Flat Rolling Fundamentals (Manufacturing Engineering and Materials Processing) (PDFDrive)

Cover
Fundamentals of Flat Rolling

title: Manufacturing Engineering and Materials
Processing ; 57
author: Ginzburg, Vladimir B.; Ballas, Robert
publisher: CRC Press
isbn10 | asin: 082478894X
print isbn13: 9780824788940
ebook isbn13: 9780585381749
language: English
Rolling (Metal-work) , Rolling-mill
subject
machinery.
publication date: 2000
lcc: TS340.G5325 2000eb
ddc: 671.3/2
Rolling (Metal-work) , Rolling-mill
subject:
machinery.
Page a
FLAT ROLLING FUNDAMENTALS

Page b
MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING AND MATERIALS PROCESSING

A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks
FOUNDING EDITOR
Geoffrey Boothroyd
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island
1. Computers in Manufacturing, U. Rembold, M. Seth, and J. S.

Weinstein
2. Cold Rolling of Steel, William L. Roberts
3. Strengthening of Ceramics: Treatments, Tests, and Design
Applications, Harry P. Kirchner
4. Metal Forming: The Application of Limit Analysis, Betzalel Avitzur
5. Improving Productivity by Classification, Coding, and Data Base
Standardization: The Key to Maximizing CAD/CAM and Group
Technology, William F. Hyde
6. Automatic Assembly, Geoffrey Boothroyd, Corrado Poli, and
Laurence E. Murch
7. Manufacturing Engineering Processes, Leo Alting
8. Modern Ceramic Engineering: Properties, Processing, and Use in
Design, David W. Richerson
9. Interface Technology for Computer-Controlled Manufacturing
Processes, Ulrich Rembold, Karl Armbruster, and Wolfgang
Ülzmann
10. Hot Rolling of Steel, William L. Roberts
11. Adhesives in Manufacturing, edited by Gerald L. Schneberger
12. Understanding the Manufacturing Process: Key to Successful
CAD/CAM Implementation, Joseph Harrington, Jr.
13. Industrial Materials Science and Engineering, edited by Lawrence
E. Murr
14. Lubricants and Lubrication in Metalworking Operations, Elliot S.
Nachtman and Serope Kalpakjian
15. Manufacturing Engineering: An Introduction to the Basic
Functions, John P. Tanner
16. Computer-Integrated Manufacturing Technology and Systems,
Ulrich Rembold, Christian Blume, and Ruediger Dillman
17. Connections in Electronic Assemblies, Anthony J. Bilotta
18. Automation for Press Feed Operations: Applications and
Economics, Edward Walker
19. Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes, Gary F. Benedict
20. Programmable Controllers for Factory Automation, David G.
Johnson
21. Printed Circuit Assembly Manufacturing, Fred W. Kear
22. Manufacturing High Technology Handbook, edited by Donatas
Tijunelis and Keith E. McKee
23. Factory Information Systems: Design and Implementation for CIM
Management and Control, John Gaylord
24. Flat Processing of Steel, William L. Roberts
25. Soldering for Electronic Assemblies, Leo P. Lambert
26. Flexible Manufacturing Systems in Practice: Applications, Design,
and Simulation, Joseph Talavage and Roger G. Hannam
27. Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Benefits for the Low Inventory
Factory, John E. Lenz
28. Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools: Second Edition,
Geoffrey Boothroyd and Winston A. Knight
29. Computer-Automated Process Planning for World-Class
Manufacturing, James Nolen
30. Steel-Rolling Technology: Theory and Practice, Vladimir B.
Ginzburg
31. Computer Integrated Electronics Manufacturing and Testing, Jack
Arabian
32. In-Process Measurement and Control, Stephan D. Murphy
33. Assembly Line Design: Methodology and Applications, We-Min
Chow
34. Robot Technology and Applications, edited by Ulrich Rembold
35. Mechanical Deburring and Surface Finishing Technology, Alfred F.
Scheider
36. Manufacturing Engineering: An Introduction to the Basic
Functions, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John P.
Tanner
37. Assembly Automation and Product Design, Geoffrey Boothroyd
38. Hybrid Assemblies and Multichip Modules, Fred W. Kear
39. High-Quality Steel Rolling: Theory and Practice, Vladimir B.
Ginzburg
40. Manufacturing Engineering Processes: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Leo Alting
41. Metalworking Fluids, edited by Jerry P. Byers
42. Coordinate Measuring Machines and Systems, edited by John A.
Bosch
43. Arc Welding Automation, Howard B. Cary
44. Facilities Planning and Materials Handling: Methods and
Requirements, Vijay S. Sheth
45. Continuous Flow Manufacturing: Quality in Design and Processes,
Pierre C. Guerindon
46. Laser Materials Processing, edited by Leonard Migliore
47. Re-Engineering the Manufacturing System: Applying the Theory of
Constraints, Robert E. Stein
48. Handbook of Manufacturing Engineering, edited by Jack M.
Walker
Page c
1. Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, David A. Stephenson and John

S. Agapiou
2. Manufacturing Process Design and Optimization, Robert F. Rhyder
3. Statistical Process Control in Manufacturing Practice, Fred W.
Kear
4. Measurement of Geometric Tolerances in Manufacturing, James
D. Meadows
5. Machining of Ceramics and Composites, edited by Said Jahanmir,
M. Ramulu, and Philip Koshy
6. Introduction to Manufacturing Processes and Materials, Robert C.
Creese
7. Computer-Aided Fixture Design, Yiming (Kevin) Rong and
Yaoxiang (Stephens) Zhu
8. Understanding and Applying Machine Vision: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Nello Zuech
9. Flat Rolling Fundamentals, Vladimir B. Ginzburg and Robert
Ballas
Additional Volumes in Preparation
Page d
This page intentionally left blank.

Page i
FLAT ROLLING FUNDAMENTALS
VLADIMIR B. GINZBURG
International Rolling Mill Consultants, Inc.

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
ROBERT BALLAS
Danieli Wean United

Cranberry Township, Pennsylvania
Sponsored by Iron & Steel Society, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Page ii
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ginzburg, Vladimir B.

Fundamentals of flat rolling / Vladimir B. Ginzburg, Robert Ballas.
p. cm. — (Manufacturing engineering and materials processing ; 57)
ISBN 0-8247-8894-X (alk. paper)
1. Rolling (Metal-work) 2. Rolling-
mill machinery. I. Ballas, Robert II. Title. III. Series.

TS340 .G5325 2000
671.3’2—
dc21
024049
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Page iii
PREFACE
The steel industry has a long history of development, and despite the
many decades that have passed, it still demonstrates all the signs of
longevity. New ideas continue to revolutionize the steel-producing
process today as much as they did 150 years ago. The last two decades
were especially beneficial for the steel industry, which went through a
series of revolutionary steps, significantly improving the quality of steel
and, at the same time, reducing the production cost. In the flat rolling of
steel, these revolutionary steps included successful implementation of
continuous strip production plants utilizing both thin and intermediate
thickness slabs, introduction of strip profile and flatness control
technology, and, most importantly, the complete automation and
computerization of the entire rolling process. Remarkably, all these
developments were achieved with a simultaneous reduction in the
workforce, greatly reducing the labor cost per ton of rolled steel.
These positive developments, however, were not made without

sacrifices. Many steel research centers and plant engineering groups
were either significantly downsized or closed altogether, transferring their
responsibilities to mill management and technical personnel.
Consequently, besides solving everyday mill problems, these specialists
also had to make long-term decisions regarding both the optimization of
the rolling process and the upgrading of mill equipment. Several training
courses have been conducted throughout the years to help mill personnel
successfully accomplish their novel tasks. A number of books have also
been published on this subject. Among them are: Steel-Rolling
Technology: Theory and Practice and High-Quality Steel Rolling: Theory
and Practice both by Vladimir B. Ginzburg. The authors of this book,
however, recognized a need for a textbook summarizing the
fundamentals of flat rolling in a form that is aimed specifically at training
mill operating and maintenance personnel.
Flat Rolling Fundamentals underlines the multidisciplinary nature of the

rolling process which requires knowledge in rolling theory along with
several adjacent fields. These fields include physics, metallurgy,
mechanical and electrical engineering, automation, process control,
metrology, and quality control. Although, each of these disciplines can be
pursued in academia, such courses are usually not sufficient for a
complete understanding of the rolling process. This is due to the fact that
the majority of problems in rolling mills arise at the interfaces among the
different disciplines. Therefore, this book leads to the concept of a
system approach for both the understanding of rolling theory and solving
mill problems. Creating experts who can utilize this system approach is
not the easiest task. Nevertheless, the authors believe that this area of
expertise will attract many talented engineers and scientists and also
hope that this book will be helpful to them in their exciting endeavor.
Page iv
The authors wish to express their gratitude to David Rosburg, Peter

Bowlden, Naum Kaplan, Remn-Min Guo, Fred Bakhtar, Keith Watson,
Mario Azzam, and Roy Issa, who participated in the research and
development of several of the new technologies that are described in this
book.
VLADIMIR B. GINZBURG
ROBERT BALLAS
Vladimir Ginzburg would like to thank the many intelligent and studious
people that he had the pleasure of meeting throughout his long career in
the steel industry. I am also thankful to my children, Ellen and Eugene,
who in spite of their deep involvement with their own careers, have
always found time to express interest in my work. My special gratitude
goes to my wife Tatyana for her great contribution in preparing this book
and her constant encouragement and support, without which this
endeavor would not have been possible.
Bob Ballas would like to thank the many colleagues and friends who
contributed their insight and knowledge to the research effort in
producing this book. As the third generation in my family to work in the
steel industry, I am deeply indebted to my parents and grandparents, who
began working in the steel mills of Western Pennsylvania nearly 100
years ago and always provided stability, guidance and inspiration. And
finally, to Kathy, Lauren, and Andrea, whose love and support not only
made the effort possible, but also provide the source of all my joy.
Page v
CONTENTS
Preface
iii
Part I Principal Characteristics of Steel
Chapter 1 Structure of Metals 1
Chapter 2 Metallurgical Characteristics of Steel 12
Chapter 3 Chemical Compositions of Steel 28
Chapter 4 Classification of Steel 49
Chapter 5 Physical Properties of Steel Products 96
Chapter 6 Metallurgical Factors Controlling the Properties of Steel 127
Part II Deformation of Steel
Chapter 7 Microscopic and Macroscopic Plasticity 159
Chapter 8 Analysis of Workpiece Deformation 178
Chapter 9 Resistance to Deformation in Hot Rolling 199
Chapter Roll Force and Torque in Flat Rolling 219

10
Chapter Friction and Lubrication in Rolling 239

11
Part III Metallurgical Aspects of Hot Rolling Process
Chapter Heat Transfer in Hot Rolling 283

12
Chapter Structural Changes in Steel During Hot Rolling 311
13
Chapter Thermomechanical Treatment Combined with Rolling 325

14
Chapter Metallurgical Defects in Cast Slabs and Hot Rolled 354

15 Products
Page vi
Part IV Rolling Mills for Flat Products

Types of Rolling Mills 381
Chapter 16
Optimization and Modernization of Hot Strip Mills 418
Chapter 17
Part V Geometry of Flat Rolled Products

Definition of Geometrical Parameters of Rolled 439
Chapter Products
18
Standard Dimensional Tolerances of Rolled Products 461
Chapter 19
Statistical and Analytical Dimensional Tolerances 502
Chapter 20
Part VI Gauge Control

Principles of Measurement of Rolling Parameters 523
Chapter 21
Causes of Gauge Variation 543
Chapter 22
Gauge Control Sensors and Actuators 562
Chapter 23
Automatic Gauge Control Systems 578
Chapter 24
Part VII Width Control

Basic Principles of Width Change 611
Chapter 25
Width Change by Rolling and Pressing 632
Chapter 26
Optimization and Control of Width Change Process 657
Chapter 27
Part VIII Profile and Flatness Control

Strip Profile and Flatness Analysis 685
Chapter 28
Roll Thermal Expansion and Wear 702
Chapter 29
Backup Rolls with Specific Profiles 727
Chapter 30
Roll Deformation and Displacement Systems 743
Chapter 31
Strip Profile and Flatness Control Systems 791
Chapter 32
Index 831
Page vii
Part I
PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL
Page viii

Page 1
Chapter 1
STRUCTURE OF METALS
1.1 Space Lattices

Substances can exist in either an amorphous or crystalline state. In the
amorphous state, elementary particles are intermixed in a disorderly
manner; their positions are not fixed relative to those of their neighbors.
In the crystalline state, this substance consists of atoms, or more properly
ions, which are arranged according to a regular geometric pattern that
can vary from one substance to another.
All metals are crystalline in nature. The crystallization of metals occurs

during solidification when the atoms of a liquid metal assemble
themselves in an orderly arrangement and form a definite space pattern
known as a space lattice. There are several types of lattices in which
metallic atoms can arrange themselves upon solidification. The three
most common crystal lattices are shown in Fig. 1.1 and are known as [1]:
Body-centered cubic (b.c.c.)

Face-centered cubic (f.c.c.)
Close-packed hexagonal (c.p.h.)
Fig. 1.1 – Principal types of crystal lattices. Adapted from Higgins [1].
Page 2
1.2 Lattice Constant

The side of an elementary cube or hexagon is known as a lattice
constant (Fig. 1.2). These lengths are usually expressed in Angstrom
units (designated by symbols Å or A.U.) where one Angstrom unit is
equal to 10-8 centimeters. In metals, the length of the cube edge varies
between 2.878 Å in chromium to 4.941 Å in lead [2].
Fig. 1.2 – Lattice constant.
1.3 Metallic Bond

The term metallic bond is used to explain the forces that hold the ions
within a crystalline structure. During the solidification of metals, the atoms
relieve their outer (valence) electrons. As a result, the atoms transform
into ions which carry like positive charges and tend to repel each other.
However, the relieved valence electrons are donated to a common
negatively charged cloud, which is shared by all of the atoms that are
present (Fig. 1.3). Thus, while the positively charged ions repel each
other, they are held in equilibrium positions by their mutual attraction to
the negatively charged electron cloud.
Fig. 1.3 – Diagrammatic representation of a metallic bond. Adapted from

Higgins [1].
1.4 Allotropic Changes
When a metal undergoes a transformation from one crystal pattern to
another, it is known as an allotropic change. The allotropic forms of iron
are temperature dependent as illustrated in Table 1.1. When there is an
allotropic change from a body-centered to a face-centered cubic lattice, it
is accompanied by a marked quantitative change in the characteristics
and properties of the metal involved. The allotropic change in the density
of iron is shown in Fig. 1.4 [1,3].
Page 3
Table 1.1 Allotropic forms of iron.

Adapted from [3].
Allotropic Crystallographic Temperature

Forms Forms Range
Alpha Body-centered cubic Up to 910°C (1670°F)
(b.c.c.)
Gamma Face-centered cubic 910 - 1430°C (1670 -
(f.c.c.) 2557°F)
Delta Body-centered cubic 1403 - 1535°C (2557 -
(b.c.c.) 2795°F)
Fig. 1.4 – Allotropic changes in the density of iron. Adapted from Higgins
[1].
1.5 Atomic Planes

Several sets of parallel planes can be drawn through a crystal so that all
atoms constituting it would be located in any one set. These are known
as atomic planes.
Figure 1.5 illustrates the atomic planes in a cubic cell that is made up of
eight atoms, with one at each corner. The atomic planes are described by
3-digit numbers where each digit corresponds to a unit coordinate in
relation to the crystallographic axes X, Y, and Z. For example, the set of
planes designated by the symbol (001) would not cut either the X or the Y
axis [2].
1.6 Crystallographic Anisotropy

The physical properties of a crystal depend on the direction of their
measurement with respect to their crystallographic axis. In the body-
centered cubic crystalline structure of iron, the greatest
Page 4
strength lies in the direction of the atomic plane (111) and the weakest
along the atomic plane (100) as indicated in Fig. 1.6a.
Any deviation from a perfectly random orientation of the many crystals in

a metallic material will therefore result in anisotropy of the mechanical
properties of the material [4]. The same can be said with regard to the
anisotropic character of the magnetic properties of some alloys such as a
silicon steel. The magnetic permeability of a silicon steel crystal is
maximum when it is measured along the atomic plane (100) and is
minimum when measured along the atomic plane (111) as shown in Fig.
1.6b [5].
Fig. 1.5 – Atomic planes in a cubic cell. Adapted from Sauveur [2].
1.7 Cooling Curve

A pure liquid metal solidifies into a crystalline solid at a fixed temperature
called the freezing point (Fig. 1.7). This is due to the fact that the amount
of internal heat relieved during the crystallization process is equal to the
amount of heat given up by the material. The latter is known as the latent
heat of solidification [1].
Page 5
Fig. 1.6 – Anisotropy of physical properties in a cubic crystal: a)

mechanical strength, b) magnetic permeability. Adapted from Roberts [4]
and Bozurth [5]
Fig. 1.7 – Typical cooling curve of a pure metal. Adapted from Higgins [1].
1.8 Metallic Dendrite

When a pure metal solidifies, each crystal begins to grow independently
from a nucleus or center of crystallization. The crystal develops by the
addition of atoms according to the lattice pattern evolving into what is
called a dendrite as shown in Fig. 1.8. A metallic crystal grows in this way
because heat is dissipated more quickly from a point where the
temperature decreases at the highest rate leading to the formation of a
rather elongated skeleton [1].
1.9 Dendrite Growth

The dendrite arms continue to grow and thicken (Figs. 1.9a, b) until
ultimately the space between them becomes completely solid.
Meanwhile, the outer arms begin to make contact with those of
neighboring dendrites as shown in Fig. 1.9c. At this time, the dendrite
growth ceases and solidification is complete. The remaining liquid is used
to thicken the existing dendrite arms leading to an irregular overall shape
of the crystals (Fig. 1.9d). An impure metal (Fig. 1.9e) carries the
impurities between the dendrite arms, thus revealing the initial skeleton.
Page 6
Fig. 1.8 – Early stages in the growth of a metallic dendrite.
Fig. 1.9 – Dendrite growth of metallic crystals from liquid state. From
Higgins [1]. Copyright Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. England. Reprinted with
permission.
Page 7
1.10 Crystal Boundary

A solidified metal consists of a mass of separate crystals that are
irregular in shape but interlocking with each other like a three-
dimensional jigsaw puzzle. It is now a widely held belief that a film of
metal about three atoms thick exists at the crystal boundaries, in which
the atoms do not conform to any pattern as illustrated in Fig. 1.10 [1,6].
Fig. 1.10 – Diagrammatic representation of a grain boundary. Adapted

from Wusatowski [6] and Higgins [1].
1.11 Grain Shape and Size

The shape and size of the crystals depend on the cooling rate of the
molten metal when it reaches its freezing point. A slow decrease in
temperature promotes the formation of relatively few nuclei, resulting in a
large crystal. Rapid cooling triggers the formation of a large number of
nuclei producing a large number of small crystals or grains (grain and
crystal are used synonymously).
In a large ingot, the grain size may vary considerably from the outside
surface to the center as shown in Fig. 1.11. This is due to the variation in
temperature gradient as the ingot solidifies and the heat is transferred
from the metal to a mold. It is possible to distinguish the following three
forms in the grain structure [1]:
Small chill grains located at the surface of an ingot

Columnar grains located in the intermediate zone
Large equi-axed grains located at the center of an ingot.
Page 8
Fig. 1.11 – Grain structure in a section of an ingot. Adapted from Higgins

[1].
1.12 ASTM Grain Size

The grain size is commonly given an ASTM grain size number. Figure
1.12 shows an example of an ASTM grain size chart. The ASTM grain
size number is an arbitrary exponential number (n) that refers to the
mean number of grains per square inch (N) at a magnification of 100×
according to the following equation [2,7]:
1.13 Phases in Metals

A phase is a distinct and physically, chemically, or crystallographically
homogeneous portion of an alloy. The following three solid phases are
considered [2]:
Pure metals
Intermetallic compounds
Solid solutions
When an alloy contains more than one of these phases, it is generally

referred to as an aggregate.
1.14 Intermetallic Compounds
Chemical compounds between metals and metalloids are known as
intermetallic compounds. Many of the known intermetallic compounds
contain one of the following metalloids:
Carbon
Page 9
Phosphorus
Silicon
Sulfur
Arsenic
Aluminum
The important compound that is present in the alloys of iron and carbon
is the carbide Fe3C or cementite, which has an orthorhombic space
lattice.
Fig. 1.12 – ASTM grain size chart. Adapted From Johnson and Weeks
[7].
Page 10
1.15 Solid Solutions

A complete merging in the solid state of the two phases pure metals and
intermetallic compounds is known as a solid solution. Solid solutions can
consist of two metals, a metal and an intermetallic compound, or two
compounds.
When a metal A forms a solid solution with another metal B that has a
different space lattice, the space lattice of the solid solution may either be
similar to the lattice of one of the metals or different from both. In the
case where the lattice of the solution is identical to one of the metals, A
for example, that metal may logically be considered the solvent, and
metal B the solute. If the space lattice of the solution is unlike the lattice
of either metal, the metal that is present in larger proportions can be
considered as the solvent. There are two types of solid solutions that can
be described as follows [2]:
Substitutional solid solution – A solid alloy in which the solute

atoms replace some atoms in the space lattice of the solvent as
shown in Fig. 1.13a.
Interstitial solid solution – A solid alloy in which the solute atoms
are located at random except at the lattice points within the space
lattice as shown in Fig. 1.13b.
Fig. 1.13 – Space lattices of: a) substitutional solid solution, b) interstitial

solid solution.
References
1. Higgins, R.A., Engineering Metallurgy, Part 1, Applied Physical
Metallurgy, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Melbourne, Fla.,
1983.
2. Sauveur, A., The Metallography and Heat Treatment of Iron and Steel,
Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc., New York and London,
1935.
3. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 10th Edition, eds.

Lankford, W.T., et al, Association of Iron and Steel Engineers, Pittsburgh,
Pa., 1985.
4. Roberts, W.L., Cold Rolling of Steel, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York,
1978.
Page 11
5. Bozorth, R.M., Ferromagnetism, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,

Toronto, 1951.
6. Wusatowski, Z., Fundamentals of Rolling, Pergamon Press, Oxford,

1969.
7. Johnson, C.G. and Weeks, W.R., Metallurgy, Fifth Edition, American

Technical Society, Chicago, 1977.
Page 12
Chapter 2
METALLURGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL
2.1 Phase Diagram

A phase diagram is a graphical representation of the temperature,
pressure, and composition limits of the phase fields in an alloy system as
they exist under conditions of complete equilibrium. Phase diagrams are
also known as equilibrium or constitutional diagrams.
In a phase diagram, the temperature is plotted vertically while the

composition is plotted horizontally. Any point on the diagram represents a
definite composition of a constituent and its temperature, with each value
being found by projecting to the proper reference axes. For illustration,
Fig. 2.1 shows the changes that take place during the cooling of an alloy
that contains 50% element A and 50% element B [1]. The alloy remains a
homogeneous liquid solution until the temperature drops to the value
indicated by the intersection of the liquidus line at c 1. The crystals which
form from the 50-50 liquid consist of a solid solution, the composition of
which is found on the solidus line at c 1, 80% element B and 20%
element A. As the mass cools, the composition of the growing crystals
changes along the solidus line from c 1 to c 5, while the remaining liquid
alloy varies in composition along the liquidus line from c 0 to c 4. Figure
2.2 illustrates the iron-cementite phase diagram which is also known as
the iron-carbon phase diagram.
2.2 Constituents in Steels

Plain carbon steels are generally defined as the alloys of iron and carbon
which contain up to 2% carbon. For the present, we will neglect the
effects of such elements as manganese which may be present in most
ordinary steels and regard steels as being simple iron-carbon alloys.
Constituents in steels exist mainly as phases. They include molten alloy,

delta ferrite, austenite (gamma phase), ferrite (alpha phase), cementite
and graphite. Another constituent in steels is pearlite. It is not a phase but
an aggregate [2].
Page 13
Fig. 2.1 – Phase diagram of A-B alloy. Adapted from Johnson and Weeks
[1].
Fig. 2.2 – Iron-cementite phase diagram.
Page 14
2.3 Austenite
In iron-carbon alloys, austenite is the solid solution that is formed when
carbon dissolves in face-centered cubic (gamma) iron in amounts up to
2%. The microstructure of austenite is usually large grained as shown in
Fig. 2.3.
Austenite is a difficult structure to retain at room temperature unless the

steel contains a large percentage of alloys, such as manganese or
chromium. Austenitic steel is characterized by high tensile strength and
great ductility. The tensile strength is often around 125,000 lb/in.2 with an
elongation in 2 in. of 35 to 40% [2,3].
Fig. 2.3 – Microstructure of austenite (Magnification: 500×). From The

Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel [2]. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh,
Pa. Reprinted with permission.
2.4 Ferrite
In iron-carbon alloys, ferrite is a very dilute solid solution of carbon in a
body-centered cubic (alpha) iron and contains at most only 0.02%
carbon. Figure 2.4 shows that the microstructure of ferrite appears as
polyhedral grains. Ferrite is very ductile and soft with a low tensile
strength of approximately 40,000 lb/in.2 and an elongation in 2 in. of
about 40% [2,3].
2.5 Graphite
Graphite, or graphitic carbon is a free carbon in steel or cast iron where
the carbon is amorphous, having no particular form. Figure 2.5 illustrates
the metallographic appearance of graphite in a low-carbon steel that has
been subjected to prolonged heating at a temperature below that at
which austenite is formed [2].
Page 15
Fig. 2.4 – Microstructure of ferrite (Magnification:100×) having a course

grain size. From The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel [2].
Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.
Fig. 2.5 – Micrograph showing graphite particles in low carbon steel

(Magnification: 100×). From The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel
[2]. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.
Page 16
2.6 Cementite
Cementite, or iron carbide is an interstitial compound of iron and carbon
with the approximate chemical formula Fe3C that contains 6.69% carbon.
When cementite occurs as a phase in steel, the chemical composition is
altered by the presence of manganese and other carbide-forming
elements.
In the case of a slow cooled, relatively high-carbon steel, the

microstructure of cementite appears as a brilliant white network around
the pearlite colonies or as needles interspersed with pearlite as shown in
Fig. 2.6a. Figure 2.6b shows the metallographic appearance of
spheroidized cementite in a steel which was heated to a temperature just
below that at which austenite first forms.
Cementite is a very hard compound with a tensile strength of

approximately 5,000 lb/in.2 and an elongation in 2 in. that is equal to
zero. Cementite is an unstable phase which over sufficient time,
decomposes into the two complete equilibrium constituents, iron and
graphite [2,3].
Fig. 2.6 – Microstructures of (Magnification: 1000×): a) slow-cooled high

carbon steel showing pearlite with cementite in the grain boundaries, b)
Spheroidized cementite in a matrix of ferrite. From The Making, Shaping
and Treating of Steel [2]. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with
permission.
2.7 Pearlite
Pearlite is a lamellar aggregate of ferrite and cementite that is a result of
the eutectoid reaction which takes place when a plain carbon steel of
approximately 0.08% carbon is cooled slowly from the temperature range
at which austenite is stable.
Figure 2.7 shows the lamellar micrographic structure of pearlite that is

known as the eutectoid structure. Pearlite exerts the maximum hardening
power of any constituent and has a tensile strength of approximately
125,000 lb/in.2 and an elongation in 2 in. of 10% [2,3].
Page 17
Fig. 2.7 – Microstructure of pearlite (Magnification: 1000×). From The

2.8 Ledeburite
Ledeburite is an eutectic of the iron-carbon system that is comprised of
an austenite and a cementite. Ledeburite contains 4.3% carbon and is a
constituent of the iron-carbon alloys that contain more than 2.0% carbon.
For this reason, the dividing line between steels and cast iron is set at
2.0% carbon. Figure 2.8 illustrates the microstructure of ledeburite in cast
iron [2].
Fig. 2.8 – Microstructure of ledeburite (Magnification: 150×). From The
Page 18
2.9 Transformation Temperature

The transformation temperature is the temperature at which a change in
phase occurs and is also known the critical point or critical temperature.
The following symbols are used to define the transformation
temperatures in iron-carbon phase diagrams [3,4]:
Ar1 Temperature at which transformation of austenite to ferrite or to ferrite

=plus cementite is completed during cooling
Ac1 Temperature at which austenite begins to form during heating

=
Ar3 Temperature at which austenite begins to transform to ferrite during

=cooling
Ac3 Temperature at which transformation of ferrite to austenite is completed

=during heating
Ar4 Temperature at which delta ferrite transforms to austenite during

=cooling
Ac4 Temperature at which austenite transforms to delta ferrite during heating

=
Arcm In hypereutectoid steel, the temperature at which precipitation of

=cementite starts during cooling
Accm In hypereutectoid steel, the temperature at which the solution of

=cementite in austenite is completed during heating
Aecm,
Ae1,
Ae3,
Ae4=Temperatures of phase changes at equilibrium.
2.10 Types of Multi-phase Reactions in Metals

The five multi-phase reactions in metals shown in Fig. 2.9 can be
described as follows [5,6]:
Eutectic Liquid solution L is converted into two more solids α, β, … that are
–intimately mixed on cooling.
Eutectoid Solid solution γ is converted into two or more intimately mixed solids
–α, β, … that are intimately mixed on cooling.
Peritectoid Two or more solids α, β, … are converted into one solid γ.
–
Peritectic Solid α reacts with liquid L to form a second solid β.
–
Monotectic Liquid L1 is converted into a solid α and another liquid L2.
–
2.11 Phases in Peritectic Steels

Peritectic steel is a plain carbon steel having a carbon content of
approximately 0.065 to 0.17%. Figure 2.10 shows that when the
temperature of liquid peritectic steel is greater than 1495°C (2723°F), it
crystallizes into delta iron. At temperatures below 1495°C, the liquid
reacts with solid delta iron to form a second solid phase that is gamma
iron.
After the reaction begins, the gamma iron separates the two reacting
phases. During this process, the atoms of these two reacting phases
diffuse through solid gamma iron. Since diffusion through a solid is very
slow, a segregated microstructure containing both the delta and gamma
iron is produced [5]. Segregation during a peritectic reaction can lead to
longitudinal cracking during casting of steels, especially when casting thin
slabs.
Page 19
Fig. 2.9 – Types of three-phase reactions in metals. Adapted from

Flemings [5].
2.12 Phases in Hypoeutectoid Steel

Hypoeutectoid steels are steels that contain less than the eutectoid
percentage of carbon which is approximately 0.80% in plain carbon steel.
At some temperature above Ae3, a steel containing 0.40% carbon is
completely austenitic as shown in Fig 2.11a. On slow cooling below Ae3,
the austenite first rejects ferrite which concentrates at the grain
boundaries (Fig. 2.11b).
As the temperature falls down to Ae1, the crystals of austenite shrink as

shown in Fig. 2.11c and their carbon content increases to 0.80%. On
cooling below Ae1, the austenite changes to pearlite so that the final
constituents in steels below Ae1 are ferrite and pearlite as illustrated in
Fig. 2.11d [7].
2.13 Phases in Eutectoid Steel
Eutectoid steel contains the eutectoid percentage of carbon which is
nearly 0.80% in plain carbon steels. Eutectoid steel does not begin to
transform from austenite (Fig. 2.12a) on cooling until the critical
temperature Ae1-3 is reached. The transformation then begins and ends
at the same temperature (723°C or 1333°F), and the final structure is
entirely pearlite as shown in Fig. 2.12b [7].
Page 20
Fig. 2.10 – Phase diagram related to peritectic steel. Adapted from Porter
and Easterling [6].
Fig. 2.11 – Phase transformation in steel containing 0.4% carbon.
Adapted from Higgins [7].
Page 21

2.14 Phases in Hypereutectoid Steel

Hypereutectoid steels are steels containing more than the eutectoid
percentage of carbon which is approximately 0.80% in plain carbon
steels. At some temperature above Aecm, a steel containing 1.2%
carbon is completely austenitic as shown in Fig. 2.13a. On slow cooling
below Aecm, the carbon will precipitate as needle-shaped crystals of
cementite around the austenite grain boundaries (Fig. 2.13b,c).
As a result the carbon content in an austenite will be gradually reduced

down to 0.80% at the temperature Ae1-3. Below this point, the remaining
austenite will then transform to pearlite as shown in Fig. 2.13d [7].
2.15 Phase Transformation Hysteresis

Phase transformations do not occur at the same temperature in heating
as in cooling [4,8]. The metal is rather reluctant to change its physical
state so that in heating, the Ac temperatures are somewhat higher than
equilibrium temperatures Ae.
Likewise, the Ar temperatures on cooling are lower than equilibrium

temperatures Ae as shown in Fig. 2.14. The difference in temperature
between the Ac and the Ar can vary in some cases as much as 24°C or
75°F.
Page 22

Fig. 2.14 – Phase transformation temperature in steels. From Krause [8].
Copyright ASM International. Reprinted with permission.
Page 23
2.16 Supercooling of Austenite

As previously shown, austenite transforms to pearlite when it is cooled
slowly below the Ar critical temperature. When austenite is more rapidly
cooled, however, this transformation is retarded. As the cooling rate is
increased, the transformation temperature is lowered which results in the
formation of the micro-constituents that are shown in Table 2.1 [2].
Table 2.1 Constituents formed during

supercooling of austenite. Adapted from The
Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel [2].
Constituents
Temperature Range
Pearlite 705 to 535°C (1300 to 1000°F)
Bainite 535 to 230°C (1000 to 450°F)
Martensite Below 230°C (450°F)
The following symbols are used to define the transformation

temperatures of austenite to martensite [4]:
Ms Temperature at which transformation of austenite to martensite starts during

=cooling
Mf Temperature at which martensite formation finishes during cooling

=
Mn Temperature at which the microstructure will consist of n% martensite and

=(1-n)% retained austenite.
2.17 Bainite
Bainite is a decomposition of austenite consisting of an aggregate of
ferrite and carbide. Figure 2.15 shows the appearance of bainite as
featherlike if formed in the upper part of the temperature range and
acicular if formed in the lower part. The hardness of bainite increases as
the transformation temperature decreases due to the finer distribution of
carbide that forms at lower temperatures.
In a given steel, the bainitic microstructure will generally be found to be

both harder and tougher than pearlite, although the hardness will be
lower than that of martensite [2].
2.18 Martensite
Martensite is an interstitial supersaturated solid solution of carbon in iron
having a body-centered tetragonal lattice. It is a metastable phase of
steel that is formed by the transformation of austenite below the Ms
temperature.
Transformation to martensite occurs almost instantly during cooling and

the percentage of transformation is dependent only on the temperature to
which it is cooled. Martensite is the hardest of the transformation
products of austenite and has a microstructure that is acicular, or
needlelike. Figure 2.16 shows the microstructure of the so called
tempered martensite, which is formed when martensite is reheated to a
subcritical temperature after quenching [2].
Page 24
Fig. 2.15 – Electron micrograph (Magnification: 15,000×) of bainitic

microstructure formed on complete transformation of eutectoid steel at
260°C (500°F). From The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel [2].
Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.
2.19 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams

Isothermal transformation diagrams, or Time-Temperature-
Transformation (T.T.T.) curves are shown in Fig. 2.17 and can be
constructed by completing the following five steps [2,7]:
1. Heating a number of similar specimens of steel to just above the

Ac1 temperature.
2. Quenching these specimens to a different temperature in an
incubation liquid bath.
3. Holding the specimens in the bath during predetermined time
intervals.
4. Final quenching of the specimens in water.
5. Examining the microstructure to reveal the extent to which the
phase transformation had taken place at the holding temperature.
2.20 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams

Continuous-cooling transformation diagrams reveal the phase
transformations that occur during continuous cooling of a selected
specimen at a predetermined constant cooling rate [7]. The continuous-
cooling diagram lies below and to the right of corresponding isothermal
diagram as shown in Fig. 2.18 in application to a plain carbon steel of
eutectoid composition.
Page 25
Fig. 2.16 – Electron micrograph (Magnification: 15,000×) of the structure

of tempered martensite at a tempering temperature of 595°C (1100°F).
From The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel [2]. Copyright AISE,
Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.
Curves A, B, and D represent cooling rates of approximately 5, 400, and

50°C per second respectively. For example, in the case of curve D,
transformation would begin at P with a formation of some fine pearlite.
Transformation, however, is interrupted at Q and does not begin again
until the Ms temperature is reached at R. Curve C represents the critical
cooling rate which is the minimal cooling rate that must be maintained to
obtain a completely martensitic microstructure.
Page 26
Fig. 2.17 – Time-Temperature-Transformation (T.T.T.) curves for plain

carbon steel of eutectoid composition. Adapted from Higgins [7].
Fig. 2.18 – The relationship between T.T.T. and continuous cooling
curves. Adapted from Higgins [7].
Page 27
References
1. Johnson, C.G. and Weeks, W.R., Metallurgy, Fifth Edition, American
Technical Society, Chicago.

Pa., 1985.
3. Keller, J.F., Lectures on Steel and Its Heat Treatment, Evangelical

Press, Cleveland, Ohio, 1928.
4. Avner, S.H., Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, Second Edition,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1974.
5. Flemings, M.C., Solidification Processing, McGraw-Hill, New York,

1974..
6. Porter, D.A. and Easterling, K.E., Phase Transformations in Metals and

Alloys, Second Edition, Chapman & Hall, London, 1992.

1983.
8. Krauss, G., Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel, American Society for

Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1980.
Page 28
Chapter 3
CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS OF STEEL
3.1 Major Effects of Alloying Elements

Steel by definition is an alloy of iron that contains 0.03 to 1.7% carbon
along with various alloying elements that are added to obtain specific
properties. Steel can be generally divided into the following two groups
[1]:
1. Low alloy steels containing less than 5% elements other than iron
2. High alloy steels containing more than 5% elements other than
iron.
Alloying elements and impurities are incorporated into austenite, ferrite

and cementite. If the alloy or impurity atoms are nearly the same size as
the iron atoms, the iron atoms are usually replaced. If these atoms are
significantly smaller than iron atoms, such as nitrogen, the incorporation
may occur by filling in the interstitial sites. In cases when solubility levels
are exceeded, other phases than those in plain carbon steel may form. A
typical example is the combination of the cementite structure M3C (M
represents a combination of chromium and iron atoms), that forms when
small amounts of chromium are added to iron-carbon alloys at 890°C
(1634°F). Larger amounts of chromium cause the carbides M7C3 and
M23C6 to be formed [2]. Depending on their effect on the formation and
stabilization of phases in steels, the alloying elements are usually
considered as [3,4]:
Austenite formers
Ferrite formers
Carbide formers.
3.2 Austenite Formers

Austenite formers are the alloying elements which enlarge the austenite
field. The following
Page 29
elements are considered as austenite formers [4]:
Carbon (C)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Manganese (Mn)
Nickel (Ni)
Nitrogen (N).
Figure 3.1 illustrates the typical effect of an austenite former on the

austenitic field.
Fig. 3.1 – Effect of several uniform manganese contents on the carbon

limitations for pure austenite at elevated temperatures. From Alloying
Elements in Steel, by Bain, E.C. and Paxton, H.W., Second Edition.
3.3 Ferrite Formers

Ferrite formers are alloying elements that enlarge the ferrite field as
shown in Fig. 3.2 which uses chromium as the alloying element. The
following elements are considered ferrite formers [4]:
Aluminum (Al)
Chromium (Cr)
Niobium (Nb)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Phosphorus (P)
Silicon (Si)
Page 30
Fig. 3.2 – Effect of several uniform chromium contents on the carbon

limitations for pure austenite at elevated temperatures. From Alloying
Titanium (Ti)
Tin (Sn)
Tungsten (W)
Vanadium (V).
3.4 Carbide Formers

Elements such as chromium, tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum, titanium,
and niobium form very stable carbides when added to steel as shown in
Fig. 3.3. These additional elements generally increase the hardness of
steel, particularly when the carbides formed are harder than iron carbide
[5]. Other elements, such as manganese are not strong carbide formers,
however, they do contribute to the stability of the other carbides that are
present.
3.5 Effect of Alloying on Microstructure

When several elements are present in a steel, their combined effect with
respect to the formation of austenite can be described by the Austenite
Stabilizing Equivalent (ASE) and by the Ferrite Stabilizing Equivalent
(FSE) which are equal to [5]:
Page 31
Fig. 3.3 – Physical states in which the principal alloying elements exist in
steel. From Engineering Metallurgy, Part 1, by Higgins, R.A., 1983.
Copyright Hodder & Stoughton Ltd., England. Reprinted with permission.
The symbols in Eqs. (3-1) and (3-2) represent the weight percent of the
element indicated. By using ASE and FSE as the coordinates in a
modified Schaeffler diagram as shown in Fig. 3.4, it is possible to define
the microstructure of alloyed steel after air-cooling from its austenite
conditions.
3.6 Effect of Alloying on Critical Temperatures

The effect of alloying elements on the critical temperatures can be
illustrated by the following empirical formulas which were developed by
Andrews [4,6] and Shiga, et al [7]. These formulas are based on
statistical analysis of experimental data:
Page 32
Fig. 3.4 – Modified Schaeffler diagram. From Engineering Metallurgy,

Part 1, by Higgins, R.A., 1983. Copyright Hodder & Stoughton Ltd.,
England. Reprinted with permission.
In these formulas, the symbols represent the weight percent of the

element indicated. The formulas are applicable for steel containing less
than 0.6% C and less than 5% of each of the other alloying elements.
3.7 Effect of Alloying on Transformation Rate

The addition of all alloying elements, with the exception of cobalt, results
in retardation of the transformation rates at temperatures between 500°C
(932°F) and 700°C (1292°F). Therefore, the effect of alloying reduces the
critical cooling rate that is necessary to obtain martensite [5].
3.8 Effect of Alloying on Eutectoid Composition and Temperature

When alloying elements are added to carbon steel, the solubility of
carbon in austenite diminishes [3]. An alloy steel will be completely
pearlitic if it contains less than 0.8% carbon. As shown in
Page 33
Fig. 3.5, the addition of manganese and nickel lowers the eutectoid
temperature, whereas the other elements cause this temperature to rise
[3].
Fig. 3.5 – Eutectoid composition and eutectoid temperature as influenced

by several alloying elements. From Alloying Elements in Steel, by Bain,
E.C. and Paxton, H.W., Second Edition. Copyright ASM International.
Reprinted with permission.
3.9 Effect of Alloying on Hardenability

The effect of alloying elements on hardenability can be evaluated by the
hardenability multiplying factor as shown in Fig. 3.6. This factor is derived
by measuring the hardenability of a series of steels in which a single
alloying element is the only variable [4].
It was found that the cumulative hardenability hc of an alloy steel that

contained more than one alloying element can be calculated as follows:
Page 34
Fig. 3.6 – Hardenability multiplying factors for a variety of alloying

elements. Adapted from The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel [4].
where
hB hardenability of base iron-carbon alloy

=
K1, K2, Kn hardenability multiplying factors of alloying elements.

=
3.10 Effect of Alloying on Hardness

Alloying elements contribute to the hardness in steel by being either
carbide formers or ferrite strengtheners [4]. The carbide-forming
elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium greatly affect
tempering behavior. These elements raise the tempering temperature
that is required to obtain a given hardness.
The ferrite strengtheners increase the hardness of ferrite by forming solid

solutions. This furnishes a method of increasing the hardness of steel in
the unhardened state as shown in Fig. 3.7. This hardening effect is small
when compared to that obtained by changes in the dispersion of the
carbide.
3.11 Effect of Alloying on Tensile Strength

As in the case of hardness, the ferrite strengthening effect on tensile
strength is small when compared with that obtained by changes in the
dispersion of carbides.
An increase in tensile strength as a function of the content of the principal

alloying elements can be estimated by using the multiplication factors
derived by Walters [5] in application to pearlitic steels in the normalized
condition (Fig. 3.8). The multiplication factor equal to 1 corresponds to a
pure iron with a tensile strength of 250 N/mm2 (36,000 psi). The most
accurate results are obtained for steels with less than 0.25% carbon and
within the intermediate alloy range.
Page 35
Fig. 3.7 – Probable hardening effects of the various elements as

dissolved in pure iron. From Alloying Elements in Steel, by Bain, E.C. and
Paxton, H.W., Second Edition. Copyright ASM International. Reprinted
with permission.
Fig. 3.8 – Walters’ factors for estimating tensile strength of pearlitic steels
in the normalized condition. From Engineering Metallurgy, Part 1, by
Higgins, R.A., 1983. Copyright Hodder & Stoughton Ltd., England.
Reprinted with permission.
Page 36
3.12 Effect of Alloying on Grain Growth

The presence of some elements, notably chromium, results in an
increased rate of grain growth in steel. In the case of overheating the
steel, it can promote brittleness which is usually associated with coarse
grain [5]. The opposite effect or retardation of grain growth is produced
by vanadium, titanium, niobium, aluminum, and to some degree, nickel.
Vanadium, titanium and niobium inhibit the grain growth by forming finely-
dispersed carbides and nitrides that are relatively insoluble at high
temperatures and act as barriers to grain growth. The carbides of
tungsten and molybdenum that are present in high-alloy tool steels
reduce grain growth at heat-treatment temperatures. Aluminum that is
present in aluminum-killed steel makes it inherently fine-grained.
3.13 Effect of Alloying on Corrosion-Resistance

The addition of elements such as aluminum, silicon, and chromium
results in substantial improvement of corrosion resistance. These
elements form a thin but dense film of oxide that adheres to the surface
of the steel and protects it from further attack [5]. Chromium is the most
effective element when corrosion resistance at high temperatures is
required.
3.14 Effect of Alloying on Electrical Resistance

In general, the addition of most alloying elements, with the exception of
copper (Cu), increases the electrical resistance of steel [8]. As follows
from Fig. 3.9, the most effective contributors to electrical resistance are
carbon (C), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), and tin (Sn). An increase in the
content of molybdenum (Mo) and cobalt (Co) (up to approximately 9%)
produces an increase in electrical resistivity, whereas any further
additions of these alloying elements result in a decrease of electrical
resistivity.
3.15 Residual Elements and Impurities

Residual elements are elements which are present in an alloy in small
quantities, but not added intentionally [4,9]. The most common residual
elements and their main sources are as follows:
Hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen may be introduced during the
steelmaking process.
Nickel, copper, molybdenum, chromium, and tin may be
transferred to steel from scrap.
Aluminum, titanium, vanadium and zirconium may be introduced
during the deoxidation process.
Impurities are elements or compounds whose presence in a material is

undesired. Nonmetallic substances in a solid metallic matrix are often
referred to as inclusions [8]. Impurities can be present in steel in both
solid and gaseous forms and either as pure elements or oxides.
Nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and oxygen are typical gaseous

impurities that can be found in steel in a dissolved state, as gas bubbles,
or a combination of both. The main effect of gaseous impurities is a
decrease in plasticity. Hydrogen also causes embrittlement of steel.
Page 37
Fig. 3.9 – Effect of alloying elements on electrical resistance of iron. From

Metals Handbook, Eighth Edition, Vol. 1, 1961. Copyright ASM
International. Reprinted with permission.
Residual elements such as nickel, copper, molybdenum, chromium, and

tin increase the hardenability of carbon steels and may also change the
heat-treating characteristics. In some applications where ductility is
important, this increased hardness can be harmful.
Carbon, sulfur, nitrogen and oxygen are especially harmful in electrical

sheet steels because they occupy interstitial spaces in the crystal
structure and, even in small amounts, can cause significant deterioration
of the magnetic properties of these steels [10].
Iron oxide is another type of impurity that is formed during the

steelmaking process and can be trapped in solid steel during
solidification. These impurities are known as dirt. Oxides which remain in
steel are mechanically mixed with it, breaking up the continuity of the
steel structure and disrupting the directional uniformity of the physical
properties of steel. These oxides can also serve as points of weaknesses
from which a fracture may commence.
3.16 Carbon (C)

Carbon is often called the Master because of its influence on the
properties of steel. Although by itself, carbon does not possess strength
or hardness, in solid solutions such as iron carbide (Fe3C), it is the chief
controller of strength and hardness as shown in Fig. 3.10. The principal
functions of carbon are [1]:
Page 38
Increase strength, hardness, and hardenability

Lower ductility, malleability, magnetic characteristics, and electrical
conductivity.
Fig. 3.10 – Approximate influence of carbon content on tensile properties

of carbon steel in the as-rolled condition (section thickness approx. 0.50
to 0.75 in.). From Alloying Elements in Steel, by Bain, E.C. and Paxton,
H.W., Second Edition. Copyright ASM International. Reprinted with
permission.
The range of carbon content in various types of steel is shown in Table

3.1 [9]
Table 3.1 Carbon content of various

types of steel [9].
Type of Steel Carbon Content(%)
Plain carbon steels 0.03 – 1.04
High-speed tool steels 0.75 – 1.60
Hot-work tool steels 0.22 – 0.70
Cold-work tool steels 0.45 – 2.85

Page 39
3.17 Manganese (Mn)

Manganese is widely used in steel production for deoxidation and
desulfurization of molten steel. Manganese remains in steel in an amount
less than 1%, but when its content exceeds 1%, it is regarded as a
deliberate alloying element. The principal functions of manganese as an
alloying element are as follows [3,5]:
Increase tensile strength as shown in Fig. 3.11

Moderately increase hardenability and promote both toughness
and machinability.
Minimize the resulting hot and cold brittleness (shortness) in steels
containing sulfur.
Fig. 3.11 – Approximate carbon and manganese compositions required to

produce the indicated tensile strengths in as-rolled steel. From Alloying
The range of manganese content in various types of steel is shown in

Table 3.2 [9]:
Table 3.2 Manganese content of various

types of steel [9].
Type of Steel Manganese Content (%)
Plain carbon steel 0.25 – 1.65
Manganese steel 1.60 –
1.90
Cold-work tool steels 0.30 –

2.50
Chromium-nickel austenitic 2.00 –

stainless steel 15.50
Page 40
3.18 Molybdenum (Mo)

Molybdenum is a strong carbide former that forms the hard, stable
carbide Mo2C as well as the double carbides such as Fe4Mo2C and
Fe21MoC6. The principal functions of molybdenum as an alloying
element are as follows [5]:
Small amounts of molybdenum effectively reduce transformation

rates displacing the nose of the T.T.T. curve to the right.
Raises high-temperature strength and creep resistance of high-
temperature alloys.
Enhances corrosion resistance of stainless alloys particularly in
chloride solutions.
Replaces much of the tungsten in high-speed tool steels.
An addition of approximately 0.3% molybdenum is usually
sufficient to reduce the tendency to produce temper-brittleness in
low-nickel, low-chromium steels.
One of the important components of nickel-chrome-moly steels
that combine high tensile strength with good ductility.
Improves machinability and mechanical properties in chromium
steels.
Enhances case-hardening in nickel-molybdenum steels.
The range of molybdenum content in various types of steel is shown in

Table 3.3 [9]:
Table 3.3 Molybdenum content of

various types of steel [9].
Type of Steel Molybdenum Content (%)
Molybdenum steel 0.15 –
0.60
Tool steel:
High-speed steel 0 –
Hot-work steel 10.00
Cold-work steel 0 – 5.50
0 – 1.80
Stainless steel:
Austenitic chromium-nickel 0 – 4.00
steel 0 – 1.25
Martensitic chromium steel 0 – 1.25
Ferritic chromium steel
3.19 Chromium (Cr)

Chromium is a carbide former that forms the hard carbides Cr7C3 or
Cr23C6 or, alternatively, double carbides with iron. All of these carbides
are harder than ordinary cementite. As a ferrite former, chromium lowers
the A4 temperature and raises the A3 temperature thereby stabilizing the
alpha-phase at the expense of gamma-phase. If more than 11%
chromium is added to a pure iron, the gamma-phase is entirely
eliminated. The principal functions of chromium as an alloying element
are as follows [3,5]:
Increases the hardness of steels when a sufficient amount of

carbon is present. Low-chromium steels containing 1.0% carbon
are extremely hard.
Page 41
Increases strength with some loss of ductility in low-carbon steels.

