l,J+1))+FSY*TB(1+1,J)+FSY*BSY*TA
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX-FSY~FSY*BSY)*TB(I,J)
C
1 = 1

DO 115 J=22,MM1
115 T(I,J)=FSX*(TB(I,J-1)+TB(l,J+1))+FSY*TB(1+1,J)+FSY*BSY*TA
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX-FSY-FSY*BSY)*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 4
1 = 1
J=5
120 T(I,J)=FSX*TB(I,J-1)+FSY*TB(l+1,J)+A1*FSX*TB(I,J+1)+FSY*BSY
1 +(1.0-FSX-FSY-A1*FSX-FSY*BSY)*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 5
1 = 1
J=21
125 T(I,J)=FSX*TB(I ,J+1 )+FSY*TB(I + 1 , J)+A1 *FSX*TB('l ,J-1 )+FSY*BSY
1 +(1.0-FSX-FSY-A1*FSX-FSY*BSY)*TB(l,J)
C
C NODE 6
1 = 1
J=M
128 T(I,J)=FSX*TB(I,J-1)+FSY*TB(l+1,J)+(FSX*BSX+FSY*BSY)*TA
1 +(1.0-FSX-FSY-FSX*BSX-FSY*BSY)*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 7
J=1
DO 130 1=2,29
1 30 T ( I , J ) = F S Y * ( T B ( I - 1 , J ) + T B ( I + 1 ,J))+FSX*TB(I,J+1 )+FSX*BSX*TA
1 +(1.O-FSX-2.0*FSY~FSX*BSX)*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 8
J=5
DO 180 1=2,25
180 T(I,J)=FSY*(TB(I-1,J)+TB(l+1,J))+FSX*TB(I,J-1)+A1*FSX*TB(I,
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSY-FSX-A1*FSX)*TB(l,J)
C
C NODE 9
J=21
DO 185 1=2,19
185 T(I,J)=FSY*(TB(I-1,J)+TB(I+1,J))+FSX*TB(I,J+1)+A1*FSX*TB(I,
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSY-FSX-A1*FSX)*TB(l,J)
 121

C
J=MM4
DO 187 1=21,25
187 T(I,J)=FSY*(TB(I-1,J)+TB(I+1,J))+FSX*TB(I,J+1)+A1*FSX*TB(I,
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSY-FSX-A1*FSX)*TB(l,J)
C -
C NODE 10 -
J=M
DO 190 1=2,29
190 T(I,J)=FSY*(TB(I-1,J)+TB(I+1,J))+FSX*TB(I,J-1)+FSX*BSX*TA
1 +(1.0-FSX-2.0*FSY-FSX*BSX)*TB(l,J)
C
C NODE 11
1 = 20

J=21
220 T(I,J)=FSX*TB(I,J+1)+FSY*TB(I-1,J)+A1*FSX*TB(I,J-1)
1 +A1*FSY*TB(I + 1 ,J) + ( 1 .0-FSX-FSY-A1*"(FSX+FSY) )*TB(I ,J)
C
C NODE 12
1=20
DO 225 J=22,MM5
225 T ( I , J ) = F S X * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F S Y * T B ( l - 1 , J ) + A 1 * F S Y * T B ( I +
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX-FSY-A1*FSY)*TB(l,J)
C
C NODE 13
1 = 26

DO 230 J=6,MM5
230 T ( I , J ) = F S X * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F S Y * T B ( l + 1 , J ) + A 1 * F S Y * T B ( I -
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX-FSY-A1*FSY)*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 14
1 = 30

J=1
240 T(I,J)=FSX*TB(I,J+1)+FSY*TB(I-1,J)+(FSX*BSX+FSY*BSY)*TA
1 +(1,0-FSX-FSY-FSX*BSX-FSY*BSY)*TB(l,J)
C
C NODE 15
1 = 30

DO 250 J=2,MM1
250 T(I,J)=FSX*(TB(I,J-1)+TB(l,J+1))+FSY*TB(1-1,J)+FSY*BSY*TA
1 +(1.0-2.0*FSX-FSY-FSY*BSY)*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 16
1 = 30

J=M
260 T(I,J)=FSX*TB(I,J-1)+FSY*TB(I-1,J)+(FSX*BSX+FSY*BSY)*TA
1 +(1.0-FSX-FSY-FSX*BSX-FSY*BSY)*TB(I,J)
C
C
C ***** TEMPS. IN METAL
C
C NODE 17
DO 280 1=2,24
DO 270 J=7,19
 122