Contributes to high-temperature strength.
Provides moderate contribution to hardenability.
Improves abrasion resistance in high-carbon steels.
Improves corrosion resistance due to the protective layer of oxide
that forms on the surface when added in large amounts (up to
25%).
Promotes grain growth resulting in increased brittleness of steel.
The range of chromium content in various types of steel is shown in Table

3.4 [9]:
Table 3.4 Chromium content of various

types of steel [9].
Type of Steel Chromium Content (%)
Chromium steel 0.30 –
1.60
Stainless steel:
Austenitic chromium-nickel 15.0 –
steel 30.0
Martensitic chromium steel 4.0 –
Ferritic chromium steel 18.0
Precipitation hardening 10.5 –
steel 27.0
12.2 –
18.0
Heat-resistant casting alloys:

Nickel-base alloys 0 – 21.0
Cobalt-base alloys 0 – 27.0
3.20 Nickel (Ni)

Nickel does not form carbides and its presence in steel makes iron
carbides less stable and therefore promotes graphitization. Nickel acts as
a ferrite strengthener by forming a simple substitutional solid solution. As
an austenite former, nickel stabilizes austenite by raising the A4
temperature and depressing the A3 temperature. If more than 25% nickel
is added to pure iron, the resulting alloy becomes purely austenitic even
after slow cooling to ambient temperatures. The principal functions of
nickel as an alloying element are as follows [3,5]:
Increases strength and toughness in alloy steels with a nickel

content up to 5%.
Makes high-chromium composition austenitic just as in chromium-
nickel austenitic stainless steels.
Induces the grain-refining effect.
Substantially increases thermal hysteresis of the allotropic
transformation in high-nickel steels that contain small amounts of
carbon, so that martensite can be retained in steels as it occurs in
martensite aging (maraging) steels after heating up to 600°C
(1112°F).
Reduces the coefficient of thermal expansion.
Increases the magnetic permeability in high-nickel alloys.
Page 42
The range of nickel content in various types of steel is shown in Table 3.5
[9]:
Table 3.5 Nickel content of various

types of steel [9].
Type of Steel Nickel Content (%)
Nickel steel 3.25 – 5.25
Stainless steel:
Austenitic chromium- 1.00 –
nickel steel 37.00
Martensitic chromium 0 – 2.50
steel 3.00 – 8.50
Precipitation hardening
steel

Nickel-base alloys 50.0 – 75.0
3.21 Vanadium (V)

Vanadium is a strong carbide former that forms the carbide VC.
Vanadium is present in the microstructure as finely dispersed carbides
and nitrides that are not dissolved at normal heat-treatment
temperatures, but their presence produces a barrier to grain growth. A
sufficient amount of carbon and vanadium soluble at elevated
temperatures causes the maximum observed secondary hardness
effects. The principal functions of vanadium as an alloying element are as
follows [3,5]:
Restricts austenitic growth and is a very important grain refiner. As

little as 0.1% vanadium effectively restricts grain growth during the
hardening processes. Grain growth, however, starts immediately
after the steel is heated to the temperature at which the grain-
growth restricting particles of carbide and nitride dissolve.
Promotes hardenability even when dissolved in small amounts.
Induces resistance to softening at high temperature.
Readily combines with oxygen and nitrogen and is often used as a
scavenger or cleanser in the final stage of deoxidation to produce
a gas-free ingot.
Chromium-vanadium steels show higher yield stress and
percentage reduction in area.
The range of vanadium content in various types of steel is shown in Table

3.6 [9]:
Table 3.6 Vanadium content of various

types of steel [9].
Type of Steel Vanadium Content
(%)
Chromium-vanadium 0.10 – 5.25

steel
Tool steel:
High-speed steel 0.90 – 5.25
Hot-work steel 0 – 2.20
Page 43
3.22 Tungsten (W)

Tungsten is a very strong carbide former that forms the extremely hard
and stable carbides W2C, WC, and the double carbide Fe4W2C. These
carbides dissolve very slowly and only at very high temperatures.
Therefore tungsten is an important constituent of tool steels and
particularly high-speed tool steels. In these steels, a substantial increase
in hardness can be achieved after secondary hardening. As a ferrite
former, tungsten lowers the A4 temperature and raises the A3
temperature. The principal functions of tungsten as an alloying element
are as follows [3,5]:
Inhibits grain growth and therefore has a grain refining effect.

Reduces decarburization during hot working and heat treatment
processes.
Induces abrasion resistance.
Develops high-temperature (red) hardness in quenched and
tempered steels.
Contributes to creep strength in some high-temperature alloys.
Contributes considerably to hardenability.
Opposes softening in tempering where steels containing tungsten
can be heated in the range 600-700°C (1112-1292°F) before
carbides begin to precipitate resulting in softening the steel.
The range of tungsten content in various carbon and tool steels is shown
in Table 3.7 [9]:
Table 3.7 Tungsten content of various

carbon and tool steels [9].
Type of Steel Tungsten Content
(%)
Tungsten-chromium 1.75 (nom.)

steel
Tool steel:
High-speed steel 1.15 – 21.0
Shock-resisting 0 – 3.0
steel
3.23 Cobalt (Co)

Cobalt is a carbide former with a carbide-forming tendency that is slightly
stronger than that of iron. Cobalt is an essential added constituent of
selected tool steels, superalloys, and permanent-magnet alloys.
In some alloys containing 18% nickel, 8 to 12% cobalt, 3 to 5%

molybdenum and small amounts of titanium and aluminum, cobalt
enhances the precipitation hardening process by producing more sites for
nucleation of (Ti, Al, Mo)Ni3 precipitates. In these alloys, the original iron-
nickel martensite contributes about one half of the strength whereas the
other half is due to subsequent precipitation hardening. The latter
process is known as aging of martensite and therefore these alloys are
referred to as maraging steels. The principal functions of cobalt as an
alloying element are as follows [3,5]:
Page 44
Promotes high residual induction and high coercive force in

permanent-magnet alloys.
Enhances high strength and considerable toughness by
stimulating the precipitation hardening process.
Resists softening with an elevation in temperature when dissolved
in ferrite or austenite.
Provides a negative contribution to hardenability.
The range of cobalt content in various steels and superalloys is shown in

Table 3.8 [9]:
Table 3.8 Cobalt content of various

steels and superalloys [9].
Type of Steel Cobalt Content
(%)
Tool steel:
High-speed steel 0 – 13.0
Heat-resistant casting
alloys: 0 – 18.5
Nickel-base alloys 42.0 – 67.5
Cobalt-base alloys
3.24 Aluminum (Al)

Aluminum has a carbide-forming tendency that is less than that of iron
and also promotes graphitization. The principal functions of aluminum as
an alloying element are as follows [3]:
Restricts grain growth by forming an effective fine dispersion with

nitrogen or oxygen.
Forms an effective surface-hardening layer by relatively low-
temperature diffusion of nitrogen (nitriding).
Restricts corrosion by forming a strong layer of aluminum oxide on
the steel surface.
Acts as an excellent deoxidizer.
Contributes moderately to hardenability.
The ranges of aluminum content in various steels and alloys is shown in

Table 3.9 [9]:
Table 3.9 Aluminum content of various steels

and alloys [9].
Type of Steel Aluminum Content (%)
Ferritic stainless steel 0 – 0.30
Precipitation-hardening stainless steel 0 – 1.50

Page 45
3.25 Titanium (Ti)

Titanium is an extremely strong carbide former. The principal functions of
titanium as an alloying element are as follows [3,5]:
Withdraws carbon from solution and reduces martensitic hardness

and hardenability in medium-chromium steels,.
Prevents formation of austenite in high-chromium steels.
Withdraws carbon from solution in austenitic stainless steels at
elevated temperatures and thereby prevents intergranular
deterioration as a result of the chromium-carbide formation at the
grain boundaries with accompanied depletion of local chromium.
Promotes precipitation hardening in austenitic high-temperature
alloys.
Contributes to malleability in killed high-strength low-alloy steels
by making improvements in inclusion characteristics, mainly by
rounding the sulphides. The same effect can be achieved by
utilizing zirconium and rare earths.
Used as a deoxidizer.
The range of titanium content in various steels and alloys is shown in

Table 3.10 [9]:
Table 3.10 Titanium content of various steels

and alloys [9].
Type of Steel Titanium Content
(%)
High-strength low-allow 0 – 0.10

sheet steel

3.26 Silicon (Si)

Silicon is a ferrite former that raises both A1 and A3 temperatures. Since
silicon has a graphitizing effect, it is usually combined in steels with
manganese as a carbide stabilizer. The principal functions of silicon as
an alloying element are as follows [3,5]:
Raises magnetic permeability and electrical resistivity in electrical

sheet steels and allows one to obtain very low magnetic hysteresis
losses. The silicon content range in these steels is between 0.5
and 4.5%.
Contributes to oxidation resistance in some heat-resistant steels.
Increases hardenability, strength, and impact toughness when
combined with manganese.
3.27 Copper (Cu)

Copper is an austenite former. Since copper has a graphitizing effect, it is
added to low-carbon steels only and in quantities not greater than 1.5%.
The principal functions of copper as an alloy-
Page 46
ing element are as follows [5]:
Improves corrosion resistance.

Produces an alloy with increased tensile strength obtained by
precipitation hardening.
Produces a rather small increase in yield strength in steels that are
not precipitation hardened.
Increases hardenability in carbon steels that may result in reduced
ductility.
3.28 Lead (Pb)

Lead has limited solubility in molten steel. Since lead has a much greater
density than steel, it settles in molten steel leading to a heavy lead
segregation. Lead is also present in steel in an elemental form as small
inclusions that are soft and act as internal lubricants. It is also an
important constituent of leaded steels that are used for making tools [4,9].
3.29 Boron (B)

Boron is a very hard solid which melts at 2300°C (4172°F) and is added
to steels known as boron steels. The principal functions of boron as an
alloying element are as follows [5]:
Hardenability of fully-deoxidized steels increases when very small

amounts of boron (from 0.0005 to 0.005%) are added due to the
reduction in phase transformation rates during cooling. This effect
is most useful in low-carbon steels.
Addition of small quantities of boron allows one to reduce the
amounts of other more expensive alloying elements by as much
as one-half while maintaining the same transformation rates.
Improves malleability and machinability in steels.
3.30 Niobium (Nb)

Niobium (also known as columbium) provides strengthening by both
precipitation hardening and ferrite grain refinement. Niobium is an
important constituent of some high-strength low-alloy sheet steels. The
principal functions of niobium as an alloying element are as follows [4]:
Small quantities of niobium (approximately 0.02%) significantly
increase the tensile strength and yield strength of carbon steels.
Increase in strength is accompanied by a marked deterioration of
notch toughness that can be avoided by special rolling practices
involving lower-than-normal temperatures for the last rolling
passes.
3.31 Sulfur (S)

Sulfur produces the most harmful effect on steel quality by forming the
brittle sulfide FeS. When sulfide is present in steel in quantities as low as
0.01%, it may trigger a precipitation of the sulfide
Page 47
at the crystal boundaries as shown in Fig. 3.12a. The principal functions

of sulfur as an alloying element are as follows [5]:
Forms brittle sulfides that have a low melting point causing steel to
crumble during hot working. The steel also becomes unsuitable for
cold-working processes.
When a sufficient amount of manganese is added to steel, sulfur
forms manganese sulfides MnS which are plastic at hot-working
temperatures. These sulfides are distributed throughout the steel
as rather large globules (Fig. 3.12b) that are not soluble in steel
and thus, not associated with the steel structure.
Fig. 3.12 – a) Segregation of iron sulfide (FeS) at crystal boundaries of

steel (Magnification: 750×), b) Formation of isolated manganese sulfide
(MnS) globules when manganese is present in steel (Magnification:
200×), c) Ghost bands or areas lacking in pearlite which indicates the
presence of phosphorus (Magnification: 75×). From Engineering
Metallurgy, Part 1, by Higgins, R.A., 1983. Copyright Hodder & Stoughton
Ltd., England. Reprinted with permission.
3.32 Phosphorus (P)

Phosphorus dissolves in solid steel when in quantities of less than 1%.
When this amount is exceeded, phosphorus precipitates in the form of
the brittle phosphide Fe3P. The principal functions of phosphorus as an
alloying element are as follows [5]:
Produces a significant hardening effect in solution. However, its

amount is usually limited to 0.05% due to an increase in
brittleness. This is especially true in the presence of the phosphide
Fe3P as a separate constituent in the microstructure.
Forms so-called ghost bands in hot rolled or forged steel, which
are areas containing no pearlite but with a high concentration of
phosphorus (Fig. 3.12c). These areas become the planes of
weakness in steel.
3.33 Nitrogen (N)

In steel, nitrogen either forms nitrides or remains dissolved interstitially
after solidification. In both these forms, nitrogen causes steel to be brittle
and unsuitable for severe cold work [5].
Page 48
Therefore, in order to produce mild steel with high ductility, the nitrogen
content must be kept as low as 0.002%. This reduction in nitrogen
content also reduces quench aging.
3.34 Hydrogen (H)

Hydrogen contents of more than about 0.0005% will result in reduced
ductility of steel. Hydrogen can be diffused out of steel at room
temperature, but this diffusion is more effective at slightly elevated
temperatures [4]. Hydrogen, in excess of 0.0005%, also contributes to
internal cracking which usually occurs during the cooling of a metal after
rolling or forging.
References
1. Peters, A.T., Ferrous Production Metallurgy, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1982.

Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1980.
3. Bain, E.C., and Paxton, H.W., Alloying Elements in Steel, Second

Edition, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1966.

Pa., 1985.

1983.
6. Andrews, K.W., ‘‘Empirical Formulae for the Calculation of Some

Transformation Temperatures,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol.
203, 1965, pp. 721-727.
7. Shiga, C., et al, Kawasaki Steel Technical Report, No. 4, 1981, pp. 97-
109.
8. Metals Handbook, Eighth Edition, Vol. 1, Properties and Selection of
Metals, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1961.
9. ASM Metals Reference Book, American Society for Metals, Metals

Park, Ohio, 1981.
10. Bozorth, R.M., Ferromagnetism, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,

Toronto, 1951.
Page 49
Chapter 4
CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL
4.1 Major Classification, Designations and Specifications

A classification is the systematic arrangement or division of steels into
groups on the basis of one of the following common characteristics [1-3]:
Composition such as carbon or alloy steel

Finishing method such as hot rolled or cold rolled
Product form such as bar, plate, sheet, strip, tubing or structural
shape
Grade, type, and class are additional terms that are used to classify steel
products. Although these terms are used interchangeably in various
specifications, within the steel industry they have very specific uses.
Grade is used to denote chemical composition, type indicates
deoxidation practice, and class describes other attributes such as
strength or surface conditions.
A designation is the specific identification of each grade, type or class of

steel by a number, letter, symbol, name or combination thereof for each
particular steel. The most widely used system for designating carbon and
alloy steels in the U.S. is that of the American Iron and Steel Institute
(AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Technically, they
are two separate systems, but they are nearly identical and are carefully
coordinated by the two groups.
A standard specification is a published document that describes a

product acceptable for a wide range of applications and that can be
produced by many manufacturers of such items. It also lists the technical
and commercial requirements that each product must meet. The most
comprehensive and widely used standard specifications are published by
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
4.2 AISI-SAE Designation System

The AISI-SAE designation system is used to designate carbon and alloy
steels. As shown in Table 4.1, each type of steel is identified by a
numerical designation that is partially descriptive of the
Page 50
composition. The first digit identifies the type of steel. In the case of a
simple alloy steel, the second number usually indicates the percentage of
the predominant alloying element. The last two digits indicate the carbon
content in hundredths of a percent. Thus, AISI-SAE 2517 indicates a
nickel steel of approximately 5% Ni (4.75 to 5.25) and 0.17% C (0.15 to
0.20).
4.3 Carbon Steel

Carbon steels, or plain carbon steels, represent the largest group of
engineering materials which are processed by both hot and cold rolling
and can be classified by:
Chemical composition
Method of manufacturing
According to the American Iron and Steel Institute definition, the

maximum content of the following chemical elements can be contained in
plain carbon steels [1,2]:
Element Maximum
Content, %
Carbon (C)
1.04
Manganese
(Mn) 1.65
Silicon (Si)
0.60
Copper (Cu)
0.60
On the basis of carbon content, plain carbon steel can be divided into the
following groups:
Type of Plain Carbon
Carbon Steel Content, %
Very low carbon ≤ 0.10
Low carbon ≤ 0.25
Medium soft 0.26 to 0.40

carbon
Medium high 0.41 to 0.60

carbon
High carbon > 0.60
On the basis of the manufacturing method, plain carbon steels can be

specified by:
Steelmaking process such as basic open-hearth, acid open-

hearth, basic oxygen, or basic electric-furnace steels.
Deoxidation practice such as rimmed, capped, semi-killed,
aluminum killed, fully killed, etc.
Cast product such as steels produced by teeming into ingots, as
opposed to continuous cast steels.
Table 4.2 shows the chemical composition and mechanical properties for
selected standard carbon sheet steel [2,4].
Page 51
Table 4.1 AISI-SAE designation system for carbon and alloy steels [2].
Numerals Nominal Alloy Content, %

Type of Steel and
Digits (a) Mn Ni Cr Mo Other
Carbon Steels
Plain carbon 10XX 1.00 — — — —
Resulfurized 11XX max — — — —
Resulfurized and 12XX — — — — —
rephosphorized 15XX — — — — —
Plain carbon 1.00–
1.65
max
Manganese Steels 13XX — — — —

1.75
Nickel Steels 23XX — 3.50 — — —

25XX — 5.00 — — —
Nickel-Chromium Steels 31XX — 1.25 0.65 & — —

32XX — 1.75 0.80 — —
33XX — 3.50 1.07 — —
34XX — 3.00 1.50 & — —
1.57
0.77
Molybdenum Steels 40XX — — — 0.20 —

44XX — — — & —
0.25
0.40
&
0.52
Chromium-Molybdenum 41XX — — 0.50, 0.12, —

Steels 0.80 0.20,
& 0.95 0.25
&
0.30
Nickel-Chromium- 43XX — 1.82 0.50 & 0.25 V: 0.03

Molybdenum Steels 43BVXX — 1.82 0.80 0.12 min
47XX — 1.05 0.50 & —
81XX — 0.30 0.45 0.25 —
86XX — 0.55 0.40 0.20 —
87XX — 0.55 0.50 & —
88XX — 0.55 0.50 0.35 —
93XX — 3.25 0.50 0.12 —
94XX — 0.45 1.20 0.20 —
97XX — 0.55 0.40 0.25 —
98XX — 1.00 0.20 0.35 —
0.80 0.12 —
0.12
0.20
0.25
Nickel-Molybdenum Steels 46XX — 0.85 — 0.20 —

48XX — & — & —
1.82 0.25
3.50 0.25
Chromium Steels 50XX — — 0.27, — —

0.40,
51XX — — 0.50 & — —
0.65
0.80,
0.87,
0.92,
0.95,
1.00 &
1.05
Chromium Steels (C: 1.00 50XXX — — 0.50 — —

min) 51XXX — — 1.02 — —
52XXX — — 1.45 — —
Chromium-Vanadium Steels 61XX — — 0.60, — V: 0.10 &

0.80 & 0.15 min
0.95
Tungsten-Chromium Steels 72XX — — — W: 1.75

0.75
Silicon-Manganese Steels 92XX 0.65, — — — Si: 1.40

0.82 & & 2.00
0.85
High-Strength Low-Alloy 9XX — — — — —

Steels (Various SAE grades)
Boron Steels (B denotes boron XXBXX — — — — —

steel)
Leaded Steels (L denotes XXLXX — — — — —

leaded steel)
(a) XX in the last digits of these designations indicates that the carbon content
(in hundredths of a percent) is to be inserted.
Page 52
Table 4.2 Chemical composition and mechanical properties of standard carbon

sheet steel [2,4].
Tensile Yield
Strength Strength
Chemical Composition Ranges and Limits, %
(As-rolled) (As-
AISI-SAE
rolled)
No.
Mn MPa ksi MPa ksi
C P S
1006 0.08 0.45 0.040 0.050 — — — —

1008 0.10 0.50 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1009 0.15 0.60 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1010 0.08–0.13 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050 — — — —

1012 0.10–0.15 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1015 0.12–0.18 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050 420.6 61.0 313.7 45.5
1016 0.12–0.18 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1017 0.14–0.20 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1018 0.14–0.20 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1019 0.14–0.20 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1020 0.17–0.23 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050 448.2 65.0 330.9 48.0

1021 0.17–0.23 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1022 0.17–0.23 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050 503.3 73.0 358.5 52.0
1023 0.19–0.25 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1025 0.22–0.28 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1026 0.22–0.28 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1030 0.27–0.34 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 551.6 80.0 344.7 50.0

1033 0.29–0.36 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1035 0.31–0.38 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1037 0.31–0.38 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1038 0.34–0.42 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1039 0.36–0.44 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1040 0.36–0.44 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 620.5 90.0 413.7 60.0
1042 0.38–0.47 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1043 0.39–0.47 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1045 0.42–0.50 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1046 0.42–0.50 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1049 0.45–0.53 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1050 0.47–0.55 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 723.9 105.0 413.7 60.0

1055 0.52–0.60 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1060 0.55–0.66 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 813.6 118.0 482.6 70.0
1064 0.59–0.70 0.50–0.80 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1065 0.59–0.70 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1070 0.65–0.76 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —

1074 0.69–0.80 0.50–0.80 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1078 0.72–0.86 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1080 0.74–0.88 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 965.3 140.0 586.1 85.0
1084 0.80–0.94 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1085 0.80–0.94 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1086 0.80–0.94 0.30–0.50 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1090 0.84–0.98 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050 — — —
1095 0.90–1.04 0.30–0.50 0.040 0.050 965.3 140.0 572.3 83.0
1524 0.18–0.25 1.30–1.65 0.040 0.050 — — — —

1527 0.22–0.29 1.20–1.55 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1536 0.30–0.38 1.20–1.55 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1541 0.36–0.45 1.30–1.65 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1548 0.43–0.50 1.05–1.40 0.040 0.050 — — — —
1552 0.46–0.50 1.20–1.40 0.040 0.050 — — — —
Note: When silicon is required, the following ranges and limits are used:
To 1015, excl 0.10 max

1015 to 1025, 0.10 max, 0.10–0.25, or
incl 0.15–0.30
Over 1025 0.10–0.25 or 0.15–0.30
Page 53
4.4 Alloy Steel

Alloy steels can be described as steels that contain specified quantities of
alloying elements (other than carbon and the commonly accepted
amounts of manganese, copper, silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus) within
the limits recognized for constructional alloy steels. These alloying
elements are added to affect changes in the mechanical or physical
properties of the steel.
Table 4.3 shows the chemical composition and mechanical properties of

selected alloy steels that are commonly produced for sheet and strip
[2,5].
Table 4.3 Chemical composition and mechanical properties of selected alloy

steels [2,5].
Tensile Yield
Chemical Composition Ranges and
Strength Strength
Limits, %
AISI-SAE (Normalized) (Normalized)
No.
Mn Ni Cr Mo MPa ksi MPa ksi
C
4118 0.18– 0.70– — 0.40– 0.08– — — — —

4130 0.23 0.90 — 0.60 0.15 668.8 97.0 436.4 63.3
4140 0.28– 0.40– — 0.80– 0.15– 1020.4 148.0 655.0 95.0
4340 0.33 0.60 1.65– 1.10 0.25 1279.0 185.5 861.8 125.0
0.38– 0.75– 2.00 0.80– 0.15–
0.43 1.00 1.10 0.25
0.38– 0.60– 0.70– 0.15–
0.43 0.80 0.90 0.25
5140 0.38– 0.70– — 0.70– — 792.9 115.0 472.3 68.5

5150 0.43 0.90 — 0.90 — 870.8 126.3 529.5 76.8
5160 0.48– 0.70– — 0.70– — 957.0 138.8 530.9 77.0
0.53 0.90 0.90
0.55– 0.75– 0.70–
0.65 1.00 0.90
8615 0.13– 0.70– 0.40– 0.40– 0.15– — — — —

8620 0.18 0.90 0.70 0.60 0.25 632.9 91.8 357.1 51.8
0.18– 0.70– 0.40– 0.40– 0.15–
0.23 0.90 0.70 0.60 0.25
Notes: a) Composition limit for phosphorus and sulfur is 0.035%.

b) Composition range for silicon is 0.15 – 0.30%. Other ranges are
available depending on the producer.
4.5 High-Strength, Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steel

High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steel comprises a specific group of steels
that have higher strength values than conventional carbon steels, along
with improved formability, weldability, and in some cases additional
resistance to atmospheric corrosion. These properties are obtained by
adding moderate amounts of one or more alloying elements and
controlled mill processing.
Table 4.4 shows the chemical composition for HSLA steel grades that are
designated by ASTM specifications, while Table 4.5 provides the
mechanical properties [3]. HSLA grades have specified minimum yield
points that range from 275 MPa (40 ksi) to as high as 1035 MPa (150 ksi)
and typically contain small amounts of alloying elements in order to
achieve their strength in hot-rolled or heat-treated conditions. HSLA
steels are generally utilized in applications where weight reduction is a
major factor.
Page 54
Table 4.4 Chemical composition of HSLA steel grades designated by ASTM

specifications [3].
ASTM Chemical Composition Ranges and Limits, %

Spec.
Type/Grade C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Cu V Other
A242
Type 1 0.15 1.00 0.45 0.05 — — — 0.20 — —
Type 2 0.20 1.35 0.04 0.05 — — — min — —
0.20
min
A440 0.28 1.10– 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — 0.20 — —

A441 0.22 1.60 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — min 0.02 —
0.85– 0.20 min
1.25 min
A572
Grade 42 0.21 1.35 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — 0.20 — (a)
Grade 45 0.22 1.35 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — min — (a)
Grade 50 0.23 1.35 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — 0.20 — (a)
Grade 55 0.25 1.35 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — min — (a)
Grade 60 0.26 1.35 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — 0.20 — (a)
Grade 65 0.23 1.65 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — min — (a)
0.20
min
0.20
min
0.20
min
A588
Grade A 0.10–0.90– 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.40– — 0.25–0.02– —
Grade B 0.19 1.25 0.04 0.05 0.30 0.65 0.25– 0.40 0.10 —
Grade C 0.20 0.75– 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.40– 0.50 0.20–0.01– —
Grade D 0.15 1.25 0.04 0.05 0.30 0.70 0.25– 0.40 0.10 Nb: 0.04; Zr
Grade E 0.10–0.80– 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.30– 0.50 0.20–0.01– 0.05–0.15
Grade F 0.20 1.35 0.04 0.05 0.30 0.50 — 0.50 0.10 Mo: 0.10–0.25
Grade G 0.15 0.75– 0.04 0.05 0.50–0.50–0.75– 0.30 — Mo: 0.10–0.20
Grade H 0.10– 1.25 0.035 0.04 0.90 0.90 1.25 — 0.05 Mo: 0.10; Ti: 0.07
Grade J 0.20 1.20 0.04 0.05 0.15– — 0.40–0.30–0.01– Mo: 0.15; Ti:
0.20 0.50– 0.30 0.30 1.10 1.00 0.10 0.005–0.030
0.20 1.00 0.30 0.50– 0.80 0.30– — Ti: 0.03–0.05
0.20 1.20 0.25– 1.00 0.30– 0.50 0.02–
1.25 0.70 0.10– 0.60 0.20– 0.10
0.60– 0.25– 0.25 0.50– 0.35 —
1.00 0.75 — 0.70 0.30
0.30– min
0.50
A606 — — — — — — —
0.22 1.25 0.05
A607
Grade 45 0.22 1.35 0.04 0.05 — — — 0.20 — (a)
Grade 50 0.23 1.35 0.04 0.05 — — — min — (a)
Grade 55 0.25 1.35 0.04 0.05 — — — 0.20 — (a)
Grade 60 0.26 1.50 0.04 0.05 — — — min — (a)
Grade 65 0.26 1.50 0.04 0.05 — — — 0.20 — (a)
Grade 70 0.26 1.65 0.04 0.05 — — — min — (a)
0.20
min
0.20
min
0.20
min
A618
Grade I 0.22 1.25 — 0.05 — — — — — —
Grade II 0.22 0.85– 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — 0.20 0.02 —
Grade III 0.23 1.25 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — min min Nb: 0.005 min
1.35 — 0.02
min
A633
Grade A 0.18 1.00– 0.04 0.05 0.15– — — — — Nb: 0.05
Grade B 0.18 1.35 0.04 0.05 0.30 — — — 0.10 —
Grade C 0.20 1.00– 0.04 0.05 0.15– — — — — Nb: 0.01–0.05
Grade D 0.20 1.35 0.04 0.05 0.50 0.25 0.25 0.35 — Mo: 0.08
Grade E 0.22 1.15– 0.04 0.05 0.15– — — — 0.04– Nb: 0.01–0.05; N:
1.50 0.50 0.11 0.01–0.03
0.70– 0.15–
1.60 0.50
1.15– 0.15–
1.50 0.50
A656
Grade 1 0.18 1.60 0.04 0.05 0.60 — — — 0.05– Al: 0.02 min; N:
Grade 2 0.15 0.90 0.04 0.05 0.10 — — — 0.15 0.005–0.030
— Ti: 0.05–0.50; Al:
0.01 min
A690 0.60–0.08– — 0.40– — —

0.22 0.90 0.15 0.05 0.10 0.75 0.50
min
A715
Type 1 0.15 1.65 0.0250.035 0.10 — — — — Ti: 0.05 min
Type 2 0.15 1.65 0.0250.035 0.60 — — — — N: 0.005 min (b)
Type 3 0.15 1.65 0.0250.035 (b) — — — 0.08 Nb: 0.005 min; N:
Type 4 0.15 1.65 0.0250.035 0.60 0.80 — — (b) 0.020 (b)
(b) (b) — Nb: 0.005–0.06
Type 5 0.15 1.65 0.0250.035 0.90 — — (c); Ti: 0.10 (b);
(d) 0.15 1.65 0.0250.035 — — — — Zr 0.05 min; B:
Type 6 0.15 1.65 0.0250.035 0.30 — — — — 0.0025
Type 7 0.90 — 0.005 Mo: 0.20 min;
— min Nb: 0.03 min
(e) Nb: 0.005–0.10
N: 0.020
(a) May be purchased as type 1 (0.005 – 0.05 Nb), type 2 (0.01 – 0.15 V), type 3
(0.05 max Nb plus 0.02 – 0.15 V), or, type 4 (0.015 max N plus V ≥ 4N).
(b) Not added to Grades 50 and 60. (c) Might not be added to Grade 50. (d)
Available as Grade 80 only. (e) 0.005 min Nb may be added in place of or in
addition to V.
Page 55
Table 4.5 Mechanical properties of HSLA steel grades [3].
Minimum Minimum
ASTM Tensile Strength Yield Strength
Type, Grade, or Condition (a) (a)
Spec.
MPa ksi MPa ksi
Type 1 435–480 63–70 290–345 42–50

A242 Type 2 435–480 63–70 290–345 42–50
A440 — 435–485 63–70 290–345 42–50

A441 — 415–485 60–70 275–345 40–50
Grade 42 415 60 290 42

A572 Grade 45 415 60 310 45
Grade 50 450 65 345 50
Grade 55 485 70 380 55
Grade 60 520 75 415 60
Grade 65 550 80 450 65
Grade A 435–485 63–70 290–345 42–50

A588 Grade B 415–485 63–70 290–345 42–50
Grade C 435–485 63–70 290–345 42–50
Grade D 415–485 63–70 290–345 42–50
Grade E 435–485 63–70 290–345 42–50
Grade F 415–485 63–70 290–345 42–50
Grade G 435–485 63–70 290–345 42–50
Grade H 415–485 63–70 290–345 42–50
Grade J 435–485 63–70 290–345 42–50
Hot Rolled 480 70 345 50

A606 Hot Rolled & Annealed or 450 65 310 45
Normalized 450 65 310 45
Cold Rolled
A607 Grade 45 410 60 310 45
Grade 50 450 65 345 50
Grade 55 480 70 380 55
Grade 60 520 75 415 60
Grade 65 550 80 450 65
Grade 70 590 85 485 70
Grade I 483 70 345 50

A618 Grade II 483 70 345 50
Grade III 448 65 345 50
Grade A 430–570 63–83 290 42

A633 Grade B 430–570 63–83 290 42
Grade C 450–620 65–90 315–345 46–50
Grade D 450–620 65–90 315–345 46–50
Grade E 520–690 75–100 380–415 55–60
Grade 1 655–793 95–115 552 80

A656 Grade 2 655–793 95–115 552 80
—
A690 485 70 345 50
Grade 50 415 60 345 50

A715 Grade 60 485 70 415 60
Grade 70 550 80 485 70
Grade 80 620 90 550 80
(a) May vary with product size and mill form.

Page 56
4.6 Tool Steels

Tool steels can be defined as a class of carbon, alloy, or high speed
steels that are capable of being hardened and tempered [6,7]. These
steels are commonly used to make a variety of tools for cutting, shaping,
forming and blanking of materials at either ordinary or elevated
temperatures. Tool steels are also used for a variety of other applications
where high hardness, strength and toughness are required along with
resistance to wear, abrasion and softening at elevated temperatures.
These properties are generally attained with high carbon and alloy
contents.
Tool steels can be grouped into eight main categories as shown in Table
4.6, which also provides the chemical composition for these grades.
Table 4.7 shows the mechanical properties of some selected tool steels.
Table 4.6 Chemical composition of tool steels [6,7].
(Symbol Chemical Composition Ranges and Limits, %

Group
Type) C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo W V Co
(M1 – M48,
0.75–0.10–0.15– 3.50– 0.30 3.25– 1.15– 0.95– 4.75–
M62)
1.55 0.60 0.65 4.75 11.00 10.50 4.50 13.00
Standard Molybdenum max
High Speed
Tool Steels
(T1 – T15) 0.65–0.10–0.15– 3.75– 0.30 0.40– 11.75– 0.80– 4.25–
Tungsten 1.60 0.40 0.40 5.00 1.25 21.00 5.25 13.00
max
Intermediate
(M50 – M59) 0.75–0.15–0.20– 3.75– 4.00– 1.05– 0.90–
High Speed
Molybdenum 0.95 0.35 0.60 4.50 — 4.75 1.45 2.10 —
Tool Steels
(H1 – H19) 0.30–0.20–0.20– 3.00– 0.30 0.30– 1.00– 0.25– 4.00–

Chromium 0.45 0.70 1.20 5.50 3.00 5.25 2.20 4.50
max
Hot Work (H20 – H39) 0.25–0.15–0.15– 1.75– 0.30 8.50– 0.25–
—
Tool Steels Tungsten 0.55 0.40 0.60 12.75 19.00 1.25 —
max
(H40 – H59) 0.55–0.15–0.20– 3.75– 0.30 4.50– 5.50– 1.75–

Molybdenum 0.70 0.40 0.45 4.50 5.50 6.75 2.20 —
max
(D2 – D5, D7)

High Carbon 1.40–0.15–0.15– 11.00– 0.30 0.70– 1.00 1.00– 2.50–
High 2.50 0.60 0.60 13.50 1.20 4.40 3.50
max max
Chromium
(A2, A4, A6 –
Cold Work A11)
0.45–0.35–0.15– 0.90– 0.30– 0.90– 0.50– 0.15–
Tool Steels Medium
2.85 2.50 1.50 5.75 2.05 1.80 1.50 10.25 —
Alloy
Air Hardening
(O1 – O2, O6
0.85–0.30–0.50– 0.30–
– O7) 0.30 0.20– 0.40– 0.30– —
1.55 1.80 1.50 0.85 0.30 2.00 0.40
Oil Hardening max
Shock
(S1 – S2, S4 – 0.40–0.10–0.15– 0.50– 0.30 0.20– 1.50– 0.15–
Resisting
S7) 0.65 1.50 2.50 3.50 1.80 3.00 0.50 —
Tool Steels max
Mold 0.05–0.20–0.10– 0.20– 3.25– 0.30– 0.15–

(P6, P20 – 21)
Steels 0.40 1.00 0.80 2.00 4.25 0.55 — 0.25 —
Special
(L2, L6) 0.45–0.10– 0.50 0.60– 1.25– 0.25– 0.10–
Purpose
Low Alloy 1.00 0.90 1.20 2.00 0.50 — 0.30 —
Tool Steels max
Water
(W1 – W2, 0.70–0.10–0.10– 0.15– 0.20 0.10 0.15 0.10–
Hardening
W5) 1.50 0.40 0.40 0.60 0.35 —
Tool Steels max max max
Page 57
Table 4.7 Mechanical properties of selected tool steels [6,7].

Group
Type
Symbol
Condition
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
Special Purpose Low Alloy L2 Annealed 710 103 510 74

Tool Steels Low Alloy L6 Annealed 655 95 380 55
— S1 Annealed 690 100 415 60

Shock Resisting — S5 Annealed 725 105 440 64
Tool Steels — S7 Annealed 640 93 380 55
4.7 Stainless Steel

Stainless steel is a generic term covering a large group of alloys that are
commonly used in applications requiring resistance to corrosion and/or
oxidation [8,9]. The term stainless implies a resisting to staining, rusting
and pitting in gaseous and aqueous environments. Stainless steels
include all grades of steel containing 10% or more of chromium with or
without other alloying elements and iron as the major constituent.
Stainless steels can be classified into the following four major groups [2]:
Austenitic stainless steels

Ferritic stainless steels
Martensitic stainless steels
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steels are iron-chromium-nickel and iron-chromium-

manganese-nickel alloys which are hardenable only by cold work. The
austenitic microstructure of these steels can be retained at room
temperature by adding up to 37% nickel which is known as a strong
austenite former. In some types of steels, nickel is partially substituted by
manganese and nitrogen. The chemical composition and mechanical
properties of austenitic stainless steels are shown in Tables 4.8 and 4.9
[10-12].
Ferritic stainless steels are iron-chromium alloys which are essentially

nonhardenable by heat treatment and are so named because the crystal
structure of these steels is the same as that of iron at room temperature.
The chemical composition and mechanical properties of ferritic stainless
steels are shown in Tables 4.10 and 4.11 [10,13].
Martensitic stainless steels are iron-chromium alloys which are
hardenable by heat treatment. These steels can be quenched for
maximum hardness and subsequently tempered in order to improve
ductility with the proper composition of iron, chromium, carbon, and other
elements. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of
martensitic stainless steels are shown in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 [10-12].
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are iron-chromium-nickel alloys

(with additional elements) which are hardenable by solution treating and
aging. The chemical composition and mechanical properties of
precipitation-hardeningstainless steels are shown in Tables 4.14 and 4.15
[14].
Page 58
Table 4.8 Chemical composition of austenitic stainless steels [10-12].

Type
Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Other Elements
C P S
201 0.15 5.50– 0.0600.030 1.00 16.00– 3.50– — N: 0.25 max

202 0.15 7.50 0.0600.030 1.00 18.00 5.50 — N: 0.25 max
205 12.00– 7.50– 0.0600.030 1.00 17.00– 4.00– — N: 0.32–0.40
25.00 10.00 19.00 6.00
14.00– 16.50– 1.00–
15.50 18.00 1.75
301 0.15 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 16.00– 6.00– — N: 0.10 max

302 0.15 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 18.00 8.00 — N: 0.10 max
302B 0.15 2.00 0.0450.0302.00–17.00– 8.00– — N: 0.10 max
3.00 19.00 10.00
17.00– 8.00–
19.00 10.00
304 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 18.00– 8.00– — N: 0.10 max

304L 0.030 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 20.00 10.50 — N: 0.10 max
304H 0.04– 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 18.00– 8.00– — —
304N 0.10 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 20.00 12.00 — N: 0.10–0.16
304LN 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 18.00– 8.00– — N: 0.10–0.16
0.030 20.00 10.50
18.00– 8.00–
20.00 10.50
18.00– 8.00–
20.00 12.00
305 0.12 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 17.00–10.50– — —

308 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 19.00 13.00 — —
309 0.20 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 19.00–10.00– — —
309S 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 21.00 12.00 — —
309H 0.04– 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 22.00–12.00– — —
309Cb 0.10 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 24.00 15.00 — Cb: 10 × C min,
309HCb 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 22.00–12.00– — 1.10 max
0.04– 24.00 15.00 Cb: 10 × C min,
0.10 22.00–12.00– 1.10 max
24.00 15.00
22.00–12.00–
24.00 16.00
22.00–12.00–
24.00 16.00
310 0.25 2.00 0.0450.030 1.50 24.00–19.00– — —

310S 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 1.50 26.00 22.00 — —
310H 0.04– 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 24.00–19.00– — —
310Cb 0.10 2.00 0.0450.030 1.50 26.00 22.00 — Cb: 10 × C min,
310HCb 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 24.00–19.00– — 1.10 max
310MoLN 0.04– 2.00 0.0300.010 0.50 26.00 22.00 2.00– Cb: 10 × C min,
0.10 24.00–19.00– 3.00 1.10 max
0.030 26.00 22.00 N: 0.10–0.16
24.00–19.00–
26.00 22.00
24.00–21.00–
26.00 23.00
316 0.08 200

0.0450.030 0.75 16.00–10.00–2.00– N: 0.10 max
316L 0.030 2.00
0.0450.030 0.75 18.00 14.00 3.00 N: 0.10 max
316H 0.04– 2.00
0.0450.030 0.75 16.00–10.00–2.00– —
316Ti 0.10 2.00
0.0450.030 0.75 18.00 14.00 3.00 Ti: 5 × (C + N) min,
0.08 16.00–10.00–2.00– 0.70 max; N: 0.10
316Cb 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 18.00 14.00 3.00 max
0.08 16.00–10.00–2.00– Cb: 10 × C min,
316N 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 18.00 14.00 3.00 1.10 max; N: 0.10
316LN 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 max
0.030 16.00–10.00–2.00– N: 0.10–0.16
18.00 14.00 3.00 N: 0.10–0.16
16.00–10.00–2.00–
18.00 14.00 3.00
16.00–10.00–2.00–
18.00 14.00 3.00
317 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 18.00–11.00–3.00– N: 0.10 max

317L 0.030 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 20.00 15.00 4.00 N: 0.10 max
317LN 0.030 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 18.00–11.00–3.00– N: 0.10–0.22
321 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 20.00 15.00 4.00 Ti: 5 × (C + N) min,
18.00–11.00–3.00– 0.70 max; N: 0.10
321H 0.04– 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 20.00 15.00 4.00 max
0.10 17.00– 9.00– — Ti:4 × (C + N) min,
19.00 12.00 0.70 max
—
17.00– 9.00–
19.00 12.00
347 0.08 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 17.00– 9.00– — Cb: 10 × C min,

347H 0.04– 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 19.00 13.00 — 1.00 max
348 0.10 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 17.00– 9.00– — Cb: 8 × C min, 1.00
0.08 19.00 13.00 max
348H 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 17.00– 9.00– — Cb + Ta: 10 × C
0.04– 19.00 13.00 min, 1.00 max; Ta:
0.10 0.10 max; Co: 0.20
17.00– 9.00– max
19.00 13.00 Cb + Ta: 8 × C min,
1.00 max; Ta: 0.10
max; Co: 0.20 max
XM-11 0.04 8.00– 0.0600.030 0.75 19.00– 5.50– — N: 0.15–0.40

XM-14 0.12 10.00 0.0600.030 0.75 21.50 7.50 — N: 0.35–0.50
XM-15 0.08 14.00–0.0300.0301.50–17.00– 5.00– — —
XM-17 0.08 16.00 0.0450.030 2.50 19.00 6.00 2.00– N: 0.25–0.50
XM-18 0.03 2.00 0.0450.030 0.75 17.00–17.50– 3.00 N: 0.25–0.50
XM-19 0.06 7.50– 0.0400.030 0.75 19.00 18.50 2.00– N: 0.20–0.40; Cb:
9.00 0.75 17.50– 5.00– 3.00 0.10–0.30; V: 0.10–
XM-21 0.08 7.50– 0.0450.030 22.00 7.00 1.50– 0.30
XM-29 0.08 9.00 0.0600.030 0.75 17.50– 5.00– 3.00 N: 0.16–0.30
XM-31 0.12 4.00– 0.0450.030 0.75 22.00 7.00 N: 0.20–0.40
6.00 0.30–20.50–11.50– — N: 0.35 min
1.00 23.50 13.50 —
2.00 —
11.50– 18.00– 8.00–
14.50 20.00 10.50
14.00– 17.00– 2.25–
16.00 19.00 3.75
17.00– 1.00
18.50
Page 59
Table 4.9 Mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steels [10-12].

Type
Minimum Minimum
Product Form
Tensile Strength Yield Strength
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
201 — 655 95 260 38

202 — 620 90 360 38
205 — 790 115 450 65
301 — 515 75 205 30

302 — 515 75 205 30
302B — 515 75 205 30
304 — 515 75 205 30

304L — 485 70 170 25
304H — 515 75 205 30
304N — 550 80 240 35
304LN — 515 75 205 30
305 — 485 70 170 25

308 — 515 75 205 30
309 — 515 75 205 30
309S — 515 75 205 30
309H — 515 75 205 30
309Cb — 515 75 205 30
309HCb — 515 75 205 30
310 — 515 75 205 30

310S — 515 75 205 30
310H — 515 75 205 30
310Cb — 515 75 205 30
310HCb — 515 75 205 30
310MoLN — 550 80 240 35
316 — 515 75 205 30

316L — 485 70 170 25
316H — 515 75 205 30
316Ti — 515 75 205 30
316Cb — 515 75 205 30
316N — 550 80 240 35
316LN — 515 75 205 30
317 — 515 75 205 30
317L — 515 75 205 30
317LN — 550 80 240 35
321 — 515 75 205 30
321H — 515 75 205 30
347 — 515 75 205 30

347H — 515 75 205 30
348 — 515 75 205 30
348H — 515 75 205 30
XM-11 Sheet and Strip 690 100 415 60

Plate 620 90 345 50
XM-14 — 725 105 380 55
XM-15 — 515 75 205 30
Plate 620 90 345 50
Plate 620 90 345 50
Plate 690 100 380 55
Plate 585 85 275 40
Plate 690 100 380 55
XM-31 Sheet 860 125 485 70
Strip 725 105 380 55
Page 60
Table 4.10 Chemical composition of ferritic stainless steels [10,13].

Type Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Other Elements
C P S
405 0.08 1.000.0400.0301.0011.50–0.60 — Al: 0.10–0.30

409 0.08 1.000.0450.0301.00 14.50 0.50 — Ti: 6 × C min, 0.75 max
10.50–
11.75
429 0.12 1.000.0400.0301.0014.00–0.75 — —

430 0.12 1.000.0400.0301.00 16.00 0.75 — —
434 0.12 1.000.0400.0301.0016.00– — 0.75– —
436 0.12 1.000.0400.0301.00 18.00 — 1.25 Nb + Ta: 5 × C min, 0.70 max
439 0.07 1.000.0400.0301.0016.00–0.500.75– Ti: 0.20 + 4(C + N) min, 1.10
18.00 1.25 max; Al: 0.15 max; N: 0.04 max
16.00– —
18.00
17.00–
19.00
442 0.20 1.000.0400.0401.0018.00–0.60 — —

444 0.0251.000.0400.0301.00 23.00 — 1.75– Ti + Cb: 0.2 + 4(C + N) min,
17.50– 2.50 0.80 max; N: 0.035 max
446 0.20 1.500.0400.0301.00 19.50 0.75 N: 0.25 max
—
23.00–
27.00
XM-0.0100.400.0200.0200.4025.00–0.500.75– Cb: 0.05–0.20; Cu: 0.20 max; N:

27 27.50 1.50 0.015 max; Ni + Cu: 0.50 max
XM- 0.06 0.750.0400.0200.75 0.50 Ti: 0.20–1.00 and 7(C + N) min;
33 25.00– 0.75– N: 0.04 max; Cu: 0.20 max
27.00 1.50
Table 4.11 Mechanical properties of
ferritic stainless steels [10,13].
Minimum Minimum
Tensile Strength Yield Strength
Type
MPa ksi MPa ksi
405 415 60 170 25

409 380 55 205 30
429 450 65 205 30

430 450 65 205 30
434 531 77 365 53
436 531 77 365 53
439 415 60 205 30
442 515 75 275 40

444 415 60 275 40
446 515 75 275 40
XM-27 450 65 275 40

XM-33 470 68 310 45
Table 4.12 Chemical composition of martensitic stainless steels [10–12].
Chemical Composition
Ranges and Limits, %
Type
Other
Mn Si Cr Ni Mo
C P S Elements
403 0.15 1.000.0400.0300.5011.50–0.60 — —

410 0.15 1.000.0400.0301.00 13.00 0.75 — —
410S 0.08 1.000.0400.0301.0011.50–0.60 — —
13.50
11.50–
13.50
420 0.30–0.40 1.000.0400.0301.0012.00–0.75 0.50 —
440A 0.60–0.75 1.000.0400.0301.00 14.00 — 0.75 —
16.00–
18.00
501 0.10 min 1.000.0400.0301.00 4.00– — 0.40– —

503 0.15 1.000.0400.0401.00 6.00 — 0.65 —
504 0.15 1.000.0400.0401.00 6.00– — 0.40– —
8.0 0.65
8.00– 0.90–
10.00 1.10
Page 61
Table 4.13 Mechanical properties of

martensitic stainless steels [10–12].
Minimum Minimum
Type Tensile Strength Yield Strength
MPa ksi MPa ksi
403 485 70 205 30

410 450 65 205 30
410S 415 60 205 30
420 690 100 — —

440A 690 100 415 60
501 415–590 60–85 205 30

503 415–590 60–85 205 30
504 415–590 60–85 205 30
Table 4.14 Chemical composition of precipitation-hardening stainless steels

[14].
Type Chemical Composition Ranges and Limits, %
Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Other Elements
C P S
630 0.07 1.00 0.0400.0301.00 15.00– 3.00– — Cu: 3.00–5.00; Cb + Ta:

631 0.09 1.00 0.0400.0301.00 17.50 5.00 — 0.15–0.45
632 0.09 1.00 0.0400.0301.00 16.00– 6.50– 2.00– Al: 0.75–1.50
633 0.07– 0.50– 0.0400.0300.50 18.00 7.75 3.00 Al: 0.75–1.50
634 0.11 1.25 0.0400.0300.50 14.00– 6.50– 2.50– N: 0.07–0.13
635 0.10– 0.50– 0.0400.0301.00 16.00 7.75 3.25 Cb + Ta: 0.10–0.50
0.15 1.25 16.00– 4.00– 2.50– Al: 0.40; Ti: 0.40–1.20
0.08 1.00 17.00 5.00 3.25
15.00– 4.00– —
16.00 5.00
16.00– 6.00–
17.50 7.50
XM- 0.05 0.50

0.0300.0300.30 14.00– 6.25– 0.30 Al: 0.10; Ti: 0.60–0.90
9 0.07 1.00
0.0400.0301.00 14.50 7.00 — Cu: 2.50–4.50; Cb + Ta:
XM- 0.05 0.20
0.0100.0080.10 14.00– 3.50– 2.00– 0.15–0.45
12 0.05 0.50
0.0300.0300.50 15.50 5.50 2.50 Al: 0.90–1.35; N: 0.01
XM- 12.25– 7.50– 0.50 Ti: 0.80–1.40; Cu: 1.50–
13 0.05 1.00 0.0300.0301.00 13.25 8.50 2.50; Cb + Ta: 0.10–0.50
XM- 11.00– 7.50– 0.50– Cu: 1.25–1.75; Cb: 8 × C
16 12.50 9.50 1.00 min
XM- 14.00– 5.00–

25 16.00 7.00
Table 4.15 Mechanical properties of precipitation-hardening

stainless steels in solution-treated condition [14].
Maximum Maximum Yield

Type Thickness, in. (mm) Tensile Strength Strength
MPa ksi MPa ksi
630 0.015 – 4.0(0.38 – 1255 185 1105 160

631 102) 1035 150 450 65
0.010 (0.25) and under 1035 150 380 55
632 Over 0.010 – 4.0 (0.25 1035 150 450 65
633 – 102) 1380 200 620 90
0.015 – 4.0 (0.38 – 1380 200 605 88
102) 1380 200 595 86
0.001 – 0.0015 (0.03 – 1380 200 585 85
0.038), excl 1380 200 585 85
634(a) 0.0015 – 0.002 (0.03 – — — — —
635 0.05), excl 825 120 515 75
0.002 – 0.005 (0.05 – 825 120 515 75
0.13), excl 825 120 515 75
0.005 – 0.010 (0.13 –
0.25), excl
Over 0.010 (0.254)
Plate
0.030 (0.76) and under
Over 0.030 – 0.060
(0.76 – 1.52)
Over 0.060 (1.52)
XM-9 Over 0.010 (0.25) 1035 150 860 30

XM- 0.0015 – 4.0 (0.038 – — — — —
12 101.6) — — — —
XM- 0.0015 – 4.0 (0.038 – 1205 175 1105 160
13 101.6) 895– 130– 620– 90–150
XM- 0.010 (0.25) and 1205 165 1035
16 greater
XM- 0.010 (0.25) and
25 greater
(a) Solution-treated, equalized, and over-tempered plate only.

Page 62
4.8 Electrical Sheet Steel

Electrical sheet steels are steels with low carbon content in which certain
magnetic characteristics, mainly core loss and high permeability, are
achieved either by the use of a silicon alloy or special processing or both.
Other alloying elements can also be used in place of or in addition to
silicon.
The main alloying elements in electrical sheet steels are silicon and
aluminum with a predominant content of silicon. Electrical sheet steels
can be divided into the following two general groups [1,15]:
Oriented steels
Nonoriented steels
Oriented steels are designed to yield exceptionally good magnetic

properties in the rolling or lengthwise direction of the steel.
Nonoriented steels are made with a mill treatment that yields a grain
structure or texture of a random nature. As a result, the magnetic
properties in the rolling direction of the strip are not significantly different
from those in the transverse direction.
Table 4.16 shows the alloy content and mechanical properties of selected
electrical sheet steel grades.
Table 4.16 Alloy content and mechanical properties of electrical sheet steel
grades [1].
Normal Approx. Tensile Yield

Electrical
ASTM AISI Thickness Alloy StrengthStrength
Class Resistivity
Type Type in. Content (Si
(μΩ cm) MPa ksi MPa ksi
(mm) + Al)%
Oriented 35G066 M-6 0.0138 50 379 55 345 50

(0.35) 3.00
36F158 M- 0.0140(0.36) 3.30 52 503 73 365 53

36F180 19 0.0140(0.36) 2.80 49 503 73 365 53
47F205 M- 0.0185 2.65 49 496 72 365 53
64F270 27 (0.47) 2.35 39 476 69 345 50
64F360 M- 0.0250 1.85 35 476 69 345 50
Nonoriented
64F490 36 (0.64) 1.05 23 434 63 352 51
Fully
M- 0.0250
Processed
43 (0.64)
M- 0.0250
45 (0.64)
M-
47
Nononented 47S188 M- 0.0185 2.65 49 517 75 400 58

Semi- 64S230 36 (0.47) 2.35 39 545 79 441 64
Processed 64S280 M- 0.0250 1.85 35 517 75 462 67
43 (0.64)
M- 0.0250(0.64)
45
2S 2S 0.0240 0.15 16 434 63 379 55

Nonoriented 1 1 (0.61) 0.15 14 372 54 269 39
Carbon 0.0240
(0.61)
4.9 Superalloys
Superalloys are iron, cobalt and nickel-base alloys with outstanding heat-
resisting characteristics. These heat-resisting alloys are developed for
very high temperature service where relatively high tensile, thermal,
vibratory, or shock stresses are encountered and oxidation resistance is
frequently required [2]. Table 4.17 shows the chemical composition of
selected superalloys while Table 4.18 shows typical mechanical
properties of selected cobalt-base and nickel-base superalloys.
Page 63
Table 4.17 Chemical composition of selected superalloys [2].
Chemical Composition, %
Type/Alloy Cr Ni Co Mo Nb Ti Fe Other
W C
Solid-Solution Alloys
Iron-Base
Incoloy 800 21.0 32.5 — — — — 0.38 45.7 0.05 Al: 0.38
Incoloy 801 20.5 32.0 — — — — 1.13 46.3 0.05 —
Incoloy 802 21.0 32.5 — — — — 0.75 44.8 0.35 Al: 0.58
Cobalt-Base
Haynes 25 20.0 10.0 50.0 — 15.0 — — 3.0 0.10 Mn: 1.5
(L-605) 22.0 22.0 37.0 — 14.5 — — 3.0 0.10 La: 0.90
Haynes 188 max
Nickel-Base
Hastelloy B 1.0 63.0 2.5 28.0 — — — 5.0 0.05 V: 0.03
Hastelloy max 69.0 max 28.0 — — — 2.0 max —
B-2 1.0 56.0 1.0 17.0 4.5 — — max 0.02 —
Hastelloy C max 63.0 max 15.5 — — 0.7 6.0 max —
Hastelloy 16.5 59.0 — 16.0 3.7 — max 3.0 0.15 —
C-4 16.0 72.0 2.0 16.0 — — — max max —
Hastelloy 15.5 67.0 max 15.5 — — 0.5 5.0 0.015 Al: 0.2; La: 0.02
C-276 7.0 61.0 — 24.5 — — max 5.0 max V: 0.6
Hastelloy N 15.5 49.0 — 9.0 0.6 — — max 0.02 Al: 2.0
Hastelloy S 5.0 76.0 — — — — — 1.0 max Cu: 0.25 max
Hastelloy 22.0 60.5 2.5 — — — — 5.5 0.06 Al: 1.35; Cu: 0.5 max
W 15.5 74.0 max — — 2.25 — 15.8 0.02 Cu: 0.03 max
Hastelloy X 23.0 55.0 1.5 9.0 — — — 8.0 max Al: 1.0
Inconel 600 16.0 61.0 max 9.0 — 3.60 — 14.1 0.12 Al: 0.2
Inconel 601 22.0 — — 7.5 max
Inconel 604 21.5 — 0.2 — 0.15
Inconel 617 — 2.5 0.08
Inconel 625 12.5 0.05
— 0.02
0.07
0.05
Precipitation-Hardening Alloys
Iron-Base
A-286 15.0 26.0 — 1.25 — — 2.00 55.2 0.04 Al: 0.2; B: 0.005; V:
Discaloy 14.0 26.0 — 3.00 — — 1.70 55.0 0.06 0.3
W-545 13.5 26.0 — 1.50 — — 2.85 55.8 0.08 Al: 0.25
Al: 0.2; B: 0.05
Cobalt-Base
MP-35N 20.0 35.0 35.0 10.0 — — — — — —
MP-159 19.0 25.0 36.0 7.0 — 0.6 3.0 9.0 — Al: 0.2
Nickel-Base
Astroloy 15.0 56.5 15.0 5.25 — — 3.5 <0.3 0.06 Al: 4.4; B: 0.03; Zr:
Incoloy 901 12.5 42.5 — 6.00 — — 2.7 36.2 0.10 0.06
Inconel 706 16.0 41.5 — — — — 1.75 37.5 max —
0.03 Al: 0.2; (Nb + Ta):
Inconel 718 19.0 52.5 — 3.0 — 5.1 0.9 18.5 2.9; Cu: 0.15 max
Inconel 751 15.5 72.5 — — — 1.0 2.3 7.0 0.08 Al: 0.5; Cu: 0.15 max
Inconel 15.5 73.0 — — — 1.0 2.5 7.0 max Al: 1.2; Cu: 0.25 max
X750 19.5 73.0 1.0 — — — 2.25 1.5 0.05 Al: 0.7; Cu: 0.25 max
Nimonic 19.5 55.5 18.0 — — — 2.4 1.5 0.04 Al: 1.4; Cu: 0.10 max
80A 11.0 56.0 20.0 5.0 — — 1.5 2.0 0.05 Al: 1.4
Nimonic 90 20.0 51.0 20.0 5.9 — — 2.1 max 0.06 Al: 5.0; +B; +Zr
Nimonic 13.0 44.0 4.0 6.0 — — 3.0 0.7 0.30 Al: 0.45
100 18.0 38.0 20.0 3.2 — — 2.6 max max Al: 1.0; B: 0.01
Nimonic 19.0 55.0 11.0 10.0 — — 3.1 28.9 0.06 Al: 0.2; B: 0.015
263 14.0 61.0 8.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 2.5 16.0 0.05 Al: 1.5; B: 0.1
Pyromet 9.5 61.0 15.0 3.0 — — 4.2 <0.3 0.03 Al: 3.5; B: 0.01; Zr:
860 <0.3 0.09 0.05
Refractory 19.0 48.0 19.0 4.0 — — 3.0 1.0 0.16 Al: 5.5; B: 0.015; Zr
26 17.0 50.0 — 3.0 3.0 6.5 1.0 max 0.16 0.06; V: 1.0
René 41 19.5 57.0 13.5 4.3 — — 3.0 Al: 3.0; B: 0.005
René 95 4.0 0.08 Al: 0.7; B: 0.004
René 100 max 0.04 Al: 1.4; B:0:006; Zr:
Udimet 500 18.0 0.07 009
2.0
Udimet 630 max
Waspaloy
Page 64
Table 4.18 Typical mechanical properties of selected cobalt-base and nickel-

base superalloys [2].
Type
Alloy
Product
Temperature
Tensile Strength
Yield Strength
Deg. C Deg. F
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
Cobalt-Base
Haynes 25 (L-605)
Solid-Solution
21 70 1010 146 460 67
540 1000 800 116 250 36
Sheet 650 1200 710 103 240 35
760 1400 455 66 260 38
870 1600 325 47 240 35
Cobalt-Base
Haynes 188
Solid-Solution
21 70 960 139 485 70
540 1000 740 107 305 44
Sheet 650 1200 710 103 305 44
760 1400 635 92 290 42
870 1600 420 61 260 38
Nickel-Base
Solid-Solution
Hastelloy X
21 70 785 114 360 52
540 1000 650 94 290 42
Sheet 650 1200 570 83 275 40
760 1400 435 63 260 38
870 1600 255 37 180 26
Nickel-Base
Inconel 601
Solid-Solution
21 70 740 107 340 49
540 1000 725 105 150 22
Sheet 650 1200 525 76 180 26
760 1400 290 42 200 29
870 1600 160 23 140 20
Nickel-Base
Inconel 718
Precipitation-Hardening
21 70 1280 185 1050 153
540 1000 1140 166 945 137
Sheet
650 1200 1030 150 870 126
760 1400 675 98 625 91
4.10 Classification of Steel Products

Steel can also be classified by the various product forms such as bar,
plate, sheet, strip, wire, tubing or structural shape. Flat rolled products
can be classified as follows:
Hot rolled plates

Pipe and tubular products
Hot rolled sheet and strip
Cold rolled sheet and strip
4.11 Hot Rolled Plates

Hot rolled plates are classified according to certain size limitations to
distinguish them from sheet and strip products. Steel plate is normally
used in the hot finished condition, but control of the final rolling
temperature can be used to improve both strength and toughness. Heat
treatment can also be utilized in some plate products to improve their
mechanical properties. Hot rolled plates are produced within the following
dimensional ranges [3,16]:
Page 65
Plate Width, in. Plate Plate Weight,

(mm) Thickness, in. lb/ft2
(mm) (kg/m2)
Over 8 to 48 incl 0.230 and 9392 and

(Over 200 to thicker heavier
1200 incl) (6.0 and (45.86 and
thicker) heavier)
Over 48 0.180 and 7350 and

(Over 1200) thicker heavier
(4.6 and (35.89 and
thicker) heavier)
Plates can be furnished in the following forms:
Rectangular plates that are produced from slabs or ingots by hot

rolling.
Circular and semicircular plates that are produced from
rectangular plates by shearing or cutting after hot rolling.
Sketch plates, including rings that are produced from rectangular
plates by shearing or cutting to specific shapes after hot rolling.
Quality descriptors – Quality descriptors are names that are applied to

various steel products to imply that these particular products possess
certain characteristics that make them suitable for specific applications or
fabrication processes. The quality descriptors for steel plate products are
as follows [16]:
Regular Quality
Structural Quality
Cold Flanging Quality
Forging Quality
Pressure Vessel Quality
Aircraft Quality
Regular Quality is a common designation for plates having only a
limitation of 0.33% maximum carbon by heat analysis. Plates of this
quality are not normally produced to mechanical property, cold bend or
ductility requirements.
Structural Quality plates are intended for general structural applications

such as bridges, buildings, heavy equipment, machined parts and other
end uses in the hot rolled or thermally treated conditions. Structural
quality steel plates are usually furnished to both chemical composition
limits and mechanical properties, but may be furnished to chemical
composition limits only.
Cold Flanging Quality plates are generally produced to higher strength

levels to provide for greater design stresses with moderate angle
bending. Cold flanging quality plates are ordinarily furnished with the
phosphorus content limited to 0.035% maximum and the sulfur content
limited to 0.040% maximum by heat analysis.
Forging Quality plates are intended for forging, quenching and tempering,
or when uniformity of composition and freedom from injurious
imperfections are important. Forging quality plates are ordinarily
furnished with the phosphorus content limited to 0.035% maximum and
the sulfur content limited to 0.040% maximum by heat analysis.
Pressure Vessel Quality plates are intended for application in pressure

vessels. Pressure vessel quality plates are ordinarily furnished with a
phosphorus content limited to 0.035% maxi-
Page 66
mum and sulfur content limited to 0.040% maximum by heat analysis.

Plates of this quality may also be supplied to ultrasonic testing
requirements.
Aircraft Quality plates (for parts subject to magnetic particle inspection)

are used for important or highly stressed parts of aircraft, missiles, and
other applications that demand stringent requirements. Aircraft quality
plates may be supplied in the hot rolled or thermally treated condition and
require a high degree of internal soundness, uniform chemical
composition, cleanliness and fine austenitic grain size.
Table 4.19 lists the quality descriptors for steel plate products along with
the category of steel associated with those qualities.
Table 4.19 Quality descriptors for steel plate products.

Quality Descriptor
Plate Product
Carbon Steel
High-Strength Ultrahigh-Strength Steel
Alloy Steel
Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steel
Regular Quality
•
Structural Quality
• • •
Cold Flanging Quality
• •
Forging Quality
• •
Pressure Vessel Quality
• • • •
Aircraft Quality
•
The following index lists the table numbers for the chemical compositions
and mechanical properties of carbon, alloy, HSLA, and ultrahigh-strength
steel plate products of structural and pressure vessel quality according to
ASTM specifications [3].
Plate Product
Table
Type
Quality Descriptor
Chemical Composition
Mechanical Properties
Carbon Steel
Structural Quality Table 4.20 Table 4.21
Pressure Vessel Quality Table 4.20 Table 4.21
Alloy Steel
High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steel

Ultrahigh-Strength Steel
Page 67
Table 4.20 Chemical compositions of carbon steel plate according to ASTM

specifications [3].
ASTM Material Grade or Chemical Composition Ranges and Limits, %

Spec. Type
C Mn P S Si Cu
Carbon Steel - Structural Quality
A36 — 0.29 0.80–1.20 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.30 0.20 min

A113 — (a) (a) 0.04 0.05 — (b)
— — 0.20 min
(b)
A 0.26 — 0.05 0.05 — —

A131 B (a) 0.80–1.10 0.04 0.04 0.35 —
D 0.21 0.60–1.40 0.04 0.04 0.10–0.35 —
E 0.21 (a) 0.04 0.04 0.10–0.35 —
CS, DS 0.18 0.70–1.50 0.04 0.04 0.10–0.35 —
0.16 1.00–1.35
A283 — — — 0.04 0.05 — 0.20 min

A284 A 0.24 0.90 0.04 0.05 0.10–0.30 (b)
B (a) 0.90 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.30 —
C 0.29 0.90 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.30 —
D (a) 0.90 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.30 —
0.36
(a)
0.35
(a)
A440 — 0.28 1.10–1.60 0.04 0.05 0.30 0.20 min

A529 — 0.27 1.20 0.04 0.05 — 0.20 min
A573 58 0.23 0.60–0.90 0.04 0.05 0.10–0.35 (b)
65 0.26 (c) 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.30 —
70 (c) 0.85–1.20 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.30 —
0.28 0.85–1.20 —
(c)
A678 A 0.16 0.90–1.50 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.50 0.20 min

B 0.20 0.70–1.60 0.04 0.05 0.15–0.50 (b)
C 0.22 (c) 0.04 0.05 0.20–0.50 0.20 min
A709 36 0.29 1.00–1.60 0.04 0.05 — (b)
0.80–1.20 0.20 min
(c) (b)
—
Carbon Steel – Pressure Vessel Quality
A285 A 0.17 0.90 0.0350.045 — —

B 0.22 0.90 0.0350.045 — —
C 0.28 0.90 0.0350.045 — —
A299 — 0.30 0.90–1.50 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —
(a) (a)
A442 55 0.24 0.60–1.10 0.0400.050 0.15–0.30 —

60 (a) (a) 0.0400.050 0.15–0.30 —
A455 I 0.27 0.60–1.10 0.0400.050 0.10 —
II (a) (a) 0.0400.050 0.15–0.30 —
0.33 0.85–1.20
0.28 0.85–1.20
A515 55 0.28 0.90 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —

60 (a) 0.90 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —
65 0.31 0.90 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —
70 (a) 0.90 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —
A516 55 0.33 0.60–1.20 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —
60 (a) (a) 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —
65 0.35 0.60–1.20 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —
70 (a) (a) 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —
0.26 0.85–1.25
(a) 0.85–1.25
0.27
(a)
0.29
(a)
0.31
(a)
A537 Class 1, 2 0.24 0.70–1.60 0.0350.040 0.15–0.50 0.25 max

A562 — 0.12 (a) 0.0400.050 0.15–0.50 0.15 min
A612 — (d) 1.20 0.0350.040 0.15–0.50 0.35 max
A662 A 0.27 1.00–1.50 0.0350.040 (a) —
B (a) (a) 0.0350.040 0.15–0.30 —
0.14 0.90–1.35 0.15–0.30
0.19 0.85–1.50
A724 A 0.18 1.00–1.60 0.0350.040 0.55 0.35 max

A738 — 0.24 1.60 (a) 0.0350.040 0.15–0.50 0.35 max
(a) Limiting values vary with plate thickness. (b) Applicable only if copper-
bearing steel is specified.
(c) Upper limit of Mn may be exceeded provided C + 1/6 Mn does not exceed
0.40% based on heat analysis.
(d) Also requires minimum of Ti 4 × C.
Page 68
Table 4.21 Mechanical properties of carbon steel plate according to ASTM

specifications [3].
ASTM Material Grade or Tensile Strength (a) Yield Strength (a)

Spec. Type
MPa ksi MPa ksi
Carbon Steel – Structural Quality
A36 — 400–550 58–80 220–250 32–36 (b)

A113 A 415–515 60–75 (b) (b) 33
B (b) 50–62 230 27
C 345–425 48–58 185 26
330–400 180
A, B, D, E, CS, DS 400–490 58–71 220 (b) 32 (b)

A131
A283 A 310–380 45–55 165 24

B 345–415 50–60 185 27
C 380–450 55–65 205 30
D 415–515 60–75 (b) 230 33
A284 A (b) 50 170 25
B 345 55 190 27
C 380 60 205 30
D 415 60 230 33
415
A440 — 435 (b) 63 (b) 290 (b) 42 (b)

A529 — 414–586 60–85 290 42
A573 58 400–490 58–71 220 32
65 450–530 65–77 240 35
70 480–620 70–90 290 42
A678 A 483–621 70–90 345 50

B 552–689 80–100 414 60
C 586–793 85–115 (b) 448 (b) 65 (b)
A709 36 (b) 58–80 (b) 220 (b) 32 (b)
400–550
(b)
Carbon Steel – Pressure Vessel Quality
A285 A 310–450 45–65 165 24

B 345–485 50–70 185 27
C 380–515 55–75 205 30
A299 — 515–655 75–95 275 (b) 40 (b)
A442 55 380–515 55–75 205 30

60 415–550 60–80 220 32
A455 I, II 485–620 70–90 (b) 240 (b) 35 (b)
(b)
A515 55 380–515 55–75 205 30

60 415–550 60–80 220 32
65 450–585 65–85 240 35
70 485–620 70–90 260 38
A516 55 380–515 55–75 205 30
60 415–550 60–80 220 32
65 450–585 65–85 240 35
70 485–620 70–90 260 38
A537 1 450–585 65–85 (b) 310 (b) 45 9b)

2 (b) 75–95 (b) 380 (b) 55 (b)
A562 — 515–655 55–75 205 30
A612 — (b) 81–101 345 50
A662 A 380–515 (b) 275 40
B 560–695 58–78 275 40
(b) 65–85
400–540
450–585
A724 A 620–760 90–110 485 70

A738 — 515–655 75–95 310 45
(a) Single values are shown as minimum values.
(b) Minimum and/or maximum values depend on plate thickness.
Page 69
Table 4.22 Chemical compositions of alloy steel plate for structural quality
according to ASTM specifications [3].
Material Chemical Composition Ranges and Limits, %

ASTM
Grade or
Spec. C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo Cu Others
Type
Alloy Steel – Structural Quality
A 0.15– 0.80– 0.0350.0400.40–0.50– — 0.18– — Zr:

A514 B 0.21 1.10 0.0350.040 0.80 0.80 — 0.28 — 0.05–
0.12– 0.70– 0.20–0.40– 0.15– 0.15; B:
0.21 1.10 0.35 0.65 0.25 0.0025
C 0.0350.040 — — V:
D 0.0350.040 — 0.20– 0.03–
0.10– 1.10– 0.15– — 0.20– 0.40 0.08;
E 0.20 1.50 0.0350.040 0.30 0.85– — 0.30 Ti:
0.13– 0.40– 0.20– 1.20 0.15–0.20– 0.01–
F 0.20 0.70 0.0350.040 0.35 0.70– 0.25 0.40 0.03;
1.40– 1.10 B:
G 0.12– 0.40– 0.0350.0400.20– 2.00 0.40–0.15– 0.0005–
H 0.20 0.70 0.0350.040 0.35 — 0.60 0.50 0.005
0.60– 0.40–0.30– B:
J 0.10– 1.00 0.0350.0400.15– 0.65 0.70 0.40– — 0.001–
K 0.20 0.0350.040 0.35 0.60 — 0.005
L 0.80– 0.0350.040 0.50– — Ti:
0.15– 1.10 0.50– 0.90 — 0.40– — 0.004–
M 0.21 0.95– 0.0350.040 0.90 0.40– — 0.60 — 0.10 (a);
N 0.12– 1.30 0.0350.0400.20– 0.65 0.20–0.20– B:
0.21 0.35 1.20– 0.30 0.40 0.0015–
P 0.0350.040 — 1.50 0.005
0.12– 0.45– 0.20– — — 0.50– — Ti:
0.21 0.70 0.35 1.15– 0.65 — 0.04–
0.10– 1.10– 0.15– 1.65 1.20–0.45– 0.10 (a);
0.20 1.50 0.30 1.50 0.55 — B:
0.13– 0.40– 0.20– — 0.25– 0.0015–
0.20 0.70 0.35 0.50– 0.40 0.005
0.80 V:
0.12– 0.45– 0.20– 0.45– 0.03–
0.21 0.70 0.35 0.85– 0.60 0.08;
0.15– 0.80– 0.40– 1.20 0.25 B:
0.21 1.10 0.90 0.0005–
0.45– 0.006
0.12– 0.45– 0.20– 0.60 Zr:
0.21 0.70 0.35 0.05–
0.15; B:
0.0025
V:
0.03–
0.08;
B:
0.0005–
0.005
B:
0.001–
0.005
B:
0.001–
0.005
Ti:
0.04–
0.10 (a);
B:
0.0015–
0.005
B:
0.001–
0.005
Zr:
0.05–
0.15;
B:
0.005–
0.0025
B:
0.001–
0.005
A699 — 0.06 1.20– 0.0400.025 0.35 — — 0.25– — Nb:

A709 100, 100W 0.10– 2.20 0.0350.040 — — — 0.35 — 0.03–
A710 A 0.21 (b) 0.0250.025 0.35 0.60–0.70– — 1.00– 0.09
B 0.07 0.40– 0.0250.0250.20– 0.90 1.00 0.15– 1.30 —
0.06 1.50 0.35 — 1.20– 0.25 1.00– Nb:
0.40– 1.50 — 1.30 0.02
0.70 min
0.40– Nb:
0.65 0.02
min
(a) Vanadium may be substituted for part of or all of titanium content on a one
for one basis.
(b) Limiting values vary with plate thickness.
Table 4.23 Mechanical properties of alloy steel plate for

structural quality according to ASTM specifications [3].
Tensile Strength Yield

ASTM Material Grade (a) Strength (a)
Spec. or Type
MPa ksi MPa ksi
Alloy Steel – Structural Quality
A514 All 690–895 100–130 620 90 (b)

A699 1 (b) (b) (b) 70
2 620–760 90–110 485 75
3 620–760 90–110 515 70
4 585–725 85–105 485 75
585–725 85–105 515
A709 100,100W 700–915100–130 635 90 (b)

A710 A (class 1) 585 (b) 85 (b) (b) 75 (b)
A (class 2) 485 (b) 70 (b) 515 60 (b)
A (class 3) 485 (b) 70 (b) (b) 60 (b)
B 605 (b) 88 (b) 415 75 (b)
(b)
415
(b)
515
(b)

(b) Minimum and/or maximum values depend on plate
thickness.
Page 70
Table 4.24 Chemical compositions of alloy steel plate for pressure vessel quality

ASTM
Grade or
Type
Alloy Steel – Pressure Vessel Quality
A202 A 0.17 1.05–0.0350.0400.60–0.35– — — — —

B 0.25 1.40 0.0350.040 0.90 0.60 — — — —
A203 A 0.23 1.05–0.0350.0400.60–0.35–2.10– — — —
B (a) 1.40 0.0350.040 0.90 0.60 2.50 — — —
D 0.25 0.80 0.0350.0400.15– — 2.10– — — —
E (a) (a) 0.0350.040 0.30 — 2.50 — — —
A204 A 0.20 0.80 0.0350.0400.15– — 3.25– 0.45– — —
B (a) (a) 0.0350.040 0.30 — 3.75 0.60 — —
C 0.23 0.80 0.0350.0400.15– — 3.25– 0.45– — —
A225 A (a) (a) 0.0350.040 0.30 — 3.75 0.60 — V: 0.09–
B 0.25 0.80 0.0350.0400.15– — — 0.45– — 0.14
C (a) (a) 0.0350.040 0.30 — — 0.60 — V: 0.09–
0.27 0.90 0.15– — — — 0.14
(a) 0.90 0.30 — — — V: 0.13–
0.28 0.90 0.15– — — 0.18
(a) 1.45 0.30 0.40–
0.18 1.45 0.15– 0.70
0.20 1.60 0.30
0.25 0.15–
0.30
0.15–
0.30
0.15–
0.30
A302 A 0.25 0.95–0.0350.0400.15– — — 0.45– — —

B (a) 1.30 0.0350.040 0.30 — — 0.60 — —
C 0.25 1.15–0.0350.0400.15– — 0.40– 0.45– — —
D (a) 1.50 0.0350.040 0.30 — 0.70 0.60 — —
A353 — 0.25 1.15–0.0350.0400.15– — 0.70– 0.45– — —
A387 2 (a) 1.50 0.0350.040 0.30 0.50– 1.00 0.60 — —
5 0.25 1.15–0.0400.0300.15– 0.80 8.50– 0.45– — —
7 (a) 1.50 0.0300.030 0.30 4.00– 9.50 0.60 — —
9 0.13 0.90 0.0300.0300.15– 6.00 3.25– — — —
11 0.21 0.55–0.0350.040 0.30 6.00– 3.75 0.45– — —
12 0.15 0.80 0.0350.0400.15– 8.00 — 0.60 — —
21 0.15 0.30–0.0350.035 0.30 8.00– — 0.45– — —
22 0.15 0.60 0.0350.035 0.50 10.00 — 0.65 — —
0.17 0.30– 1.00 1.00– — 0.45–
0.17 0.60 1.00 1.50 — 0.65
0.15 0.30– 0.50–0.80– — 0.90–
0.15 0.60 0.80 1.15 — 1.10
0.40– 0.15–2.75– 0.45–
0.65 0.30 3.25 0.65
0.40– 0.50 2.00– 0.45–
0.65 0.50 2.50 0.60
0.30– 0.90–
0.60 1.10
0.30– 0.90–
0.60 1.10
A 0.15– 0.80–0.0350.0400.40–0.50– — 0.18– — B: 0.0025

A517 B 0.21 1.10 0.0350.040 0.80 0.80 — 0.28 — B:
C 0.12– 0.70–0.0350.0400.20–0.40– — 0.15– — 0.0005–
D 0.21 1.00 0.0350.040 0.35 0.65 — 0.25 — 0.005
E 0.10– 1.10–0.0350.0400.15– — — 0.20–.30 — B: 0.001–
F 0.20 1.50 0.0350.040 0.30 0.85–0.70– 0.15– — 0.005
G 0.13– 0.40–0.0350.0400.20– 1.20 1.10 0.25 — B:
H 0.20 0.70 0.0350.040 0.35 1.40– — 0.40– — 0.0015–
J 0.12– 0.40–0.0350.0400.20– 2.00 0.30– 0.60 — 0.005
K 0.20 0.70 0.0350.040 0.35 0.40– 0.70 0.40– — B:
L 0.10– 0.60–0.0350.0400.15– 0.65 — 0.60 — 0.0015–
M 0.20 1.00 0.0350.040 0.35 0.50– — 0.40– — 0.005
P 0.15– 0.80–0.0350.0400.50– 0.90 — 0.60 — B:
0.21 1.10 0.90 0.40–1.20– 0.20– 0.0005–
0.12– 0.95– 0.20– 0.65 1.50 0.30 0.006
0.21 1.30 0.35 — 1.20– 0.50– B: 0.0025
0.12– 0.45– 0.20– — 1.50 0.65 B: 0.0005
0.21 0.70 0.35 1.15– 0.45– B: 0.001–
0.10– 1.10– 0.15– 1.65 0.55 0.005
0.20 1.50 0.30 — 0.25– B: 0.001–
0.13– 0.40– 0.20–0.85– 0.40 0.005
0.20 0.70 0.35 1.20 0.45– B:0.0015–
0.12– 0.45– 0.20– 0.60 0.005
0.21 0.70 0.35 0.45– B: 0.001–
0.12– 0.45– 0.20– 0.60 0.005
0.21 0.70 0.35 B: 0.001–
0.005
A533 A 0.25 1.15–0.0350.0400.15– — — 0.45– — —

B 0.25 1.50 0.0350.040 0.30 — 0.40– 0.60 — —
C 0.25 1.15–0.0350.0400.15– — 0.70 0.45– — —
D 0.25 1.50 0.0350.040 0.30 — 0.70– 0.60 — —
A542 — 0.17 1.15–0.0350.0350.15–2.00– 1.00 0.45– — —
A543 A (a) 1.50 0.0350.040 0.30 2.50 0.20– 0.60 — V: 0.03
B 0.23 1.15–0.0200.0200.15–1.50– 0.40 0.45– — V: 0.03
A553 I 0.23 1.50 0.0350.040 0.30 2.00 — 0.60 — —
II 0.13 0.30–0.0350.040 0.50 1.50–2.60– 0.90– — —
0.13 0.60 0.20– 2.00 4.00 1.10
0.40 0.35 — (a) 0.45–
0.40 0.20– — 2.60– 0.60
0.90 0.35 4.00 0.45–
0.90 0.15– (a) 0.60
0.30 8.50– —
0.15– 9.50 —
0.30 7.50–
8.50
A645 — 0.13 0.30–0.0250.0250.20– — 4.75– 0.20– — Al: 0.02–

0.60 0.35 5.25 0.35 0.12;
A658 — 0.10 0.0250.025 0.05 — N: 0.020
A734 A 0.12 0.50 0.0350.015 0.35 0.90–35.5– 0.50 Co: 0.50
A735 — 0.06 0.45–0.0400.025 0.35 1.20 36.5 0.25– 0.20– Al: 0.06
A736 — 0.07 0.75 0.0250.025 0.35 — 0.90– 0.40 0.35 Nb: 0.03–
1.20– 0.35 0.60– 1.20 0.23– 1.00– 0.09
2.20 0.90 — 0.47 1.30 Nb: 0.02
(a) 0.70– 0.15– min
0.40– 1.00 0.25
0.70
(a) Limiting values vary with plate thickness.

Page 71
Table 4.25 Mechanical properties of alloy steel plate for pressure vessel quality
ASTM Spec.
Material Grade or Type Tensile Strength (a) Yield Strength (a)
MPa
ksi
MPa
ksi
Alloy Steel – Pressure Vessel Quality
A202 A 515–655 75–95 310 45

B 585–760 85–110 325 47
A204 A 450–585 65–85 255 37
B 485–620 70–90 275 40
C 515–655 75–95 295 43
A225 A 485–620 70–90 275 40
B 515–655 75–95 295 43
C 725–930 105–135 485 70
A302 A 515–655 75–95 310 45

B 550–690 80–100 345 50
C, D 550–690 80–100 345 50
A353 — 690–825 100–120 515 75
A387 2,12 (class 1) 380–550 55–80 230 33
11 (class 1) 415–585 60–85 240 35
22, 21, 5, 7, and 9 (class 1) 415–585 60–85 205 30
2 (class 2) 485–620 70–90 310 45
11 (class 2) 515–690 75–100 310 45
12 (class 2) — — — —
22, 21, 5, 7, and 9 (class 2) 515–690 75–100 310 45
A517 All 795–930 115–135 690 100

A533 1 550–690 80–100 345 50
2 620–795 90–115 485 70
3 690–860 100–125 570 82.5
A542 1 725–860 105–125 585 85
2 795–930 115–135 690 100
3 655–795 95–115 515 75
4 585–725 85–105 415 60
A543 1 725–860 105–125 585 85
2 795–930 115–135 690 100
3 620–795 90–115 485 70
A553 I,II 690–825 100–120 585 85
A645 — 655–795 95–115 450 65
A658 — 448–552 65–80 241 35
A734 A 530–670 77–97 450 65
A735 1(b) 550–690 80–100 450 65
2 (c) 585–720 85–105 485 70
3 620–750 90–110 515 75
4 655–790 95–115 550 80
A736 1 495–635 72–92 450 65
2 585–725 85–105 515 75

(b) As-rolled class 1 plate is limited to 25 mm (1 in.) maximum thickness.
(c) As-rolled and aged class 2 plate is limited to 25 mm (1 in.) maximum
thickness.
Page 72
Table 4.26 Chemical compositions of high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel

plate according to ASTM specifications [3].

ASTM
Grade or
Type
HSLA Steel – Structural Quality
AH32 0.18 0.90–0.0400.0400.10– 0.25 0.40 0.08 0.35 Al: 0.65

A131 DH32 0.18 1.60 0.0400.040 0.50 0.25 0.40 0.08 0.35 (a) (b)
EH32 0.18 0.90–0.0400.0400.10– 0.25 0.40 0.08 0.35 Al: 0.65
AH36 0.18 1.60 0.0400.040 0.50 0.25 0.40 0.08 0.35 (a) (b)
DH36 0.18 0.90–0.0400.0400.10– 0.25 0.40 0.08 0.35 Al: 0.65
EH36 0.18 1.60 0.0400.040 0.50 0.25 0.40 0.08 0.35 (a) (b)
0.90– 0.10– Al: 0.65
1.60 0.50 (a)
0.90– 0.10– Al: 0.65
1.60 0.50 (a)
0.90– 0.10– Al: 0.65
1.60 0.50 (a)
A242 1 0.15 1.00 0.1500.050 — — — — 0.20 —

2 0.20 1.35 0.0400.050 — — — — min —
A441 — 0.22 0.85–0.0400.050 0.30 — — — 0.20 V: 0.02
1.25 min min
0.20
min
42 0.21 1.35 0.0400.050 0.30 — — — — V: 0.01–

A572 (c) 0.15(d);
45 0.22 1.35 0.0400.050 — — — — Nb:
0.30 0.005–
50 0.23 1.35 0.0400.050 (c) — — — — 0.05 (e);
N: 0.015
55 0.25 1.35 0.0400.050 0.30 — — — — (f)
(c) V: 0.01–
60 0.26 1.35 0.0400.050 — — — — 0.15 (d);
0.30 Nb:
65 0.26 1.65 0.0400.050 — — — — 0.005–
0.30 0.05 (e);
N: 0.015
0.30 (f)
V: 0.01–
0.15 (d);
Nb:
0.005–
0.05 (e);
N: 0.015
(f)
V: 0.01–
0.15 (d);
Nb:
0.005–
0.05 (e);
N: 0.015
(f)
V: 0.01–
0.15 (d);
Nb:
0.005–
0.05 (e);
N: 0.015
(f)
V: 0.01–
0.15 (d);
Nb:
0.005–
0.05 (e);
N: 0.015
(f)
A 0.10–0.90–0.0400.0500.15–0.40– — — 0.25– V: 0.02–

A588 B 0.19 1.25 0.0400.050 0.30 0.65 0.25– — 0.40 0.10
C 0.20 0.75–0.0400.0500.15–0.40– 0.50 — 0.20– V: 0.01–
D 0.15 1.25 0.0400.050 0.30 0.70 0.25– — 0.40 0.10
E 0.10–0.80–0.0400.0500.15–0.30– 0.50 0.10–0.20– V: 0.01–
F 0.20 1.35 0.0400.050 0.30 0.50 — 0.25 0.50 0.10
G 0.15 0.75–0.0400.0500.50–0.50–0.75–0.10– 0.30 Nb: 0.04;
H 0.10– 1.25 0.0350.040 0.90 0.90 1.25 0.20 0.50– Zr: 0.05–
0.20 1.20 0.15– — 0.40– 0.10 0.80 0.15
J 0.20 0.50–0.0400.050 0.30 0.30 1.10 0.15 0.30– V: 0.05
0.20 1.00 0.30 0.50– 0.80 1.00 V: 0.01–
1.20 0.25– 1.00 0.30– — 0.30– 0.10
0.20 1.25 0.70 0.10– 0.60 0.50 Ti: 0.07
0.25– 0.25 0.20– V: 0.02–
0.60– 0.75 0.50– 0.35 0.10;
1.00 — 0.70 Ti: 0.005–
0.30– 0.30 0.030
0.50 min Ti: 0.03–
0.05
A 0.18 1.00–0.0400.050 — — — — — Nb: 0.05

A633 B 0.18 1.35 0.0400.050 — — — — — V: 0.10
C 0.20 1.00–0.0400.050 — — — — — Nb: 0.01–
D 0.20 1.35 0.0400.050 — 0.25 0.25 0.08 0.35 0.05
E 0.22 1.15–0.0400.050 — — — — — —
1.50 V: 0.04–
0.70– 0.11;
1.60 N: 0.01–
1.15– 0.03 (g)
1.50
A656 1 0.18 1.60 0.0400.050 0.60 — — — — V: 0.05–

0.15; Al:
2 0.15 0.90 0.0400.050 0.10 — — — — 0.020
A709 50 0.23 1.35 0.0400.0500.15– — — — — min;
50W 0.20 (c) 0.0400.050 0.30 — — — — N: 0.005–
(h) 1.35 — 0.030
Ti: 0.05–
0.50; Al:
0.01 min
—
—
HSLA Steel – Pressure Vessel Quality
A734 B 0.17 1.60 0.0350.015 0.35 0.25 — — 0.35 V: 0.11;

A737 A 0.20 1.00–0.0350.0300.15– — — — (j) Al: 0.06;
B 0.20 1.35 0.0350.030 0.50 — — — — N: 0.030
C 0.22 1.15–0.0350.0300.15– — — — — (k)
1.50 0.50 — V: 0.10
1.15– 0.15– Nb: 0.05
1.50 0.50 V: 0.04–
0.11; N:
0.03 (k)
(a) Total Al; acid soluble Al = 0.060% max. (b) Al may be either partly or totally
replaced by V (0.10% max) or Nb (0.05% max). (c) Limiting values vary with
plate thickness.
(d) V = 0.02 to 0.15% plus Nb (0.05% max). (e) Nb, when added either singly or
in combination with V, is restricted to plate up to 13 mm (0.5 in.) thick.
(f) N is reported when added as a supplement to V, and the minimum ratio of V
to n is 4 to 1. (g) 0.01 to 0.05% Nb may also be present.
(h) For normalized steel, max C = 0.22% and max Mn = 1.40%. (j) Applicable
only when copper-bearing steel is specified. (k) 0.05% max Nb may be present.
Page 73
Table 4.27 Mechanical properties of HSLA steel plate

Tensile Yield
ASTM Material Grade Strength (a) Strength (a)
Spec. or Type
MPa ksi MPa ksi
HSLA Steel – Structural Quality
AH32, DH32, 470-585 65-85 315 45.5

A131 EH32 490-620 71-90 350 51
AH36, DH36,
EH36
A242 — 435 (b) 63 (b) 290 42 (b)

A441 — 415 (b) 60 (b) (b) 40 (b)
275
(b)
A572 42 415 60 290 42

45 415 60 310 45
50 450 65 345 50
55 485 70 380 55
60 520 75 415 60
65 550 80 450 65
A588 All 435 (b) 63 (b) 290 42 (b)
(b)
A633 A, B 430-570 63-83 290 42

C, D 450-590 65-85 315 46 (b)
E (b) (b) (b) 55 (b)
A656 All 520-660 75-95 380 80
(b) (b) (b)
655-793 95-115 552
50 450 65 345 50
A709 50W 485 70 345 50
HSLA Steel – Pressure Vessel Quality
A734 B 530-760 77-97 450 65

A737 A, B 485-620 70-90 345 50
C 550-690 80- 415 60
100
(a) Single values are shown as minimum values. (b)

Minimum and/or maximum values depend on plate
thickness.
Table 4.28 Chemical compositions of ultrahigh-strength steel plate according to

ASTM specifications [3].