270 T ( I , J ) = F M X ( I , J ) * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F M Y ( I , J ) * ( T B ( I - 1 , J )
1 +TB(I+1,J))+(1.0-2.0*FMX(l,J)-2.0*FMY(I,J))*TB(I,J)
280 CONTINUE
C
1=21
J=20 - .
290 T ( I , J ) = F M X ( I , J ) * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F M Y ( I , J ) * ( T B ( I - 1 , J )
1 +TB(I+1,J))+(1.0-2.0*FMX(l,J)-2.0*FMY(I,J))*TB(I,J)
C
DO 310 1=22,24
DO 300 J=20,MM5
300 T ( I , J ) = F M X ( I , J ) * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F M Y ( l , J ) * ( T B ( I - 1 , J ) + T
1 (I+1,J))+(1.0-2.0*FMX(I,J)-2.0*FMY(I,J))*TB(I,J)
310 CONTINUE
C
C NODE 18
1= 1
J =6
H=1.37E-12*E*((TB(I,J)+273.0)**4-(TA+273.0)**4)/(TB(I,J)-TA
BMY=H*DY/KM
320 T(I,J)=FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J+1)+FMY(I,J)*TB(I+1,J)+A2*FMX(I,J)*TB
1 (I,J-1)+FMY(l,J)*BMY*TA+(1.0-FMX(I,J)-FMY(I,J)-A2*FMX(I
2 -BMY*FMY(I,J))*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 19
1= 1
DO 330 J=7,19
H=1.37E-12*E*((TB(I,J)+273.0)**4-(TA+273.0)**4)/(TB(I,J)-TA
BMY=H*DY/KM
330 T ( I , J ) = F M X ( I , J ) * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F M Y ( l , J ) * T B ( I + 1 , J )
1 +BMY*FMY(I,J)*TA
2 +(1.0-2.0*FMX(I,J)-(1.0+BMY)*FMY(I,J))*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 20
1= 1
J=20
H=1.37E-12*E*((TB(I,J)+273.0)**4-(TA+273.0)**4)/(TB(I,J)-TA
BMY=H*DY/KM
340 T(I,J)=FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J-1)+FMY(I,J)*TB(1+1,J)+A2*FMX(I,J)*TB
1 (I,J+1)+FMY(l,J)*BMY*TA+(1.0-FMX(I,J)-FMY(I,J)-A2*FMX(I
2 -BMY*FMY(I,J))*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 21
J=6
DO 350 1=2,24
350 T(I,J)=FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J+1)+FMY(I,J)*(TB(I-1,J)+TB(I+1,J))
1 +A2*FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J-1)
2 +(1.0-2.0*FMY(I,J)-(1.0+A2)*FMX(I,J))*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 22
J=20
DO 355 1=2,20
355 T ( I , J ) = F M X ( I , J ) * T B ( I , J - 1 ) + F M Y ( I , J ) * ( T B ( I - 1 , J ) + T B ( I + 1 , J ) )
1 +A2*FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J+1)
 123

2 +(1.0-2.0*FMY(l,J)-(1.0+A2)*FMX(l,J))*TB(I,J)
C
J=MM5
DO 360 1=22,24
360 T ( I , J)=FMX(I ,J)*TB(I , J-1 )+FMY(l , J ) * ( T B ( I - 1 , J ) + T B ( I + 1 , J.) )
1 +A2*FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J+1)-
2 +(1.0-2.0*FMY(l,J)-(1.0+A2)*FMX(I,J))*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 23
1=21
DO 370 J=21,MM6
370 T ( I , J ) = F M Y ( I , J ) * T B ( I + 1 , J ) + F M X ( I , J ) * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) )
1 +A2*FMY(I,J)*TB(1-1,J)
2 +(1,0-2.0*FMX(l,J)-(1.0+A2)*FMY(I,J))*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 24
1=21
J=MM5
380 T(I,J)=FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J 1)+FMY(I,J)*TB(1+1,J) -