ASTM
Grade or
Spec. C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo Co Others
Type
Ultrahigh-Strength Steel – Pressure Vessel Quality
A 0.03 0.10 0.0100.0100.10 — 17.0– 4.0– 7.0– Ti: 0.10–

A538 B 0.03 0.10 0.0100.0100.10 — 19.0 4.5 8.5 0.25; Al:
C 0.03 0.10 0.0100.0100.10 — 17.0– 4.6– 7.0– 0.05–0.15
19.0 5.1 8.5 Ti: 0.30–
18.0– 4.6– 8.0– 0.50; Al:
19.0 5.2 9.5 0.05–0.15
Ti: 0.55–
0.80; Al:
0.05–0.15
A590 — 0.03 0.10 0.0100.0100.104.50–11.50–2.75– — Ti: 0.20–

A605 — 0.16–0.20–0.0100.0100.10 5.50 12.50 3.25 4.25– 0.35; Al:
0.23 0.40 0.65– 8.50– 0.90– 5.00 0.40
0.85 9.50 1.10 V: 0.06–
0.12
Table 4.29 Mechanical properties of ultrahigh-strength
steel plate according to ASTM specifications [3].
Tensile Yield Strength

ASTM Material Grade Strength (a) (a)
Spec. or Type
MPa ksi MPa ksi
Ultrahigh-Strength Steel – Pressure Vessel Quality
A 1450 210 1380– 200–

A538 B 1650 240 1620 235
C 1930 280 1580– 230–
1790 260
1900– 275–
2100 305
A590 — 1300 188 1240– 180–

A605 — 1310– 190– 1450 210
1520 220 1170(b) 170
(b)
(a) Single values are shown as minimum values. (b)

Minimum and/or maximum values depend on plate
thickness.
Page 74
4.12 Pipe and Tubular Products

Steel tubular products can be generally classified into the two broad
classifications of tubes or pipes. Although the use of the terms pipe and
tube is not always consistent, the term pipe is commonly used to
describe cylindrical tubular products made to standard combinations of
outside diameter and wall thickness. Pipe is also distinguished from
tubing by the fact that it is produced in relatively few sizes and, therefore,
in comparatively large quantities. Pipes can be divided into the following
named use groups [3]:
Standard pipe
Special pipe
Line pipe
Oil country tubular goods
Water well pipe
Pressure pipe
Tubes can also be divided into the following named use groups:
Pressure tubes
Structural tubing
Mechanical tubing
Steel pipe and tubular products are manufactured by either a welding or

seamless process. In the welding process, tubular products are made by
forming a flat skelp, sheet, strip, or plate into a hollow cylinder and then
welding the resulting longitudinal seam together. The seamless process
involves piercing an opening in a solid cylinder or billet and then
elongating the resultant hollow cylinder.
Table 4.30 shows the chemical compositions of selected carbon and alloy
steel pipes according to American Petroleum Institute (API)
specifications, while Table 4.31 provides the mechanical properties.
4.13 Hot Rolled Sheet and Strip

Hot rolled sheet is manufactured by hot rolling slabs in a continuous or
reversing mill to the required thickness and can be supplied in coils or cut
lengths as specified. Hot rolled strip is manufactured by hot rolling billets
or slabs to the required thickness and may be produced single width or
by rolling multiple width and slitting to the desired width. Strip can also be
supplied in coils or cut lengths as specified [4,17-20].
Hot rolled carbon, high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) and alloy steel sheet
can be classified by dimension as shown in Table 4.32, while Table 4.33
shows the dimensional classification for hot rolled carbon, HSLA and
alloy steel strip. Emphasis will be given to sheet products in regards to
type and quality since sheet incorporates both narrow and wide products,
while strip entails narrow products only.
Page 75
Table 4.30 Chemical compositions of carbon and alloy steel pipes according to
API specifications [3].
API Manufacturing Material Chemical Composition Ranges and Limits,

Spec. Process Grade %
C Mn P S Si Others
Carbon Steel Pipe
2B Arc Welded — (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) —

5A Welded (b) or (c) — — 0.040 0.060 — —
5AX Seamless (c) — — 0.040 0.060 — —
Seamless
Electric Welded A25, Class 0.21 0.30– 0.045 0.060 — —

5L (d) I (c) 0.21 0.60 0.045– 0.060 — —
A25, Class 0.21 0.30– 0.080 0.050 — —
II (c) 0.26 0.60 0.040 0.050 — —
A (c) 0.21 0.90 0.040 0.060 — —
Furnace Butt B (c) 0.21 1.15 0.045 0.060 — —
Welded A25, Class 0.21 0.30– 0.045– 0.050 — —
I (c) 0.26 0.60 0.080 0.050 — —
Submerged Arc A25, Class 0.21 0.30– 0.040 0.060 — —
Welded II (c) 0.21 0.60 0.040 0.060 — —
A (c) 0.22 0.90 0.045 0.050 — —
Seamless B (c) 0.27 1.15 0.045– 0.050 — —
A25, Class 0.30– 0.080
I(c) 0.60 0.040
A25, Class 0.30– 0.040
II (c) 0.60
A (c) 0.90
B (c) 1.15
Spiral Welded (e) A (c) 0.21 0.90 0.040 0.050 — —

5LS B (c) 0.26 1.15 0.040 0.050 — —
X42 (c) 0.28 1.25 0.040 0.050 — —
X46, X52 0.30 1.35 0.040 0.050 — —
(c)
5LU Welded or (c) 0.26 1.40 0.040 0.0500.35 —

5LX Seamless X42 (c) 0.28 1.25 0.040 0.050 — —
Welded (f) X46, X52 0.28 1.25 0.040 0.050 — —
Welded, Cold (c) 0.30 1.35 0.040 0.050 — —
5LX Expanded X46, X52 0.29 1.25 0.040 0.050 — —
Welded, (c) 0.29 1.25 0.040 0.050 — —
Nonexpanded X42 (c) 0.31 1.35 0.040 0.050 — —
Seamless (f) X46, X52
Seamless, Cold (c)
Expanded X46, X52
Seamless, (c)
Nonexpanded
Alloy Steel Pipe
Spiral Welded (e) X56, X60 0.26 1.35 0.040 0.050 — Nb: 0.005
5LS (c) min;
0.26 1.40 0.040 0.050 — V: 0.02 min;
X65 (c) Ti: 0.03 min
0.23 1.60 0.040 0.050 — Nb: 0.005
X70 (c) min;
V: 0.02 min
—
Welded (f) X56, X60 0.26 1.35 0.040 0.050 — Nb: 0.005
5LX (c) min;
0.26 1.40 0.040 0.050 — V: 0.02 min;
X65 (c) Ti: 0.03 min
0.23 1.60 0.040 0.050 — Nb: 0.005
Seamless (f) X70 (c) 0.26 1.35 0.040 0.050 — min;
X56, X60 V: 0.02 min
(c) (g) (g) (g) (g) (g) —
Nb: 0.005
min;
X65, X70 V: 0.02 min;
(c) Ti: 0.03 min
(g)
(a) Specified by purchaser. (b) Electric resistance. (c) Open hearth, electric
furnace, or basic oxygen. (d) Electric resistance, electric flash, or electric
induction. (e) Submerged arc or electric resistance. (f) Cold expanded or
nonexpanded. (g) By agreement.
Page 76
Table 4.31 Mechanical properties of carbon and alloy steel pipes according to
API specifications [3].
Tensile Yield
Manufacturing Material Strength (a) Strength (a)
API Spec.
Process Grade/Class
MPa ksi MPa ksi
Carbon and Alloy Steel Pipe
2B Arc Welded — (b) (b) (b) (b)

5A (Casing or Welded (c) or H–40 414 60 276 40
Tubing) Seamless J–55 517 75 379 55
N–80 689 100 552 80
5A (Casing) Welded (c) or K–55 655 95 379 55

5A (Drill Pipe) Seamless D 655 95 379 55
Welded (c) or E 689 100 517 75
Seamless
5AC Seamless C–75 655 95 517 75

5AC Welded (d) or L–80 655 95 552 80
Seamless C–95 724 105 655 95
5AX (Casing) Seamless P–110 862 125 758 110

5AX (Tubing) Seamless P–105 827 120 724 105
5AX (Drill Pipe) Seamless X–95 724 105 655 95
G–105 793 115 724 105
S–135 1000 145 931 135
5L Welded (e) or A25 310 45 172 25

5L Seamless A 331 48 207 30
Welded (f) or B 414 60 241 35
Seamless
Welded or A 331 48 207 30

5LS, 5LX Seamless B 414 60 241 35
X42 414 60 290 42
X46 434 63 317 46
X52 (g) 455 66 359 52
X52 (h) 496 72 359 52
X56 (g) 490 71 386 56
X56 (h) 517 75 386 56
X60 (g) 517 75 414 60
X60 (h) 538 (j) 78 (j) 414 60
X65 (g) 531 77 448 65
X65 (h) 552 80 448 65
X70 565 82 483 70
Welded or X80 655 95 552 80

5LU Seamless X100 758 110 689 100
(a) Single values are shown as minimum values. (b) Specified by purchaser. (c)
Electric resistance. (d) Electric resistance or electric flash. (e) Furnace butt,
electric resistance, electric flash, or electric induction. (f) Submerged arc,
electric resistance, electric flash, or electric induction. (g) For pipe less than 20
in. OD with any wall thickness and for pipe 20 in. OD and larger with wall
thickness greater than 0.375 in. (h) For pipe 20 in. OD and larger with wall
thickness 0.375 in. and less. (j) Minimum tensile strength for electric resistance
welded pipe is 517 MPa (75 ksi).
Page 77
Table 4.32 Dimensional classification for hot rolled carbon, HSLA, and alloy
steel sheet [4, 18-19].
Coils and Cut Lengths Coils Only

Steel
Composition Width, in. Thickness, in. Width, in. Thickness, in.
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
12 to 48, incl 0.044 to 0.230, 12 to 48, incl 0.230 to

(Over 300 to excl (Over 300 to 0.500, incl
1200, incl) (1.2 to 6.0 1200, incl) (6.0 to 12.7
excl) incl)
Carbon
Over 48 0.044 to 0.180, Over 48 0.180 to
(Over 1200) excl (Over 1200) 0.500, incl
(1.2 to 4.5 (4.5 to 12.7
excl) incl)
12 to 48, incl 0.044 to 0.230, 12 to 48, incl 0.230 to

(Over 300 to excl (Over 300 to 0.500, incl
1200, incl) (1.2 to 6.0 1200, incl) (6.0 to 12.7
excl) incl)
HSLA Over 48 0.044 to 0.180, Over 48 0.180 to
(Over 1200) excl (Over 1200) 0.500, incl
(1.2 to 4.5 (4.5 to 12.7
excl) incl)
24 to 48, incl Up to 0.230, — —

(610 to 1200, excl
incl)
Alloy
Over 48 Up to 0.180, — —
(Over 1200) excl
Table 4.33 Dimensional classification for hot rolled carbon, HSLA, and alloy
steel strip [17-18,20].
Coils and Cut Lengths Coils Only
Steel
Composition Width, in. Thickness, in. Width, in. Thickness, in.
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Up to 3.5 incl 0.044 to 0.203, Up to 6 incl 0.203 to 0.500

(Up to 100, incl) incl (Up to 200, incl) incl
(1.2 to 5.0 incl) (5.0 to 12.7
incl)
Over 3.5 to 6 incl 0.044 to 0.203, Over 6 to 12 incl 0.230 to 0.750

Carbon (Over 100 to 200 incl (Over 200 to 300 (5.8 to 19.0
incl) (1.2 to 5.0 incl) incl) incl)
Over 6 to 12 incl 0.044 to 0.230, — —

(Over 200 to 300 excl
incl) (1.2 to 6.0
excl)
Up to 6 incl 0.054 to 0.203 Up to 6 incl 0.054 to 0.230

(Up to 200, incl) incl (Up to 200, incl) excl
(1.8 to 5.0 incl) (1.8 to 6.0
excl)
HSLA Over 6 to 12 incl 0.054 to 0.230 Over 6 to 12 incl 0.054 to 0.230
(Over 200 to 300 incl (Over 200 to 300 excl
incl) (1.8 to 6.0 incl) incl) (1.8 to 6.0
excl)
Alloy Up to 23.94 incl Up to 0.2299 — —

(Up to 608 incl) (Up to 5.8)
4.14 Hot Rolled Carbon Sheet Steel

Hot rolled carbon sheet steel is manufactured to required thickness and
has a surface with an oxide or scale resulting from the hot rolling
operation. When required, hot rolled sheet steel is pickled to remove the
oxide and is furnished either oiled or dry. The types of hot rolled sheet
steel can be classified as follows [19]:
Hot rolled sheet
Hot rolled bands
Page 78
Hot rolled breakdowns

Hot rolled skelp
Hot rolled sheet is produced as coils and cut lengths for various
applications. Edges can be trimmed or untrimmed as specified and there
may be additional processing after hot rolling such as rewinding, pickling
and oiling. The ends of the coils are cut back to conform to the
appropriate thickness and width tolerances.
Hot rolled bands are produced as mill edge coils for various applications
but without the additional processing after hot rolling. The ends of the
coils are not cut back to conform to the established thickness and width
tolerances.
Hot rolled breakdowns are produced exclusively as coils for rerolling by

cold reduction which alters the characteristics of the rolled product.
Additional processing after hot rolling may also be required for specific
requirements.
Hot rolled skelp is produced exclusively as coils for hot or cold forming
into tubular products. Additional processing after hot rolling may also be
required for specific requirements.
Quality descriptors for hot rolled carbon sheet steel – Hot rolled carbon
sheet steel is produced in the following four principal qualities [19]:
Commercial Quality (CQ)

Drawing Quality (DQ)
Drawing Quality Special Killed (DQSK)
Structural Quality (SQ)
Hot Rolled Commercial Quality sheet is ordinarily produced from rimmed,

capped or semi-killed steel and is intended for parts where bending,
moderate forming or drawing, and welding may be involved. Commercial
quality sheet is suitable for many applications where the presence of
oxide and surface imperfections are of secondary importance. Therefore,
this quality is not recommended for exposed parts where surface finish is
a prime requirement. Hot rolled commercial quality sheet steel up to
0.15% maximum carbon can be specified to ASTM A569 [21], while hot
rolled commercial quality sheet steel over 0.15% to 0.25% maximum
carbon can be specified to ASTM A659 [22].
Hot Rolled Drawing Quality sheet is manufactured from specially

produced or selected steels and specifically processed to have good
uniform drawing properties. These steels are used in fabricating identified
parts that have severe deformations and are too difficult for the
fabricating properties of commercial quality sheet. Hot rolled drawing
quality sheet steel up to 0.10% maximum carbon can be specified to
ASTM A621 [23].
Hot Rolled Drawing Quality Special Killed sheet is manufactured from

specially produced or selected killed steels (normally aluminum) and
specifically processed to have good uniform drawing properties. These
steels are used in fabricating identified parts that have extremely severe
deformations that are too difficult for the fabricating properties of drawing
quality sheet. Hot rolled drawing quality special killed sheet steel is
normally supplied as a low carbon aluminum killed steel and can be
specified to ASTM A622 [24].
Page 79
Hot Rolled Structural Quality sheet is intended for structural purposes

where mechanical test values are required. The mechanical property
characteristics of structural quality are influenced mainly by chemical
composition, thickness, and variables in mill design and/or operating
practice. Hot rolled structural quality sheet steel can be specified to
ASTM A570 [25].
4.15 High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Sheet Steel

High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) sheet steel is comprised of a group of
steels in which higher strength, and in some cases additional resistance
to atmospheric corrosion or improved formability are obtained by
moderate amounts of one or more alloying elements. HSLA sheet steel is
produced with an emphasis on mechanical properties in the as-rolled
condition which are obtained through selected chemical composition and
controlled mill processing. These steels are often used in applications
where weight reduction and added durability are of major importance
[4,19].
High-strength low-alloy sheet steel is not available in the four qualities

that are commonly used for carbon sheet steel, but are available in the
following types [19]:
Conventional Type
Improved Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance Type
Improved Formability Type
Conventional Type HSLA columbium and/or vanadium hot rolled sheet is

ordinarily produced from capped or semi-killed steel and is intended for
applications where greater strength and savings in weight are important.
This type is produced to various strength levels where atmospheric
corrosion resistance and maximum formability are not required. This
material is available in two classes: Class 1 and Class 2. Both classes
are similar in strength level except that Class 2 offers improved
weldability and more formability than Class 1. Conventional type HSLA
sheet steel can be specified to ASTM A607 [26].
Improved Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance Type HSLA hot rolled sheet
is intended for use in structural and miscellaneous purposes where
savings in weight or added durability are important. These steels have
enhanced atmospheric corrosion resistance and are supplied in two
types: Type 2 and Type 4. Type 2 contains 0.20% minimum copper and
has a corrosion resistance of at least two times that of plain carbon steel.
Type 4 is produced with a variety of alloying elements to achieve a
corrosion resistance of at least four times that of plain carbon steel.
Improved atmospheric corrosion resistance type HSLA sheet steel can be
Improved Formability Type HSLA hot rolled sheet is produced from killed
steel, made to fine grain practice and includes microalloying elements
such as columbium, titanium, vanadium, zirconium, etc. This steel may
also be treated to achieve inclusion control. This type of HSLA sheet
steel is produced with special forming properties to various strength
levels where maximum formability is required. This product is intended
for structural and miscellaneous applications where higher strength,
savings in weight, and improved formability and weldability are important.
Improved formability type HSLA sheet steel can be specified to ASTM
A715 [28].
Page 80
4.16 Alloy Sheet Steel

Alloy sheet steel is comprised of a group of steels that have different
chemical compositions, forming characteristics and strength levels from
those present in carbon sheet steel. When compared to HSLA sheet
steel, alloy sheet steel normally has a higher alloy content. Alloy sheet
steel is often heat treated after part fabrication to develop the desired
final physical properties [18-19].
Quality descriptors for alloy sheet steel – Alloy sheet steel is produced in
the following qualities [19]:
Regular Quality
Drawing Quality
Structural Quality
Aircraft Quality
Aircraft Structural Quality
Bearing Quality
Saw Quality
Regular Quality alloy sheet steel is furnished to chemical composition

requirements and intended for general or miscellaneous applications
where bending and moderate forming is required. Regular quality alloy
sheet is not produced to internal cleanliness requirements and normal
surface imperfections are not objectionable. A good finish is not the prime
requirement for this quality. Regular quality alloy sheet steel can be
Drawing Quality alloy sheet steel is intended primarily for applications

involving severe cold plastic deformation such as deep drawn or severely
formed parts. This quality is produced by a closely controlled steelmaking
process designed to assure internal soundness, relative uniformity of
chemical composition, and freedom from injurious surface imperfections.
Spheroidized annealing is generally required to obtain optimum forming
characteristics for this quality. Drawing quality alloy sheet steel can be
Structural Quality alloy sheet steel is furnished to chemical composition
requirements and meets the requirements of regular quality alloy sheet
steel. This quality is also produced to specific mechanical property
requirements that may include tension, hardness, bending, or other
commonly accepted mechanical tests. Structural quality alloy sheet steel
can be specified to ASTM A506 [5].
Aircraft Quality alloy sheet steel is intended for highly stressed parts of
aircraft, missiles, and similar applications that involve stringent
performance requirements. Internal soundness, uniformity of chemical
composition, cleanliness, austenitic fine grain size (5 or finer) and good
surface are primary requirements of this quality. Aircraft quality is
normally furnished in the annealed, spheroidize annealed or normalized
condition.
Aircraft Structural Quality alloy sheet steel meets all of the stringent
requirements of aircraft quality plus additional specific requirements for
mechanical properties. These properties may include tensile strength,
yield strength, elongation, bend test or any similar test results that may
be specified or required.
Bearing Quality alloy sheet steel is generally produced to chemical

ranges which are designed for case hardening and intended for anti-
friction bearing components. These steels are produced using special
steelmaking and conditioning practices that are intended to ensure
internal soundness
Page 81
and provide a known size, shape and distribution of nonmetallic

inclusions. Bearing quality alloy sheet steel is often subject to various
tests and acceptance limits in the intermediate or final stages of
processing.
Saw Quality alloy sheet steel is intended for applications involving the
fabrication of metal-cutting band saw blades. Internal cleanliness,
soundness, and good surface and weldability are the primary
requirements of this quality. Dimensional control is often an additional
primary requirement. Saw quality alloy sheet steel is produced under
closely controlled steelmaking practices and special tests for grain size,
microstructure, graphitization, decarburization and nonmetallic inclusions
are generally made.
4.17 Cold Rolled Sheet and Strip

Cold rolled sheet and strip is manufactured from hot rolled coils from a
hot strip mill. Before being sent for cold reduction, the hot rolled coils are
cleaned or pickled in a bath of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid to remove the
surface oxide (scale) that formed during hot rolling. After pickling, the coil
is cold reduced without reheating to the desired thickness on a single or
multiple-stand rolling mill. The amount of cold reduction may vary from 25
to 80% of the original hot rolled thickness.
After cold reduction, the product possesses high hardness and low
ductility and usually requires a thermal treatment such as annealing,
normalizing, quenching or tempering before further processing on a
temper or skin pass mill. The final cold rolled sheet or strip product can
be supplied in either coils or cut lengths and is characterized by improved
surface quality and greater uniformity of thickness and mechanical
properties when compared to hot rolled products. The dimensional
classification for cold rolled carbon, high-strength low-alloy, and alloy
steel sheet and strip is shown in Table 4.34. As with hot rolled products,
cold rolled sheet will be emphasized.
Table 4.34 Dimensional classification for cold rolled carbon, HSLA, and alloy
steel sheet and strip [4,18-19,30].
Sheet Strip
Steel
Width, in. Thickness, Width, in. (mm) Thickness,
Composition
(mm) in. in.
(mm) (mm)
2 to 12, inc 0.014 to

(50 to 300, 0.082, incl
incl) (0.35 to 2.0 Up to
(incl) Over 0.5 to 23.94, incl (Over 0.250, excl
Carbon
Over 12 0.014 and 12.5 to 600 incl.) (Up to 6.0,
(Over 300) over incl)
(0.35 and
over)
2 to 12, incl 0.019 to

(50 to 300, 0.082, incl
incl) (0.5 to 2.0 Up to
incl) Over 0.5 to 23.94, incl (Over 0.250, excl
HSLA Over 12 0.020` and
12.5 to 600 incl.) (Up to 6.0,
(Over 300) Over incl)
(0.5 and
over)
24 to 48, Up to 0.230,
incl excl
(610 to Up to
1200 incl) Up to 23.94, incl 0.250, excl
Alloy
(Up to 600, incl) (Up to
Over 48 Up to 0.180, 6.35, excl)
(Over excl
1200)
Page 82
4.18 Cold Rolled Carbon Sheet Steel

Cold rolled carbon sheet steel (0.25% C max) is manufactured from hot
rolled descaled (pickled) coils by cold reducing to the desired thickness
and then generally followed by annealing to recrystallize the grain
structure. The annealed cold rolled sheet can be used as annealed last
(dead soft) for unexposed end-use applications. If the sheet is not
annealed after cold reduction, it is know as full hard with a hardness of 84
HRB minimum and can be used for certain applications where ductility
and flatness are not required.
Cold rolled carbon sheet steel can be supplied in coils and cut lengths
and is available in the following two classes:
Exposed applications (Class 1)

Unexposed applications (Class 2)
Exposed applications (Class 1) – Cold rolled carbon sheet steel for

exposed applications is intended for applications where surface
appearance is of primary importance and will meet the requirements for
controlled surface texture, surface quality, and flatness. Cold rolled sheet
of this class is normally temper rolled to provide the required surface
texture and be free of stretcher strain and fluting. Subsequent user roller
levelling immediately before fabrication will minimize strain resulting from
aging.
Unexposed applications (Class 2) – Cold rolled carbon sheet steel for

unexposed applications is intended for applications where surface
appearance is not of primary importance and may be specified and
furnished annealed last or temper rolled. Annealed last is normally
produced without temper rolling, but may be lightly temper rolled during
oiling or rewinding. Unexposed temper rolled material may be specified
strain-free or nonfluting. When ordered as annealed last, the product will
have coil breaks and a tendency toward fluting and stretcher straining.
Unexposed cold rolled sheet may contain more surface imperfections
than exposed cold rolled sheet because steel applications, processing
procedures, and inspection standards are less stringent.
Quality descriptors for cold rolled carbon sheet steel – Cold rolled carbon
sheet steel is produced in the following four principal qualities [19]:

Cold Rolled Commercial Quality sheet is ordinarily produced from a low

carbon grade of rimmed, capped or semi-killed steel and is intended for
exposed or unexposed parts where bending, moderate drawing, forming,
and welding may be involved. Commercial quality sheet is suitable for
exposed parts that require a good surface finish as well as fabricating an
identified part. For unexposed applications, this quality sheet is specified
either temper rolled or annealed last. Commercial quality sheet may be
used for moderate deformation, but does not have a high level of ductility
or high degree of uniformity of chemical composition and mechanical
properties. Cold rolled commercial quality sheet steel up to 0.15%
maximum carbon can be specified to ASTM
Page 83
A366 [31], while cold rolled commercial quality sheet steel over 0.15% to
0.25% maximum carbon can be specified to ASTM A794 [32].
Cold Rolled Drawing Quality sheet is manufactured from specially

produced or selected steels and specifically processed to have good
uniform drawing properties. Drawing quality is not commonly specified to
chemical composition and is generally furnished for use in fabricating an
identified part that is too difficult for the fabricating properties of cold
rolled commercial quality. This quality is supplied for either exposed or
unexposed applications and used where drawing or severe forming may
be involved. For unexposed applications, drawing quality sheet is
specified either temper rolled or annealed last. Cold rolled drawing quality
sheet steel up to 0.10% maximum carbon can be specified to ASTM
A619 [33].
Cold Rolled Drawing Quality Special Killed sheet is manufactured from

specially produced or selected killed steels (normally aluminum killed)
and specifically processed to have good uniform drawing properties.
These steels are intended for fabricating identified parts where extremely
severe drawing or forming may be involved or essential freedom from
aging is required. Drawing quality special killed steel is required when
drawing quality steel will not provide a sufficient degree of ductility for the
fabrication of parts that have stringent drawing requirements. Cold rolled
drawing quality special killed sheet steel can be specified to ASTM A620
[34].
Cold Rolled Structural Quality sheet is produced to tensile property

values as specified or required and includes five strength levels that are
designated as follows:
Grade A with a yield point of 25 ksi (170 MPa) minimum

Grade B with a yield point of 30 ksi (205 MPa) minimum
Grade C Types 1 and 2 with a yield point of 33 ksi (230 MPa)
minimum
Grade D Types 1 and 2 with a yield point of 40 ksi (275 MPa)
minimum
Grade E with a yield point of 80 ksi (550 MPa) minimum
Grades A, B, C, and D have moderate ductility whereas Grade E is a full-

hard product with no specified minimum elongation. Cold rolled structural
quality sheet steel can be specified to ASTM A611 [35].
4.19 Hardness and Surface Finish of Cold Rolled Sheet Steel

Hardness can be defined as the resistance of a material to deformation,
particularly permanent deformation, indentation, or scratching. Since
there is no absolute scale for hardness, each type of hardness test has
its own scale of arbitrarily defined hardness. The primary method used
for determining hardness of sheet steel is the Rockwell hardness test.
The hardness of cold rolled sheet steel is customarily classified as
follows [19]:
Commercial Quality Cold Rolled

Quarter Hard Temper
Half Hard Temper
Full Hard Temper
Page 84
Commercial Quality Cold Rolled is customarily of low carbon content with

a hardness of Rockwell B-60 maximum at the time of shipment.
Quarter Hard Temper is within a Rockwell hardness range of B-60

minimum to approximately B-75 maximum at the time of shipment.
Half Hard Temper is within a Rockwell hardness range of B-70 minimum

to approximately B-85 maximum at the time of shipment.
Full Hard Temper is produced to a Rockwell hardness minimum of B-84.
If cold rolled sheet is specified to a hardness range, it is necessary to

employ restricted chemical composition limits, special mill processing
practices, or both because hardness is directly related to these factors.
Surface finish refers to the degree of smoothness or luster of the surface

as distinct from surface imperfections and requires a special preparation
and control of the roll surfaces employed. Cold rolled sheet can be
supplied in the following finishes [4]:
Matte Finish
Commercial Bright Finish
Luster Finish
Matte Finish is a dull finish, without luster, produced by rolling on rolls

that have been roughened by mechanical or chemical means to various
degrees of surface texture depending on the application. With some
surface preparation, matte finish is suitable for decorative painting, but is
not generally recommended for bright plating.
Commercial Bright Finish is a relatively bright finish having a surface

texture intermediate between that of matte and luster finish. With some
surface preparation, commercial bright finish is suitable for decorative
painting or certain plating applications. If the sheet is deformed in
fabrication, the surface may roughen to some degree and the areas so
affected will require surface preparation to restore the surface texture to
the undeformed areas.
Luster Finish is a smooth bright finish that is produced by rolling on
ground rolls and is suitable for decorative painting or plating with
additional special surface preparation. The luster may not be retained
after fabrication; therefore, the formed parts will require surface
preparation to make them suitable for bright plating.
4.20 Carbon Sheet Steel for Electrical Applications

Carbon sheet steels are widely used for electrical and magnetic
applications and can be furnished as one of the following types [19]:
Cold Rolled Lamination Steel, Type 1

Cold Rolled Lamination Steel, Type 2
Cold Rolled Lamination Steel, Type 2S
Hot Rolled Sheet Steel
Cold Rolled Lamination Steel, Type 1 is ordinarily furnished to a

controlled chemical composition, usually carbon, manganese and
phosphorus and is provided in the full-hard or
Page 85
annealed condition. The annealed product usually receives a light temper

pass to enhance flatness and punchability. Stamped laminations may
also be annealed depending on the application to achieve better
magnetic properties. Magnetic properties are not normally guaranteed by
the steel producer. Type 1 is best suited for applications that have the
least demanding magnetic properties.
Cold Rolled Lamination Steel, Type 2 is a specialty product available in

the annealed condition and having magnetic properties that are superior
to Type 1. These improved magnetic properties are attained by specific
mill processing and controlled chemical composition, usually carbon,
manganese and phosphorus. In the final stage of mill processing, special
emphasis may be placed on obtaining high extensions during temper
rolling. To obtain optimum magnetic properties, annealing is necessary to
adequately decarburize and promote grain growth.
Cold Rolled Lamination Steel, Type 2S should be specified when

maximum core-loss limits are required.
Hot Rolled Sheet Steel is often produced as commercial quality and used
primarily for d-c applications. The magnetic characteristics of this type
vary greatly throughout coils and cut lengths because of the inherent
variations in normal mill processing of a hot rolled product.
4.21 Sheet Steel for Porcelain Enameling

Sheet steel for porcelain enameling is provided in coils and cut lengths
where the chemical composition and mill processing of these steels are
adapted so that articles may be fabricated and, under proper conditions,
enameled. These steels can be furnished as the following types [36]:
Type I
Type II
Type III
Type 1 Sheet Steel for Porcelain Enameling has an extremely low carbon
level and is suitable for direct cover coat enameling practice when
specified by the purchaser. Type I is also suitable for ground and cover
coat enameling practice and has good sag resistance and formability.
Type II Sheet Steel for Porcelain Enameling has moderately low carbon
and manganese levels as produced in the melting operation and is
suitable for applications where ground and cover coat enameling
operations are employed. The chemical composition of Type II can be
varied to provide either maximum sag resistance or good formability.
Type III Sheet Steel for Porcelain Enameling is an interstitial-free steel

whose chemical composition is obtained in melting operations and is
suitable for applications where ground and cover coat enameling
operations are employed. Type III also has good sag resistance and
excellent formability.
Quality descriptors for sheet steel for porcelain enameling – Type I and
Type II are supplied in the following three qualities:

Page 86
Sheet steel for porcelain enameling of these qualities can be specified to

ASTM A 424 [36]. Type III steel is interstitial-free and does not require a
quality descriptor.
Commercial Quality is intended for parts where bending, moderate

forming, or moderate drawing may be involved.
Drawing Quality is intended for fabricating identified parts where drawing

or severe forming may be involved.
Drawing Quality Special Killed is intended for fabricating identified parts

where the draw is particularly severe or where the material shall be
essentially free of changes in mechanical properties over a period of
time. Drawing Quality Special Killed should be specified where the
formed material shall be essentially free of surface disturbances such as
stretcher strains or fluting without the need of prior roller leveling.
4.22 Coated Sheet Steel

Steel sheet is frequently coated in coil form before fabrication for
improvements in corrosion resistance, heat resistance, or product
appearance. The basic types of coatings that are used are metallic,
conversion, preprimed, and coil coated (prepainted) finishing. Metallic
coatings utilize zinc, aluminum, tin, and terne metal while conversion
coatings are completed with phosphates. Preprimed finishes are done
with zinc chromate and zinc-rich coatings, while coil coated finishes use
organic coatings or laminates that are applied to the steel sheet [3,19].
4.23 Hot Dipped Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Sheet Steel

Hot dipped zinc-coated (galvanized) sheet steel is produced by passing a
coil of cold reduced or hot rolled pickled steel through a pot of molten
zinc. The amount of coating that remains on the sheet is controlled as the
sheet leaves the pot and is then cooled and sent on to further processing
equipment. The zinc coating can be furnished in the following types [19]:
Regular Spangle
Alloyed Coatings
Differentially Coated
One Side Coated
Minimized Spangle Galvanized
Extra Smooth or Temper Rolled
Regular Spangle is the traditional hot dipped galvanized coating with a

finish appearance that is characterized by the unrestricted growth of zinc
crystals during solidification.
Alloyed Coatings are coatings on galvanized sheet steel that can be

altered by heat treatment or other processes immediately after coating
and before the zinc solidifies. These coatings consist entirely of iron-zinc
alloy and have a rougher appearance than the surface of regular coating.
Products that are produced in this manner are dull grey in color with no
spangle and are well suited for painting after proper preparation.
Differentially Coated is a galvanized sheet steel that has a specified

coating designation on
Page 87
one surface and a significantly lighter specified coating designation on

the other surface.
One Side Coated is a galvanized sheet steel that has a specified coating
designation on one surface for corrosion protection and normally a
spangled appearance. The other surface is free of coating and suitable
for painting.
Minimized Spangle Galvanized is a galvanized sheet steel that has been

treated immediately after coating and before the zinc solidifies to
suppress the normal spangle formation. This coating produces a dull
surface appearance with a very little trace of spangle.
Extra Smooth or Temper Rolled is provided when a higher than normal

degree of smoothness is required for as-coated galvanized or to minimize
fluting or stretcher straining. Various coatings and coating practices can
be used, but this extra smooth product is always temper rolled.
Quality descriptors for hot dipped galvanized sheet steel – Hot dipped
galvanized sheet steel is produced in the following principal qualities [19]:

Lock Forming Quality (LFQ)
High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA)
Galvanized Commercial Quality is ordinarily produced from rimmed,

capped, or semikilled steel and is generally furnished for use in
fabricating an identified part. This quality may be used for moderate
deformations, but the base metal does not have a high degree of
uniformity of chemical composition and mechanical properties.
Galvanized commercial quality sheet steel can be specified to ASTM A
526 [37].
Galvanized Drawing Quality is produced from specially processed steel
that has good, uniform drawing properties. This quality is not commonly
specified to chemical composition and is used in fabricating parts that
have severe deformations or are too difficult for the fabricating properties
of galvanized commercial quality. Galvanized drawing quality sheet steel
can be specified to ASTM A 528 [38].
Galvanized Drawing Quality Special Killed is generally a low carbon

aluminum killed steel, although other deoxidizers can be used to obtain
the proper characteristics. This quality is not commonly specified to
chemical composition and is used in fabricating an identified part where
draw or formation is particularly severe or changes in mechanical
properties do not occur. Galvanized drawing quality special killed sheet
steel can be specified to ASTM A 642 [39].
Galvanized Structural Quality is produced when mechanical properties

are specified or required other than that indicated by the base metal bend
test of commercial quality. Normally, the formability of structural quality
sheet steel decreases with increasing yield strength and/or hardness.
Galvanized structural quality sheet steel can be specified to ASTM A 446
[40].
Galvanized Lock Forming Quality is specified when galvanized sheet

steel is to be subjected to machine lock forming. Lock forming machines
impose requirements on both the base metal and coating which are in
excess of the formability requirements of commercial quality. Galvanized
lock forming quality sheet steel can be specified to ASTM A 527 [41].
Page 88
Galvanized High Strength Low Alloy is specified when higher strength

and better formability than galvanized structural quality is required.
Galvanized high strength low alloy sheet steel can be specified to ASTM
A 816 [42].
4.24 Hot Dipped Zinc 5% Aluminum Alloy Metallic-Coated Sheet

Steel
Hot dipped zinc 5% aluminum (Zn-5% Al) alloy metallic-coated sheet
steel is produced in a manner that is similar to continuously annealed
galvanized sheet. Cold reduced coils are passed through a pot of molten
alloy that contains 5% aluminum and 95% zinc. Small amounts of
additional elements are also contained in the coating to improve
processing and the product characteristics. These additional elements
result in the production of the following types of coatings [19]:
Type 1 contains mischmetal (0.04% cerium and 0.04% lanthanum

rare earths)
Type 2 contains 0.1% magnesium.
Regular Coating Structure is the normal coating structure resulting from

unrestricted grain growth during normal solidification of the Zn-5% Al
alloy coatings.
Minimized Coating Structure has a finer metallurgical coating structure

that is obtained by restricting the formation of the normal coarse-grained
structure during solidification. This finer structure can be obtained during
coating solidification by Heurtey processing, applying a diammonium
phosphate water spray, or adding small amounts of zirconium or titanium
to the bath.
Differentially Coated Zn-5% Al alloy metallic-coated sheet has a specified

coating designation on one surface and a significantly lighter specified
coating designation on the other surface.

degree of smoothness is required for as-coated Zn-5% Al alloy metallic-
coated sheet or to minimize fluting or stretcher straining.
Quality descriptors for Zn-5% Al alloy metallic-coated sheet – Zn-5% Al

alloy metallic-coated sheet can be specified according to ASTM A 875
[43] and is produced in the following principal qualities:

Zn-5% Al Alloy Commercial Quality is generally furnished for use in

fabricating an identified part requiring a moderate amount of deformation.
The Zn-5% Al alloy coating should withstand bending without flaking.
Zn-5% Al Alloy Drawing Quality is used in fabricating an identified part

that is too difficult for the fabricating properties of commercial quality.
Zn-5% Al Alloy Drawing Quality Special Killed is used in fabricating an

identified part where draw or formation is particularly severe, changes in
mechanical properties do not occur, and the formed material is free of
surface disturbances.
Page 89
Zn-5% Al Alloy Structural Quality is produced when mechanical

properties are specified or required other than that indicated by the base
metal bend test of commercial quality.
Zn-5% Al Alloy Lock Forming Quality is specified when the sheet steel is
to be subjected to machine lock forming.
4.25 Hot Dipped Aluminum Coated Sheet Steel

Hot dipped aluminum coated sheet steel is produced in coils and cut
lengths and available in the following types [19]:
Type 1
Type 2
Type 1 is hot dipped coated with an aluminum-silicon alloy that contains 5

to 11% silicon for better adherence. Type 1 is intended mainly for heat-
resisting applications along with uses where corrosion and heat are
involved.
Type 2 is hot dipped coated with commercially pure aluminum and is

intended for applications that require corrosion resistance.
Quality descriptors for hot dipped aluminum coated sheet – Hot dipped
aluminum coated sheet can be specified according to ASTM A 463 [44]
and is produced in the following principal qualities:

Type 1 is available in all four qualities, while Type 2 is generally available

only as Commercial Quality and Structural Quality.
Aluminum Coated Commercial Quality is ordinarily produced from

rimmed, capped, or semikilled steel and is generally furnished for use in
deformations, but the base metal does not have a high degree of
uniformity of chemical composition and mechanical properties. The
aluminum coating process requires higher coating temperatures with
rapid cooling, which results in a product with higher hardness and lower
ductility than other types of coated sheets.
Aluminum Coated Drawing Quality is normally produced from specially

processed steel. This quality is not commonly specified to chemical
composition and is used in fabricating an identified part that is too difficult
for the fabricating properties of commercial quality.
Aluminum Coated Drawing Quality Special Killed is generally furnished

as a low carbon aluminum killed steel. This quality is used in fabricating
an identified part that is too difficult for the fabricating properties of
aluminum coated commercial quality or when more uniform and stable
mechanical properties are required than can be obtained in commercial
or drawing quality.
Aluminum Coated Structural Quality is produced when mechanical

properties are specified or required other than that indicated by the base
metal bend test of commercial quality. Normally,
Page 90
the formability of structural quality sheet steel decreases with increasing

yield strength and/or hardness.
4.26 Hot Dipped Aluminum-Zinc Alloy-Coated Sheet Steel

Hot dipped aluminum-zinc alloy-coated sheet steel is produced in a
manner that is similar to continuously annealed galvanized sheet. Cold
reduced coils are passed through a pot of molten alloy that contains 55%
aluminum, 43.3% zinc, and 1.6% silicon. The coated sheet is then cooled
at a prescribed minimum cooling rate to enhance corrosion resistance.
This product is produced with the following types of coatings [19]:
Regular Spangle
Extra Smooth or Temper Rolled
Regular Spangle is the surface finish that results from the normal pattern
of accelerated solidification of the aluminum-zinc coating. A fine spangle
size is produced by applying upleg air cooling to the molten coating.

degree of smoothness is required or to minimize fluting or stretcher
straining. Some loss in ductility can be associated with temper rolling.
Quality descriptors for hot dipped aluminum-zinc alloy-coated sheet – Hot

dipped aluminum-zinc (Al-Zn) alloy-coated sheet can be specified
according to ASTM A 792 [45] and is produced in the following principal
qualities:

High Temperature Quality (HTQ)
Al-Zn Alloy Commercial Quality is generally furnished for use in

fabricating an identified part requiring a moderate amount of deformation.
The Al-Zn alloy coating should withstand bending without flaking.
Al-Zn Alloy Drawing Quality is used in fabricating an identified part that is
too difficult for the fabricating properties of commercial quality.
Al-Zn Alloy Structural Quality is produced when mechanical properties

test of commercial quality.
Al-Zn Alloy Lock Forming Quality is specified when the sheet steel is to
be subjected to machine lock forming.
Al-Zn Alloy High Temperature Quality is specified for applications that are
subjected to elevated temperatures, such as certain appliances and
automotive exhaust components. High temperature quality will resist
oxidation and scaling while avoiding base metal embrittlement.
Page 91
4.27 Terne Coated Sheet Steel

Terne coated sheet steel is produced by immersing the product in molten
terne metal, which is an alloy of lead and a small percentage of tin. The
percentage of tin is determined by what amount is sufficient to produce a
smooth continuous commercial coating. Terne coated sheet can be
specified according to ASTM A 308 [46] and is produced in the following
principal qualities [19]:

Terne Coated Commercial Quality is ordinarily produced from rimmed,

capped, or semi-killed steel and is generally furnished for use in
deformations, but the base metal does not have a high level of ductility or
a high degree of uniformity of chemical composition and mechanical
properties. Commercial quality can be temper rolled after coating to
improve the smoothness of the surface and control the temper.
Terne Coated Drawing Quality is normally produced from specially

processed steel. This quality is not commonly specified to chemical
composition and is used in fabricating an identified part that is too difficult
for the fabricating properties of commercial quality. Drawing quality can
be temper rolled after coating to improve the smoothness of the surface
and control the temper.
Terne Coated Drawing Quality Special Killed is used in fabricating an

identified part where particularly severe drawing or forming is involved.
This quality is also used when the product requires no change in
properties over extended storage time or when maximum homogeneity of
chemistry or mechanical properties is desired.
Terne Coated Structural Quality is produced when mechanical properties

test of commercial quality. Normally, the formability of structural quality
sheet steel decreases with increasing yield strength and/or hardness.
4.28 Electrolytic Zinc Coated Sheet Steel

Electrolytic zinc coated, cold rolled sheet steel is a product that has a
relatively thin coating of zinc applied to one or both sides by electrolytic
deposition. The electrolytic zinc coating has a uniform dull grey matte
appearance and is usually oiled prior to shipment. This product is not
recommended for outdoor service due to light coating weights, but should
be chemically treated or painted. Cold rolled electrolytic zinc coated
sheet steel can be specified according to ASTM A 591 [47] and is
available in the following qualities [19]:

Structural (Physical) Quality (SQ)
Page 92
Electrolytic zinc coated sheet can also be specified to ASTM A 879 [48]
which covers both hot and cold rolled zinc coated products. This
specification provides specific rules for ordering one and two-sided
coating weights as well as for base metal mechanical testing. When
ordered to ASTM A 879, electrolytic zinc coated sheet is available in the
following qualities [19]:

High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA)
4.29 Electrolytic Tin Coated Sheet Steel

Electrolytic tin coated sheet steel is a product that is coated with tin by
electrolytic deposition. This product is normally produced with unmelted
coating that is applied to a base metal that has either a dull or smooth
surface texture. Electrolytic tin coated sheet steel can be specified
according to ASTM A 599 [49] and is available in the following qualities
with base metal characteristics that are similar to cold rolled sheet [19]:

4.30 Coil Coated Sheet Steel

Coil coated sheet steel (formerly known as prepainted) is produced by a
continuous process of applying organic coatings or laminates to various
steel substrates. Organic film laminating, metal laminating, wood
graining, printing, and embossing can be combined with various textures
to produce a decorative finish and enhance a product’s appearance.
Other prepaints and laminates have been developed to improve
corrosion resistance and welding characteristics. Selection of the proper
base metal is influenced by the appropriate application such as indoor or
outdoor exposure. The qualities that are available for the appropriate
base metal product are also available in coil coated sheet steel [19].
References
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Park, Ohio, 1981.
3. Metals Handbook, Ninth Edition, Vol. 1, Properties and Selection: Irons

and Steels, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1978.
Page 93
4. ASTM A 568/A 568M - 93, Standard Specification for Steel Sheet,

Carbon, and High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Hot-Rolled and Cold-Rolled,
General Requirements for, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol.
01.03, pp. 222-239.
5. ASTM A 506 - 93, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet and Strip,
Alloy, Hot-Rolled and Cold-Rolled, Regular Quality and Structural Quality,
1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 197-200.
6. Roberts, G.A. and Cary, R.A., Tool Steels, Fourth Edition, American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1980.
7. Steel Products Manual: Tool Steels, Iron and Steel Society,

Warrendale, Pa., April 1988.
8. Lula, R.A., Stainless Steel, American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio, 1980.
9. Steel Products Manual: Stainless and Heat Resisting Steels, Iron and
Steel Society, Warrendale, Pa., Nov. 1990.
10. ASTM A 666 - 93, Standard Specification for Austenitic Steel Sheet,
Strip, Plate, and Flat Bar, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol.
01.03, pp. 279-284.
11. ASTM A 240 - 93b, Standard Specification for Heat-Resisting

Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
for Pressure Vessels, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03,
pp. 38-43.
12. ASTM A 167 - 93, Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-
Resisting Chromium-Nickel Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip, 1994 Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 12-14.
13. ASTM A 176 - 93a, Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-
Resisting Chromium Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip, 1994 Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 15-17.
14. ASTM A 693 - 93, Standard Specification for Precipitation-Hardening
Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip, 1994 Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 302-307.
15. Steel Products Manual: Electrical Steels, Iron and Steel Society,
Warrendale, Pa., Jan. 1983.
16. Steel Products Manual: Plates, Iron and Steel Society, Warrendale,
Pa., May 1991.
17. ASTM A 749/A 749M - 93, Standard Specification for Steel Strip,
Carbon, and High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Hot-Rolled, General
Requirements for, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp.
314-320.
Alloy, Hot-Rolled and Cold-Rolled, General Requirements for, 1994
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 188-196.
19. Steel Products Manual: Sheet Steel, Iron and Steel Society,
Warrendale, Pa., Jan. 1988.
20. Steel Products Manual: Strip Steel, Iron and Steel Society,
Warrendale, Pa., Aug. 1988.
21. ASTM A 569/A 569M - 91a, Standard Specification for Steel, Carbon
(0.15 Maximum, Percent), Hot-Rolled Sheet and Strip, Commercial
Quality, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 240-241.
22. ASTM A 659/A 659M - 92, Standard Specification for Steel, Carbon
(0.16 Maximum to 0.25 Maximum, Percent), Hot-Rolled Sheet and Strip,
Commercial Quality, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03,
pp. 276-278.
23. ASTM A 621/A 621M - 92, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet
and Strip, Carbon, Hot Rolled, Drawing Quality, 1994 Annual Book of
Page 94
and Strip, Carbon, Drawing Quality, Special Killed, Hot Rolled, 1994
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 267-268.
and Strip, Carbon, Hot Rolled, Structural Quality, 1994 Annual Book of
26. ASTM A 607 - 92a, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet and Strip,
High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Columbium or Vanadium, or Both, Hot-Rolled
and Cold Rolled, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp.
255-258.
27. ASTM A 606 - 91a, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet and Strip,
High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Hot-Rolled and Cold Rolled, with Improved
Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 252-254.
28. ASTM A 715 - 92a, Standard Specification for Steel Sheet and Strip,
High-Strength, Low-Alloy, Hot-Rolled, and Steel Sheet, Cold Rolled,
High-Strength, Low-Alloy, with Improved Formability, 1994 Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 311-313.
Alloy, Hot Rolled and Cold Rolled, Drawing Quality, 1994 Annual Book of
30. ASTM A 109 - 93, Standard Specification for Steel, Strip, Carbon,
Cold Rolled, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 1-5.
31. ASTM A 366/A 366M - 91, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet,
Carbon, Cold Rolled, Commercial Quality, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM
32. ASTM A 794 - 91, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet, (Carbon
0.16% Maximum to 0.25% Maximum), Cold Rolled, Commercial Quality,
1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 355-356.
Carbon, Cold Rolled, Drawing Quality, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM
Carbon, Drawing Quality, Special Killed, Cold Rolled, 1994 Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, pp. 263-264.
35. ASTM A 611 - 92, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet, Carbon,
Cold Rolled, Structural Quality, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
Vol. 01.03, pp. 259-260.
36. ASTM A 424 - 92, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet, for
Porcelain Enameling, 1994 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03,
pp. 163-164.
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot-Dip Process, Commercial Quality,
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.06.
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot-Dip Process, Drawing Quality,
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot-Dip Process, Drawing Quality,
Special Killed, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.06.
Page 95
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot-Dip Process, Structural (Physical)
Quality, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.06.
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot-Dip Process, Lock-Forming Quality,
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot-Dip Process, High-Strength, Low
Alloy, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.06.
Zinc-5% Aluminum Alloy Metallic-Coated by the Hot-Dip Process, Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.06.
44. ASTM A 463 - 88, Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Cold
Rolled, Aluminum-Coated, Type 1 and Type 2, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Vol. 01.06.
45. ASTM A 792 - 89, Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Aluminum-
Zinc Alloy-Coated by the Hot Dip Process, General Requirements,
46. ASTM A 308 - 88, Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet, Cold-
Rolled, Long Terne Coated, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.06.
Electrolytic Zinc-Coated, for Light Coating Mass Applications, Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.06.
48. ASTM A 879 - 87, Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-
Coated by the Electrolytic Process for Applications Requiring Designation
of the Coating Mass on Each Surface, Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
Vol. 01.06.
49. ASTM A 599 - 84, Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Cold-
Rolled, Tin-Coated by Electrodeposition, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Vol. 01.06.
Page 96
Chapter 5
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL PRODUCTS
5.1 Main Types of Stress

When a body is subjected to external forces, internal reactive forces
between the particles within the body are produced. These internal
reactive forces are in equilibrium with the external forces. The internal
force per unit of an area is called stress [1]. The main types of stress are
as follows:
Tensile stress which occurs in a body subjected to a tensile force

P (Fig. 5.1a)
Compressive stress which occurs in a body subjected to a
compressive force P (Fig. 5.1b)
Shear stress which occurs in a body subjected to a shearing force
Ps (Fig. 5.1c) that results in one part of the body to slide with
respect to the adjacent part.
Fig. 5.1 – Three kinds of stress: a) tensile, b) compressive, c) shear.

Page 97
5.2 Engineering Stress and True Stress

Engineering stress, or nominal stress, is defined as a ratio of the applied
load P to the original cross-sectional area Ao [2]. In application to tension
or compression, engineering stress is equal to:
In application to shear, engineering stress can be expressed as:
True stress is defined as the ratio of the applied force P to the

instantaneous cross-sectional area Ai, which results from this force. In
application to tension or compression, true stress is equal to:
In the case of shear force, true stress can be expressed as:
5.3 Engineering Strain and True Strain

Generally, strain is defined as deformation per unit of length. Figure 2.2
illustrates the three basic types of strain which are tensile, compressive,
and shear.
Engineering strain is defined as the relative change in the length of a

body that is subjected to deformation. In application to tension or
compression (Figs. 5.2a,b), engineering strain is equal to:
where
Lo initial body length

=
body length after deformation.

L=
When applied to shear (Fig. 5.2c), engineering strain is equal to the ratio
of the shear shift a to the
Page 98
initial body length Lo as given by:
Fig. 5.2 – Three kinds of strain: a) tensile, b) compressive, c) shear.
True strain is defined as the sum of small increments in length of a body

that is subjected to deformation, i.e.:
When a metal specimen is elongated, its cross-section decreases which

is called necking. As soon as necking begins, the true strain at any point
in a metal specimen can be calculated from the change in either the
cross-sectional area A or diameter D. Since the volume of the specimen
in the plastic region remains constant, the true strain within the uniform
elongation can be expressed as:
5.4 Engineering Stress-Strain Diagrams

Figure 5.3 illustrates a typical engineering stress-strain diagram for both
ductile and brittle materials obtained from tension tests. In these
diagrams, engineering stress is defined by Eq. (5-1) and engineering
strain is defined by Eq. (5-5). Engineering stress-strain diagrams are
used to determine the following strength-deformation characteristics of
materials [1-3].
Page 99
Fig. 5.3 – Typical engineering stress-strain diagrams for: a) ductile

material, b) brittle material.
Proportional limit is the maximum stress at which strain remains directly

proportional to stress. This limit corresponds to the point P in Fig. 5.3.
Elastic limit is the maximum stress at which a material can be subjected

to without any permanent strain remaining upon complete release of the
stress. For most structural materials, the elastic limit has nearly the same
numerical value as the proportional limit.
Yield point is the first stress in a material, usually less than the maximum
attainable stress, at which an increase in strain occurs without an
increase in stress (point Y′, Fig. 5.3a.). This phenomenon occurs only in
certain ductile materials. If there is a decrease in stress after yielding, a
distinction is made between the upper and lower yield points.
Yield strength is the stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting

deviation from the proportionality of stress to strain. Yield strength is
defined by the offset method as shown in Fig. 5.3b. The specified offset
OX (usually 0.2%) is laid off along the strain axis. The line XW is then
drawn parallel to OP, and thus the point Y′ is located, which is the
intersection of the line XW with the stress-strain diagram.
Ultimate strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand. In

the case of a ductile material (Fig. 5.3a), ultimate strength corresponds to
the point M that represents the limit of uniform elongation (descending of
the curve MB is due to necking of the specimen). In the case of a brittle
material (Fig. 5.3b), ultimate strength corresponds to the point M at which
the material breaks. In tensile testing, this strength is called ultimate
tensile strength (UTS) and is equal to:
where
Pm maximum tensile load that a material can withstand.

=
Page 100
Modulus of elasticity is the measure of the rigidity of a metal and can be

expressed as a ratio of stress, within a proportional limit, to the
corresponding strain:
Modulus of resilience indicates the specific energy that a material can

store elastically. This specific energy is equal to the area under the
stress-strain curve up to the yield point of a material:
where
yield strength.
Y =
Poisson’s ratio is the absolute ratio of a lateral (transverse) strain eT to

the longitudinal strain eL, as follows:
5.5 True Stress-Strain Diagrams

In a true stress-strain diagram obtained from a tension test, true stress
can be defined by Eq. (5-3) while true strain is defined by Eq. (5-7).
Unlike the slope in an engineering stress-strain diagram, the slope of a
true stress-strain diagram is always positive. The true stress-strain curve
can be approximated by the following equation:
where
K = strength coefficient.
n strain hardening exponent of the material.

=
Figure 5.4 illustrates the following types of true stress-strain diagrams [2]:
When n = 1, the stress-strain relationship is linear with the slope

equal to K. This line corresponds to a perfectly elastic material.
When n = 0, the stress does not change with strain (σ = K). This
line corresponds to a rigid, perfectly plastic material.
The intermediate curve (0 < n < 1) corresponds to a typical
engineering material.
The values for K and n for various steels at room temperature are listed
in Table 5.1.
Page 101
Fig. 5.4 – Effect of strain-hardening exponent on the shape of true-strain

curves. Adapted from Kalpakjian [2].
Table 5.1 Typical values for K and n in Eq. (5-

13). Adapted from Kalpakjian [2].
K
Steel Type n
psi × 103 MPa
Low-carbon, annealed 77 530

0.26
1045 hot-rolled 140 965

0.14
1112 annealed 110 760

0.19
1112 cold-rolled 110 760

0.08
4135 annealed 147 1015

0.17
4135 cold-rolled 160 1100 0.14
4340 annealed 93 640

0.15
17-4 P-H annealed 175 1200

0.05
302 stainless, annealed 190 1300

0.30

0.45

0.10
True stress-true strain curves allow evaluation of the toughness of a

metal. Toughness is defined as the energy per unit volume that has been
dissipated up to fracture and is equal to the area under the true stress-
true strain curve.
5.6 Idealized Stress-Strain Diagrams

The main types of idealized stress-strain diagrams are shown in Fig. 5.5
and represent the following materials [2]:
Perfectly elastic material which behaves like a spring, when the

load is released and the material then undergoes a complete
elastic recovery (Fig. 5.5a).
Rigid, perfectly plastic material which undergoes deformation at
the same stress level, but there is no elastic recovery after the
load is released (Fig. 5.5b).
Page 102
Combination of a perfectly elastic and plastic material which

undergoes elastic recovery when the load is released (Fig. 5.5c).
Rigid, linearly strain-hardening material which produces an
increasing stress level with an increase in strain and no elastic
recovery upon unloading (Fig. 5.5d).
Elastic, linearly strain-hardening material which is an approximate
representation of most engineering materials (Fig. 5.5e).
Fig. 5.5 – Idealized stress-strain diagrams. Adapted from Kalpakjian [2].
5.7 Plastic Strain Ratio and Sheet Anisotropy

Plastic strain ratio r is the ratio of the true strain in the width of the tensile
specimen ∈w to the true strain in the thickness direction ∈t, as given by:
According to the procedure described in ASTM E517 [4], the plastic strain
ratios ro, r45, and r90 are first determined as a function of the amount of
plastic flow along the specimen axis that are oriented 0, 45, and 90° with
respect to the rolling direction of the sheet. The weighted average plastic
strain ratio r̄ is then used as a measure of the normal anisotropy by the
following equation:
Another parameter called the planar anisotropy Δr is used to predict
whether a sheet of metal will draw nonuniformly and form ears on deep
drawn cylindrical parts. Planar anisotropy can be
Page 103
expressed mathematically as follows:
When Δr > 1, large ears are noted in the rolling and transverse directions.
When Δr < 1, earring occurs at 45° to the rolling direction. Thus, as the
value of Δr decreases, there is less tendency for ear formation.
5.8 Derivative Types of Stress

Various other names can be given to the three main types of stress when
it is appropriate to indicate either the manner in which the stress acts or
the manner by which it is produced. These names or derivative types of
stress that are commonly used are as follows [1,2]:
Axial stress which is the tensile or compressive stress that acts in

the direction of the axis of an axially loaded prism (Fig. 5.6a).
Normal stress which is another name for tensile or compressive
stress.
Contact or bearing stress which is the compressive stress
between two bodies at their surface contact (Fig. 5.6b).
Torsional stress which is the shearing stress in a shaft subjected to
twisting (Fig. 5.6c).
Bending stress which is both tensile and compressive stresses in
a beam subjected to bending (Fig. 5.6d).
Fig. 5.6 – Derivative types of stress: a) axial, b) contact, c) torsional, d)
bending.
Page 104
5.9 Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to deform plastically without fracturing.
The two quantities that are commonly used to define ductility in a tension
test are percent elongation and percent reduction of area [2]. Percent
elongation can be defined as follows:
where
Lf specimen length at fracture

=
Lo original specimen length prior to deformation.

=
Percent reduction of area can be defined as follows:
where
Af cross-sectional area of a specimen at fracture

=
Ao original cross-sectional area of a specimen before deformation.

=
The relationship between percent elongation and percent reduction of

area for various groups of metals is shown in Fig. 5.7.
5.10 Engineering and True Strain Rates

Strain rate can be defined as the time rate for straining. Since strain is
dimensionless, the units of strain rate are reciprocal time. Typical values
of strain rates for different metalworking processes are shown in Table
5.2. For tension and compression, the engineering strain rate is defined
as follows:
where
speed of deformation.
V =
The true strain rate can be defined as follows [2]:

Page 105
Fig. 5.7 – Relationship between elongation and percent reduction of area

for various groups of metals. From Serope Kalpakjian, Manufacturing
Processes for Engineering Materials, Copyright 1985, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Reading, Mass. Reprinted with permission.
Table 5.2 Typical ranges of true stain

and strain rates in metalworking
processes. Adapted from Kalpakjian [2].
Process True Strain Rate,

Strain s-1
Cold working
Forging, rolling 0.10 – 1.0 – 103
Explosive 0.50 10.0 – 105
forming 0.05 –
0.20
Hot and warm

working 0.1 – 0.5 1.0 – 103
Forging, rolling 2.0 – 5.0 0.1 – 102
Extrusion
Superplastic 0.2 – 0.3 10-4 – 10-2
forming
The effect of strain rate on the strength of materials is generally

expressed by:
where
strength coefficient
C=
m strain-rate sensitivity exponent of material.

=
Page 106
A phenomenon that is closely related with the strain rate is known as

superplasticity, which is a metal deformation phenomenon generally
associated with exceptionally high tensile elongation of hundreds or even
thousands of percent [5]. For example, iron containing 1.3% carbon will
have an elongation of up to 500% within the temperature range from
1200 to 1650°F. Superplasticity usually occurs in the region where the
strain rate sensitivity is maximum.
5.11 Compression Test

A compression test is usually carried out by compressing a solid
cylindrical specimen between flat dies as shown in Fig. 5.8. Compression
of the specimen is accompanied by barreling, which is due to friction
between the specimen and the dies and results in restricted expansion of
the top and the bottom surfaces of the specimen.
Fig. 5.8 – Compression test.
During a compression test, friction dissipates energy through

continuously increasing contact surfaces. In order to establish the true
properties of the material, the effect of friction must be reduced. It has
been demonstrated that the compressive stress decreases when the
surface roughness of the dies and specimen is reduced (Fig. 5.9a). A
similar effect can be achieved by providing more effective lubrication
between the surfaces [6].
Unlike the tension test, where necking of the specimen begins after
relatively little elongation, compression testing can be carried out
uniformly for ductile materials if effective means are provided to minimize
the detrimental effect of friction. It has also been shown that the
compressive stress reduces with an increase in the initial height of the
specimen (Fig. 5.9b) as well as with a decrease of its initial contact
surface area (Fig. 5.9c). In more general terms, the compressive stress
increases with an increase in the aspect ratio, which in the case of a
cylindrical specimen with an initial diameter Do and an initial length Lo, is
equal to:
Page 107
Fig. 5.9 – Compressive load as a function of: a) surface finish, b)

specimen initial height, c) specimen initial contact surface area. Adapted
from Larke [3].
One of the purposes of compression testing is to determine the maximum

compressive stress that a material is capable of developing, based on the
original cross-sectional area [2]. For a material with low ductility, the
maximum compressive stress corresponds to the stress at which the
material fails by a shattering fracture. For ductile materials, the maximum
compressive stress may be related to an arbitrarily selected degree of
distortion that is regarded as an indication of a complete failure of the
material.
5.12 Torsion Test

Torsion testing allows one to determine the material properties while
avoiding the disturbing effect of necking (as in a tensile test) or friction
(as in a compression test). The test is generally carried out on a tubular
specimen with a reduced wall thickness in its middle [2]. Shear stress can
be determined from the following equation:
where
torque
M=
r mean radius of reduced section

=
h wall thickness of reduced section.

=
Page 108
Shear strain is equal to:
where
θ angle of twist, rad.

=
length of reduced section.

L =
In regard to shear deformation, the modulus of elasticity is known as the

shear modulus, or modulus of rigidity. Similar to modulus of elasticity, the
shear modulus is also applied to the elastic range and is equal to:
The relationship between the modulus of elasticity E and the shear

modulus G can be expressed by the following equation:
where
ν Poisson’s ratio.
=
For plain carbon steel ν = 0.33, thus E is 2.66 times greater than G.
5.13 Combined Deformation Tests

In conducting a combined deformation test, the specimen is
simultaneously subjected to more than one type of deformation. The
following combined deformation tests are considered [2]:
Torsion-compression test
Torsion-tension test
These combined deformation tests are conducted on round bars that are
simultaneously twisted and either axially compressed or stretched. Figure
5.10 shows that from the torsion-compression test, the shear strain at
fracture increases substantially as the axial compressive stress
increases. This indicates that the compressive stress improves the
ductility of materials. On the other hand, it was found from the torsion-
tension test that the axial tensile stress results in a reduction of shear
strain at fracture, meaning that the ductility of materials is being reduced.
The axial compressive stress has been found to have no effect on the
magnitude of shear stress that is required to cause yielding or to continue
the deformation.
Page 109
Fig. 5.10 – Effect of axial compressive stress on shear strain at fracture

for various steels. (From Serope Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Processes for
Engineering Materials, Copyright 1985, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,
Reading, Mass. Reprinted with permission).
5.14 Hardness Test

Hardness can be defined as the resistance of metal to plastic
deformation, usually by indentation. Hardness is not a fundamental
property of a material, but is related to its elastic and plastic properties.
Some of the standardized hardness tests that are commonly used are
shown in Table 5.3 and are described as follows [2].
Brinell hardness test is a test for determining the hardness of material by

forcing a hard steel or a carbide ball of specified load. The Brinell
hardness number (HB) is defined as the ratio of the load P to the curved
area of an indentation:
where
D = diameter of indenting ball, mm
d diameter of impression, mm.

=
Tungsten carbide balls are generally recommended for a Brinell hardness

number higher than 500. The Brinell hardness test is generally applicable
for materials of low to medium hardness.
Page 110
Table 5.3 Summary of standardized hardness tests.

Adapted from Kalpakjian [2].
Test Identification Indenter Load,

kg
Brinell HB 500
10-mm steel or 1500
tungsten carbide 3000
ball
Rockwell HRA Diamond cone 60

HRC Diamond cone 150
HRD Diamond cone 100
HRB 1/16-in. diameter steel 100
HRF ball 60
HRG 1/16-in. diameter steel 150
HRE ball 100
1/16-in. diameter steel
ball
1/8-in. diameter steel
ball
Rockwell — Diamond cone 15

Superficial — Diamond cone 30
Hardness — Diamond cone 45
Vickers HV Diamond pyramid 1 –

120
Scleroscope — Diamond-tipped —
hammer
Knoop HK Diamond elongated 0.025

pyramid – 5.0
Rockwell hardness test is a test for determining the hardness of a
material based upon the depth of penetration of a specified penetrator
into a specimen under certain arbitrary fixed conditions of the test. The
most commonly used penetrators and values for loads for this test are
shown in Table 5.3. The Rockwell hardness test is used for a wide range
of hardnesses.
Vickers hardness test is also known as the diamond pyramid hardness

test which employs a diamond pyramid indenter and variable loads
ranging from 1 to 120 kg. The Vickers hardness number (HV) can be
given by the following formula:
where
L length of indentation.
=
One hardness scale is used for all ranges of hardness from very soft lead
to a tungsten carbide. The Vickers hardness test gives essentially the
same hardness number (HV) regardless of the load.
Scleroscope hardness test measures the loss in kinetic energy of a falling

metal ‘‘tup”, that is absorbed by the indentation upon impact of the tup on
the metal being tested. The hardness is indicated by the height of the
rebound. Since the scleroscope is portable, it is useful for measuring the
hardness of large objects.
Knoop hardness test uses a pyramidal diamond indenter that makes a

rhombohedral impression with one long and one short diagonal. This test
is suitable for very small samples of brittle materials. The Knoop
hardness number (HK) is given by:
Page 111
The loads range from 25 grams to 50 kilograms as shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.4 shows the various hardness values for steel that are obtained
from several of these different hardness tests [6].
Table 5.4 Hardness values for steel from various hardness tests. Adapted from ASM Metals
Reference Book [6].
Rockwell Rockwell Knoop

Brinell Hardness (HB),
Hardness (HR), SuperficialHardness
3000-kg load, 10-mm
Diamond Cone Hardness (HK)
ball
(Brale) Indenter
Vickers
Scleroscope
Indent. Standard TungstenHardness A C D Hardness
diam., ball carbide (HV) scale,scale,scale, 30N 500-g
mm ball 60- 150- 100- scale, load
kg kg kg 30-kg and
load load load
load greater
2.25 — — 840 84.1 65.3 74.8 82.2 852 91

2.30 — — 783 83.1 63.4 73.4 80.5 808 —
2.35 — — 737 82.2 61.7 72.0 79.0 768 84
2.40 — — 697 81.2 60.0 70.7 77.5 732 81
2.45 — 627 667 80.5 58.7 69.7 76.3 703 79
2.50 — 601 640 79.8 57.3 68.7 75.1 677 77

2.55 — 578 615 79.1 56.0 67.7 73.9 652 75
2.60 — 555 591 78.4 54.7 66.7 72.7 626 73
2.65 — 534 569 77.8 53.5 65.8 71.6 604 71
2.70 — 514 547 76.9 52.1 64.7 70.3 579 70
2.75 — — 539 76.7 51.6 64.3 69.9 571 —

— — 495 528 76.3 51.0 63.8 69.4 558 68
2.80 — — 516 75.9 50.3 63.2 68.7 545 —
— — 477 508 75.6 49.6 62.7 68.2 537 66
2.85 — — 495 75.1 48.8 61.9 67.4 523 —

— — 461 491 74.9 48.5 61.7 67.2 518 65
2.90 444 — 474 74.3 47.2 61.0 66.0 499 —

— — 444 472 74.2 47.1 60.8 65.8 496 63
2.95 429 429 455 73.4 45.7 59.7 64.6 476 61

3.00 415 415 440 72.8 44.5 58.8 63.5 459 59
3.05 401 401 425 72.0 43.1 57.8 62.3 441 58
3.10 388 388 410 71.4 41.8 56.8 61.1 423 56

3.15 375 375 396 70.6 40.4 55.7 59.9 407 54
3.20 363 363 383 70.0 39.1 54.6 58.7 392 52
3.25 352 352 372 69.3 37.9 53.8 57.6 379 51
3.30 341 341 360 68.7 36.6 52.8 56.4 367 50
3.35 331 331 350 68.1 35.5 51.9 55.4 356 48

3.40 321 321 339 67.5 34.3 51.0 54.3 345 47
3.45 311 311 328 66.9 33.1 50.0 53.3 336 46
3.50 302 302 319 66.3 32.1 49.3 52.2 327 45
3.55 293 293 309 65.7 30.9 48.3 51.2 318 43
3.60 285 285 301 65.3 29.9 47.6 50.3 310 42

3.65 277 277 292 64.6 28.8 46.7 49.3 302 41
3.70 269 269 284 64.1 27.6 45.9 48.3 294 40
3.75 262 262 276 63.6 26.6 45.0 47.3 286 39
3.80 255 255 269 63.0 25.4 44.2 46.2 279 38
3.85 248 248 261 62.5 24.2 43.2 45.1 272 37

3.90 241 241 253 61.8 22.8 42.0 43.9 265 36
3.95 235 235 247 61.4 21.7 41.4 42.9 259 35
4.00 229 229 241 60.8 20.5 40.5 41.9 253 34
4.05 223 223 234 — — — — 247 —
Page 112
5.15 Hardness Versus Strength

The performance of a hardness test is similar to that of a compression
test being performed on a small portion of the material surface. However,
there is also a substantial difference between these two tests. During a
compression test, the specimen has freedom for lateral expansion,
although it is restricted near the contact surfaces. During a hardness test,
lateral expansion is prevented by the material that surrounds the
penetrator, resulting in a higher compressive yield stress.
Figure 5.11 shows that hardness values are approximately three to five
times that of the uniaxial yield stress of the metal, when both values are
expressed in the same units. When the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) is
expressed in psi and the Brinell hardness number is expressed in
kg/mm2, the following equation can be used [2]:
where
ultimate tensile strength, psi

UTS =
Brinell hardness number with a load of 3000 kg, kg/mm2.

HB =
Fig. 5.11 – Relationship between Brinell hardness number and yield
stress for aluminum and steels. From Serope Kalpakjian, Manufacturing
Processes for Engineering Materials, Copyright 1985, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Reading, Mass. Reprinted with permission.
5.16 Hardenability Test

Hardenability is the relative ability of a ferrous alloy to form martensite
after being quenched from a temperature above the upper critical
temperature Ac3. Hardenability is usually measured as the
Page 113
distance below a quenched surface where the metal hardness is equal to

a prerequisite value. In some cases it is determined as a specific
percentage of martensite in the microstructure.
One of the most common tests that is used for determining hardenability
is the end-quench test, also known as the Jominy test [7]. During this
test, a cylindrical specimen with a 1 in. diameter is cooled at one end by
a column of water; thus the entire specimen experiences a range of
cooling rates between those associated with water and air cooling. After
quenching, opposite ends of the specimen are grounded to be parallel to
each other and hardness readings are taken every 1/16 in. from the
quenched end as shown in Fig. 5.12.
Fig. 5.12 – Method of plotting hardness test data from end-quenched
Jominy specimen. (From Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel, by G.
Krauss, 1980, Copyright ASM International. With permission).
5.17 Dynamic Impact Test

Dynamic impact tests are conducted to determine the behavior of
materials when subjected to high rates of loading, usually in bending,
tension, or torsion. The quantity that is measured is the energy absorbed
in breaking a specimen by a single blow. The two standard tests that are
commonly used are the Charpy test and the Izod test [8]. Both tests are
pendulum type of single impact tests in which a specimen is usually
notched.
In the Charpy test, the specimen is supported at both ends as a simple

beam as shown in Fig. 5.13a and is broken by a falling pendulum. In the
Izod test, the specimen is fixed at one end (Fig. 5.13b) and is also broken
by a falling pendulum. In both tests, the rise of the pendulum after the
specimen has been broken is used as a measure of impact strength or
notch toughness. These parameters can also be evaluated by the
percentage of brittle fracture on the fracture faces.
Page 114
Fig. 5.13 – Schematic diagrams of dynamic impact tests: a) Charpy test,

b) Izod test.
To determine the ductile-to-brittle transition, dynamic impact tests are

conducted for different temperatures of the test samples. The purpose of
this test is to establish the impact-transition temperature (ITT) that
corresponds to the material transition from a brittle to ductile state. This
temperature is assumed to be equal to the temperature at which the test
specimen breaks with a certain, relatively low level of energy absorption,
such as 15 ft-lb (20 J) of force, as shown in Fig. 5.14 [9].
Fig. 5.14 – Impact energy absorption as a function of test temperature

obtained with Charpy V-notch impact test. From Fletcher [9]. Reprinted
with permission.
5.18 Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a metal to absorb energy and deform
plastically before fracturing. Toughness can be defined as a combination
of the two factors, ductility and strength [10]. Under
Page 115
any load, the metal will flow if the maximum shear stress exceeds a
certain value and will fracture or fail when the maximum normal stress
exceeds a certain value.
In torsion testing, the ratio of the maximum normal stress that causes
fracture to the maximum shear stress is 1 to 1. When testing by
compression, tension, or bending, this ratio becomes 2 to 1. In a dynamic
impact test, such as a Charpy or Izod test, the ratio of the maximum
normal stress to the maximum shear stress can be considerably higher
than 2 to 1. As this ratio increases, it becomes more likely that fracture
will occur before the flow [2].
5.19 Heat Resistance

Heat resistance is generally known as the capability of a metal to
maintain its mechanical properties at elevated temperatures. These
mechanical properties are normally presented by the following
parameters that are expressed as a function of temperature as shown in
Figs. 5.15 and 5.16 [11]:
Modulus of elasticity
Tensile strength
0.2% offset yield strength
Elongation
Reduction in area
Fig. 5.15 – Effect of temperature on modulus of elasticity for various
materials. Adapted from Kalpakjian [2].
Page 116
Fig. 5.16 – Mechanical properties of killed carbon steel, 0.15% C,

annealed at elevated temperature: a) strength, b) ductility. From Metals
Handbook (1961). Reprinted with permission.
The two parameters that are frequently used to evaluate the heat
resistance of metals are creep strength and rupture strength (Fig. 5.17).
Creep strength is the constant nominal stress that will cause a specified
quantity of creep in a given time or a specified creep rate at a constant
temperature. Rupture strength is the constant nominal stress that will
cause rupture in a specified time at a constant temperature [11].
Fig. 5.17 – Stress versus rupture time and creep rate curves based on
average data for killed carbon steel, 0.15% C, annealed. From Metals
Handbook (1961). Reprinted with permission.
5.20 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity can be described as the capability of a material to
transfer heat by conduction. The quantity of heat that passes through a
cross-sectional area per unit of time is determined by Fourier’s law as
follows [12]:
Page 117
where
dT/dL temperature gradient, °F/in.

=
cross-sectional area, ft2

A=
k thermal conductivity, Btu-in./ft2/h/°F.

=
Therefore, thermal conductivity is equal to the heat transfer rate by

conduction through a unit cross-sectional area of a material having a unit
temperature gradient in the direction of the heat transfer. As can be seen
from Fig. 5.18, the thermal conductivity of austenitic stainless steel
gradually increases with temperature. The same can be said of the
thermal conductivity of low-carbon steel in austenitic conditions.
However, when low-carbon steel is in a ferritic condition, the thermal
conductivity decreases with an increase in temperature.
Fig. 5.18 – Thermal conductivity of two types of steel at elevated
temperatures. Adapted from Physical Constants of Some Commercial
Steels at Elevated Temperatures [13].
5.21 Specific Heat

Specific heat is a parameter that describes the capability of a material to
absorb heat. The relationship between the amount of heat that is
absorbed by a body and the corresponding temperature rise is expressed
by the following equation [12]:
where
temperature rise, °F
dT =
Page 118
m body mass, lb
=
c specific heat, Btu/lb/°F.

=
Thus, the specific heat is equal to the amount of heat that is necessary to
transfer to a unit mass of a body in order to increase its temperature by a
unit degree. Specific heat is temperature dependent and also sensitive to
allotropic transformations in a metal as shown in Fig. 5.19.
Fig. 5.19 – Specific heat of two types of steel at elevated temperatures.

Adapted from Physical Constants of Some Commercial Steels at
Elevated Temperatures [13].
5.22 Density
Density is usually defined as the mass of a matter in a unit of its volume
as follows from the following equation:
where
ρ density, lb/in.3
=
m mass of matter, lb
=
volume of matter, in.3

V =
Figure 5.20 illustrates that density usually decreases with an increase in

temperature. There is also a pronounced change in density at the
temperature that corresponds to the allotropic change in a metal.
Page 119
Fig. 5.20 – Density of two types of steel at elevated temperatures.

Adapted from Physical Constants of Some Commercial Steels at
Elevated Temperatures [13].
5.23 Thermal Diffusivity

Thermal diffusivity is a parameter that describes the capability of a
material to transfer heat when the temperature field of the body changes
with time. The temperature distribution in a wall of a body, with respect to
time and position and with heat flow along the x-axis only (Fig. 5.21), is
given by the following partial differential equation of the second order,
based on Fourier’s general law of heat conduction [12]:
where
a thermal diffusivity, in.4/ft2/h

=
dT/dt temperature rate, °F/h

=
dT/dx temperature gradient, °F/in.

=
Thermal diffusivity can be expressed as a function of thermal conductivity

k, specific heat c, and density ρ by the following formula:
Page 120
Fig. 5.21 – Variable heat flow in a body element.
Equation (5-35) shows that the temperature increase propagates faster in

bodies that exhibit higher thermal conductivity and lower specific heat
and density.
5.24 Thermal Emissivity

Thermal emissivity describes the capability of a solid body to radiate
heat. Heat-radiation is known to be an electromagnetic oscillatory
phenomena where a solid body emits radiation over a wide range of
wavelengths [12]. In order to compare the radiation capabilities of
different materials, the intensity of the radiation that is provided by these
materials is compared with that of a so-called black body. A black body
absorbs all radiation which it receives, irrespective of wavelength, and
reflects none.
The radiation process is described by Stefan-Boltzmann’s and Kirchhoff’s

laws of radiation, and can be expressed as follows:
where
emissivity of black body, Btu/in.2/h/°F4

S=
AR area of radiating or reradiating surface, in.2
=
T1 temperature of radiating surface, °F

=
T2 temperature of reradiating surface, °F

=
ξ coefficient of thermal emissivity.

=
The coefficient of thermal emissivity of a given body is the ratio of the

amount of heat radiated from a unit area of its surface to the amount of
heat radiated from a unit area of a black body under the same conditions.
The coefficient of thermal emissivity is affected by the surface finish and
temperature as shown in Table 5.5 [12].
Page 121
Table 5.5 Coefficient of thermal emissivity for selected

metals. Adapted from Schack [12].
Material
Surface Finish Temperature, °F
Coefficient of Thermal Emissivity
Mild steel Oxidized, smooth 797 0.83
Oxidized, smooth 1112 0.96
Oxidized, smooth 12920.95
Austenitic stainless steel, As delivered 824 0.83

type 310 Sand blasted 824 0.96
As delivered 14270.95
Sand blasted 14270.92
Sand blasted and 14270.93
oxidized 20120.99
Sand blasted and
oxidized
5.25 Thermal Expansion

Linear thermal expansion of a solid body can be defined by the following
equation:
where
Lo, LT body lengths at temperatures To and T respectively, in.

=
α coefficient of linear thermal expansion, in./in./°F.

=
The coefficient of linear thermal expansion is equal to the relative linear

expansion of a body per unit of temperature change. Figure 5.22 shows
that this coefficient is temperature dependent.
5.26 Corrosion Resistance

Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal by a chemical or electrochemical
reaction with its environment. The following two types of corrosion
processes are known [3,11].
Electrochemical corrosion occurs when a current flows between the

cathodic and anodic areas of metallic surfaces.
Galvanic corrosion is associated with the current of a galvanic cell

consisting of two dissimilar conductors in an electrolyte or two similar
conductors in dissimilar electrolytes. Where the two dissimilar metals are
in contact, the resulting reaction is referred to as bimetal or couple action.
This couple action is regulated by the following:
Metal to Which the steel is coupled

Conductivity of the solution in which it is in service
Area relationship between the steel and the other metal
Presence or absence of oxygen or other depolarizing agents.
Page 122
Fig. 5.22 – Variation of coefficient of linear thermal expansion with

temperature for two types of steel at elevated temperatures. Adapted
from Physical Constants of Some Commercial Steels at Elevated
Temperatures [13].
Steel is affected adversely by galvanic corrosion only when in contact

with a metal below it in the electrochemical series for a specific
environment. Table 5.6 shows a practical version of the galvanic
relationship of metals in sea water [11]. Steel is protected when coupled
to any of the metals that are numbered above it in this table (1 through
6), and can be corroded at an accelerated rate when in contact with
metals numbered below it (8 through 33).
Table 5.6 Galvanic series in sea water. Adapted from

Metals Handbook [11].
No.
Metal or Alloy No.
Metal or Alloy No.
Metal or
Alloy
1 Magnesium 12 316 23Copper-nickel

2 (most active) 13 stainless 24 alloys
3 Magnesium 14 (active) 25 Titanium
4 alloys 15 Hastelloy C 26 Monel
5 Zinc 16 Lead-tin 27 Silver solder
6 Aluminum 17 solders 28 Nickel
7 1100 18 Lead 29 (passive)
8 Cadmium 19 Tin 30 Inconel
9 Aluminum 20 Nickel 31 (passive)
10 2017 21 (active) 32 Chromium
11 Steel (plain) 22 Inconel 33 iron (passive)
Cast iron (active) 304 stainless
Chromium iron Hastelloy B (passive)
(active) Brasses 316 stainless
Nickel cast iron Copper (passive)
304 stainless Bronzes Silver
(active) Graphite
(least active)
Page 123
5.27 Electrical Resistivity

Electrical resistance of a solid body can be defined by the following
equation:
where
body length, in.

L =
cross-sectional area, in.2

A =
γ electrical resistivity, ohm-in.

=
Thus, the electrical resistivity is equal to the electrical resistance between

opposite faces of a cube of unit dimensions. Generally, the electrical
resistivity of metals increases with temperature as shown in Fig. 5.23.
Fig. 5.23 – Variation of electrical resistivity with temperature for two types
of steel at elevated temperatures. Adapted from Physical Constants of
Some Commercial Steels at Elevated Temperatures [13].
5.28 Magnetic Properties

Magnetic properties are the most important characteristics of electrical
sheet steels and are defined as follows (Fig. 5.24):
Page 124
Permeability (μ), which is the measure of the relative ease with which a
metal can be magnetized and is equal to:
where
magnetic induction, tesla

B=
magnetized force, amp-turns/in.

H=
Saturation induction (Bs), which is the maximum intrinsic induction that is

possible in a magnetic material.
Residual induction (Br), which is the induction that remains in a material

when the magnetizing force has been reduced to zero.
Coercive force (Hc), which is the direct-current magnetizing force that

must be applied in a direction opposite to the residual induction to reduce
the magnetic induction to zero.
Total core loss (Pc), which is the energy dissipated as heat within the
magnetic core in the presence of a cyclically alternating induced current.
Total core loss consists of the following two components [8]:
1. Magnetic hysteresis loss Ph

2. Eddy-current loss Pe.
Fig. 5.24 – Magnetic hysteresis loop.
5.29 Malleability and Machinability

Malleability is defined as the capability of metals to undergo plastic
deformation in compression without rupturing [3,10]. Machinability can be
defined as the capability of a material to be ma-
Page 125
chined with relative ease when evaluating tool life, surface finish, and
power consumption. The physical condition of steel, mainly the
microstructure and hardness in the annealed state, are the two major
factors that affect the machining characteristics of tool steel.
In order to provide machinability ratings of various steels, a machinability

index is utilized which is a relative measure of the machinability of an
engineering material under specified standard conditions.
5.30 Wear Resistance

Wear resistance or abrasion resistance is an important characteristic of
tool steels. Wear tests are usually conducted by measuring the loss of
weight per unit surface area of a sample after it has been in moving
contact with a standard hardened and finished ground surface for a
definite number of strokes and with a definite pressure [10].
When a wear test is conducted under actual service conditions, it should

provide valuable information for that particular application. However, due
to the diversity of testing procedures, it is extremely difficult to compare
and correlate the results from one application to another.
References
1. Miller, F.E. and Doeringsfield, H.A., Mechanics of Materials,
International Textbook Company, Scranton, Pa., 1955, pp. 3-55.
2. Kalpakjian, S., Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials,

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, Mass., 1985, pp.
25-65.
3. Larke, E.C., The Rolling of Strip, Sheet, and Plate, Second Edition,
Chapman and Hall, London, 1963, pp. 186-214.
4. ASTM E 517 - 92, Test Method for Plastic Strain Ratio r for Sheet
Metal, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 03.01.
5. Hamilton, C.H., Strength of Metals and Alloys, (ICSMA 7), Vol. 3,

Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, 1986.
Park, Ohio, 1981, pp. 1-93.

Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1980, pp. 134-159.
8. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 10th Edition, eds. W.T.
Lankford, Jr., et al, Association of Iron and Steel Engineers, Pittsburgh,
Pa., 1985, pp. 1321-1446.
9. Fletcher, E.E., A Review of the Status, Selection, and Physical

Metallurgy of High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels, Metals and Ceramics
Information Center, Columbus, Ohio, Report 79-39, March 1979.
10. Roberts, G.A. and Cary, R.A., Tool Steels, Fourth Edition, American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1980, pp. 51-70.
11. Metals Handbook, Eight Edition, Vol. 1, Properties and Selection of

Metals, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1961, pp. 491-
523, 986-988.
Page 126
12. Schack, A., Industrial Heat Transfer, Chapman and Hall, London,
1965, pp. 4-60, 205-216, 429.
13. Physical Constants of Some Commercial Steels at Elevated

Temperatures, eds. British Iron and Steel Research Association (BISRA),
Butterworths Scientific Publications, London, 1953.
Page 127
Chapter 6
METALLURGICAL FACTORS CONTROLLING THE
PROPERTIES OF STEEL
6.1 General Properties of Steel

The following three general properties are usually considered in the
design of a steel [1]:
Functional properties that are required by the alloy to allow the

component to be manufactured to perform the designed function.
Cost properties that are required by the alloy to reduce the
production cost and its fabrication into a finished or semi-finished
component.
Surface quality properties which affect the appearance of the
finished components in terms of surface finish, aesthetical appeal,
etc.
Some typical examples of functional properties are strength, formability,

toughness, weldability, machinability, etc. The cost properties can include
such characteristics as prime material cost, cost of microalloying
elements and conversion cost of the prime metal into a designed
component. The main goal of the metallurgical design is to produce the
required combination of properties for a particular product such as an
alloy for oil pipeline in which an optimum combination of strength with
toughness and weldability would be required.
6.2 Control of Microstructures

A strong correlation exists between the properties of steel and its
microstructure. Control of the microstructure can be achieved by
controlling the following three aspects of steel production [1]:
Composition – Steel composition controls the phases that are

present in steel and their proportion along with the evolution of
phases during the phase transformation.
Heat treatment – Heat treatment controls proportion, size and
distribution of phases, along with grain size, phase composition,
dislocation structure and defect structure.
Page 128
Hot and cold deformation – Most of the previously listed features

affected by hot and cold deformation. In addition, the deformation
process results in crystallographic textures that are developed by
the phases in the structure.
In the process of the metallurgical design it is necessary not only to

obtain the required final microstructure but also to ensure that the
throughout the whole manufacturing process the structure at any given
stage is optimum for processing at the next stage.
6.3 Methodology of Metallurgical Design

The methodology which is used for the metallurgical design of steels may
be described as consisting of the following main steps [1]:
1. Identifying the most important properties of the alloy being

designed.
2. Establishing the relationship between those properties and the
microstructural and compositional parameters often using the
metallurgical models.
3. Defining the design criteria such as a simple ratio of the effects of
the various microstructural and compositional parameters on the
relevant properties of the designed steel.
4. Optimizing the microstructural and compositional parameters by
using the design criteria and taking into account the economics of
production of the designed steel.
5. Controlling the processing and heat treatment of the steel so the
designed compositional and microstructural parameters are
obtained.
The multiple-regression technique is often used for relating the

microstructural and compositional parameters to the properties of the
steel such as yield strength, toughness, etc. As an example of the design
criterion let us consider the following ratio:
where
Δ (ITT)
=
change in impact transition temperature
Δ σy change in yield strength.

=
For optimum combination of strength and toughness the microstructural

or compositional parameters are implemented for which the ratio C has to
have the largest negative value.
6.4 Metallurgical Factors Controlling Strength

The following metallurgical factors usually influence the strength of steel
[1,2]:
Grain size
Substitutional solid-solution strengthening
Interstitial solid-solution strengthening
Page 129
Substitutional-interstitial solute interaction strengthening

Precipitation strengthening
Dislocation strengthening
Second-phase strengthening.
All these factors, except substitutional solid-solution strengthening, are

sensitive to processing. They also often interact with one another so the
process of metallurgical design of steel may become very complicated. It
is possible, however, to apply some metallurgical models to predict an
increase in strength of steels as a function of composition and
metallurgical structure as it will be described below.
6.5 Effect of Grain Size on Strengthening

The strengthening effect associated with refinement of the grain size is
described by Hall-Petch relationship [1]:
where
σy yield stress
=
σi friction stress opposing the movement of dislocation in the grains

=
ky constant.
=
A typical plot of Eq.(6-2) is shown in Fig.6.1. Grain refinement can be

achieved with the addition of aluminum and nitrogen. The addition of
other additives, such as columbium, vanadium and titanium are found to
be more advantageous because, besides their contribution to the grain
refinement, they also contribute to precipitation hardening and higher
yield strengths.
6.6 Substitutional Solid-Solution Strengthening

The intensity of solid solution strengthening is a function of:
Difference in size between the solute and solvent atoms

Disturbances to the electronic structure which may be present in
terms of the difference in shear modulus between the solute and
solvent.
The overall effect of substitutional solutes on the strength is given by [1]:
where
σ flow stress
=
concentration of solutes.
C =
Page 130
Substitutional solid solutions are formed by various elements. However,

formation of these solutions is not accompanied by a substantial
strengthening of steel at room temperature. Since most of steels have
diluted solid solutions, Eq. (6-3) can be simplified to a linear dependence
of solid solution strengthening upon atomic percentage of solute as
shown in Fig. 6.2.
Fig. 6.1 – Effect of grain size of ferrite on yield stress and impact
transition temperature (0.10% C, 0.50% Mn, 0.2% Si, 0.006% N). (From
Physical Metallurgy and the Design Steels, by F.B. Pickering. Copyright
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd., England. Reprinted with
permission).
Fig. 6.2 – Solid solution strengthening effects in austenitic stainless
steels. (From Physical Metallurgy and Design of Steels, by F.B. Pickering.
Copyright Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd., England. Reprinted
with permission).
Page 131
6.7 Interstitial Solid Solution Strengthening

Carbon and nitrogen are two elements which can substantially increase
the strength of steels by forming interstitial solid solutions (Fig. 6.2).
Since the solubility of these elements in austenite is greater than in
ferrite, the interstitial solid solution strengthening is more effective in
steels in which austenite is stable at room temperature.
Carbon is practically not present in most hot-rolled or box-annealed coils

whereas a substantial amount of nitrogen may be retained in solution
depending on hot rolling process. Interstitial solid solution strengthening
is particularly effective in strengthening martensite.
6.8 Substitutional-Interstitial Solute Interaction Strengthening

When the substitutional solutes interact with interstitial solutes, it will
produce:
1. Formation of soluble compounds such as TiC, TiN, etc. Although

this will decrease the overall solid solution strengthening effect, it
may be offset by introducing some degree of precipitation
hardening or pinning of the grain boundaries causing grain
refinement.
2. Formation of association of substitutional and interstitial atoms
without forming separate phases resulting in increase of strength.
6.9 Precipitation Strengthening

Precipitation strengthening is caused by precipitation of a constituent
from a super saturated solid solution. This effect is especially strong in
alloy steels containing strong carbide-forming elements such as
vanadium, niobium, molybdenum and tungsten [2]. These elements form
very fine particles which precipitate during transformation process. The
particles are located in the interface between the decomposed austenite
and newly formed ferrite. These alloy carbide particles produce high-
strength microstructure.
This mechanism is explained by the model of dispersion hardening

proposed by Ashby-Orowan that allows one to show the roles of particle
size and volume fraction [3]. According to this model the tensile strength
is equal to:
where
tensile strength, MPa

TS =
f precipitate fraction
=
x̄ mean planar-intercept diameter of a precipitate, μm.

=
Since 1/x̄ is the predominant function of x̄, the stress increment due to
fine precipitates increases with the reduction in precipitate size and the
increase in fine precipitate fraction as shown in Fig. 6.3. The main
precipitation strengthening systems used in commercial HSLA steels are
listed in Table 6.1. The effect of these systems are described in the
following sections [4].
Page 132
Fig. 6.3 – Dependence of precipitation strengthening on precipitate size

(x) and fraction according to Ashby-Orowan model, compared with
experimental observations for given microalloying additions. (From
Microalloying ‘75. Copyright Stratcor, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with
permission).
Table 6.1 Main precipitation strengthening systems used in commercial HSLA

steels. Data from Fletcher (1978).
Elements Main Precipitates Notes
Columbium Cb(C,N)*, Cb4C3 * Columbium

carbonitride
Vanadium V(C,N)**, V4C3 ** Vanadium

carbonitride
Columbium + Cb(C,N), C(C,N), Cb4C3,

vanadium Cb4C3
Vanadium + nitrogen
VN
Copper Cu
Copper + columbium Cu, Cb(C,N)
Titanium Ti(C,N)***, TiC ***Titanium

carbonitride
Aluminum + nitrogen
AIN
6.10 Strengthening With Columbium

Columbium (niobium) is a very effective strengthening agent for hot-rolled
carbon steels. During conventional rolling columbium produces marked
precipitation strengthening which is complemented with some
strengthening due to refining the ferrite grain size [4]. Columbium carbide
(Cb4C3) and columbium nitride (CbN) are mutually soluble. In
combination with carbon and
Page 133
nitrogen, they form the compound known as carbonitride Cb(C,N). Figure

6.4a shows the effect of microalloying with columbium on yield strength
of hot-rolled strip [5]. The strengthening effect increases with decrease in
size of the precipitated columbium carbide particles.
The solution temperature for columbium is very high. For a steel

containing 0.20%C, the temperature of about 1300°C (2372°F) is desired
for complete solution of 0.07% columbium. Columbium has relatively low
affinity for oxygen that allows its use in semikilled steel, thus providing
maximum production yield from the ingot.
Fig. 6.4 – Effect of a) columbium, and b) vanadium on the yield strength

of hot-rolled 8 mm (0.315 in.) thick strip with 0.08%C and 0.3%Si. (From
Microalloying ‘75. Copyright Stratcor, Pittsburgh, Pa., Reprinted with
permission).
6.11 Strengthening With Vanadium and Nitrogen

When vanadium is present in carbon-manganese steels, it forms
carbides (V4C3) which are more stable than an iron or manganese
carbide. Vanadium carbide, however, is less stable than columbium
carbide. Much lower temperature is required for the vanadium carbide to
be taken into solution in comparison with that for columbium carbide [4].
Generally in order to provide the same increase in yield stress in hot-
rolled, high-strength structural steels, the vanadium content has to be
from two to four times the amount of columbium that would be added.
Because its strengthening effect results mainly from precipitation
strengthening, the effect of vanadium in increasing the yield strength of
carbon-manganese steels is approximately linear function of the amount
of vanadium present [4,5] as shown in Fig. 6.4b.
The strength of conventionally hot-rolled steels is derived from

precipitation of vanadium in ferrite as very fine particles of vanadium
carbonitride V(C,N) during cooling. The properties of conventionally rolled
steels containing vanadium are less process-sensitive than the properties
of conventionally rolled steels containing columbium. Vanadium is less
likely than columbium to
Page 134
produce undesirable nonpolygonal transformed structures (bainite or

acicular ferrite). The combination of vanadium with nitrogen results in the
yield strength more than the sum of the increases produced by each
element alone (Fig. 6.5). The principal strengthening mechanism in the
hot rolled vanadium-nitrogen steels is precipitation strengthening with
vanadium nitride VN as the agent [4,6].
Fig. 6.5 – Increase in the yield strength from nitrogen and vanadium as a
result of the precipitation of vanadium nitride for a controlled-cooled coil
product with a coiling temperature of 593°C (1100°F). (From Grozier,
permission).
6.12 Strengthening With Titanium

In low-carbon steels, titanium carbide (TiC) and titanium carbonitrides
T(C,N) increase strength by both the grain refinement and precipitation
strengthening [4]. A given solution of titanium produces a larger carbide
fraction in steel than does the same addition of columbium. However, it
has to be considered that some amount of titanium is spent on formation
of titanium nitride (TiN) that is insoluble and does not participate in
precipitation hardening.
Figure 6.6 shows that by increasing the amount of titanium provides a

strong increase in yield strength [4,6]. However, because of the affinity of
titanium for nitrogen, the addition of up to 0.025% titanium does not
increase the yield strength. The high affinity of titanium for oxygen also
promotes the formation of undesirable titanium oxides. This problem is
usually solved by thorough deoxidizing a molten steel with aluminum
prior to addition of titanium.
6.13 Dislocation Strengthening

The stress required to maintain deformation at any given strain (flow
stress) can be related to the dislocation density by the following equation
[1]:
Page 135
Fig. 6.6 – Effect of titanium on the yield strength of hot-rolled 8 mm

(0.315 in.)-thick strip with 0.08%C and 0.3%Si. (From Meyer, et al,
permission).
where
σf
=
total flow stress
σo flow stress attributed to other strengthening mechanisms

=
ρ
=
dislocation density
k constant.
=
As it follows from Eq. (6-5), the flow stress increases with increase in the
density of dislocations. Since most hot-rolled steels have polygonal ferrite
microstructure that is virtually dislocation-free, the increase in yield
strength due to dislocation strengthening is negligible. The contribution of
dislocation strengthening, however is much greater in some high-strength
sheet steels which have acicular ferrite microstructures containing a high
dislocation density.
6.14 Second-Phase Strengthening

Second phases such as pearlite and martensite produce strengthening
effect in steels. The law of mixture which describes the yield stress of
ferrite-pearlite structures varying from 0 to 100% pearlite is given by:
Page 136
where
Xf
= volume fraction of ferrite
(YS)f yield stress of ferrite

=
(YS)p yield stress of pearlite.

=
The following empirical formulas have been proposed for calculating the
mechanical properties of ferritic-pearlitic steels [7]:
Yield stress, MPa:
Tensile strength, MPa:
Impact-transition temperature, °C:
where
X transformed volume fraction

=
d ferrite grain size, mm

=
s mean interlamellar spacing of pearlite, mm.

=
In these formulas, the symbols for the elements represent the weight of
the specific element. Martensite is used as a second-phase
strengthening component in dual-phase steels in which martensite is
dispersed within a fine-grained ferrite matrix. Both yield strength and
tensile strength are found to be a function of the volume fraction of
martensite.
6.15 Effect of Composition and Structure on Yield Stress

The ferrite-grain size is the most important structural parameter
controlling the yield stress. A typical equation describing the yield stress
of plain low-carbon steel as a function of the compositional and structural
factors is [1]:
where
Page 137
Nf weight percent of free nitrogen.

=
It follows from Eq. (6-10) that:
Pearlite (i.e. carbon) has little or no effect on the yield stress of low
carbon steels
Free nitrogen substantially increases yield stress
Grain refinement would increase the yield stress.
6.16 Effect of Composition and Structure on Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of low-carbon steels with ferrite-pearlite structures
can be described by the following equation [1]:
where
σt tensile strength, MPa.

=
As it follows from Eq. (6-11), both pearlite content and grain refinement
contribute to the tensile strength. The tensile strength of low-carbon
steels with a bainitic microstructure is given by [8]:
6.17 Metallurgical Factors Controlling Toughness

In designing a steel with high toughness, it is assumed that notches or
stress concentrations of various types are present in nearly all structures.
Good notch-toughness behavior of steel is promoted by the following [4]:
Low carbon content

High ratio of manganese to carbon
Low phosphorus and sulfur content
Deoxidation of steel with aluminum
Fine grain size
Normalizing
Quenching and tempering.
Toughness is evaluated by the impact-transition temperature (ITT). As

the values of ITT are lowered, the value for toughness of steel is
increased. It follows from Fig. 6.7 which shows the effect of composition
on ITT, that low-carbon, high-manganese, aluminum grain-refined steels
are preferred, because aluminum is particularly beneficial in removing
nitrogen as aluminum nitride [8]. The effect of grain size on ITT was
previously shown in Fig. 6.1.
Page 138
Fig. 6.7 – Effect of composition on impact-transition-temperature (ITT).

Ratios indicate the change in transition temperature per 15 MPa increase
in yield strength.-(From Pickering, Microalloying ‘75. Copyright Stratcor,
Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission).
The impact-transition temperature for HSLA steels with a ferrite-pearlite

microstructure is expressed as a function of compositional and structural
factors by the following equation [8]:
where
impact-transition temperature, °C.

ITT =
The impact-transition temperature is affected by different strengthening

mechanisms [9] as shown in Fig. 6.8. Both the grain refinement and solid
solution of manganese and nickel improve toughness with increase in
yield strength. However, precipitation hardening, dislocation
strengthening, and solid solution of carbon produce deterioration in
toughness with an increase in yield strength.
6.18 Metallurgical Factors Controlling Deep Drawability
The material property controlling deep drawability is described by the R-
value that is determined in a strip tensile test and can be expressed as
[1]:
Page 139
where
∈w true-width strain
=
∈t true-thickness strain.
=
Fig. 6.8 – Different strengthening mechanisms and their effect on impact

transition temperature. (From Meyer and Boer, Journal of Metals, Vol. 29,
Jan. 1977. Publication of the Metallurgical Society, Warrendale, Pa.,
15086, USA. Reprinted with permission).
When the properties in the plane of the sheet are sensitive to direction,
the average R-value is used [1]:
where
RL R-value measured parallel to the rolling direction

=
RT R-value measured transverse to the rolling direction

=
R45 R-value measured at 45° to the rolling direction.

=
It has been shown that the materials with a greater R-value are better
suitable for deep drawing. The variation in the R-value in the actual plane
of the sheet can serve as a measure of planar
Page 140
anisotropy and can be expressed as [1]:
A cube-on-corner texture with (111) planes in the plane of the sheet

results in high R-values, whereas a cube-on-face texture in which (110)
planes are parallel to the plane of the sheet reduces the R-value.
Normally processed rimming steels have R-values of 1.0 to 1.2. The R-
values in the aluminum-killed steels can be as high as 1.4 to 1.8.
Rimming steel requires finely dispersed carbides to pin the boundaries to
produce large grains of preferable (110) orientation.
The R-value increases with an increase in grain size as described in

application for low-carbon steel by the following relationship [1,10]:
where
Ro, k constants
=
ASTM ferrite grain size.

N =
6.19 Metallurgical Factors Controlling Stretch Forming

Stretch forming is usually controlled by the uniform elongation ∈u prior to
necking. It can be shown that the maximum uniform elongation ∈u is
numerically equal to the strain hardening exponent n of the material that
defines the work-hardening behavior in tensile testing according to [1]:
where
σ true flow stress

=
true strain
∈ =
strength coefficient
K=
n strain hardening exponent of the material.

=
The maximum uniform elongation ∈u can be expressed by the following

equations [1,8,11]:
Low carbon steels:
HSLA steels:
Page 141
The stretch-forming capability is also evaluated by the work-hardening

rate, dσ/d∈, at a constant low strain value. The work-hardening rate can
be presented by the following equations [1,8,11]:
Low carbon steels:
HSLA steels:
where
6.20 Metallurgical Factors Controlling Bending

A number of parameters are used to evaluate the bending capabilities of
steels. It has been shown that an increase in the maximum uniform
elongation ∈u increases the simple bending capability of the material
[12]. Bending under tension requires a low yield-stress to ultimate-tensile
strength ratio, and high R and n values [12,13]. Another important
parameter is the total strain at fracture ∈T in a tensile test. As the ∈T
value is increased, the bending capabilities of a steel sheet are improved.
The total strain at fracture can be described by the following equations
[1,8,11]:
Low carbon steels:
HSLA steels:
6.21 Metallurgical Factors Controlling Weldability

Welding involves the melting and solidification of steel and the heat-
affected zone of the base metal is subject to heat treatment. The major
metallurgical factors controlling the quality of welding are briefly
discussed in the following sections [4].
Hydrogen-induced cold cracking is the most important source of weld

defects in welding and hardenable materials [4]. A convenient way to
evaluate weldability from the standpoint of hydrogen cracking is by using
the carbon equivalent (CE) formula. One of the best-known carbon-
Page 142
equivalent formulas was developed by Deardon-O’Neill in application for

carbon-manganese steels and can be expressed as follows, where the
numbers for the elements are the alloy content in weight percent [4]:
Weldability ratings that are based on carbon equivalent may vary from
one steel producer to another. An example of weldability ratings based on
carbon equivalent is shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Weldability as a function of

carbon equivalent (CE).
Carbon Equivalent (CE) Weldability
Up to 0.35 Excellent
from 0.36 to 0.40 incl. Very good
from 0.41 to 0.45 incl. Good
from 0.46 to 0.50 incl. Fair
Over 0.50 Poor
Lamellar tearing – One of the sources for lamellar tearing is the presence
of excessive hydrogen. Lamellar tearing can also take place in the parent
metal during welding as a result of shrinkage forces in the plate-thickness
direction. This problem can be minimized by [4]:
Reducing the sulfur level

Sulfide-inclusion-shape control with the addition of rare earths,
zirconium, or calcium.
Spot-welding peeling is mainly due to excessive hardenability of weld

buttons. The following tentative carbon equivalent formula has been
proposed for spot welding of HSLA steels [4]:
where
ultimate tensile strength, ksi

UTS =
h strip thickness, in.