1 +A2*FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J+1)+A2*FMY(l,J)*TB(I-1,J)
2 +(1.0-(1.0+A2)*(FMX(l,J)+FMY(I,J)))*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 25
1=25
J =6
390 T ( I , j ) = F M X ( l , J ) * T B ( I , J + 1 ) + F M Y ( l , J ) * T B ( I - 1 , J )
1 +A2*FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J-1)+A2*FMY(l,J)*TB(I+1,J)
2 +(1.0-(1.0+A2)*(FMX(I,J)+FMY(I,J)))*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 26
1 = 25
DO 400 J=7,MM6
400 T ( I , J ) = F M X ( I , J ) * ( T B ( I , J - 1 ) + T B ( l , J + 1 ) ) + F M Y ( I , J ) * T B ( I - 1,J)
1 +A2*FMY(I,J)*TB(I+1,J)
2 +(1.0-2.0*FMX(l,J)-(1.0+A2)*FMY(l,J))*TB(I,J)
C
C NODE 27
1=25
J=MM5
410 T ( I , J ) = F M X ( I , J ) * T B ( I , J - 1 ) + F M Y ( I , J ) * T B ( 1 - 1 , J )
1 +A2*FMX(I,J)*TB(I,J+1)+A2*FMY(l,J)*TB(I+1,J)
2 +(1.0-(1.0+A2)*(FMX(I,J)+FMY(I,J)))*TB(I,J)
C
RETURN
END
C
C
c
c
Q ****************************************
c
SUBROUTINE TMSOL(TL,TS,MM5,T,TB,TM,TMS, TM98,TMF)
C
C CALCULATION OF SOLIDN. TIMES
 124

C SYMBOLS : TMS=START AT TL TM7=70% AT T7

C TM9=90% AT T9 TMF=COMPLETE AT TS
C TM95=95% AT T95 TM98=98% AT T98
C TM99=99% AT T99
C
Q ************* * *********** *'jk *******************************
c
c
DIMENSION T(100.100),TB(100,100),TMS(100,100),
1 TMF(100,100),TM98(100,100)
C
T98=TL-0.98*(TL-TS)
C
DO 60 J=21,MM5
DO 50 1=21,25
C
I F ( T ( I , J ) . G T . T L . O R . T B ( I , J ) . L E . T L ) GO TO 34
TMS(I,J)=TM
34 I F ( T ( I , J ) . G T . T 9 8 . O R . T B ( I , J ) . L E . T 9 8 ) GO TO 40
TM98(I,J)=TM
40 IF(T(I,J).GT.TS.OR.TB(I,J).LE.TS) GO TO 50
TMF(I,J)=TM
50 CONTINUE
60 CONTINUE
C
RETURN
END
C
C
c
c
Q ***********************************************************
c
SUBROUTINE TGR(MM5,T,TB,TS,DX,DY,GR)
C
C CALC. OF TEMP. GRADIENTS(GR) AT THE END OF SOLIDN.
C GR IS DEFINED AS THE MAXIMUM POSITIVE VALUE AMONG THE GR
C FROM THE CENTER NODE TO THE 8 SURROUNDING NODES.
C
Q ***********************************************************
C
c
DIMENSION T(100,100),TB(100,100),GR(100,100)
C
DO 20 J=21,MM5
DO 10 1=22,24
C
G1 =(T(I-1,J-1)-T(l,J))/SQRT(DX**2+DY**2)
IF(T(I,J).GT.TS.OR.TB(I,J).LE.TS) GO TO 10
G2 =(T(I,J-1)-T(l,J))/DX
G3 =(T(I+1,J-1)-T(l,J))/SQRT(DX**2+DY**2)
G4 =(T(I-1,J)-T(I,J))/DY
G5 =(T(I+1,J)-T(I,J))/DY
G6 =(T(I-1,J+1)-T(l,J))/SQRT(DX**2+DY**2)
 125

G7 =(T(I,J+1)-T(l,J))/DX
G8 =(T(I+1,J+1)-T(l,J))/SQRT(DX**2+DY**2)
5 GR(I,J)=AMAX1(G1,G2,G3,G4,G5,G6,G7,G8)
10 CONTINUE
20 CONTINUE
RETURN "
END
 C O N C E N T R A T I O N • (.WTXCU)

F i g u r e 40 - Comparison o f t h e i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t t h e
c h i l l face f o r the A l - C u a l l o y s
F i g u r e 41
 128

F i g u r e 42 - Comparison of the i n v e r s e s e g r e g a t i o n a t the

c h i l l f a c e f o r the Sb-Bi a l l o y s
© © © ©

RISER

© ®
© ® GREEN SAND MOLD

®
CASTING

F i g u r e 43