=
Carbon equivalent values of 0.30 or less are considered to be

acceptable.
Page 143
6.22 Inclusion-Shape and Texture Control

Inclusion-shape control can be beneficial for decreasing the premature
ductile fracture of HSLA steels [8]. These fractures are caused by
elongated stringers of ribbons of manganese sulfide, especially in more
or less co-planar aggregates of discontinuous stringers of alumina. Also,
since manganese sulfide becomes more plastic than steel as the
temperature decreases, rolling to a low-finishing temperature results in
an undesirable distribution of non-metallic inclusions.
Inclusion-shape control involves additions of zirconium, cerium, or

calcium so that elongated stringers of inclusions are not produced.
Zirconium and cerium are mostly effective in modifying sulfides, whereas
calcium alters the constitution of alumina and prevents it from forming
discontinuous stringers of segregated particles. It was found that low
finishing-rolling temperatures during controlled rolling can produce a
pronounced crystallographic texture into the rolled product. This texture
significantly influences various properties, especially the impact transition
temperature [8].
6.23 Types of Heat Treatment

Heat treatment is the process of heating a solid metal or alloy to a certain
temperature as shown in Figs. 6.9 and 6.10. This heating is then followed
by subsequent cooling at a specific rate in order to obtain the desired
conditions or properties. Table 6.3 shows the major types of heat
treatment processes and the resulting microstructures of the finished
product [14,15].
Fig. 6.9 – Portion of the Fe-C diagram showing temperature ranges for
full annealing, normalizing, hot working and homogenizing. From
Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel, by G. Krauss, ASM International
(formerly American Society for Metals), 1980. With permission.
Page 144
Fig. 6.10 – Portion of the Fe-C diagram showing temperature ranges for
process annealing, recrystallization annealing, stress relieving and
spheroidizing. From Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel, by G. Krauss,
ASM International (formerly American Society for Metals), 1980. With
permission.
Table 6.3 Microstructures produced by major

heat treatment processes. Adapted from Krauss
[14] and Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel
[15].
Heat Treatment Process
Microstructure
Full annealing
Ferrite and pearlite
Isothermal annealing
Normalizing
Spheroidizing
Ferrite and carbide
Quenching and tempering
Tempered martensite
Martempering
Tempered martensite
Austempering
Bainite
Dual-phase
Ferrite and martensite
The main purposes of annealing are to relieve the cooling stresses that
are induced during hot and cold working along with softening the metal to
improve its machinability or formability. The annealing process also
produces a uniform microstructure of ferrite and pearlite [15].
Page 145
6.24 Full Annealing

Full annealing produces a coarse pearlite microstructure in low or
medium-carbon steels. The process consists of heating at a relatively
high temperature in the austenitic region so that a full carbide solution is
obtained. This is followed by slow cooling which produces a complete
transformation in the high-temperature end of the pearlite range as
shown in Fig. 6.11. Though the process is considered to be simple and
reliable for most steels, it is rather slow and requires a significant amount
of time to cool the material from the austenizing temperature to room
temperature.
Fig. 6.11 – Schematic transformation diagram for full annealing. (From

The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, by W.T. Lankford, et al, Tenth
Edition, 1985. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with
permission).
6.25 Isothermal Annealing

The isothermal annealing process provides a coarse pearlite
microstructure on the material and has a considerable time savings when
compared with the time required by full annealing [15]. Isothermal
annealing is achieved by rapid cooling of the material from the
austenizing temperature to the transformation temperature. This
temperature is then maintained until the transformation is complete and
the material is then rapidly cooled to room temperature as shown in Fig.
6.12. If the extreme Softness of the coarse pearlite is not necessary, the
transformation may be carried out at a ‘‘nose” of the curve, which allows
for a further speedup of the annealing process.
Isothermal annealing is utilized in a continuous heat treatment process

commonly known as cycle annealing. The cycle annealing furnace is
equipped with an air-blast chamber for rapid
Page 146
cooling from the high austenizing temperature down to the holding

temperature at which the isothermal transformation to pearlite occurs.
Fig. 6.12 – Schematic transformation diagram for isothermal annealing.

(From The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, by W.T. Lankford, et
al, Tenth Edition, 1985. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with
permission).
6.26 Batch Annealing Versus Continuous Annealing

In the batch annealing process, an entire coil is thermally treated in a
batch annealing (BA) furnace while, in a continuous annealing line (CAL),
the thermal treatment is applied to a continuously moving strip. Batch
annealing is usually performed at subcritical temperatures, below Ac1,
that are below 725°C (1340°F) for low carbon steel. It is also a very time
consuming process that can require several hours or even days as
shown in Fig. 6.13.
Conversely, the continuous annealing process is usually performed at

supercritical temperatures that are approximately 800°C (1470°F), and
requires much less processing time in the order of seconds or minutes
[16]. Figure 6.14 shows that the tensile strength of steel that is produced
by thermal treatment in a continuous annealing line is substantially
greater than the tensile strength that is produced by a batch annealing
furnace. Therefore, it would require the use of different chemical
compositions to produce the same grade of steel by the batch annealing
and continuous annealing processes as shown in Table 6.4.
Page 147
Fig. 6.13 – Time-temperature annealing curves for continuously

annealing and batch annealing processes. From W. F. Gasse, et al, 1998
AISE Annual Convention Proceedings, Pittsburgh, PA, 1998.
Fig. 6.14 – Effect of carbon (C) and manganese (Mn) contents on tensile
strength for continuously annealed and batch annealed products. From
W. F. Gasse, et al, 1998 AISE Annual Convention Proceedings,
Pittsburgh, PA, 1998.
Page 148
Table 6.4 Typical steel chemistries recommended for batch annealing and
continuous annealing. (Data from F. Gasse (1998).
Batch Annealing Continuous Annealing

Steel Grade
Steel %C %Mn Steel %C %Mn
Type max max Type max max
Commercial Quality (CQI) UA UA

0.100 0.400 0.060 0.25
Commercial Quality (CQII) UA UA

0.080 0.030 0.025 0.20
Commercial Quality (CQII) UA IF

0.080 0.030 0.007 0.20
Drawing Quality (DQ) UA IF

0.060 0.025 0.007 0.20
Deep Drawing Quality (DDQ) UA IF

0.050 0.022 0.005 0.20
Extra Deep Drawing Quality UA IF

(EDDQ) 0.035 0.020 0.0025 0.20
UA = unalloyed, low carbon Al-killed steel
IF = ultra-low carbon, Ti-stabilized interstitial free steel.
6.27 Normalizing
Normalizing is a heat treatment process that is similar to full annealing
and having a main objective of producing a uniform microstructure of
ferrite and pearlite. Another objective of normalizing is to refine the grain
size, which frequently becomes very coarse during hot working or is
present in steel casting [14,15].
Normalizing in hypoeutectoid steels is performed at temperatures that are
higher than those used for annealing. Hypereutectoid steels are heated
above the temperature Acm as was shown in Fig. 6.9. Figure 6.15 shows
that for both hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels, heating is followed
by air cooling, which provides a much faster cooling rate in comparison
with that of full annealing. As the cooling rate increases, the temperature
range over which ferrite and pearlite are being formed is lowered,
resulting in a more refined microstructure of the product. Consequently,
the product would have higher strength and hardness along with lower
ductility.
6.28 Spheroidizing
Spheroidized microstructures in steels consist of spherical carbide
particles that are uniformly dispersed in a ferrite matrix as shown in
Chapter 2 (Fig. 2.6b). The spheroidized microstructure is the most stable
microstructure in steels and provides for improved ductility, which is
important for low and medium-carbon steels. This type of microstructure
is also used to obtain a lower hardness, which is important for high-
carbon steels that undergo machining prior to final hardening [14,15].
Spheroidizing can be accompanied by either complete or partial

austenizing with a subsequent holding just below the critical temperature
Ac1 and then cooling very slowly through the Ac1 (Fig. 6.16), or cycling
above and below Ac1. Spheroidizing of martensite microstructures is
frequently performed on highly alloyed tool steels that form martensite on
air cooling.
Page 149
Fig. 6.15 – Schematic time-temperature cycles for normalizing and full

annealing. From Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel, by G. Krauss,
ASM International (formerly American Society for Metals), 1980. With
permission.
Fig. 6.16 – Schematic heat treatment cycle for spheroidizing an air-

hardening steel. Martensite forms first and then is tempered close to the
Ac1 temperature to produce a spheroidized structure. From Principles of
Heat Treatment of Steel, by G. Krauss, ASM International (formerly
American Society for Metals), 1980. With permission.
6.29 Homogenizing
Homogenizing is a type of annealing treatment that is usually performed
in the earlier stages of steel processing prior to hot rolling or forging [1].
The main purpose of homogenizing is to obtain uniformity or
homogeneity of austenite, which improves the hot workability and helps
the product to obtain a uniform microstructure during subsequent
annealing or hardening operations.
Page 150
Homogenizing is usually performed at high temperatures in the austenitic

phase field as shown in Fig. 6.9, to speed up the reduction of segregation
or chemical concentrations that are produced during the solidification of
an ingot or slab. At these high temperatures, second phases such as
carbides are also most fully dissolved.
6.30 Stress Relieving

The primary purpose of stress relieving is to relieve stresses that have
been introduced to a workpiece from hot and cold working processes or
welding. The stress relief is accomplished by recovery mechanisms that
precede recrystallization. Steel is stress relieved by heating the
workpiece to a temperature below the lower critical temperature A1 (Fig.
6.10). The holding time at this temperature must be sufficient to reduce
the residual stresses to an acceptable level. This is then followed by
cooling at a relatively slow rate in to avoid the creation of new stresses
[14].
Some steels exhibit a loss of toughness on slow cooling from

temperatures of approximately 535°C (1000°F) and above. To avoid this
phenomenon which is known as temper brittleness, rapid cooling is
utilized.
6.31 Quenching and Tempering

Quenching and tempering is the heat treatment commonly used to obtain
a tempered martensite microstructure which is characterized by relatively
high toughness and good ductility [15]. During quenching, a workpiece is
heated to a temperature at which austenite is formed and then cooled
rapidly so that transformation does not occur at the temperature above
the martensite range. Water, oils or brine are the most commonly used
medium for quenching.
The formation of hard and brittle martensite is accompanied by the

creation of a high residual stress. Tempering, which is similar to stress
relieving, can relieve these stresses and also improve ductility. The
tempering operation should immediately follow quenching in order to
minimize cracking as shown in Fig. 6.17.
6.32 Martempering
Martempering is a modified quenching procedure that is used to reduce
the high residual stresses which are usually created during the rapid
cooling through the martensite temperature range [15]. This heat
treatment is carried out by quenching a workpiece into a molten-salt bath
at a temperature just above the martensite transformation temperature
Ms. The workpiece is held in this bath to establish a constant
temperature throughout the workpiece and then air cooled to room
temperature.
As a result, the transformation to martensite occurs during the relatively

slow air cooling process. After martempering, the workpiece can then be
tempered to the desired hardness as shown in Fig. 6.18. Tools, bearings,
and dies are examples of the types of workpieces that are usually
subjected to martempering.
Page 151
Fig. 6.17 – Schematic transformation diagram for quenching and

tempering. (From The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, by W.T.
Lankford, et al, Tenth Edition, 1985. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Reprinted with permission).
Fig. 6.18 – Schematic transformation diagram for martempering. (From
permission).
Page 152
6.33 Austempering
Austempering is a heat treatment that is used to obtain a lower bainite
microstructure which is similar in strength and superior in ductility to
those of tempered martensite [15]. This heat treatment includes
quenching to the desired temperature in the lower bainite region, usually
in a molten-salt bath and holding the workpiece at this temperature until
the transformation to bainite is completed (Fig. 6.19). After austempering,
the workpiece is either quenched or air cooled to room temperature. The
workpiece can also be tempered to a lower hardness level if required.
A major advantage of this process over conventional quenching and

tempering is minimum distortion and the absence of quench cracking.
Plain high-carbon steels in small section sizes, such as sheet, strip, and
wire are typical products for austempering.
Fig. 6.19 – Schematic transformation diagram for austempering. (From
permission).
6.34 Dual-Phase Heat Treatment

The main purpose of dual-phase heat treatment is to obtain a
microstructure that represents a mixture of ferrite and martensite by
heating the steel into the intercritical temperature region (between the A1
and A3 temperature). In this region, the microstructure consists of ferrite
and austenite. Since the austenite area of steel in this region is high in
carbon, the steel has a higher ability to form martensite during quenching
than a steel that was heated above the A3 temperature.
The amount of martensite that forms during dual-phase heat treatment

depends on the cooling rate. Intercritical continuous annealing allows
low-carbon hot or cold-rolled sheet steel to obtain a dual-phase
microstructure consisting of ferrite with 15 to 20% martensite. Sheets with
this dual-phase microstructure also have increased strength and superior
ductility.
Page 153
6.35 Surface Hardening

Surface hardening is a heat treatment process that is utilized to obtain a
hard, wear-resistant surface along with a strong, fracture-resistant core.
The two most common surface hardening processes are decremental
hardening and case hardening [15].
Decremental hardening is the process of increasing the surface hardness

without a change in the chemical composition of the surface. This can be
achieved by heating the workpiece at a high rate in order to produce a
steep temperature gradient. This heating is continued until the A3
temperature is reached at the desired depth below the surface at which
time the workpiece is then quenched. Decremental hardening can be
accomplished by one of the following processes:
Heating in a furnace that is maintained at high temperature

Flame hardening or direct impingement of a high temperature
Induction hardening which utilizes induction heating.
Case hardening is the process that involves a change in the chemical

composition of the surface portion of a workpiece. Variations of this
process such as carburizing, nitriding, and carbonitriding can be utilized
as follows:
Carburizing produces a high-carbon layer at the surface of low-

carbon steel by heating it in contact with either carbonaceous solid
material or in a carbon-rich liquid (liquid carburizing) with
subsequent quenching. Depending on the process, the heating
temperature varies from 870°C to 1050°C (1600°F to 1920°F).
Nitriding introduces nitrogen into the surface layer of a solid
ferrous alloy by holding it in contact with nitrogen material. For
ferritic steel, the holding temperature is below the Ac1 temperature
and quenching is not usually required. The gas-phase nitronization
treatment is known as bright annealing.
Carbonitriding combines both carburizing and nitriding processes.
6.36 Quench Aging

In application to carbon steel, quench aging can be described as a
process of gradual change in steel properties with time after quenching.
This change is a result of the precipitation of carbon, nitrogen or both
from a supersaturated interstitial solid solution in ferrite. In carbon steels,
carbon is the principal element that affects the quench aging process
[15]. Hardness increases more rapidly when aging occurs above room
temperature, but a higher absolute value of hardness is attained by aging
at room temperature as shown in Fig. 6.20. Aging also results in a
variation of the magnetic properties of the material [17].
In order to reduce quench aging, the carbon and nitrogen content in

supersaturated solid solutions must be minimized by cooling the steel
slowly, especially through the temperature range from 540°C to 315°C
(1000°F to 600°F). Another method is to form stable carbides and nitrides
by adding alloys to the steel such as titanium or zirconium.
Page 154
Fig. 6.20 – Changes in hardness of 0.06% carbon steel quenched from

720°C (1325°F) after aging at indicated temperatures. (From Metals
Handbook, Aging of Iron and Steel, 1948. Copyright ASM International.
References
1. Pickering, F.B., Physical Metallurgy and the Design of Steels, Applied
Science Publishers, London, 1978, pp. 1-88.
2. Cohen, M. and Owen, W.S., “Thermo-Mechanical Processing of

Microalloyed Steels,” Microalloying ‘75, Union Carbide Corp., New York,
1977, pp. 2-8.
3. Gladman, T., et al, “Structure-Property Relationships in High-Strength

1977, pp. 32-58.
4. Fletcher, E.E., A Review of the Status, Selection, and Physical

Metallurgy of High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels, Metals and Ceramics
Information Center Report, No. 79-39, Batelle’s Columbus Laboratories,
Columbus, Ohio, March 1979.
5. Meyer, L., et al, “Columbium, Titanium, and Vanadium in Normalized,

Thermo-Mechanically Treated and Cold-Rolled Steels,” Microalloying ‘75,
Union Carbide Corp., New York, 1977, pp. 153-171.
6. Grozier, J.D., “Production of Microalloyed Strip and Plate by Controlled
Cooling,” Microalloying ‘75, Union Carbide Corp., New York, 1977, pp.
241-250.
7. Licka, S., et al, ‘‘Mathematical Model to Calculate Structure

Development and Mechanical Properties of Hot-Rolled Plates and
Strips,” Thermomechanical Processing of Microalloyed Austenite,
Metallurgical Society of AIME, New York, 1981, pp. 521-528.
8. Pickering, F.B., “High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels - A Decade of

Progress,” Microalloying ‘75, Union Carbide Corp., New York, 1977, pp.
9-31.
9. Meyer, L. and de Boer, H., “HSLA Plate Metallurgy: Alloying,

Normalizing, Controlled Rolling,” Journal of Metals, Vol. 29, No. 1, Jan.
1977, pp. 17-23.
10. Blickwede, D.J., Transaction of the American Society for Metals, Vol.
61, 1968, p. 653.
11. Gladman, T., et al, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 208,
1970, p. 172.
12. Butler, R.D., Sheet Metal Industries, Vol. 39, 1964, p. 705.
Page 155
13. Butler, R.D. and Wallace, J.F., Iron and Steel Institute Special Report,
No. 79, 1963, p. 131.
14. Krauss, G., Principles of Heat Treatment of Steel, American Society

for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1980, pp. 30-33, 103-273.
Pa., 1985, pp. 1258-1287.
16. Gasse, W.F., et al, “Technical Comparison of High Performance

Hydrogen Batch Anneal and Continuous Anneal Process Technologies,”
1998 AISE Annual Convention Proceedings, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 21-23,
1998.
17. Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,
1948, p. 439.
Page 156

Page 157
Part II
DEFORMATION OF STEEL
Page 158

Page 159
Chapter 7
MICROSCOPIC AND MACROSCOPIC PLASTICITY
7.1 Elastic and Plastic Deformation

The microscopic viewpoint deals with the physical explanation of
plasticity and establishes the relationship between plastic behavior and
the interatomic forces that act within the crystalline structure of a metal.
Elastic deformation is usually defined as a change in the dimensions that
are directly proportional to and in phase with an increase or decrease in
the applied force [1]. In elastic deformation, a limited distortion of the
crystal lattice occurs and as soon as the force is removed, the distortion
disappears as shown in Fig. 7.1.
Fig. 7.1 – Diagrams illustrating the difference in action and effect of

deformation by elastic and plastic means. (From Engineering Plasticity,
Part 1, by R.A. Higgins, 1983. Copyright Hodder & Stoughton Ltd.,
England. Reprinted with permission).
Page 160
Plastic deformation is commonly defined as a change in the dimensions

that remain permanent after removal of the load that caused it. In plastic
deformation, an extensive rearrangement of atoms within the lattice
structure takes place resulting in this permanent distortion.
7.2 Deformation by Slip

Plastic deformation proceeds in metals by a process known as slip. Slip
is an irreversible shear displacement of one part of a crystal relative to
another in a definite crystallographic direction in which the translation of
slip takes place [1,2].
Slip occurs in the direction in which the atoms are most closely packed
since this requires the least amount of energy. In a face-centered cubic
lattice (Fig. 7.2), the (111) plane of the densest atomic population
intersects the (001) plane in the line ac. When the (001) plane is
assumed to be the plane of the paper (Fig. 7.3), slip is seen as a
movement along the (111) plane in the close-packed [110] direction [3,4].
The result of slip in a polycrystalline mass of metal can be observed by a
microscopical examination and is known as slip bands.
Fig. 7.2 – Schematic diagram of slip in a face-centered cubic crystal.

(From Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, by S. Avner, Second Edition,
1974. Copyright McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Reprinted with
permission).
7.3 Mechanism of Slip

The modern theory of plastic deformation considers slip as a step by step
movement of a so-called dislocation within a crystal, which are linear
imperfections in a crystalline array of atoms [2,3]. It is assumed that the
majority of dislocations are formed during the original solidification
process. During any subsequent cold-working process, the dislocations
can reproduce themselves and greatly increase their number.
Figure 7.3a shows that by applying a shear force, an extra plane of

atoms (dislocation) forms above the slip plane. This type of dislocation
moves across the slip plane (Fig. 7.3b,c) and leaves a step when it
appears at the crystal surface (Fig. 7.3d) and is known as edge
dislocation.
Slip can also occur by the movement of screw dislocations which differs
from edge dislocations in such a way that the direction of movement of
the dislocation is normal to the direction of the slip step as shown in Fig.
7.4. When slip takes place by a combination of a screw dislocation with
an edge dislocation, the resultant curved dislocation evolves as shown in
Fig. 7.5 [5].
Page 161
Fig. 7.3 – Analogy between the movement of a dislocation through a

crystal and the movement of an inchworm as it arches its back while
going forward. (From Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, by S. Avner,
Second Edition, 1974. Copyright McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Fig. 7.4 – The movement of a screw dislocation. (From Engineering

Plasticity, Part 1, by R.A. Higgins, 1983. Copyright Hodder & Stoughton
Ltd., England. Reprinted with permission).
Page 162
Fig. 7.5 – Combination of a screw dislocation with an edge dislocation.

al, Tenth Edition, 1985. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with
permission).
7.4 Deformation by Twinning

In certain metals such as zinc, tin, and pure iron, deformation occurs by a
process known as twinning [2,3]. As mentioned previously, in deformation
by slip, all atoms in one block move an equal distance. In deformation by
twinning, the atoms in each successive plane within a block (Fig. 7.6a)
move in different distances (Fig. 7.6b). As a result, the direction of the
lattice is altered so that each half of the crystal becomes a mirror image
of the other along a twinning plane (Fig. 7.6c) [6].
Fig. 7.6 – Formation of mechanical twins in: a) initial state, b) transitional

state, c) final state. (From Fundamentals of Rolling, by Z. Wusatowski,
1969. Copyright .Wydawnictwo Slask, Katowice, Poland. Reprinted with
permission).
7.5 Energy of Mechanical Deformation

One of the remarkable features of plastic deformation is that the stress
required to initiate slip is lower than that required to continue deformation
on subsequent planes. This is due to the fact that
Page 163
the dislocations that are present at the start of stress application move
into jammed positions. The material is also undergoing strain hardening
or work hardening. At the point when no further slip by movement of
dislocations is possible, the material reaches its maximum strength and
any further increase in stress would cause fracture.
The energy of mechanical deformation employed during the cold-working

process consists of the following components:
Energy converted to heat as internal forces acting within the metal

are overcome (90%).
Stored (potential) energy associated with a number of new
dislocations generated during deformation (9%).
Remaining potential energy associated with locked-up residual
stresses arising from elastic strains internally balanced (1%).
7.6 Grain Restoration Process

The restoration of the crystalline structure in a cold-worked metal is
possible by a heat-treatment process known as annealing that can
proceed in the following three phases [2,3]:
1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth
Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth are all processes leading to

softening (Fig. 7.7) that are dependent on time and not instantaneous.
The rate at which each process proceeds increases with rising
temperatures that follow an exponential law. When the temperature of a
cold worked metal is high enough, these processes operate with such
rapidity as to appear to be instantaneous, but at lower temperatures the
time dependence can be readily detected.
Fig. 7.7 – Schematic representation of recovery, recrystallization, and
grain growth. (From Metals Handbook, 1948. Copyright ASM
International. Reprinted with permission).
Page 164
These rates however, vary widely from metal to metal and greatly depend
on the composition, purity, grain size of the sample before deformation,
and amount of deformation. Generally, metals with low melting points
exhibit high rates at low temperature, as in the case of tin. Furthermore,
the three processes sometimes overlap and are difficult to distinguish,
while in other cases they can be clearly separated [7].
7.7 Recovery
Recovery is a mechanism by which some of the crystal imperfections are
eliminated or rearranged into new configurations [8]. The principal effect
of recovery is the relief of internal stresses that accumulate during the
cold working process [2,3]. Recovery can be achieved by heating to a
relatively low temperature.
The amount of reduction in residual stress that occurs during a given time
increases with an increase in temperature. Also, at a given temperature,
the rate of decrease in residual strain hardening is fastest at the
beginning and substantially slows down with time as shown in Fig. 7.8.
Fig. 7.8 – Effect of temperature on recovery. (From Introduction to

Physical Metallurgy, by S. Avner, Second Edition, 1974. Copyright
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Reprinted with permission).
7.8 Recrystallization
The recrystallization process begins when the annealing temperature
reaches a certain level and commences with the formation of new
crystals (Fig. 7.9a,b). The new crystals generally appear at the most
drastically deformed portions of the grain, usually the grain boundaries
and slip planes. The cluster of atoms from which the new grains are
formed is called a nucleus. The new crystals are equiaxed in form and
grow at the expense of the old crystals (Fig. 7.9c,d,e), until
recrystallization is complete (Fig. 7.9f).
The approximate minimum temperature at which complete

recrystallization of a cold-worked metal occurs within a specified time is
called the recrystallization temperature [1]. A highly cold-worked low-
carbon steel completely recrystallizes in one hour at an approximate
temperature of 538°C (1000°F) [3].
Page 165
Fig. 7.9 – Stages in recrystallization of a metal. (From Engineering

Metallurgy, Part 1, by R.A. Higgins, 1983. Copyright Hodder & Stoughton
Ltd., England. Reprinted with permission).
7.9 Grain Growth

Two oppositely acting forces determine the character of grain growth.
The driving force for grain growth is associated with the reduction of the
amount of grain boundary and therefore with the reduction of free energy
in a crystalline body. Opposing this force is the rigidity of the lattice. If the
annealing temperature is maintained above the recrystallization
temperature of the metal, the newly formed crystals will continue to grow
by absorbing each other.
The extent of grain growth can be determined by the following four major
factors [2,3]:
Annealing temperature – Grain size increases with an increase in

temperature as shown in Fig. 7.10.
Duration of annealing process – At the beginning of the annealing
process at a given temperature, the rate of increase in grain
growth is fastest. As the process continues, the rate of grain
growth slows down considerably.
Degree of previous cold work – In general, increasing the amount
of cold deformation gives rise to the production of many nuclei on
recrystallization and therefore the grain size will be small.
Conversely, light deformation will give rise to a few nuclei and the
resulting grain size will be large (Fig. 7.11). There is a minimum
amount of cold-work deformation referred to as critical that results
in an extremely coarse grain.
Insoluble impurities – These impurities increase nucleation and act
as barriers to grain growth. As the amount of insoluble impurities
increase and their distribution becomes finer, the final grain size
will also become finer.
Page 166
Fig. 7.10 – Effect of temperature and time on grain size. (From

Engineering Metallurgy, Part 1, by R.A. Higgins, 1983. Copyright Hodder
& Stoughton Ltd., England. Reprinted with permission).
Fig. 7.11 – Effect of cold working on grain size developed in a low-carbon

steel at 950°C (1742°F). (From Metals Handbook, 1948. Copyright ASM
International. Reprinted with permission).
7.10 Macroscopic Nature of Plasticity

The macroscopic viewpoint deals with a phenomenological explanation of
plasticity that is based on observations of plastic deformation of a
polycrystalline metal. According to this viewpoint, the metal is considered
as a continuum and its plastic behavior can be described with such
parameters as density, stress, and velocity at all points within its
boundaries [5,10-11]. The following three types of deformation are
commonly considered:
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Triaxial
Page 167
7.11 Stresses in Uniaxial Deformation

Let us consider stresses in a prismatic bar that are submitted to an axial
tensile force P [9]. These stresses are two types, tensile and shear.
Tensile stress – The tensile stress over the cross-section m-m (Fig.
7.12a), and perpendicular to the axis of the bar is equal to:
where
area of cross-section normal to the axis of the bar.

A=
Fig. 7.12 – Stresses in uniaxial deformation.

The stress over the cross-section m-m (Fig. 7.12b), perpendicular to the
plane of the figure and inclined to the axis, is defined as the ratio of force
P over the area of the cross-section m-m, i.e.:
The stress component σΦ is perpendicular to the cross-section and is

called normal stress with a magnitude equal to:
Page 168
In the plane n-n (Fig. 7.12c) perpendicular to the cross-section m-m, the
normal stress is equal to:
The sum of normal stresses acting in the cross-sections m-m and n-n is
equal to:
Thus, the sum of the normal stresses σΦ, and σΦ′ acting on two
perpendicular planes remains constant and equal to σx. When Φ = 0
(Fig. 7.12a), the normal stress σΦ reaches its maximum value that is
equal to σx. In order to apply Eqs. (7-1) through (7-5) to the case of axial
compression, the sign of P must be changed, i.e., P = -P.
Shear stress – The shear stresses τΦ and τΦ′ (Fig. 7.12b,c) acting in the
planes m-m and n-n respectively, have the same absolute value but
opposite signs as given by:
When Φ = 45°, the shear stresses reach their maximum value that is
equal to σx/2.
7.12 Stresses in Biaxial Deformation

Figure 7.13a shows the case when two mutually perpendicular tensile
stresses σx, and σy along with the shear stresses τxy produced by
external forces act in the plane of the figure.
Fig. 7.13 – Stresses in: a) biaxial deformation, b) triaxial deformation.
Page 169
From an equilibrium consideration, it can be shown that the normal and

shear stress components σΦ and τΦ vary with the orientation in the x-y
plane as follows:
The shear stress τf is equal to zero on the plane located at the angle Φ =
Φo, which is given by:
If Φ = Φo, then the normal stresses σΦ and σΦ′ reach their limiting
values σ1 and σ2 respectively, which are known as principal stresses and
are equal to:
where
τmxy maximum shear stress in the x-y plane that is equal to:
=
7.13 Stresses and Strains in Triaxial Deformation

Figure 7.13b illustrates an elemental cube of metal that is subjected to a
system of external normal and shear stresses acting on the faces of the
cube. These stresses produce the principal stresses σ1, σ2 and σ3.
Triaxial deformation can be considered as a general case, whereas both
uniaxial and biaxial deformation can be viewed as particular cases of
triaxial deformation when one or two principal stresses are equal to zero.
Page 170
The strains corresponding to the principal stresses σl, σ2 and σ3 can be

calculated through the use of a generalized Hooke’s law [9-11]:
Prior to reaching the elastic limit, the Poisson’s ratio ν is equal to 0.3.
However, after the yield point is exceeded, the volume of metal remains
constant, i.e.
After substituting Eqs. (7-14a,b,c) into Eq. (7-15), the Poisson’s ratio ν is
equal to 0.5 at the yield point.
7.14 Yield Criteria

Yield criteria is a mathematical presentation of the states of stress that
will induce yielding or the onset of plastic deformation. In the most
general form (Fig. 7.13b), it can be expressed as [11]:
In terms of principal stresses, it reduces to the form:

where
C1, C2 constants.
=
Since yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress τmax reaches the
value of the yield shear stress k, the constants C1 and C2 are usually
expressed as a function of k, or yield stress Y, that is determined in a
simple tension test.
Page 171
The two most widely used yield criteria are maximum-shear-stress and
distortion-energy. In their derivation, it is assumed that the material is
continuous, homogeneous and isotropic, i.e., it has the same properties
in all directions. The tensile stress is positive and the compressive stress
is negative, and the yield stress in tension and compression are
essentially equal [11].
Maximum-shear-stress criterion – This criterion is also known as the

Tresca criterion and can be expressed by:
where
σmax, σmin maximum and minimum principal stresses respectively

=
k shear yield stress.

=
Distortion-energy criterion – This criterion is also known as the Von Mises

criterion and can be given by:
This criterion considers not only the maximum and minimum principal
stresses as the maximum-shear-stress criterion does, but also
intermediate principal stresses. In a more general form, this criterion can
be written as:
7.15 Plane Stress and Plane Strain

The two states of stress, plane stress and plane strain, are important in
the application to plastic deformation by rolling. Plane stress is the state
of stress in which one or two of the pairs of faces on an elemental cube
are free of any stresses as shown in Figure 7.14a [10,11].
Fig. 7.14 – Two states of stress: a) plane stress, b) plane strain.

Page 172
Figure 7.15 illustrates two yield envelopes. The stress applied to the
elemental cube should fall on the outside of these envelopes to cause
yielding. The envelope of straight lines is obtained from the maximum-
shear-stress criterion (Eq. 7-18). The second envelope is derived from
the distortion-energy criterion (Eq. 7-19), which for plane stress (σ2 = 0)
reduces to:
Plane strain is the state of stress in which one of the pairs of faces on an
elemental cube undergoes zero strain as shown in Fig. 7.14b. It follows
from Eqs. (7.14a,b,c), for plane strain (∈2 = 0) in the yielding state (ν =
0.5) that
After substituting Eq. (7-22) into Eq. (7-19), the distortion-energy criterion
reduces to the following for plane strain compression (Fig. 7.14b):
where
constrained yield stress for plane strain compression.

S=
Fig. 7.15 – Plane stress diagrams for maximum-shear-stress and
distortion-energy criteria. (From Serope Kalpakjian, Manufacturing
Processes for Engineering Materials, Copyright 1985 Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Massachusetts. Reprinted with
permission.)
Page 173
7.16 Plane Strain Compression Test

Figure 7.16 illustrates schematically the plane strain compression test,
which simulates processes such as rolling [10,11]. In this test, the
following relationships between the dimensions of a workpiece and an
indenter are recommended: w/b > 6 and 2 < b/t < 4. As the load is
applied, the metal between the indenters is constrained from moving in
the w direction by the unstressed material adjacent to the indenter region.
Thus, ∈y = ∈w = 0.
The best results are obtained when incremental loading is employed with
2 to 5% strain per increment. Furthermore, caution should be taken in
preparing the indenter surfaces and lubricating the contacting surfaces,
etc. When testing ductile materials, the true stress-strain curves obtained
from the compression test coincided with those from the tension test.
However, this is not true with respect to brittle materials.
Fig. 7.16 – Schematic presentation of compression test. (From William F.

Hosford/Robert M. Caddell, Metal Forming: Mechanics and Metallurgy,
Copyright 1983. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
7.17 Effective Stress and Effective Strain

Effective stress σ̄ and effective strain ∈̄ are convenient parameters for
expressing the state of stress on an element. If the magnitude of the
effective strain reaches a critical value, then the applied stress state will
cause yielding [10,11]. For the maximum-shear-stress criterion:
and for the distortion-energy criterion:
Page 174
When σ̄ = Y, both criterion predict yielding. Thus, by using the effective

stress and effective strain, the stress-strain curve for the triaxial state of
strain can be replaced with the stress-strain curve for the uniaxial state of
strain.
7.18 Ideal Work of Deformation

The work of deformation is considered ideal when a homogeneous
material is deformed uniformly, internally and externally, and also has no
effects of friction or tool geometry on the deformation process. The ideal
work per unit volume or specific energy can be presented in terms of the
principal components as:
For a material subjected to uniaxial stresses and strains, the ideal work
per unit volume for any strain ∈x is equal to the area under the true
stress-true strain curve (Fig. 7.17) and can be expressed as [11]:
where
Ȳ average flow stress of the material.

=
7.19 Total Work of Deformation

The total work of deformation per unit of volume ut is equal to [10,11]:
where
uf frictional work per unit of volume

=
ur redundant work per unit of volume.

=
Page 175
Fig. 7.17 – True stress-true strain curve. (From Serope Kalpakjian,

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, Copyright 1985
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Massachusetts. Reprinted
with permission).
The frictional work is consumed at the interface between the deforming

metal and tool faces that constrain the metal. The redundant work is due
to the internal distortion in excess of that needed to produce the desired
shape and is affected by such factors as the tool and workpiece
geometry and lubrication at the toll-workpiece interface. Figure 7.18a
illustrates an ideal deformation process during which the plane sections
remain plane. In reality, internal shearing causes distortion of the plane
sections (Fig. 7.18b). As a consequence, the metal experiences a strain
which is greater than in the case of its ideal deformation.
Fig. 7.18 – Comparison of ideal and actual deformation to illustrate the

meaning of redundant deformation. (From William F. Hosford/Robert M.
Caddell, Metal Forming: Mechanics and Metallurgy, Copyright 1983.
Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.)
Page 176
7.20 Temperature Rise in Plastic Working

During plastic working, the mechanical work of deformation is converted
into either heat or elastic energy stored within the deformed material.
Heat represents the largest component of converted energy, while stored
energy is generally 5 to 10% of the total energy input. For some alloys,
stored energy can be as high as 30% of the total energy input [11].
Elastic energy stored within the deformed material is due to the
dislocation that distorts and strains the crystal lattice. In an ideal frictional
process when all energy is completely converted into heat, the
temperature rise Δt can be defined as:
where
ut total energy
=
ρ, c density and specific heat of the material respectively.

=
The theoretical temperature rise during compression of specimens with a

strain ∈ = ln(Lo/L) = 1 can be calculated as follows:
Temperature Rise
Specimen
°C °F
Aluminum
75 165
Copper
140 285
Low-Carbon Steel
280 535
Titanium
570 1060
7.21 Residual Stresses

Residual stresses are defined as the stresses that are present in a body
that is free of external forces or thermal gradients [1] and are the result of
inhomogeneous deformation such as the bending of a beam as shown in
Fig. 7.19 [11].
When the stresses in all fibers of a beam are within the elastic range, the
stress distribution within the beam is linear (Fig. 7.19a). As the moment is
increased, the outer fibers of the beam begin to yield and a non-linear
stress distribution is obtained as shown in Fig. 7.19b. Unloading can be
considered as equivalent to applying an equal and opposite moment to
the beam (Fig. 7.19c). The resulting stresses that remain in the beam
after unloading are the residual stresses (Fig. 7.19d).
Residual stresses can also be caused by temperature gradients within a

body or by phase changes in metals during or after processing. Residual
stresses can produce warping, stress cracking, and changes in lubricant
chemical reactivity.
Page 177
Fig. 7.19 – Residual stresses developed in bending a beam made of an

elastic, strain-hardening material. (From Serope Kalpakjian,
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, Copyright 1985.
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Massachusetts. Reprinted
with permission.) Warping – Warping is a distortion of parts caused by
disturbances of the residual stresses that are due to relaxation of these
stresses over a period of time or cutting or slitting the parts.
Stress cracking or stress-corrosion cracking – This phenomenon can be

the result of tensile residual stresses in the metal.
Change in lubricant chemical reactivity – Surfaces with tensile residual

stresses are more reactive than those with compressive stresses.
References
Park, Ohio, 1981, pp. 1-80.
2. Higgins, R.A., Engineering Metallurgy, Part I, Applied Physical

Metallurgy, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, Melbourne, Florida,
1983, pp. 78-102.

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1974, pp. 107-137.
4. Doan, G.E. and Mahla, E.M., Principles of Physical Metallurgy,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1941.
Pennsylvania, 1985, p. 773-777.

1969, p. 5.
7. Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,

1948, pp. 260-262.

9. Timoshenko, S., Strength of Materials, Part I, Third Edition, D. Van

Nostrand Company, Princeton, N.J. 1968, pp. 37-61.
10. Hosford, W.F. and Caddell, R.M., Metal Forming: Mechanics and
Metallurgy, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1983, pp.
1-249.

Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, Massachusetts,
1984, pp. 71-96.
Page 178
Chapter 8
ANALYSIS OF WORKPIECE DEFORMATION
8.1 Standard Terms Used in Theories of Flat Rolling

The standard terms that are commonly used in theories of flat rolling are
summarized in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Equations for standard terms used in theories of flat rolling.
Page 179
Table 8.1 Equations for standard terms used in theories of flat rolling
(continued).
where
R, Re radii of work rolls for reduction in thickness and width respectively

=
h1, w1
=
entry thickness and width respectively
h2, w2 exit thickness and width respectively.

=
8.2 Analysis of Workpiece Deformation by Rolling

The main purpose of rolling theory is to determine the pressure
distribution at the interfaces between the work roll and the rolled metal.
The principal parameters that affect the pressure distribution are the
geometry of the deformation zone and friction at the interfaces between
the work roll and the rolled metal. The effect of the deformation zone
geometry and friction on flat rolling can be understood in terms of the
friction-hill effect [1].
As shown in Fig. 8.1, when the work rolls are rotating with a peripheral
speed V, at some point N in the roll gap, the peripheral velocities of the
rolls and workpiece are equal. This point is known as the neutral point. To
the left of this point, the surface velocity of the metal V is lower than the
roll peripheral velocity V. This difference in speeds produces friction
between the metal and the rolls which tends to draw the metal into the
roll gap. To the right of N, the metal velocity V2 is greater than the roll
peripheral velocity V, so the friction tends to retain the metal in the roll
bite. Because of this roll-metal velocity relationship, the pressure
distribution at the interfaces between the work roll and rolled metal will be
uneven forming the so-called friction hill. The force-strain relationship for
a workpiece can be derived from known rolling theories that can be
classified as follows:
Slab analysis
Upper-bound analysis
Slip-line field analysis
Microstructural analysis
Finite element analysis
Page 180
Fig. 8.1 – Schematic presentation of the deformation zone in hot rolling.
8.3 Slab Analysis of Plastic Deformation in Flat Rolling

The slab analysis method is also known as the free-body-equilibrium
approach and is based on the following general assumptions [1,2]:
Direction of the applied load and planes perpendicular to this

direction define the principal directions.
Principal stresses do not vary on these planes.
Coefficient of the external friction at the tool-workpiece interfaces
is constant at all points of the arc of contact.
Frictional forces do not produce internal distortion of the metal and
do not change the orientation of the principal directions.
Plane vertical sections remain plane; thus the deformation is
homogeneous with regard to the determination of induced strain.
Elastic deformation of workpiece is negligible when compared to
plastic deformation.
There is no elastic deformation of the tool in the contact zone.
Compressive strength is constant throughout the contact length.
In application to rolling, the following assumptions are made [3]:
Workpiece does not spread laterally.

Roll flattening does not occur in the arc of contact.
Peripheral velocity of the rolls is constant.
Material does not undergo work-hardening during its passage
between the rolls.
Compression rate from the point along the arc of contact does not
have any effect on the magnitude of the compression strength.
Vertical component of the frictional force is negligible.
Page 181
Figure 8.2 illustrates the stresses that act upon the elemental vertical
section of a flat workpiece between the rolls. The horizontal forces that
act on the vertical faces of the section dx produce compressive stresses
σx + dσx that act on the face of the section of height h + dh and
compressive stresses σx acting on the face of the height h.
Fig. 8.2 – Schematic presentation of the deformation zone in flat rolling.
The equilibrium of the horizontal forces acting on section dx can be

expressed as:
Taking into account the yield criterion given by:
where
yield stress
Y =
constrained yield stress,

S =
and taking into account that the pressure p in the roll bite zone is equal to
the normal stress σy, the following differential equation is derived:
Page 182
This differential equation, expressed as Eq. (8-3) or in one of its

alternative forms represents the starting point in the analysis known as
the theory of homogeneous deformation which was first introduced by
Von Karman in 1925 [6].
8.4 Homogeneous Deformation in Flat Rolling

A number of solutions for the differential equation (8-3) have been
proposed and will be described in the following sections [3-13]. These
solutions differ mainly with respect to the assumed nature of the frictional
forces in the contact zone as shown in Fig. 8.3.
Fig. 8.3 – Types of frictional force and its distribution along the arc of
contact according to different theories of rolling.
Von Karman’s solution [6] is based on the assumption that dry slipping
occurs over the whole arc of contact between the rolls and the rolled
material (Fig. 8.3a). This solution also claims that the frictional force τ is
directly proportional to the value of the local normal pressure, i.e.
Ekelund’s solution [7] is based on the assumption that dry slipping occurs
over the entire entry side and sticking occurs over the entire exit side of
the arc of contact (Fig. 8.3b).
Siebel’s solution [8] is obtained for the case when dry slipping occurs
over the whole arc of contact between the rolls and the rolled material
(Fig. 8.3c). This solution also assumes that the frictional force is constant
along the arc of contact. Therefore, we can obtain the following:
Nadai’s solution [9] is based on the assumption that viscous slipping

exists in the roll contact
Page 183
zones (Fig. 8.3d). This solution also claims that the frictional force is
proportional to the relative velocity of the slip according to the following
equation:
where
Vx velocity of metal being rolled at the section dx (Fig. 8.2)

=
roll peripheral velocity

V=
h oil-film thickness.
=
Orowan and Pascoe’s solution [10] is derived for the case when sticking
occurs over the whole arc of contact (Fig. 8.3e). A similar assumption is
made by Sims [11] and Alexander [12].
Tselikov’s solution [13] is provided for the case when there is a zone of
restricted plastic deformation in the middle of the sticking zone. This
solution also assumes that dry slipping occurs at the entry and the exit of
the arc of contact as shown in Fig. 8.3f.
Figure 8.4 shows the distribution of normal pressure and frictional force
along the arc of contact as calculated by Tselikov according to the four
theories discussed: Von Karman’s, Siebel’s, Nadai’s and Tselikov’s.
Tselikov also found a solution of Von Karman’s differential equation, Eq.
(8-3) for a more general case when both the entry specific strip tension
s1 and the exit specific strip tension s2 are considered. Examples of this
solution are presented in Fig. 8.5 [14].
Fig. 8.4 – Distribution of: a) normal pressure, b) frictional pressure, with
respect to yield stress Y along arc of contact for four rolling theories.
Rolling of wide strip: h1 = 2 mm, h2 = 1 mm, R = 100 mm, μ = 0.2. (From
Waziri, AISE Year Book, 1963. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Page 184
Fig. 8.5 – Distribution of normal pressure along the arc of contact in

rolling wide strip (r = 0.3, α = 5°40′, h2/D = 0.0116) as a function of: a)
coefficient of friction, b) reduction, c) roll radius to exit thickness ratio, d)
average strip tension. Adapted from Tselikov, 1939.
Figure 8.5a shows that theoretically, the coefficient of friction μ exerts a

marked influence on the distribution of normal pressure and as μ
increases, both the peak pressure and average pressure increase. The
position of the neutral point, which lies in the vertical plane through the
peak, shifts toward the entry as μ increases. Figure 8.5b shows that as
the reduction r increases, the peak normal pressure and average
pressure increase. A similar effect is produced when the ratio of the roll
radius R to the exit thickness h2 increases as shown in Fig. 8.5c. Figure
8.5d illustrates the effect of entry and exit tensions on pressure in the arc
of contact. As the average specific strip tension sa = (s1 + s2)/2
increases, the normal pressure p in the arc of contact decreases.
8.5 Nonhomogeneous Deformation in Flat Rolling

The theories of homogeneous deformation are based on a common
assumption that a plane vertical section of the rolled material remains
plane during rolling. However, this contradicts the facts that were
obtained from numerous experiments. An attempt to overcome this
problem was made by Orowan in his theory of nonhomogeneous
deformation [15]. According to this theory, the plane
Page 185
vertical sections of sheet before rolling are deformed during rolling (Fig.
8.6). Also, it is assumed that the stress distribution in a vertical plane is
not homogeneous. The distribution of shear stresses can be described
by:
and the distribution of horizontal stress is expressed as:
Fig. 8.6 – Stress distribution in the roll bite according to the theory of
nonhomogeneous deformation.
Orowan’s theory provides a solution for normal pressure distribution

along the arc of contact for the case when sticking friction exists in the
vicinity of the neutral plane and dry slipping friction prevails at the entry
and exit planes. Another limitation of the theories of homogeneous
deformation arises from the assumptions that the yield stress of the
material and the coefficient of friction remain constant. However, in most
cases of cold rolling, the constrained yield stress S increases due to
work-hardening and there is also a strong possibility that the coefficient of
friction is not constant in all points in the arc of contact especially during
dry rolling [3]. Given a curve showing the variation of yield stress with
reduction, the normal pressure distribution in the arc of contact can be
calculated by means of Von Karman’s equation and a point to point
summation. This process, however, is laborious and for practical
purposes a more efficient method is desirable.
Page 186
Both homogeneous and nonhomogeneous theories of rolling give a

simplistic description of the deformation zone. It was found that the
accuracy of the calculations based on these theories can be improved if
such factors as roll flattening and the elastic recovery of the rolled strip
are taken into consideration.
8.6 Roll Flattening Effect

Since all rolls are elastic, some deformation of the rolls occurs during
rolling. The general nature of this deformation is indicated in Fig. 8.7,
where the shape of the rigid roll with radius R is compared with that of
deformed roll with radius R′.
Fig. 8.7 – Schematic presentation of roll flattening effect.
The main effects produced by roll flattening are:
Arc of contact is lengthened for the same draft when compared

with a rigid roll
Planes of entry and exit are shifted outward from the centerline of
the rolls.
Assuming that the pressure distribution along the arc of contact is

elliptical, Hitchcock derived the following equation for the roll contact
length of the flattened roll [16]:
where
Page 187
where
Er modulus of elasticity for roll material

=
νr Poisson’s ratio for roll material.

=
The radius of a flattened roll is equal to:
where
roll separating force

P =
w width of rolled strip.

=
8.7 Simplified Analysis of Rolling with Dry Slipping Friction

One of the most practical analyses of rolling with dry slipping friction was
proposed by Stone [17]. In this analysis, the effects of both strip tension
and roll flattening are considered. The produced results proved to be
applicable for calculating the rolling loads in cold strip mills. Let us
assume that the forces acting on the element dx in the roll bite can be
described by the following linear differential equation (Fig. 8.8):
A solution of Eq. (8-13) can be given by:

where
pressure multiplication factor that is given by the following equation:

PMF=
The application of this theory will be later discussed in Chapter 10.

Page 188
Fig. 8.8 – Schematic diagram used for derivation of Stone’s theory of

rolling.
8.8 Simplified Analysis of Rolling with Sticking Friction

A number of simplified solutions for rolling with sticking friction have been
proposed which have a practical value for calculating rolling loads in hot
strip mills. Orowan and Pascoe [10,15] assumed a simple triangular hill
on a rectangular base (Fig. 8.9). The slope α2 at the exit side of the
friction hill is assumed to be equal to:
The position of the neutral plane is described as the distance xn from the
plane of exit:
where
n coefficient that varies between 0.4 and 0.6.

=
The average pressure in the arc of contact can then be found by

calculating the total area that includes both the friction hill and its base as
given by:
Alexander and Ford [18] modified the analysis described above by

assuming that the slope at
Page 189
the entry of the friction hill is equal to:
Therefore, the position of the neutral plane can be described by the

following equation (Fig. 8.9):
Fig. 8.9 – Simplified friction hill for rolling with sticking friction.
The average pressure as a function of the average strip thickness ha can

then be expressed as:
Gupta and Ford [19] showed that Eq. (8-21) is also valid in the presence
of roll flattening which is described by Eq. (8-12). Taking into account the
equations from Table 8.1, Eq. (8-21) can be rewritten in the following form
[20]:
A more sophisticated expression for the average rolling pressure was
also proposed by Sims [11].
Page 190
8.9 Effect of Strip Elastic Recovery

Bland and Ford [21] derived the equation for the radius of a flattened roll
by taking into account the strip elastic recovery as shown in Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.10 – Schematic illustration of strip elastic recovery.
The equation for the radius of the flattened roll can be expressed in the
form:
where
Δ draft as expressed by the equation shown in Table 8.1:

=
When the elastic recovery is neglected, Δ2 = Δ t = 0 and Eq. (8.23)

reduces to the well-known form described by Eq. (8.12).
8.9 Limit of Rollability

Roll flattening can become so severe that it is impossible to reduce the
thickness of a sheet below some limiting value hmin. Indeed, the effect of
roll flattening is to increase the separating force P,
Page 191
since both average normal pressure pa and the contact length L′

increase. Both the roll separating force P and the flattened roll radius R′
can be found by solving the following two equations simultaneously [1]:
Figure 8.11 gives a graphical solution for heavily rolled steel where S =
100,000 psi, μ = 0.2, Er = 30,000 psi, r = 0.05, and R = 5 in. The initial
thicknesses h1 of 0.100, 0.040, and 0.020 in. were used in the
calculations. The intersection of these two plots satisfies both equations.
There is no intersection point for the sheet where h1 = 0.020 in. which
indicates that this thickness cannot be reduced under the rolling
conditions specified above. The minimum thickness that can be rolled is
given by the following equation [17]:
where
coefficient with a value between 7 and 8 [1].

A=
Equation (8-28) suggests a number of ways to reduce minimum rolled

thickness such as:
Increasing the average strip tension sa

Reducing the constrained yield strength of the strip S by annealing
Reducing the coefficient of friction μ by lubrication and roll
polishing
Reducing the roll radius R
Using roll materials with a higher modulus of elasticity Er such as
sintered carbide
Rolling thin strip between layers of softer material.
Ford and Alexander [22] derived an equation for minimum rolled

thickness which takes in to account both the modulus of elasticity and
Poisson’s ratio for strip material and can be expressed by:
where
νs Poisson’s ratio for strip material

=
Es modulus of elasticity for strip material.

=
Page 192
When Es = Er and νs = νr, Eq. (8-29) reduces to:
Equation (8-30) produces a more conservative estimate of the minimum

rolled thickness when compared with the results obtained from Eq. (8-28)
under the same conditions.
Fig. 8.11 – Variation of roll separating force per unit of width with a
flattened roll radius: solid lines from Eq. (8-12), dotted lines from Eq. (8-
23). (From William F. Hosford/Robert M. Caddell, Metal Forming:
Mechanics and Metallurgy, Copyright 1983, Reprinted by permission of
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.).
8.10 Basic Principles of Upper-Bound Analysis

Upper-bound analysis is used for an approximate evaluation of the forces
that cause plastic flow of metals [1]. This analysis predicts the load that is
at least equal to or greater than the exact load needed to cause plastic
flow. It is also based upon satisfying the yield criterion and assuring that
shape changes are geometrically self-consistent, whereas no attention is
paid to stress equilibrium. Upper-bound analysis is applied to metal-
forming operations which require predicting the forces that cause the
desired shape change.
In upper-bound analysis, the internal flow field or deformation field is

assumed. This field must account for the required shape change. The
predicted force that causes plastic deformation in this field is calculated
by equating the internal rate of energy dissipation to the rate of work
done
Page 193
by external forces [23]. The energy consumed internally is calculated by

using the approximate strength properties of the work material. The
assumed deformation field can be checked for complete consistency by
drawing a velocity vector diagram, which is commonly known as
hodograph. In applying upper-bound analysis to plastic deformation, the
following assumptions are used:
Workpiece material is isotropic and homogeneous

Effects of strain hardening and strain rate are neglected.
There are two basic approaches in constructing the deformation fields.

According to the first approach, the deformation fields are polygons which
are viewed as rigid blocks. These blocks are separated by the planes
upon which discrete shear occurs. According to the second approach,
other deformation fields are suitable as long as they are kinematically
admissible. For example, an acceptable field may include regions
undergoing homogeneous deformation.
8.11 Upper-Bound Solutions for Flat Rolling

Upper-bound solutions for flat rolling with sticking friction were developed
by Green and Wallace [24] and Piispanen [25]. In order to simplify these
solutions, the problem was reduced to a case of wedge compression as
shown in Fig. 8.12 which shows the following parameters:
V1 velocity of material before entering the die

=
V2 velocity of material after exiting the die

=
VAB, VBC velocity discontinuities at entry and exit of the die respectively.
=
VA velocity of the rigid block ABC

=
Vo, VH vertical and horizontal components of the velocity VA respectively

=
h1, h2 entry and exit material thicknesses respectively.

=
Since the material in triangle ABC moves as a rigid block, the velocity VA
must be drawn parallel to AC. Since the velocity discontinuity VAB is
parallel to AB, the magnitudes of both VA and VAB can be established if
the magnitude of V1 is known. Similarly at the exit side, the velocity
discontinuity VBC is drawn parallel to BC, where its magnitude is
established by the fact that the resultant velocity V2 (drawn from point 0)
must be parallel to V1. The obtained hodograph meets the requirements
of self-consistency and the following mass-flow relationship is
maintained:
The energy balance for the two parts ABD and DBC of the rigid block
ABC is obtained by equating the rate of external work per unit of width to
internal energy dissipation at the shear plane AB. The energy balance for
the part DBC is obtained by equating the rate of external work per unit of
width to internal energy dissipation at the shear plane BC. Subsequently,
the total vertical force applied to the rigid block ABC can be calculated
as:
Page 194
Fig. 8.12 – Simplified deformation field for rolling with sticking friction.
The ratio pa/S reaches a minimum value when
and Eq. (8-32) then reduces to:
8.12 Principles of Slip-Line Field Analysis

Slip-line field analysis provides a rather realistic picture of metal flow by
utilizing a graphical approach which presents the flow pattern from point
to point in the deforming metal [1,12,24-28]. This technique is based on
the construction of a family of straight or curvilinear lines that correspond
to the directions of yield stress of the material in shear k and intersect
each other orthogonally. A network of these orthogonal lines describes a
slip-line field. The development of a slip-line field depends largely on
intuition and experience and must satisfy certain conditions such as static
equilibrium of forces, yield criteria, and boundary conditions. Slip-line field
analysis is based on the following assumptions:
The metal is isotropic and homogeneous.

The metal is rigid-perfectly plastic which implies the neglect of
work hardening.
Page 195
Deformation occurs by plain strain.

There is a constant shear stress at the interfacial boundary.
Effects of temperature, strain rate, and time are not taken into
consideration.
The development of slip-line fields is a tedious process that relies mostly

on intuition and experience which limits its practical application. Figure
8.13 shows a slip-line field for hot rolling that was developed by Ford and
Alexander [12,28]. In their solution, the problem was reduced to the
construction of a slip-line field for a workpiece compressed between two
inclined platens with sticking friction. To simplify the calculations, it is
assumed that the slip line at the entrance to the roll gap is straight, while
meeting the centerline of the workpiece at 45° and the roll tangentially.
Fig. 8.13 – Slip-line field and pressure distribution for the hot rolling
process (R/h1 = 80; r = 0.1). Adapted from Ford and Alexander.
Having constructed a slip-line network, the vertical force that is applied to

the base of each triangle coincident with the centerline of the workpiece
can be calculated. The resultant distribution of pressure along the arc of
contact is shown in Fig. 8.13 assuming the sticking friction between the
strip and the roll surface. Similarly, the resultant of the shearing forces
along the bases of the triangles coincident with the roll surface can be
used for calculating the rolling torque.
8.13 Microstructural and Finite Element Analysis

Microstructural analysis is based on the theory of crystal plasticity and
calculates the resistance to deformation of a metal for cases when the
rolling process is accompanied by restoration of the crystalline structure
including recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth (Fig. 8.14). This
analysis is useful when applied to controlled rolling of strip and plates
[29].
Page 196
Fig. 8.14 – Evolution of grain structure during rolling.
Finite element analysis can be employed to describe the behavior of

materials during rolling by the use of the following types of models:
Visco-plastic model [30] in which the elastic strain of the deformed

metal is ignored and the metal is treated as an incompressible
viscous fluid of a non-Newtonian kind.
Rigid-plastic model [31] in which the material is considered to be
rigid at the entry and exit of the deformation zone and plastic
within the deformation zone. The solution is based on the
infinitesimal theory of plastic deformation.
Elastic-plastic model [32] which clearly identifies both elastic and
plastic deformation zones, as well as the undeformed elements
inside the deformation zone. This model provides a more accurate
calculation in application to cold rolling in which the effects of
elastic recovery cannot be ignored.
References
1. Hosford, W.F. and Caddell, R.M., Metal Forming: Mechanics and
Metallurgy, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1983, pp. 115-142.

51-90.
3. Underwood, L.R., The Rolling of Metals: Theory and Experiment,

Volume 1, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 1950, pp. 203-241.
4. Ginzburg, V.B., ‘‘Basic Principles of Customized Computer Models for

Cold and Hot Strip Mills,” Iron and Steel Engineer, Sept. 1985, pp. 21-35.
5. El-Waziri, A.H., “An Up-to-Date Examination of Rolling Theory,” AISE

Yearly Proceedings, 1963, pp. 753-760.
6. Von Karman, T.H., “On the Theory of Rolling,” Journal for Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics (German), Vol. 5, 1925, pp. 139-141.
7. Ekelund, S., “Analysis of Factors Influencing Rolling Pressure and

Power Consumption in the Hot Rolling of Steel,” Steel, Vol. 93, Aug. 21,
1933, pp. 27-29.
Page 197
8. Siebel, E., “Resistance and Deformation and the Flow Material During
Rolling,” Stahl und Eisen, Vol. 50, 1930, p. 1769.
9. Nadai, A., “The Forces Required for Rolling Steel Strip Under Tension,”
Journal of Applied Mechanics, June 1939, pp. A54-A62.
10. Orowan, E. and Pascoe, K.J., “A Simple Method of Calculating Roll

Pressure and Power Consumption in Flat Hot Rolling,” Iron and Steel
Institute (London), No. 34, 1946, pp. 124-126.
11. Sims, R.B., “The Calculation of Roll Force and Torque in Hot Rolling,”
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, No. 168, 1954,
pp. 191-200.
12. Alexander, J.M., “A Slip Line Field for the Hot Rolling Process,’’
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 169, 1955,
pp. 1021-1030.
13. Tselikov, A.I., “Present State of Theory of Metal Pressure upon Rolls
in Longitudinal Rolling,” Stahl, Vol. 18 No. 5, May 1958, pp. 434-441.
14. Tselikov, A.I., “Effect of External Friction and Tension on the Pressure
of the Metal on the Rolls in Rolling,” Metallurg (USSR), No.6, 1939, pp.
61-76.
15. Orowan, E., “The Calculation of Roll Pressure in Hot and Cold Flat
Rolling,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 50,
No. 4, 1943, pp. 140-167.
16. Trinks, W. and Hitchcock, J.H., Roll Neck Bearings, American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1935.
17. Stone, M.D., “Rolling Thin Strip”, AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1953, pp.
115-128.
18. Alexander, J.M. and Ford, H., “On the Limit Analysis of Hot Rolling,”
Progress in Applied Mechanics, 1963, pp. 191-203.
19. Gupta, S. and Ford, H., “Calculation Method for Hot Rolling of Steel
Sheet and Strip,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Feb. 1967, pp.
186-190.
20. Tarokh, M. and Seredinski, F., “Roll-Force Estimation in Plate

Rolling,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, July 1970, pp. 695-697.
21. Bland, D.R. and Ford, H., “Cold Rolling with Strip Tension, Part 3 –
An Approximate Treatment of the Elastic Compression of the Strip in
Cold Rolling,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 171, July 1952,
pp. 245-249.
22. Ford, H., and Alexander, J.M., “Rolling Hard Materials in Thin
Gauges,” Journal of the Institute of Metals, Vol. 88, 1959-60, pp. 193-
199.
23. Hosford, W.F. and Caddel, R.M., Metal Forming: Mechanics and
Metallurgy, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1983, pp. 143-238.
24. Green, J.W. and Wallace, J.F., “Estimation of Load and Torque in the
Hot Rolling Process,” Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Vol. 4
No. 2, 1962, pp. 136-142.
25. Piispanen, V., “Plastic Deformation of Metal: Theory of Simulated

Sliding,” Wear, Vol. 38 No. 1, pp. 43-72.

90-91.
27. Johnson, W. and Mellor, P.B., Engineering Plasticity, Van Nostrand

Reinhold, New York, 1973, pp. 381-406.
28. Ford, H. and Alexander, J.M., “Simplified Hot Rolling Calculations,”

Journal of the Institute of Metals, Vol. 92, 1963-64, pp. 397-404.
Page 198
29. Saito, Y., et al, “Advanced Controlled Rolling Technique for

Manufacture of High Strength, High Toughness Plates at 5500 mm Plate
Mill,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Steel Rolling:
Science and Technology of Flat Rolling, Vol. 2, Tokyo, Japan, Sept. 29 -
Oct. 4, 1980, pp. 1063-1074.
30. Zienkiewicz, O.C., et al, “Flow of Solids During Forming and

Extrusion: Some Aspects of Numerical Solutions,” International Journal of
Solids and Structures, Vol. 14, 1978, pp. 15-38.
31. Li, G.J., and Kobayashi, S., “Rigid-Plastic Finite Element Analysis of
Plane Strain Rolling,’’ Transactions of the ASME Journal of Engineering
for Industry, Vol. 104, Feb. 1982, pp. 55-64.
32. Liu, et al, “Elastic-Plastic Finite-Element Modeling of Cold Rolling of

Strip,” International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, Vol. 27 No. 7/8,
1985, pp. 531-541.
Page 199
Chapter 9
RESISTANCE TO DEFORMATION IN HOT ROLLING
9.1 Definition of Resistance to Deformation

The resistance to deformation Kw of the rolled material without tension
can be determined in the following manner [1]:
where
P roll separating force

=
Ad projected area of contact between roll and workpiece.

=
The roll separating force can be determined if the distribution of normal

pressure px in the deformation zone (Fig. 9.1) is known by the following
equation:
where
px normal pressure at distance x from the exit plane

=
L projected arc of contact between roll and workpiece.

=
Since the entry and exit strip tensions reduce the roll separating force,
the resistance to deformation of the material rolled with tension can be
determined by modifying Eq. (9-1) in the following manner:
Page 200
where
s1, s2 entry and exit strip tensions respectively

=
β1, β2 coefficients for entry and exit strip tensions respectively.

=
Fig. 9.1 – Distribution of normal pressure and roll separating force in

rolling.
9.2 Parameters Affecting Resistance to Deformation

The following main parameters affect the resistance to deformation in
rolling:
Material chemical composition

Material metallurgical characteristics
Material temperature
Geometry of the deformation zone
External friction in the deformation zone
Material work hardening prior to the rolling pass under
consideration
Strain rate of deformation.
The strain rate defines the rate of deformation that occurs in the roll bite.
Table 9.1 shows four equations for strain rate that were derived by
various authors.
Page 201
Table 9.1 Equations for strain rate.
where
roll peripheral speed, rpm

N =
λ strain rate, 1/s.

=
Figure 9.2 shows a comparison of the relative mean strain rates that
were derived from the selected author’s formulas.
Fig. 9.2 – Comparison of the relative mean strain rates calculated by
different formulas.
Page 202
9.3 Practical Methods for Developing Rolling Theories

The present state of the art in rolling theory does not allow one to derive
a comprehensive analytical relationship between the resistance to
deformation and the parameters that were previously mentioned. A
practical solution to this problem consists of the following two steps: Step
1 – Determine the yield characteristics of the workpiece material from a
test run under controlled conditions.
Step 2 – Determine the correlation between the resistance to deformation

corresponding to the prerequisite rolling conditions and the yield
characteristics of the workpiece material that was determined in Step 1.
The following three tests are the most commonly used:
1. Laboratory non-rolling tests such as tension, compression and

torsion tests
2. Laboratory small scale rolling tests
3. Field full scale rolling tests.
The most difficult task is to establish an accurate relationship between

the resistance to deformation Kw and the workpiece yield stress Yw that
is measured in laboratory non-rolling tests. This is due to the substantial
difference in both the characteristics of the deformation process and the
actual test conditions such as temperature, strain rate, friction, etc.
Improved results can be achieved when the yield stress data are
obtained from laboratory small scale rolling tests and especially from full
scale field rolling tests. Full scale rolling tests are especially
advantageous in application to hot rolling, due to the ability to measure
parameters such as actual rolling temperatures, speeds, surface scale
conditions, etc.
9.4 Golovin-Tiagunov’s Method of Calculating Kw

According to the Golovin-Tiagunov method, the resistance to deformation
is determined as [1]:
where
μ
=
coefficient of external
friction
Za arithmetic average aspect ratio of the deformed

=zone
kt
=
temperature effect coefficient
Yo yield stress at 20°C as shown in Fig. 9.3.

=
Coefficient kt is obtained from the following relations:

Page 203
Fig. 9.3 – Diagram for determination of yield stress at 20°C and melting
point for carbon steels as a function of carbon content. Adapted from
Fundamentals of Rolling, by Z. Wusatowski.
where
tm melting temperature, °C (see Fig. 9.3)

=
t rolling temperature, °C.

=
9.5 Tselikov’s Method of Calculating Kw

Numerous formulas for calculating resistance to deformation in hot rolling
have been proposed by Tselikov [1,5]. One of the simplified formulas can
be rewritten as:
where
δ 2μL/Δ
=
μ coefficient of external friction

=
yield stress of the rolled material corresponding to a given rolling

=
Y temperature as shown in Fig. 9.4.
Tselikov also proposed the following general equation for calculating

resistance to deformation [6]:
Page 204
Fig. 9.4 – Yield stress of carbon steels related to temperature. Adapted

from Fundamentals of Rolling, by Z. Wusatowski, 1969.
where
kσ stress state effect coefficient

=
kv speed effect coefficient

=
kh hardening effect coefficient

=
yield stress of the rolled material at a given rolling temperature.

Y=
The stress state effect coefficient is given by:

where
γ 1.0 to 1.15 (1.15 for plane strain conditions, i.e., during rolling without
=spread; 1.0 during rolling with free spreading)
kσ′ friction effect coefficient

=
kσ″ external zones effect coefficient

=
kσ″ entry and exit tension effect coefficient.

′=
The coefficients kσ′ and kσ″ are expressed as the functions of the aspect
ratio za as shown in Fig. 9.5. Both coefficients are derived for the case
when kσ″′ = 1 and the coefficient kσ is calculated assuming that μ = 0.4
and r = 0.2.
Page 205
Fig. 9.5 – Dependence of coefficients kσ′ and kσ″ on the arithmetic

average aspect ratio za. Adapted from Tselikov (1958).
9.6 Ekelund’s Method of Calculating Kw

The following formula for resistance to deformation can be written using
Ekelund’s method [1]:
where
Peripheral rolling speed, mm/s

V=
roll radius, mm
R=
η coefficient of plasticity, kg·s/mm2

=
Yc yield stress of rolled material corresponding to a given temperature and

=chemical composition, kg/mm2
ha=average strip thickness, mm.
The coefficient of friction μ is calculated as a function of the rolling

temperature t, along with the type of rolls and their surface conditions.
Roll Type and Coefficient of

Surface Friction, μ
Cast iron and rough 1.05 – 0.0005t

steel rolls
Chilled and smooth 0.8 (1.05 –

steel rolls 0.0005t)
Ground steel rolls 0.55 (1.05 –

0.0005t)
The yield stress Yc is calculated as a function of both rolling temperature

and chemical composition of the workpiece from the following equation:
Page 206
where
C, Mn, Cr content of carbon, manganese, and chromium respectively, %

=

=
The coefficient of plasticity of the rolled stock η is given by:
Ekelund’s formulas are presumably valid for the following conditions:
Minimum rolling temperature is 800°C

Maximum rolling speed is 7 m/s
Maximum manganese content is 1%.
9.7 Sims’ Method of Calculating Kw

Sims’ method [3] is based on slab analysis of rolling deformation with the
assumption that only sticking friction exists in the roll contact zone and
can be presented in the following form:
where
Sp mean constrained yield stress (Fig. 9.6)

=
Qp geometrical factor shown in Fig. 9.7 and can be given by:

=
Fig. 9.6 – Mean constrained yield stress used for force calculations in
rolling carbon steel (0.17% C) at 1000°C. (From Sims. Reprinted with
permission of the Council of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, from
Proceedings of Institution of Mechanical Engineers, No. 168, 1954).
Page 207
Fig. 9.7 – Sims’ geometrical factor. (From Sims. Reprinted with

permission of Council of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, from
Proceedings of Institution of Mechanical Engineers, No. 168, 1954)
where
a r(1 – r)
=
hn strip thickness at neutral point.

=
9.8 Alexander and Ford’s Method of Calculating Kw

According to the method derived by Alexander and Ford [2], for the case
when roll flattening is negligible, resistance to deformation can be
expressed as:
where
k shear yield stress of rolled material as shown in Fig. 9.8 and Table 9.2 [7].
=
constrained yield stress of the rolled material for plane strain compression
S=
kg geometrical coefficient.
=
Page 208
Fig. 9.8 – Shear yield stress for various steels from Table 9.2. (From
Gupta and Ford, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 205, 1967.
Page 209
The geometrical factor kg is given by:
Table 9.2 Chemical compositions of various steels (See Fig. 9.8).
Chemical Composition, %
Steel No.
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni W Mo
1 — — — — —
0.10 0.47 0.063 0.026
2 —
1.03 0.22 0.27 0.030 0.024
3 — —
1.00 0.30 0.26 0.029 0.013 1.19
4 — —
0.13 0.25 0.55 0.020 0.018 0.75 2.94
5 — —
0.55 0.26 0.46 0.017 0.013 0.95 0.31
6 — —
0.22 0.81 0.50 0.020 0.015 24.00 0.03
7 —
0.08 0.45 0.67 0.015 0.015 10.20 9.90 0.66
8 —
0.10 0.81 0.40 0.016 0.017 16.70 20.60 1.18
9.9 Denton and Crane’s Method of Calculating Kw

Denton and Crane [8] based their method on the examination of slip line
field solutions which shows that rolling geometry can be conveniently
presented by the geometric mean aspect ratio. According to this method,
the equation for resistance to deformation can be expressed in the form:
where
kg geometrical coefficient that is given by:

=
9.10 Green and Wallace’s Method of Calculating Kw

According to Green and Wallace’s upper-bound analysis of rolling
deformation [9], the resistance to deformation can be expressed as:
where
kg geometrical coefficient that is given by:

=
Page 210
9.11 Siebel’s Method of Calculating Kw

Siebel’s method [10] utilizes actual rolling data to compute the resistance
to deformation. Figure 9.9 presents the resistance to deformation for six
alloy steels, while Table 9.3 shows the chemical composition of these
steels.
Fig. 9.9 – Resistance to deformation for alloy steels listed in Table 9.3.
Adapted from Fundamentals of Rolling, by Z. Wusatowski, 1969.
9.12 Ride’s Method of Calculating Kw

Ride’s method [11] utilizes statistical analysis of rolling mill data to derive
an empirical formula for calculating the roll separating force. In this
formula, each parameters that affects the roll separating force is included
as a parabolic function. The resulting equation is obtained from a
correlation by the method of least squares and in relation to the
resistance to deformation, takes the following form:
Page 211
Table 9.3 Chemical composition of steels used in the

comparison shown in Fig. 9.9.
Steel Chemical Composition, %

Type
C Si M P S Cr Ni W Al
A — — — —
0.110.220.500.0200.018
B — — — —
0.880.180.630.0140.016
C —
0.061.190.290.0100.00222.50.14 2.25
D — —
0.110.630.640.0150.02618.49.10
E — —
0.141.900.090.0150.01025.020.5
F —
0.471.980.850.0150.01015.413.11.95
where
Kw resistance to deformation, ksi

=
V roll peripheral speed, ft/min

=
r% percent reduction
=
t strip temperature, °F
=
R′ work roll radius, in.

=
a0, … a8 empirical constants.

=
For a work roll diameter of approximately 28 in., the constants a0 through

a8 have the following values:
Constant Value
a0
102.278
a1
−0.0012
a2
−0.000013
a3
1.494
a4
−0.014
a5
−106.363
a6
71.888
a7
−0.070
a8
0.000018
9.13 Schultz and Smith’s Method of Calculating Kw

Schultz and Smith [12] derived an empirical equation for the resistance to
deformation by applying the multiple regression technique to available
test data in order to determine the most significant term in the equation.
This general equation can be reduced to the following form:
Page 212
where
b0, … b7 constants
=
rolling temperature.
T =
9.14 Sykes’ Method of Calculating Kw

Sykes’ method [13] is based on utilizing the specific power curves and
associated rolling temperature curves that can be developed from rolling
test data. When developing specific power curves, the increments in
specific power that are required for each rolling pass can be calculated
from the following equation:
where
δH specific power, (hp-hours)/ton

=
(HP) rolling horsepower, hp

=
ρ workpiece density, lb/in.3

=
h2, w2 exit workpiece thickness and width respectively, in.

=
roll peripheral speed, ft/min.

V=
The specific power curves are then calculated by summing up the
increments of specific power from the previous rolling passes. These
curves are usually derived individually for both roughing and finishing
passes and are plotted with their corresponding rolling temperature
curves as shown in Figs. 9.10 and 9.11 [14].
After the specific power curves are developed, the rolling parameters for
the pass reductions that are different from those used for deriving the
power curves can then be calculated. The resistance to deformation is
computed from the following equation:
where
Kw resistance to deformation, psi

=
kt temperature effect coefficient that is given by:

=
Page 213
where
tc temperature read from rolling temperature curve, °F (Figs. 9.10 and 9.11)
=
t rolling temperature under consideration, °F

=
b temperature effect constant.

=
Fig. 9.10 – Specific power curve for low carbon steel. (From Ballenger
and Rhea, AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1941. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh,
Pa. Reprinted with permission).
Fig. 9.11 – Specific power curve for stainless steel. (From Ballenger and
Rhea, AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1941. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Page 214
9.15 Ginzburg’s Method of Calculating Kw

When the restoration process time is shorter than the gap time between
rolling passes, the resistance to deformation depends mainly on the
temperature of the rolled material and the geometry of the roll bite [15]. In
this case, the resistance to deformation can be conveniently expressed in
the following form:

where
Kn
=
normalized resistance to deformation
kg
=
geometrical coefficient
kt temperature coefficient.
=
The normalized resistance to deformation Kn is equal to the actual

resistance to deformation of the rolled material at the selected normalized
rolling temperature tn and the normalized arithmetic average aspect ratio
zna. Using low carbon steel as an example, if tn = 1800°F (982°C) and
zna = 1, then Kn = 18,000 psi (12.66 kg/mm2).
The geometrical coefficient kg can be expressed by the following

polynomial:
and the temperature effect coefficient kt can be given by

where
a0,… a5
=
coefficients
zc crossover aspect ratio (Fig. 9.12)

=
tn normalized rolling temperature, °F

=
bl, b2
=
temperature effect coefficients
t actual rolling temperature, °F.

=
The crossover aspect ratio zc corresponds to the intersection of the

curves that are described by Eqs. (9-27) and (9-28). In the example for
low carbon steel shown in Fig. 9.12, the following values for the
coefficients are used:
Page 215
Fig. 9.12 – Geometrical coefficient used to calculate resistance to

deformation.
Coefficient Value
a0
0.783
a1
0.217
a2 0
a3
0.365
a4
0.450
a5 0
b1
0.001
b2 0
When the resistance to deformation is expressed as a function of

numerous variables at selected normalized rolling temperatures, it is
known as isothermal resistance to deformation. The application of
isothermal resistance to deformation allows one to standardize and
readily compare the rolling characteristics of different materials. At a
constant temperature, the main remaining factor that affects resistance to
deformation is the roll bite geometry. Therefore, the isothermal resistance
to deformation can be given by:
As an example, Fig. 9.13 illustrates the isothermal resistance to

deformation KI as a function of the arithmetic average aspect ratio za for
the materials low-carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel grade 304.
Page 216
Fig. 9.13 – Isothermal resistance to deformation of low-carbon steel and

austenitic stainless steel grade 304.
9.16 Evaluation of Formulas for Resistance to Deformation

When evaluating the various formulas for calculating resistance to
deformation, preference is given to the formulas that are based on the
physics of the deformation process [15]. Actual rolling trials confirm that
the resistance to deformation in hot rolling is affected mainly by the
following two parameters:
Aspect ratio of the deformation zone

Temperature of the rolled product.
At the same time, the resistance to deformation in hot rolling was also
found to be nearly independent on the strain rate, i.e. rolling speed. For
example, there was no change in the resistance to deformation when the
rolling speed changed from 250 to 1200 ft/min. Utilizing equations that
are based on the physics of the deformation process insures the
extrapolative properties of the applied formulas. This can be illustrated by
calculating the resistance to deformation in hot rolling as a function of
reduction and roll diameter using the following two methods:
1. Specific power method proposed by Sykes (See Section 9.14)

2. Aspect ratio method proposed by Ginzburg (See Section 9.15).
Since the specific power method is not based on the physics of the rolling
process, it does not provide adequate extrapolative properties. In fact,
the specific power method predicts a decrease in resistance to
deformation with an increase in the amount of reduction as shown in Fig.
9.14a. This method also predicts no change in the resistance to
deformation with an increase in roll diameter (Fig. 9.14b). Both of these
predictions contradict the results obtained from actual rolling test data. In
contrast, the aspect ratio method correctly predicts the dependence of
the resistance to deformation on the amount of reduction and change in
roll diameter.
Page 217
Fig. 9.14 – Variation of resistance to deformation with variation in: a)

reduction, b) work roll diameter. (From Ginzburg, Iron and Steel
Engineer, Sept. 1985. Reprinted with permission).
Another important criterion for selecting an equation to calculate

resistance to deformation is the capability to verify and calibrate the
equation by using actual rolling test data. The selected equation should
have variables that can be readily measured during a rolling test. From
this point of view, the aspect ratio method is very convenient since both
the aspect ratio variable and the material temperature variable can be
easily obtained. The aspect ratio method is also very efficient in
simulating rolling conditions. Since the aspect ratio method has a
minimum number of constants, the resistance to deformation for both the
initial and final thicknesses of a wide range of rolled products can be
obtained.
References
1969, pp. 203-386.
2. Ford, H. and Alexander, J.M., ‘‘Simplified Hot Rolling Calculations,”
3. Sims, R.B., “The Calculation of Roll Force and Torque in Hot Rolling,”
pp. 191-200.
4. Orowan, E. and Pascoe, K.J., “A Simple Method of Calculating Roll

Pressure and Power Consumption in Flat Hot Rolling,” Journal of the Iron
and Steel Institute (London), No. 34, 1946, pp. 124-126.
5. Tselikov, A.I., Stress and Strain in Metal Rolling, Moscow, 1967.
6. Tselikov, A.I., “Present State of Theory of Metal Pressure Upon Rolls in

Longitudinal Rolling,” Stahl, Vol. 18, No. 5, May 1958, pp. 434-441.
Page 218
7. Gupta, S. and Ford, H., “Calculation Method for Hot Rolling of Steel
Sheet and Strip,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 205, Feb.
1967, pp. 186-190.
8. Denton, B.K. and Crane, F.A.A., “Roll Load and Torque in the Hot
Rolling of Steel,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Aug. 1972, pp.
606-617.
9. Green, J.W. and Wallace, J.F. “Estimation of Load and Torque in the
Hot Rolling Process,” Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Vol. 4,
1962, pp. 136-142.
10. Siebel, E., ‘‘Calculation of Roll Force Anti-Friction Bearings for Rolling
Mills,” (German), Schweinfurt, 1941.
11. Ride, J.S., “Analysis of Operational Factors Derived from Hot Strip
Mill Tests,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1960, pp. 867-880.
12. Schultz, R.G. and Smith, A.W., “Determination of a Mathematical

Model for Rolling Mill Control,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1965, pp. 461-
467.
13. Sykes, W. “Power Requirements of Rolling Mills,” Transactions AIEE,

1913, p. 822.
14. Ballenger, W.M. and Rhea, T.R., “Power Consumption of Hot Strip
Mills,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1941, pp. 142-150.
15. Ginzburg, V.B., “Basic Principles of Customized Computer Models for

Page 219
Chapter 10
ROLL FORCE AND TORQUE IN FLAT ROLLING
10.1 General Equations for Roll Separating Force and Torque

The following equation is generally used to calculate the roll separating
force when rolling flat products using smooth roll barrels of equal
diameter:
where
Kw resistance to deformation corresponding to the rolling conditions such as

=temperature, speed, etc.
Ad projected area of contact between roll and workpiece.

=
The resistance to deformation Kw, can be calculated by one of the

methods that were described in Chapter 9. In the presence of strip
tension, Eq. (10-1) can be modified to the form:
where
s1, s2 entry and exit strip specific tension respectively

=
β1, β2 entry and exit strip tension coefficients respectively.

=
The pure torque of deformation is equal to the total torque that is required
to drive both rolls. When rolls of equal diameter are used, the general
equation for pure rolling deformation torque can be given by:
Page 220
where
a lever arm as shown in Fig. 9.1.

=
The lever arm a is usually expressed as a fraction of the projected arc of

contact length L′
where
m lever arm coefficient.

=
A number of formulas have been proposed for calculating the roll

separating force and roll torque and are reviewed in the following
sections [1-9].
10.2 Formulas for Rolling Force and Roll Torque in Hot Rolling
Cook and McCrum [2] proposed the following formulas for roll separating
force P and torque M:
where
Cp, Ip geometrical coefficients used for force calculations

=
Cg, Ig geometrical coefficients used for torque calculations.

=
The geometrical factors Cp, Ip, Cg, and Ig are determined from:
Page 221
where
Sp mean constrained yield stress used for force calculations

=
Sg mean constrained yield stress used for torque calculations.

=
The values for Cp, Cg, Ig, and Ip are plotted in Figs. 10.1 and 10.2a,b.
The above method is also known as the BISRA method for calculating
the roll separating force and roll torque. Other formulas from various
authors that can be used to calculate the roll separating force and roll
torque are shown in Table 10.1.
Fig. 10.1 – Cook and McCrum’s Cp and Cg functions. Adapted from

Wusatowski [9].
Wright and Hope [3] derived formulas for roll separating force as a
function of rolling temperature. In application to stainless steel, these
formulas can be presented in the following form:
For roughing mills:

For finishing mills:
where
P1100 roll separating force at rolling temperature t = 1100°C

=

=
Page 222
Fig. 10.2a – Cook and McCrum’s Ig function for low carbon steel.
Adapted from Wusatowski [9].
Page 223
Fig 10.2b – Cook and McCrum’s Ip function for low carbon steel. Adapted
from Wusatowski [9].
Page 224
Table 10.1 Formulas for roll separating force and roll torque in hot rolling.
10.3 Formulas for Lever Arm Coefficient in Hot Rolling

When the roll torque M and roll separating force P are known, the lever
arm coefficient m can be calculated from the following equation:
Table 10.2 shows several equations from various authors that can be
used to derive the lever arm coefficient m.
Table 10.2 Equations for deriving lever arm coefficient m in hot rolling.
When the relative reduction r < 0.2 and the ratio R/h2 < 10, the equation
derived by Ford and Alexander yields substantially different values of m
when compared with the values of m obtained
Page 225
from the equation derived by Denton and Crane. This discrepancy can be
explained by the fact that these theories do not take into account the so-
called peening effect.
The peening effect is an expansion of the zone of deformation beyond

the arc of roll contact L as shown in Fig. 10.3a. In hot rolling, this effect
becomes more pronounced with a decrease in the aspect ratio, i.e., when
the rolled material is thicker and the draft is smaller. The net result is an
increase of the lever arm a. This effect can be demonstrated by
comparing the deformation zone shown in Fig. 10.3a, where the peening
effect is considered with the deformation zone shown in Fig. 10.3b,
where the peening effect is ignored.
Fig. 10.3 – Shapes of deformation zone: a) with peening effect, b) without

peening effect.
The peening effect is taken into consideration in the empirical equations

for the lever arm coefficient m that were derived by Sims and Wright
(Table 10.2). A comparison of their equations with actual test data is
shown in Fig. 10.4.
Fig. 10.4 – Relationship between lever arm coefficient and R/h2. (From
Sims and Wright, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, March 1963.
Reprinted with permission.)
Page 226
Wright and Hope [3] have experimentally established values for the lever
arm coefficient m by taking into account the friction losses in the backup
roll bearings and using the following formula:
where
Ma measured roll torque, kNm

=
Pa measured roll separating force, MN

=
dn average backup roll neck diameter, mm

=
μ coefficient of friction in backup roll bearings.

=
The coefficient of friction μ is defined by:
where
backup roll speed, rpm.

N =
The values of the lever arm coefficients as calculated from Eqs. (10-14)
and (10-15) are plotted and shown in Fig. 10.5.
Fig. 10.5 – Lever arm coefficient as a function of R/h2 ratio. (From Wright
and Hope, Metals Technology, 1975. Copyright ASM International,
formerly American Society for Metals. Reprinted with permission).
10.4 Roll Force in Heavy Draft Hot Rolling

Data on rolling with heavy drafts are scarce and not readily available.
One of the most detailed investigations on this subject was conducted by
Wusatowski [9], where experiments were carried
Page 227
out using a 2-high rolling mill stand with initial roll diameters of 308 mm
(12.126 in.). The rolled specimens were made of mild steel with the
following composition:
C: 0.19%, Mn: 0.31%, Si: 0.10%, P: 0.022%, S: 0.031%.
The initial cross-sections of the specimens are as follows:
20 × 20 mm (0.787 × 0.787 in.)

20 × 40 mm (0.787 × 1.575 in.)
15 × 100 mm (0.591 × 3.937 in.)
10 × 110 mm (0.394 × 4.331 in.)
Thus, the following four different values of the initial width-to-initial-

thickness ratio w1/h1 were used: 1, 2, 6.67, and 11.
The reduction in the longitudinal direction was accompanied by

considerable spread of the metal in the lateral direction. When the
specimens with an initial cross-section of 20 × 40 mm were rolled with
the relative reduction r equal to 0.8 and 0.9, the ratios of the exit width to
entry width w2/w1 were equal to 1.6 and 1.82 respectively.
Figure 10.6 shows the results of the roll force measurements as a

function of reduction at 900°C (1652°F) and fixed initial width-to-
thickness ratios w1/h1. Similar data for specimens with a temperature of
1100°C (2012°F) are also shown in Fig. 10.6.
Fig. 10.6 – Force measured as a function of reduction and width-to-
thickness ratios. Adapted from Wusatowski [9].
Page 228
The obtained curves are nearly rectilinear for the relative reductions r <
0.5. The steepness of these curves, however, increases with an increase
in reduction r > 0.5. With a change of relative reduction r from 0.5 to 0.8
at a temperature of 1100°C (2012°F) and for the ratio w1/h1 = 1, the roll
force becomes five times greater. When r = 0.9, the roll force is more
than 20 times greater. Figure 10.7 illustrates the results of torque
measurements where the curves have a relationship between their
steepness and reduction that is similar to the curves for roll force.
Fig. 10.7 – Total torque as a function of reduction and width-to-thickness

ratios. Adapted from Wusatowski [9].
10.5 Cold Rolling Versus Hot Rolling

As was discussed previously, resistance to deformation in hot rolling
depends mainly on the temperature of the workpiece and the roll bite
geometry. In cold rolling, the principal parameters that affect resistance to
deformation are work-hardening and friction in the roll contact zone. Roll
flattening also has a greater effect in cold rolling due to the increase in
resistance to deformation. The effect of strip tension is more substantial
since cold rolling is conducted with greater specific tensions when
compared with those used in hot rolling. These factors along with other
features of the cold rolling process must be considered when calculating
the roll force and torque [10-13]. Various methods to calculate the roll
force and torque in cold rolling are reviewed in the following sections.
Page 229
10.6 SKF Equation for Rolling Force in Cold Rolling

SKF has proposed a method to calculate the roll force in cold rolling by
considering the effects of strip tension and work-hardening that is
proportional to the mean total reduction rm [10]:
where
rt total reduction prior to the pass under consideration

=
r reduction in the pass under consideration.

=
The total reduction rt is given by:

where
h0 initial strip thickness prior to the first rolling pass

=
h exit thickness in the pass under consideration.

=
Using the value for the total rm obtained from Eq. (10-16), the average
yield stress Sym of the material in compression can then be determined
by using the curves that were developed by BISRA and shown in Fig.
10.8 [11].
Fig. 10.8 – BISRA curves for yield stress in compression for some grades
of carbon steel. (From Ginzburg, Iron and Steel Engineer, Sept. 1985.
Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 230
The roll force can then be calculated from the following formula:
where
Sym average yield stress of the material in compression.

=
10.7 Stone’s Equation for Rolling Force in Cold Rolling

The method developed by Stone [12] is based on simplified slab analysis
of deformation during rolling with dry slipping friction (See Chapter 8). By
assuming that the resistance to deformation Kw is equal to the average
normal pressure pa, and the constrained yield stress for plane strain
compression is given by S = 1.15Y, Stone obtained from Eq. (8-14) the
following formula to determine the resistance to deformation:
where
(PMF) pressure multiplication factor.

=
sa average strip tension that is given by:

=
The values for the tension effect coefficients used by Stone are β1 = β2 =
0.5. Other values that are more frequently used such as β1 = 0.7 and β2
= 0.3 are based on rolling data which confirms that the resistance to
deformation is affected more by entry strip tension that exit strip tension.
The pressure multiplication factor (PMF) is required to calculate the roll

separating force. Since the (PMF) depends on the roll separating force P,
the roll force is usually calculated by either an iterative or graphical
method. The pressure multiplication factor (PMF) is expressed as:
In the graphical method proposed by Stone, the ratio μL′/ha is found from
the nomographic chart that is shown in Fig. 10.9. The values for the
coefficient of friction μ depend on a number of factors which will be
discussed in the following chapter. The yield stress Y can be defined from
the work-hardening curves that are shown in Fig. 10.10. Once the
resistance to deformation Kw is found, the length of the arc of contact of
the flattened roll L′ can be calculated from the following formula:
Page 231
where
Fig. 10.9 – Nomographic chart for use in determining μL′/ha. Adapted

from Stone [12].
Fig. 10.10 – Work-hardening curves for three steels. Adapted from
Wusatowski [9].
Page 232
The roll force P can then be obtained by substituting the values for Kw
and L′ into the following equation:
10.8 Stone’s Equation for Roll Torque in Cold Rolling

The method for calculating roll torque is based on the same assumptions
as the method used for calculating roll force that was previously
described [12]. Considering the equations from Section 8.6, Stone
obtained the following equation for roll torque:
Taking into account that the projected length of the arc of contact of the
unflattened roll L is equal to , the resistance to deformation Kw can be
obtained from Eq. (10-22) in the form:
After considering Eqs. (10-24) through (10-26), the roll torque can be
expressed in the following more commonly known form:
10.9 Roberts’ Equations for Force and Torque in Temper Rolling

Based on experimental data, Roberts [13] derived the following empirical
equations for calculating the roll force and torque in temper rolling. The
projected length of the arc of contact of the flattened roll is given by:
For the conditions of temper rolling, the average strain rate is

independent of the pass reduction or draft and can be approximated by:
where
rolling speed.
V =
Page 233
The resistance to deformation is given by the expression:

where
Yt yield strength of rolled strip as measured in tension at a very low strain rate
=
b strain rate factor defined as an increase in yield strength as measured in

=tension per tenfold change in strain rate.
Thus, the roll separating force P is equal to:
The total roll torque for two rolls M is given by the following formula:
where
Sd constrained dynamic yield strength corrected for strain rate.

=
10.10 Empirical Method of Calculating Rolling Force and Torque

Roll force and toque can be readily defined from Eqs. (10-2) through (10-
4) if the resistance to deformation of the rolled material is known. The
measured resistance to deformation Kwm can be derived from rolling test
data and the following equation:
where
Pm, S1m, measured values of roll force, entry strip tension, and exit strip
S2m=tension respectively
wm, h1m, measured values of strip width, entry strip thickness, and exit strip
h2m=thickness respectively.
The measured length of the arc of contact Lm′ can be calculated from the
following formula:
Page 234
where
Δm = h1m – h2m measured draft.

=
When the effect of strain rate is negligible, the resistance to deformation

can be assumed as a function of only the mean total previous reduction
rm and be expressed by using single variable regression analysis:
where
a0, a1, a2 …an constant coefficients.

=
Figure 10.11 shows a typical plot of Eq. (10-35) that was derived from
rolling tests at a 5-stand tandem cold mill [11].
Fig, 10.11 – Resistance to deformation derived from rolling test at 5-stand

tandem cold mill. (From Ginzburg, Iron and Steel Engineer, Sept. 1985.
Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
10.11 Calculation of Torque for Various Rolling Conditions

When deriving the previous equations for roll separating force and
torque, it is assumed that both the top and bottom rolls have equal
diameters and peripheral speeds. Three other cases can be considered
according to Wusatowski [9].
Case 1 (Fig. 10.12a) – The bottom roll is driven and the top roll is
dragged by friction between the rolled stock and roll surface. When both
rolls have the same diameter, the roll torque can be expressed by:
Page 235
Case 2 (Fig. 12.12b) – The top and bottom rolls have different peripheral
speeds and both rolls have the same diameter. In this case, the roll
torques corresponding to each roll can be given by:
where
Case 3 (Fig. 10.12c) – One roll diameter is considerably greater than the
other and the roll peripheral speeds are equal. In this case, the roll
torques for each roll are presented by Eqs. (10-37) and (10-38) in which
the angle ψ is equal to:
Fig. 10.12 – Direction of forces acting on the rolls with: a) bottom driven
roll and top dragged roll, b) different peripheral speeds, c) different
diameters. Adapted from Wusatowski [9].
Page 236
The values of the lever arm a and angle θ in Eqs. (10-36) through (10-40)
are determined from the distance between the point of action of the
resultant roll force of the roll surface and the plane passing through the
roll axes. The point of action is defined as the center of gravity of the roll
pressure distribution curve along the arc of the roll contact.
10.12 Effect of Strip Tension on Roll Torque

In the previous sections, the formulas for roll torque were applied for the
cases when the strip tension is negligible. In a more general case,
however, the effects of both entry and exit tension must be considered.
Strip tension affects the roll torque or torque applied to the rolls in several
ways.
As follows from Eq. (10-2), both the entry and exit tensions s1 and s2
decrease the roll separating force P which then proportionally reduces
the roll torque M. The entry and exit tensions also modify the lever arm a
due to the redistribution of normal pressure along the arc of the roll
contact. As shown in Fig. 10.13, the solid lines represent the normal
pressure distribution and corresponding lever arm a0 when no tension is
applied to the strip. For comparison, the dotted lines represent the
pressure distribution with strip tension and the corresponding lever arm
as.
Fig. 10.13 – Effect of entry and exit strip tension on roll torque.
Another effect is that additional torque is created due to strip tension

which is equal to:
By neglecting the variation in length of the lever arm due to tension and
assuming that the exit thickness h2 < R′ and w1 = w2 = w, the following
formula for roll torque can be applied when strip tension is present:
Page 237
10.13 True Work and Power in Rolling

The formula for determining the true work of deformation during rolling
Aw is as follows [9]:
where
l2 exit length of the rolled product.

=
Since by definition, that power is equal to the work done in unit time, the
true power Nw required for a pass is equal to:
where
V2 workpiece exit speed.

=
10.14 Total Driving Torque

The total driving torque MT consists of the following three components:
where
Mw roll torque required to overcome resistance to deformation and consequent

=frictional resistance between the roll surface and workpiece
Mf frictional torque, i.e., torque necessary to overcome the frictional forces in

=the driving elements and roll bearings
Md dynamic torque necessary to overcome inertial forces that arise due to

=varying roll speeds.
The ratio of the roll torque Mw to the required rolled torque is defined by
the rolling efficiency coefficient ηw that is equal to:
The dynamic torque Md for a drive system consisting of n elements can

be expressed by:
Page 238
where
Ii moment of inertia of the i-th element

=
dNi/dt angular acceleration of the i-th element.

=
References
1. Sims, R.B., ‘‘The Calculation of Roll Force and Torque in Hot Rolling,”
pp. 191-200.
2. Cook, P.M. and McCrum, A.W., “The Calculation of Load and Torque in
Hot Flat Rolling,” BISRA, 1958.
3. Wright, H. and Hope, T., “Rolling of Stainless Steel in Wide Hot Strip
Mills,” Metals Technology, Dec. 1975, pp. 565-576.
4. Ford, H. and Alexander, J.M., “Simplified Hot Rolling Calculations,”

5. Helmi, A. and Alexander, J.M., “Geometric Factors Affecting Roll Force

and Torque in the Hot Flat Rolling of Steel,” Journal of the Iron and Steel
Institute, Sept.1969, pp. 1219-1231.
6. Denton, B.K. and Crane, F.A.A., “Roll Load and Torque in the Hot
Rolling of Steel,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Aug. 1972, pp.
606-617.
7. Green, J.W. and Wallace, J.F., “Estimation of Load and Torque in the
Hot Rolling Process,” Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Vol. 4,
1962, pp. 136-142.
8. Sims, R.B. and Wright, H., “Roll Force and Torque in Hot Rolling Mills
– A Comparison Between Measurement and Calculation,” Journal of the
Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 201, March 1963, pp. 261-269.

1969, pp. 203-386, 477-493.
10. “SKF Calculation of Rolling Mill Loads,” SKF Industries, Inc.

12. Stone, M.D., “Rolling of Thin Strip,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1953,
pp. 115-128.
13. Roberts, W.L., Cold Rolling of Steel, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York,
1978.
Page 239
Chapter 11
FRICTION AND LUBRICATION IN ROLLING
11.1 Definition of Friction

The rolling process involves contacts between the workpiece and the
work rolls. Friction is defined as the resisting force tangential to the
common boundary between two bodies when, under the action of an
external force, one body moves or tends to move to the surface of the
other [1].
Since the frictional force is a result of an interaction between contacting

bodies at their interface, the nature of friction cannot be understood
without explaining the nature of the interface. Modeling of the interfaces
is one of the subjects of tribology which is a branch of science that
studies friction and friction related phenomena. The following three main
viewpoints of the interfaces are usually considered [2]:
1. Mechanical viewpoint
2. Macroscopic viewpoint
3. Microscopic viewpoint.
11.2 Mechanical Viewpoint of Interface

From a mechanical viewpoint, the interface is presented as a continuous
film of shear strength τ, located between a rigid tool (work roll in the case
of rolling) and a deforming workpiece [2].
The assumption that the die is rigid, means that the effect of the die
deformation on the frictional forces can be ignored. In addition to that, the
mechanical viewpoint does not require the knowledge of the substance of
interface and assumes that any changes in the interface can be taken
into account simply by choosing an appropriate value of τ.
This simplified model of the interface is normally adequate to calculate

the main rolling parameters, but fails when it is necessary to understand
the sources of friction and the mechanisms of lubrication and wear. Even
though the interface in this model can be described by its shear strength
τ for convenience of calculation, it is preferable to use non-dimensional
factors. The most commonly used non-dimensional factors are the
coefficient of friction and interface shear factor.
Page 240
11.3 Coefficient of Friction and Interface Shear Factor

The coefficient of friction is usually expressed by [2]:
where
force required to move the body

F=
normal force
P=
τ shear strength of the interface

=
p normal pressure.
=
Both τ1 and p are obtained by dividing the corresponding forces F and P

by the apparent area of contact Aa between two bodies (Fig. 11.1a), i.e.:
and
Fig. 11.1 – Deformation with: a) sliding friction (μ → 0), b) sticking friction.
Page 241
The following two basic laws of friction are stipulated by Eq. (11-1):
Frictional force is proportional to normal force.

Frictional force is independent of the size of the apparent contact
area.
What this means is that for a constant coefficient of friction μ, the

frictional force F must increase at the same rate as the normal pressure
p. This relationship is valid for sliding friction, which is often referred to as
Coulomb friction. The condition of sliding friction is:
where
k shear yield stress of the interface.

=
Under this condition, the initial contact area Ao between a deformed

workpiece and a rigid tool increases so Aa > Ao (Fig. 11.1 a).
In contrast, when τ reaches the value of k, it will take less energy for the
material to shear inside the body of the workpiece, rather than slide
against the tool surface. In this case, the friction is referred to as sticking
friction, although there is no actual sticking to the die surface. The
condition of sticking friction is:
Under this condition, the apparent contact area Aa between the deformed
workpiece and a rigid tool remains the same, so that Aa = Ao (Fig.
11.1b). Since there is no relative sliding at the interface, it is fair to
assume that the term “coefficient of friction” is no longer applicable (Fig.
11.2).
The interface shear factor m is another non-dimensional quantity that has

been proposed as an alternative to the coefficient of friction and can be
described by:
where
m interface shear factor.

=
The value of the interface shear factor varies from m = 0 for a frictionless
interface to m = 1 for sticking friction.
11.4 Macroscopic and Microscopic Viewpoints of Interface

The macroscopic viewpoint of interface (Fig. 11.3a) recognizes the
following phenomena [2]:
Tool material is not considered to be rigid but to have a finite

elastic modulus and strength. In the case of rolling, it can lead to
either roll flattening or if some critical loading is exceeded, plastic
deformation of the roll surface layer or even a roll break.
Page 242
Fig. 11.2 – Shear stress corresponding to: a) maximum coefficient of

friction, b) sliding at various pressures. (From J.A. Schey, Tribology in
Metalworking: Friction, Lubrication and Wear, ASM International, Metals
Park, Ohio, 1983, p. 15. Reproduced with permission.)
Materials of both the tool and workpiece are considered to have

well-defined compositions which govern the process of mutual
attraction or adhesion in the contact zone.
Initial temperatures of the tool and workpiece will change during
the deformation process. The work of deformation transformed
into heat and work of friction cause a temperature rise that affects
the lubrication and properties of the rolled product.
Fig. 11.3 – Tool-workpiece interface on: a) macroscopic scale, b)
microscopic scale. (From J.A. Schey, Tribology in Metalworking: Friction,
Lubrication and Wear, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983, p. 28.
Reproduced with permission.)
Page 243
The microscopic viewpoint accounts for the following tribological

phenomena which can be revealed on a microscopic scale as shown in
Fig. 11.3b [2]:
Surface minute peaks (asperities) and valleys of both the tool and
workpiece and their magnitude and geometry are considered to
affect not only frictional force, but also the stability of the lubricant
film.
Tool material is viewed as a multiphase structure in which hard,
wear-resistant particles (usually intermetallic compounds) are
embedded in a softer and more ductile matrix.
Tool surface can be different from the bulk as a result of an
intentional surface treatment or diffusion process during which
alloying elements are removed or added to the surface.
Workpiece material is described as either a single phase (pure
metals or solid-solution alloys) or a multiphase structure. The
phase structure of the surface may differ from the bulk because of
an intentional deposition of some elements on the surface or
because of a diffusion of alloying elements.
Technical surfaces are considered to be covered with the products
of interaction with the environment. The films formed from the
different reactions are usually superimposed. For example, the
oxide film may be covered with an absorbed lubricant film.
Chemical reaction between different films often takes place.
Lubricants are viewed as chemically active substances whose
properties depend on elemental composition and the molecular
forms in which the various elements are present.
11.5 Theories of Dry Friction

Contact between real surfaces is very complex to be described
comprehensively in analytical terms. In order to simplify the analysis, the
first useful assumption is often made that no lubricant has been
intentionally applied at the interface. This condition is usually referred to
as dry friction. Numerous theories of dry friction have been proposed and
the most common are as follows [2]:
Adhesion theory
Junction-growth theory
Asperity interaction theory
Molecular theory.
11.6 Adhesion Theory of Dry Friction

The adhesion theory of dry friction proposed by Bowden and Tabor [2,3],
assumes that friction in the contact between tool and rough workpiece is
due to pressure welding or adhesion at the asperities. As shown in Fig.
11.4a, the real area of contact Ar is only a small fraction of the apparent
contact area Aa. Under load P, the real contact area Ar increases until it
can support the load, i.e.:
where
hardness of asperities.
H =
Page 244
Fig. 11.4 – Contact between die and rough workpiece with plastic
deformation of asperities. (From J.A. Schey, Tribology in Metalworking:
Friction, Lubrication and Wear, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio,
1983, p. 34. Reproduced with permission.)
The force F required to move the body relative to the tool (Fig. 11.4b),
assuming that the shear strength of the junction is roughly equal to the
shear yield stress k, is:
The coefficient of friction can then be found by substituting P and F in Eq.

(11-1):
11.7 Junction-Growth Theory of Dry Friction

The junction-growth theory is applied to the cases when welding of
asperities is prevented by a contaminant layer of shear strength τc (Fig.
11.4c) that can be expressed as:
where
mc interface shear factor related to the real contacting area Ar.

=
According to the junction-growth theory proposed by Tabor [2,4], the

coefficient of friction is given by:
where
a (H/k)2 (a = 4 for brass; a = 20 for mild steel).

=
Page 245
On a very clean surface, the real junction area is maximum, so mc = 1

which gives infinity for μ in Eq. (11-11). For a contaminated surface, mc is
small. Therefore, the effect of junction growth is negligible and friction is
governed mainly by the strength of the contaminant film.
11.8 Asperity-Interaction Theory of Dry Friction

In the previous section, the junction between the tool and workpiece is
assumed to be sheared in a plane parallel to the direction of sliding. In
the process of sliding (Fig.11.5a), the asperities can also deform each
other so that the plastic deformation of the softer asperity takes place [2].
The shear force that is developed for this type of interaction between
asperities is calculated by the application of plasticity theory.
The asperity-interaction theory includes the junction-growth theory as a

limiting case when the asperity slope approaches zero. In the opposite
case when the tool asperity is large, the asperity plows through the
workpiece surface layer as shown in Fig. 11.5b. When adhesion is
negligible, this type of asperity encounter may be the only source of
friction.
Fig. 11.5 – Asperity encounters. (From J.A. Schey, Tribology in

11.9 Molecular Theory of Dry Friction

The molecular theory of dry friction explains the adhesion between the
tool and workpiece by the interatomic forces acting in the zone of contact.
In this theory of friction developed by Kragelski [2,5], molecular attraction
plays an important role along with other sources of friction and considers
the following types of interactions [6]:
Elastic deformation of a softer surface by a harder asperity (Fig.
11.6a)
Plastic deformation of a softer surface by a harder asperity (Fig.
11.6b)
Microcutting or scratching (Fig. 11.6c)
Breaking the interface, sticking the film to the tool and/or
workpiece surface, and weak sticking between the bulk interface
surfaces (Fig. 11.6d)
Strong sticking between the bulk interface surfaces accompanied
by a break of one of the surfaces (Fig. 11.6e).
Page 246
Fig. 11.6 – Types of frictional interactions. Adapted from Grudev [6].
11.10 Friction in Plastically Deformed Workpiece

The analysis of plastic deformation of the individual asperities has
assumed that the interaction between the deformation zones is
negligible. This assumption is valid when the distances between adjacent
asperities are sufficiently large and normal pressure at the interface is
low.
As the normal pressure increases, the stress fields acting on the adjacent
asperities start to interact and the plastic flow begins in the substrate
[2,7]. This leads to lower pressure that is required for asperity
deformation. The asperity flattens giving a rise to the valley located
between them. Initially, the real contact area Ar increases rapidly with
pressure and then approaches the apparent contact area Aa
asymptotically (Fig. 11.7). This is accompanied by both the hardening of
asperities and an increase in the frictional force as follows from Eq. (11-
8).
Fig. 11.7 – Distortion of asperities on sliding. (From J.A. Schey, Tribology
in Metalworking: Friction, Lubrication and Wear, ASM International,
Metals Park, Ohio, 1983, p. 38. Reproduced with permission.) The
average frictional stress over the entire apparent area of contact can be
expressed as [2,7]:
Page 247
Taking into account Eq. (11-1), we obtain:
Wanheim and Bay [7] derived from slip-line field theory that the ratio
Ar/Aa depends on both the interface pressure p and the interface shear
factor of the real contact zone mc. When p/2k < 1.3, the ratio Ar/Aa
increases linearly with the interface pressure p. Since the average
frictional stress τi also increases linearly, the coefficient of friction μ
remains constant. At higher pressures, however, it also becomes
pressure dependent.
11.11 Rubbing, Wear, and Cutting Models

In the previous section, the tool surface was assumed to be perfectly
smooth, whereas the workpiece had some regular roughness features. In
practice, however, the tool surface can also be roughened either
intentionally or through wear. In this case, the asperities of the harder tool
material will encounter and plastically deform the asperities of the
workpiece, resulting in higher frictional forces.
The mechanics of this phenomena have been studied by several

researchers. Challen and Oxley have suggested that the mechanics of
interaction between the tool and workpiece asperities can be expressed
as a function of the die asperity slope (hard asperity angle) and the
interface shear factor mc [2,8]. The following three models have been
proposed:
Rubbing model that relates to the case when interactive forces are
too weak to produce plastic deformation of the workpiece
asperities.
Wear model that describes the conditions when workpiece
asperities are destroyed by plastic deformation.
Cutting model that relates to the case when workpiece asperities
are machined away.
11.12 Solid-Film Lubrication
Solid-film lubrication prevents metal-to-metal contact. The lubrication can
be with full conformity, i.e. when there is no metal-to-metal contact (Fig.
11.8a), or with partial conformity (Fig. 11.8b). Some solid-film lubricants
are briefly described in the following sections [2].
Oxide films – As will be discussed later, the scale that is formed on iron at
higher temperatures consists of three layers. The outermost oxygen-rich
Fe2O3 and the intermediate layer of Fe3O4 are brittle and do not deform
plastically. The FeO layer adjacent to the metal, however, becomes softer
than iron above 900°C (1652°F), where the phase transformation from
ferrite into the stronger austenite occurs. Under these conditions the
softer oxide can act as a soft-film lubricant.
Metal films – Coating of a tool or workpiece with a continuous film of

another metal can provide lubrication by reducing adhesion between the
die and workpiece. It can also reduce friction if the metal film of low shear
strength is used. Metal films can also improve the performance of
another (usually liquid) lubricant. The efficiency of lubrication is improved
when continuous coating is provided with metal films thinner than 1 μm
(0.00004 in.).
Page 248
Fig. 11.8 – Solid-film lubricated interface with: a) full conformity, b) partial

conformity.
Polymer films – The most suitable polymer films are thermoplastic. Below
the glass-transition temperature, these films are brittle and do not follow
the surface deformation. Above this temperature they behave as
viscoelastic solids, but have no spreading ability. Strong adhesion
between the polymer and metal substrates can be obtained by rubbing,
melting on, fusing of dry powder, or application from a dispersion or
solution. A coating that is deposited on a bar or strip can withstand
drawing or rolling. At high interface pressures the shear strength of
polymers is proportional to hydrostatic pressure and is also affected by
temperature and strain rate.
Layer-lattice compounds – These compounds have a layered crystal

structure with platelets (lamellae) that comprise strongly bonded atoms.
The most commonly used compounds are graphite and molybdenum
disulfide MoS2. According to Pawelski [9], the lubricating properties of
MoS2 start to deteriorate at much lower temperatures than those of
graphite.
11.13 Extreme Pressure (E.P.) Lubrication

Extreme pressure (E.P.) lubrication is a version of solid-film lubrication
where the application of the low-shear-strength film is limited to contact
points. Organic E.P. compounds contain phosphorus, chlorine, sulfur or a
combination which are applied in a carrier such as mineral oil. The
mechanism of their action involves the following steps [2]:
1. Producing more reactive species as a result of interactions of the
additive with the environment such as oxygen, water, other
additives, and carrier fluid.
2. Absorbing the additives and reactive species on the metal surface.
3. Forming polymeric films under intense pressure and temperature
conditions of contact.
4. Removing the reaction product by sliding and also by chemical
dissolution.
5. Re-establishing the reaction product by steps 1 through 3.
The success of lubrication depends on maintaining a balance between

the removal and regeneration of the reaction product.
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11.14 Boundary Lubrication

Boundary lubrication is defined as a condition of lubrication in which the
friction and wear between contacting surfaces are determined by the
properties of the surfaces, and the properties of the lubricant other than
bulk viscosity [10]. In then case of organic films, the lubrication
mechanism involves forming a thin solid film in the interface as a result of
the adsorption of molecules of the polar liquid, such as derivatives of fatty
oils on the surface. Adsorption is aided by an oxide film and the presence
of water.
At higher temperatures, the adsorbed layer becomes increasingly

disoriented and friction rises suddenly to a critical temperature as shown
in Fig. 11.9. At even higher temperatures, the molecules desorb and the
contacting surface becomes unprotected.
Fig. 11.9 – Critical breakdown temperatures in boundary lubrication.

(From J.A. Schey, Tribology in Metalworking: Friction, Lubrication and
Wear, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983, p. 55. Reproduced
with permission.)
11.15 Hydrodynamic Thick-film Lubrication

The hydrodynamic thick-film lubrication relates to the simplest case when
the film in the interface between two bodies is thick enough so the
surface roughness can be ignored and the contacting bodies are
assumed to be rigid [2].
When the lubrication fluid has an excess into the space between two
parallel surfaces moving against the other at a relative velocity ν, the fluid
layer located at the moving surface is dragged at the same velocity, and
is stationary at the nonmoving surface (Fig. 11.10a). The shear stress
which is necessary to overcome for movement is given by:
Page 250
where
relative velocity of two surfaces

V=
h local film thickness

=
η dynamic viscosity of fluid

=
γ̇ shear strain rate.

=
When the dynamic viscosity η is independent of the shear strain rate γ̇,
the fluid is referred to as Newtonian. Many fluids exhibit complex
relationships between the dynamic viscosity and the shear strain rate and
are often called Non-Newtonian. To prevent a collapse of the film under
the load normal to the lubricant film, one of the following methods can be
used:
Supplying the lubricant under sufficient hydrostatic pressure p

(Fig. 11. 10b).
Generating hydrodynamic pressure by creating a converging gap
between two nonparallel surfaces (Fig. 11.10c).
Generating a hydrodynamic film, or a so-called squeeze film
between two surfaces that approach each other at a given velocity
V (Fig. 11. 10d).
Fig. 11.10 – Hydrodynamic lubrication illustrating: a) measurement of
viscosity, b) hydrostatic lubrication, c) converging gap, d) approaching
surfaces. (From J.A. Schey, Tribology in Metalworking: Friction,
Lubrication and Wear, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983, p. 61.
Reproduced with permission.)
11.16 Elasto-and Plastohydrodynamic Lubrication

The two types of hydrodynamic lubrication that are usually considered
are elastohydrodynamic (EHD) and plastohydrodynamic (PHD). The
theory of EHD lubrication recognizes the fact that the viscosity of
practical lubricants increases with pressure and also that the materials of
two contact-
Page 251
ing surfaces deform elastically [2]. The theory of PHD lubrication is an

extension of the theory of EHD lubrication in the case when the
workpiece material is subjected to plastic deformation. In the case of
steady-state PHD lubrication, the entrained film thickness h is equal to:
where
mean surface speed

V=
yield stress of workpiece

Y=
θ angle between converging surfaces.

=
The entrained film thickness is larger for a more viscous lubricant, a

softer workpiece, and a smaller angle between converging surfaces.
Factors that promote PHD lubrication include:
Change of angle θ between the converging surfaces of the entire

entry geometry by deformation (rounding) of the workpiece just
before entry into the tool (Fig. 11.11a).
Increase in fluid pressure at the tool entry (Fig. 11.11b).
Decrease in angle θ by elastic deformation of the tool (Fig.
11.11c).
Enhanced entrainment of the lubricant into the deformation zone
due to increased workpiece roughness (Fig. 11.11d).
Fig. 11.11 – Factors promoting plastohydrodynamic (PHD) lubrication.
(From J.A. Schey, Tribology in Metalworking: Friction, Lubrication and
Wear, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983, p. 69. Reproduced
with permission.)
11.17 Mixed-Film Lubrication

Mixed-film lubrication is the most prevalent mechanism of lubrication in
both cold rolling and hot rolling with lubrication, and can be qualitatively
described in the following step-by-step sequence.
Page 252
1. As the liquid lubricant enters the deformation zone, the film

thickness is not sufficient enough to provide a complete separation
of the contacting surfaces.
2. Local entrapment of a thick fluid film in the surface pockets (Fig.
11.11b) occurs as a result of differential yielding of the workpiece
material, which then produces roughening of the workpiece
surface. As the deformation proceeds, the entrapped lubricant
expands less than the workpiece surface causing a greater portion
of the surface to make boundary contact.
3. Asperity slope and radius have little effect on plastic deformation
with mixed-film lubrication. Much of the interface is actually in
boundary contact, so that the tool surface features are imprinted
on the plateaus of the workpiece surface.
4. When an appropriate combination of the tool and workpiece
materials is selected, only a few of the metal-to-metal contact
points result in adhesion. However, when adhesion (welding) does
take place, it can result in some metal pickup.
5. Electrochemical effects play an important roll in lubrication,
especially when the lubricating fluids are electrolytes. The
electrolytic process (hydrolysis) leads to the formation of oxide-
hydroxide films which could be regarded as a form of E.P.
lubrication, except that the presence of a liquid phase can promote
some squeeze film or hydrodynamic contribution. This is
particularly true in oil-in-water emulsions.
11.18 Regimes of Lubrication Mechanism

Regimes of lubrication mechanism can be analyzed as proposed by
Schey [2] as a function of the product Vη of the relative surface velocity V
and the dynamic viscosity of fluid η.
When Vη is small, hydrodynamic effects are discouraged and only

boundary lubricant films separate the surfaces. The tool surface
finish is imprinted on the workpiece surface. If the lubrication
breakdown occurs, the surface may be smeared.
With increasing Vη, the entrapped film increases and mixed film
hydrodynamic lubrication is possible. The coefficient of friction
drops with an increase of Vη and reaches its minimum value when
the entire surface is covered with hydrodynamic film. The surface
then becomes substantially roughened.
Further increases of Vη produce greater values of μ due to
increasing drag in the hydrodynamic film. This zone of
plastohydrodynamic lubrication occurs very rarely in actual
practice.
For any given value of Vη, increasing pressure reduces the
entrained film thickness but the coefficient of friction usually
increases.
11.19 Surface Roughness Characteristics

Surface roughness can be determined by a number of characteristics as
shown in Fig. 11.12. The centerline average (CLA) or arithmetic average
(AA) surface roughness is defined as the average deviation from the
mean center line:
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where
length of the surface chosen in the record

L=
y measured deviation of the surface profile.

=
Fig. 11.12 – Characterization of surface roughness. Adapted from Schey

[2].
The root mean square (RMS) average surface roughness can be

calculated from the following equation:
The peak-to-peak valley height Rt is determined as shown in Fig. 11.12,

while the mean distance from the reference line is defined as:
where
h measured deviation of the surface profile from the reference line.

=
Skewness is determined as the degree of asymmetry of the profile about

a mean center line and is given by:
where
n number of y values chosen in the record length L.

=
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Fullness of the profile gives direct information on the surface’s ability to

entrap lubricants or accommodate wear particles. If the asperities shown
in Fig. 11.12 have a limited length in the direction perpendicular to the
plane of the figure, the entrapment volume increases. Therefore, ground
and especially shot-blasted surfaces entrap much more lubricant than a
turned surface of the same roughness.
Roughening of the free (nonlubricated) surface of a workpiece depends

on the deformation mode and whether the surface is in contact with a tool
or is a side surface [2]. In all cases, however, roughening is a function of
strain. Roughening is greater for coarse-grain materials and for metals
with a limited number of slip systems. Thus, materials with a face-
centered cubic (f.c.c.) lattice will roughen more than those with a body-
centered cubic (b.c.c.) lattice. Roughening of lubricated surfaces appears
as follows [2]:
1. At very light strains, the termination of the slip planes at the

contact surface appear as a fine structure of parallel lines,
especially on annealed materials.
2. Surface roughening occurs even during homogeneous
deformation because the deformation of individual grains varies as
a function of their crystallographic orientations and the constraint
imposed by surrounding grains. Thus, some grains will deform
earlier, while pockets of lubricant form and the surface roughens.
3. When a workpiece is completely separated from a tool with a liquid
film, the surface roughness is the same as it would be in free
deformation.
4. Annealed materials with equiaxed grain structures develop a
nondirectional roughness. In two-phase materials, the pockets first
develop in the softer phase or in softer zones between the hard
precipitate particles.
5. Pockets of lubricant are generally elongated in the direction of
major deformation.
11.20 Effect of Workpiece Surface Roughness

The surface roughness enhances the mechanical entrapment of
lubricant; thus, for a given peak-to-valley roughness, a less full profile is
preferable [2,11]. The lubrication is greatly influenced by the lay of the
surface roughness. Surfaces with a lay that is parallel to the direction of
deformation allow more lubricant to escape than surfaces having a lay
that is perpendicular to the direction of deformation [2,12].
Surface roughness is not always beneficial. Since a rougher surface

gives more boundary contact, the benefit of lubricant entrapment may be
lost. Under certain conditions, the effect of roughness orientation can be
also be reversed. Reduced friction can cause instabilities in the
deformation process (such as failure of the strip to enter the roll gap). An
excessively rough initial surface can also result in an unacceptable
appearance of the final surface. Since it is very difficult to eliminate
hydrostatic pockets, the starting surface must be smooth and the
hydrodynamic effects avoided, if a bright surface is required.
11.21 Effect of Tool Surface Roughness

The effect of tool surface roughness on the surface finish has been
studied by Schey [2] by upsetting smooth rings between anvils that are
finished to three levels of random roughness and one
Page 255
intermediate level of directional roughness as shown in Table 11.1. This

study shows that with a low viscosity lubricant, large asperities of the
rough shot-blasted surface pierce through the film and give higher
friction. Transversely oriented grinding also results in higher friction. High
viscosity oils have also been used to produce a thicker film which
generally lowers the friction. Most surface finishes, except for shot-
blasted and transversely oriented ground surfaces, give identical
coefficients of friction.
Table 11.1 Relationship between surface finish

and surface roughness of the samples used in the
study by Schey [2].
Roughness, μm
Surface Finish 10-point Peak-to-
Ra
average valley
Lapped 0.12 –
0.15 0.25 0.5
Fine shot 0.5 –

blasted 0.7 0.8 2.5
Rough shot 2.0 –

blasted 2.5 4.0 11.0
Ground 0.5 –
perpendicular 0.7 1.0 3.0
Ground parallel 0.18 –

0.2 0.4 1.0
11.22 Mechanism of Roll Wear

Wear is defined in this specific context as a progressive loss of the tool
material during deformation. Theoretically, deformation can proceed
without wear if the tool and workpiece are separated by a thick film of
nonreactive lubricant without the presence of any foreign particles [2].
This is the case in a pure plastohydrodynamic (PHD) lubrication. In
practice, however, lubrication is generally of a mixed-film or boundary
type. This type of lubrication cannot completely eliminate wear.
The wear process is a very complex phenomenon and usually involves

numerous types of wear that mechanically act together at the same time.
The classification of these various types of wear is very difficult. The
classification of wear proposed by Burwell [13] is based on the
assumption that, at least under certain conditions, a single kind of wear
mechanism prevails.
Adhesive wear – Adhesive wear can occur when asperities of a

workpiece and a tool plow through the interface film. Adhesion may lead
to cold (solid-phase) welding while further relative sliding destroys the
junction. Depending on the relative strengths of the tool material,
workpiece, and junction, the latter separates either in the workpiece or in
the tool.
Abrasive wear – Abrasive wear is the removal of material by a hard

asperity (two-body wear) or by a particle that is located between the two
surfaces (three-body wear). Resistance to abrasive wear is a function of
hardness, where as the hardness increases, greater wear resistance can
be provided.
Fatigue wear – Fatigue wear occurs during cycling loading which involves
the generation of shear stress below a compressed tool surface. The
repeated loading produces microcracks that are usually below the
surface and propagate from the subsequent loading and unloading. After
a
Page 256
microcrack reaches a critical size, it changes direction and emerges at

the surface resulting in the detachment of a flat sheet-like particle
(delamination wear). When the detached particle becomes very large, the
process is called spalling, while small-scale surface fatigue is known as
micro-pitting. During hot rolling, a very destructive thermal fatigue
process known as crazing or fire-cracking produces a mosaic network of
cracks.
Chemical wear – Chemical wear is defined as a material loss due to

tribochemical reactions between the lubricant, tool and workpiece
materials, and the environment.
11.23 Frictional Forces in Roll Contact Zone

Frictional forces are generated in the contact zone as a result of either
sliding of the workpiece surface relative to the roll surface (sliding friction)
or in the case of sticking friction, due to a potential movement between
those surfaces. In general, deformation in the roll contact zone can occur
in the longitudinal, transverse, and vertical directions [6].
Figure 11.13 shows that the frictional force vector F at any point of the roll
contact surface has the following three components Fx, Fy, and Fz
where:
Fig. 11.13 – Vector of elementary frictional force and components.

Tselikov [14] classified the distribution of frictional forces along the arc of
contact zone as a function of the arithmetic average aspect ratio za as
shown in Fig. 11.14. The character of the distribution of the frictional
forces is also affected by other factors such as the coefficient of friction,
bite angle, strip tension, etc.
The frictional forces acting in the lateral direction resist the spread of the
workpiece and are distributed in the plane view of the contact zone as
shown in Fig. 11.15. In the point a, the lateral component Fy of the
frictional force is equal to zero. In the point c, both lateral Fy and vertical
Fz components are equal to zero. In the point b, at which the neutral line
ed intersects with the longitudinal axis ac, all three components Fx, Fy,
and Fz of the frictional force are equal to zero.
Page 257
Fig. 11.14 – Distribution of frictional forces along the arc of the contact
zone with different values of average aspect ratio za. Zone 1: zone of
sliding friction; Zone 2: zone of maximum friction; Zone 3: zone of sticking
friction. Adapted from Grudev [6].
Fig. 11.15 – Distribution of frictional forces: a) in plan view of roll contact

zone, b) along neutral plane. Adapted from Grudev [6].
Page 258
When calculating frictional forces in the roll bite, it is common to use a

mean value of the coefficient of friction that is defined as the ratio of the
sum of elemental frictional forces Fi, acting in the roll contact to the sum
of corresponding normal forces Pi, or as the ratio of the average frictional
force Fa in the roll bite to the average normal force Pa:
11.24 Coefficients of Friction

In the initial stages of the development of rolling theories, differences in
the values for the coefficients of friction during various stages of the
rolling process were not recognized. Later research studies have shown
the necessity for differentiation of the coefficients of friction and their
classification as follows [6]:
Entry coefficient of friction μe that describes the friction during

initial entry of the workpiece into the roll bite.
Transient coefficient of friction μt that describes the friction during
passing of the leading edge of the workpiece through the roll bite.
Steady-state coefficient of friction μ that describes the friction
during the steady-state rolling process.
The entry coefficient of friction μe has the greatest value. During

threading of the leading edge of the workpiece through the roll bite, the
value of the transient coefficient of friction μt gradually reduces from the
value being equal to μe to the value equal to the steady-state friction μe
i.e.:
11.25 Friction During Initial Entry of Roll Bite

Let us consider an equilibrium of forces acting at the points A of initial
contact of a workpiece with two rolls. As shown in Fig. 11.16, N are the
forces acting in the normal direction to the rolls and F are the frictional
forces that are tangent to the roll. The frictional forces F pull the
workpiece into the roll bite whereas the normal forces N resist the
process.
A grip of the workpiece occurs when the horizontal components Fx of the

frictional forces are greater or at least equal to the horizontal components
Nx of the normal forces, i.e. Nx < Fx. Since F = μeN, Nx = N sinα, and Fx
= F cosα, the following condition for biting the workpiece is:
where
α roll bite angle.

=
Page 259
Fig. 11.16 – Forces acting in the roll bite during initial entry of the
workpiece.
11.26 Entry Coefficient of Friction in Hot Rolling

Formulas for the entry coefficients of friction during hot rolling have been
derived by numerous researchers. Ekelund [15] investigated a variation
of the entry coefficient of friction with temperature during rolling of a 225
mm (8.9 in.) thick bar of 0.15% C steel. Roll diameters of the mill are
equal to 427 mm (16.8 in.) while the temperature range is from 700 to
1100°C (1292 to 2012°F). The obtained equations for the entry coefficient
of friction are expressed as a function of the workpiece temperature as
well as the type and surface condition of the rolls.
Roll Type Equation for

and Surface Coefficient of
Condition Friction
Cast iron and rough μe = 1.05 -

rolls 0.0005t
Chilled and smooth μe = 0.8(1.05 -

iron rolls 0.0005t)
where
t = workpiece temperature, °C.
Smirnov and Uk [16] derived the following equations for the entry
coefficient of friction as a function of workpiece temperature, roll surface
roughness, and workpiece chemical composition:
where
Ra arithmetic average surface roughness, μm.

=
carbon content in steel, %.

C=
Page 260
The coefficient k2 depends on the rolling speed as shown in the following

table.
Rolling Speed, m/s

Coefficient
0 < V 2 < V ≤ 3 V >
≤ 2 3
k2 1 – 1.44 –
0.1V 0.28V 0.5
The above relationships are based on tests that were conducted at an

experimental mill with a roll diameter of 90 mm (3.54 in.) and a rolling
speed of 0.05 m/s. The arithmetic average roughness of the rolls varied
from 4 to 74 μm. The rolled materials were carbon steel (approx. 0.3% C)
and stainless steels with 20% Cr and 20 to 30% Ni. The investigated
workpiece temperature range was from 700 to 1150°C (1292 to 2102°F).
The minimum value of the entry coefficient of friction corresponded to

920°C (1688°F) for carbon steel and 1030°C (1886°F) for stainless
steels. The study also established that the entry coefficient of friction was
1.2 times less with hardened steel rolls than with soft steel rolls.
Tafel and Schnider [17] conducted experiments to determine the

maximum bite angle for low-carbon steel (0.09 – 0.12% C) as a function
of the rolling speed for the following two cases:
Case Roll Rolled Rolled

No. Surface Material Material
Cross-section Temperature
180 × 100 1200°C

1 Smooth mm (2192°F)
(7.1 × 4.0 in.)
180 × 500 1250°C

mm (2282°F)
2 Ragged (7.1 × 19.7
in.)
In both cases, the work roll diameters were equal to 990 mm (39 in.).
Results of their experiments are shown in Fig. 11.17.
Fig. 11.17 – Variation of maximum bite angle with rolling speed. Adapted
from Grudev [6]
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The maximum bite angle and entry coefficients of friction for different
types of rolls with various surface roughnesses are shown in Table 11.2
according to Wusatowski [18]. As expected, ragging the rolls increases
the maximum bite angle.
Table 11.2 Maximum bite angle and entry coefficient of

friction in hot rolling. Data from Wusatowski [18].
Roll Type and Maximum Bite Entry Coefficient

Surface Angle, deg. of Friction
Smooth ground rolls 12 – 15 0.212 – 0.268
Plate mill rolls 15 – 22 0.268 – 0.404
Rectangular grooves 24 – 25 0.445 – 0.466

for rolling flats
Box passes with 28 – 30 0.532 – 0.577

smooth surface
Box passes with 28 – 34 0.532 – 0.675

ragging
11.27 Entry Coefficient of Friction in Cold Rolling

In general, the maximum draft in cold rolling is not limited by the biting
capability of the work rolls except when the initial strip thickness is
greater than 4 mm (0.158 in.). The effects of the workpiece material,
lubricant type, and rolling speed on the entry coefficient of friction during
cold rolling have been a subject of numerous studies [6].
Effect of workpiece material – Table 11.3 summarizes the results that

were obtained during the rolling of carbon steel with a roll RMS
roughness from 0.2 to 0.4 μm. Changes in carbon content from 0.08 to
0.25% and in manganese content from 0.27 to 0.65% did not have any
practical effect on the entry coefficient of friction. It was also shown that
the entry coefficient of friction for stainless steel (18% Cr, 10% Ni) was 5
to 20% greater than that for carbon steel.
Table 11.3 Effect of rolled material on entry coefficient

of friction in cold rolling for various carbon steels. Data
from Grudev [6].
Entry Coefficient of Friction for Steels

Lubricant
0.08% C 0.10% C 0.20% C 0.25% C
Without lubricant
0.136 0.131 0.133 0.131
Cotton-seed oil
0.116 0.118 0.118 0.117
Castor oil
0.109 0.109 0.109 0.115
Effect of lubrication – Table 11.4 shows the ranges and average values
for the entry coefficient of friction μe with different lubricants. A relatively
weak effect of lubrication on μe is due to the poor conditions for forming a
lubricant film when the strip leading edge enters the roll bite.
Page 262
Table 11.4 Effect of lubricant on entry

coefficient of friction in cold rolling for low
carbon steel. Data from Grudev [6].
Entry Coefficient of Friction

Lubricant
Range Average
Water 0.152 – 0.160

0.156
Kerosene 0.154 – 0.157

0.156
Transformer oil 0.148 – 0.161

0.152
Machine oil 0.128 – 0.139

0.136
Sunflower oil 0.133 – 0.138

0.137
Castor oil 0.115 – 0.124

0.122
Effect of rolling speed – Fig. 11.18 illustrates the effect of rolling speed on
the entry coefficient of friction during the rolling of carbon steel (0.3% C)
samples with a thickness of 3.9 mm (0.154 in.). Castor oil is used as a
lubricant, while the RMS roughness of the rolls is between 0.2 and 0.4
μm. The entry coefficient of friction reduces very steeply within the speed
range from 0 to 0.15 m/s. Beyond this range, there is a more moderate
decrease of the entry coefficient of friction as the speed increases.
Fig. 11.18 – Effect of rolling speed on entry coefficient of friction during
cold rolling of carbon steel. Adapted from Grudev [6].
Effect of roll material and roll surface roughness – Table 11.5 shows the
values for the maximum bite angle and entry coefficient of friction for
some rolls with various surface roughness.
Page 263
Table 11.5 Effect of roll material and roll surface

roughness on maximum bite angle and entry coefficient
of friction in cold rolling for low carbon steel. Data from
Grudev [6].
Rolls Lubricant Maximum Bite Entry

Angle, deg. Coefficient of
Friction
Smooth Mineral 3 – 4 0.052 – 0.070

ground rolls oil
Chromium Mineral 6 – 7 0.105 – 0.120

steel rolls oil
Rough rolls Without up to 8

lubricant 0.150
11.28 Friction During Steady-State Rolling Conditions

During steady-state rolling conditions, the frictional forces Fi, that act in
the entry zone AN of the arc of the roll contact can assist rolling as shown
in Fig. 11.19. In contrast, the frictional forces acting in the zone NB along
with the normal forces Pi that act along the overall length of the arc of the
roll contact can hinder rolling. When the strip tensile forces S1 and S2
are present, they must be considered when defining the equilibrium of the
horizontal components of the forces acting in the roll bite.
Fig. 11.19 – Forces acting along the arc of the roll contact during rolling.
Adapted from Wusatowski [18].
By considering this equilibrium of forces, Ekelund [15] derived the

following formula for the neutral angle θ as a function of the bite angle α
and the steady-state coefficient of friction μ:
As the friction increases, the neutral plane moves toward the middle of
the arc of contact.
Page 264
When rolling with strip tension, the neutral angle can be defined from the
following equation proposed by Ford, et al [19]:
where
s1, s2 entry and exit strip specific tension respectively

=
mean constrained yield stress.

S=
Thus, with an increase of exit tension s2, the neutral plane moves toward
the entry side. With an increase of entry tension s1, as well as an
increase in draft, the neutral plane moves toward the exit side. Figure
11.20 illustrates the extreme condition when the neutral plane is shifted to
the end of the arc of the roll contact, so that all frictional forces are acting
in the rolling direction.
Fig. 11.20 – Forces acting along the arc of the roll contact with large entry
tension. Adapted from Wusatowski [19].
11.29 Effect of Friction on Forward Slip

At the neutral plane, both the roll and the workpiece move at the same
speed. At the entry side, the workpiece surface speed is slower than the
peripheral speed of the roll, while at the exit side the workpiece speed is
higher. The forward slip is defined by the following equation:
where
Vw workpiece exit speed

=
Vr roll peripheral speed.

=
As was shown by Ford, et al [19], the forward slip can be calculated from
the roll bite geometry as follows:
Page 265
Thus, when μ = α/2, the forward slip Sf is equal to zero.
11.30 Effect of Friction on Lateral Spread

The relationship between the lateral spread and the coefficient of friction
has been proposed by Bakhtinov [18] in the following form:
Friction equations indicate that when friction in the rolling direction

increases, lateral spread also increases. Friction can also affect the
contour of the side surfaces of the rolled material [20]. When deformation
is homogeneous, the edge contour is straight as shown in Fig. 11.21a. If
friction is present, the result is not only greater spread, but also barreling
of the side faces (Fig. 11.21b). Under sticking conditions, folding over of
the side surfaces occurs (Fig. 11.21c) [2].
Fig. 11.21 – Edge profiles of rolled slabs. (From J.A. Schey, Tribology in
11.31 Measurement of Coefficient of Friction

A number of methods for measuring the steady-state coefficient of friction
have been proposed [1]. The most well-known methods are briefly
described in the following sections.
Method of forced skidding – The method of forced skidding was proposed

by Pavlov [21] which involves the application of entry tension to the rolled
workpiece. The tension is gradually increased until the rolls start to skid.
At that specific moment, the equilibrium of the forces in the roll bite (Fig.
11.22) in both horizontal and vertical directions can be given by:
Page 266
Since F = μN, and also assuming that the forces P and F are applied in
the middle of the arc of the roll contact (θ = μ/2), we can obtain from Eqs.
(11-31) and (11-32) the following expression for the steady-state
coefficient of friction:
Fig. 11.22 – Forces acting in the roll bite during skidding. Adapted from
Grudev [6].
Roll torque method – Whitton and Ford [22] have shown that under
skidding conditions, the steady-state coefficient of friction can be
determined from the following simple relationship:
where
roll torque
M =
roll radius.
R =
This method is valid when the back tension is sufficient to move the
neutral plane to the exit point as shown in Fig. 11.20.
Method of maximum draft – The method of maximum draft involves a

gradual increase of draft during rolling until roll skidding begins. Under
these conditions, the steady-state coefficient of friction will be equal to
the tangent of the roll bite angle α, i.e.:
Forward slip method – The forward slip method is based on measuring

the forward slip Sf during rolling and calculating the steady-state
coefficient of friction μ from the equation that expresses μ as a function of
Sf. When strip tension can be neglected, Eq. (11-29) can be used.
Page 267
Roll force method – According to the roll force method, the steady-state
coefficient of friction μ is determined by using the equations for the roll
force P, in which P is expressed as a function of μ. As an example, see
Eqs. (10-19) through (10-24) which are related to Stone’s method of
calculating roll force.
11.32 Steady-State Coefficient of Friction in Hot Rolling

The steady-state coefficient of friction μ in hot rolling is affected by a
number of factors which are briefly described in the following sections.
Workpiece temperature – For low carbon steel with a temperature above

700°C (1292°F), μ decreases with an increase in temperature as
approximated by [6]:
where
t workpiece temperature, °C.

=
Equation (11-36) shows that the steady-state coefficient of friction μ

decreases linearly with the temperature t. Rolling tests, however, show a
more sophisticated relationship in which μ reaches a maximum at a
certain temperature depending on the chemical composition of the
workpiece [23], as shown in Fig. 11.23.
Fig. 11.23 – Effect of workpiece temperature on the steady-state

coefficient of friction. Adapted from Wusatowski [18].
Workpiece chemical composition – The effect of chemical composition of

the workpiece on the coefficient of friction in hot rolling is usually related
to the mechanism of formation of scale.
Page 268
Experiments show that μ decreases with an increase in carbon content in

carbon steel [24] as shown in Fig. 11.24. The effect becomes less
pronounced with an increase in temperature. This phenomenon can also
be explained by a weakening of the forces of molecular attraction
between the metallic surfaces with an increase in carbon content. This is
confirmed by the fact that during rolling of austenitic stainless steel, which
has a tendency for bonding to the roll surface, the coefficient of friction is
1.3 to 1.5 times greater than that during rolling of carbon steels [6].
Fig. 11.24 – Effect of workpiece carbon content on the steady-state

coefficient of friction in hot rolling. Adapted from Grudev [6].
Roll surface roughness – The steady-state coefficient of friction

substantially increases with an increase in the roll surface roughness as
shown in Table 11.6, where the values for μ are determined by using the
method of forced skidding.
Table 11.6 Effect of roll surface roughness on the

steady-state coefficient of friction in hot rolling with
quenched steel rolls. Data from Grudev [6].
Roll RMS Average Surface Steady-state

Diameter, Roughness, μm Coefficient of
mm Friction
193 0.63 0.20 – 0.28
193 0.8 – 1.6 0.21 – 0.31
188 12.5 – 50 0.51 – 0.69
Rolling speed – According to Gelej [25], an increase in rolling speed

reduces the steady-state coefficient of friction according to the following
equations:
Page 269
Roll Type Equation for Coefficient of Eq.

Friction No.
Steel μ = 1.05 – 0.0005t – (11-

0.056V 37)
Iron μ = 0.92 – 0.0005t – (11-

0.056V 38)
Ground steel μ = 0.82 – 0.0005t – (11-

or iron 0.056V 39)
where
V rolling speed, m/s

=
t workpiece temperature, °C.

=
Oil concentration – Generally, the steady-state coefficient of friction

decreases with an increase in oil concentration. However, after the oil
concentration reaches a certain maximum level, the further addition of oil
does not result in any additional reduction in friction as shown in Fig.
11.25. This maximum level of oil concentration depends on the type of
lubricant as shown in the following table [2,6]:
Maximum Oil
Lubricant Type
Concentration, %
Polymerized cotton
oil emulsion 5
Stearic acid
20
Rapeseed oil
40
Fig. 11.25 – Effect of oil concentration on the steady-state coefficient of

friction in hot rolling. Adapted from Grudev [6].
11.33 Roll Wear in Hot Rolling

In hot rolling, the work rolls are subjected to periodic loading that is
accompanied with abrasion by hard oxide as well as fluctuations in
temperature [26] as shown in Fig. 11.26.
Page 270
Fig. 11.26 – Variation of roll surface temperature during one revolution.

(From Robinson and Westlake. Reprinted by permission of the Council of
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers from Proceedings of the First
European Tribology Congress, 1973).
The four major causes of roll wear which are closely related to these
conditions are as follows [27]:
Abrasion of the roll surface due to its contact with the rolled
material and backup roll.
Mechanical fatigue of the roll surface layer as a result of cyclical
loading of the rolls.
Thermal fatigue of the roll surface layers as they are periodically
heated by the rolled material and cooled by water sprays.
Corrosion.
The two types of roll wear that are generally considered are uniform wear
and localized wear [2].
Uniform wear – Uniform wear is caused by abrasion in combination with

thermal fatigue, along with corrosive wear which plays a subordinate role.
Localized wear – Localized wear is a local wear along the bands on the
roll surface that is mainly caused by accumulating secondary scale on
the roll surface. This scale accumulation increases with an increase in roll
surface roughness and rolling temperature. Therefore, localized wear is
more likely to occur in the early stands of a finishing mill.
Roll surface roughening or banding is closely related to the metallurgical

structure of cast iron rolls. According to Judd [28], banding is a result of
the following sequence:
1. Thermal fatigue initiates cracks that are perpendicular to the roll

surface.
2. At large eutectic carbides the cracks turn parallel to the surface
3. Oxidation in the cracks causes swelling and spalling of cells.
4. Layers of cells are successively removed to form bands.
Reduction of roll wear by lubrication is greatly affected by the type of

lubricant. Tests were conducted by Robinson and Westlake [26] at the
No. 2 finishing mill stand of a 762 mm (30 in.)
Page 271
wide hot strip mill (Fig. 11.27). Figure 11.28 shows that the application of
synthetic oil substantially reduces roll wear, whereas applying
hydrocarbon fluid is detrimental to the roll life.
Fig. 11.27 – Positions of water and lubricant spray headers on a 4-high

mill stand. (From Robinson and Westlake. Reprinted by permission of the
Council of Institution of Mechanical Engineers from Proceedings of the
First European Tribology Congress, 1973.)
Fig. 11.28 – Comparison of roll wear curves for No. 2 finishing mill stand
of 762 mm (30 in.) wide hot strip mill. (From Robinson and Westlake.
Reprinted by permission of the Council of Institution of Mechanical
Engineers from Proceedings of the First European Tribology Congress,
1973).
Page 272
11.34 Application of Hot Rolling Lubricants

According to data collected by Wandrei from different hot strip and plate
mills [27], lubrication can be provided at the backup and work rolls on the
entry side, exit side, or both. The lubricants are applied in either neat
form or as emulsions. Dispersion and steam atomization are used in
several mills, while some mills have also used solid lubricants.
The application of lubricants in production hot rolling mills can provide a

number of benefits. The contributions vary widely from mill to mill as
summarized in the following table using data from 28 rolling mills:
Benefit from Lubrication Improvement,

%
Coefficient of friction 34 to 67
reduction
Roll life increase 20 to 250
Roll force reduction 4 to 30
Mill power reduction 3 to 35
Pickling rate increase 10 to 50
Rolled tonnage increase

1.5 to 22
Additional benefits include improvement in surface finish, reduced

amount of scale that is generated during rolling, and reduced rolled-in
scale. The use of lubricants also provides a more homogeneous
deformation which can improve both strip profile and shape. The
following changes in the physical and metallurgical properties of the
rolled material can be obtained by the application of lubricants:
Improved control in grain size

Decreased yield point, ultimate tensile strength, and notch
strength
Increased elongation
Possible improved surface texture of silicon steel sheet
Possible improved precipitation kinetics of niobium carbide.
11.35 Steady-State Coefficient of Friction in Cold Rolling

The steady-state coefficient of friction μ in cold rolling is affected by
various factors which are briefly reviewed in the following sections.
Workpiece temperature – An increase in the workpiece temperature

generally increases μ. This increase is more pronounced when the
lubricants with higher viscosity are used (Fig. 11.29). The temperature
dependence of μ can be approximated by the following equation [6]:
Page 273
where
μ20 steady-state coefficient of friction at 20°C (68°F)

=
t workpiece temperature, °C
=
μ steady-state coefficient of friction at temperature t

=
a empirical coefficient depending on the roll surface finish as follows:

=

Smooth roll surface: 0.0011 – 0.0015
Rough roll surface: 0.0035 – 0.0073.
Fig. 11.29 – Effect of workpiece temperature on the steady-state

coefficient of friction in cold rolling. Adapted from Grudev [6].
Roll surface roughness – As would be expected, μ increases with an

increase in roll surface roughness and can be expressed as [6]:
where
μ0.2 steady-state coefficient of friction corresponding to the roll surface

=roughness Ra = 0.2 μm
μ steady-state coefficient of friction corresponding to the roll surface

=roughness Ra.
Workpiece chemical composition – When rolling carbon steel with

lubrication, μ was found to be negligibly affected by variations in the
chemical composition of the rolled material. Austenitic stainless steel,
however, has a tendency to stick to the rolls and the measured values for
μ are usually 10 to 20% greater than those for carbon steel.
Lubricant viscosity – The effect of viscosity on μ for two groups of oils is

shown in Fig. 11.30 and can be approximated by the following equation:
Page 274
where
η50 viscosity at 50°C (122°F), m2/s ×10-2

=
k empirical constant. For mineral oil: k = 1.4; seed oil: k = 1.0.

=
As follows from Eq. (11-42), the entrained film thickness increases with
an increase in the lubricant viscosity. Therefore, frictional forces
decrease, which is confirmed by numerous experiments.
Fig. 11.30 – Effect of lubricant viscosity on the steady-state coefficient of

friction in cold rolling. Adapted From Grudev [6].
Rolling speed – Since the entrained film thickness is proportional to

rolling speed, the steady-state coefficient of friction μ decreases as the
rolling speed increases. Fig. 11.31 shows some typical values of μ as
calculated from steel rolling trials [29].
Fig. 11.31 – Effect of cold rolling speed on the steady-state coefficient of
friction. Adapted from Pawelski [29].
Page 275
Sims and Arthur [30] have shown that at a speed greater than 0.25 m/s
(50 ft/min), the speed effect on the steady-state coefficient of friction can
be expressed in the following form:
where
a, b, c empirical constants
=
rolling speed.
V =
In the case of dry rolling, friction increases with speed as shown in the
following formula proposed by Starchenko, et al [31]:
where
μ0 steady-state coefficient of friction at very low speed

=
a, b empirical constants.
=
In Eq. (11-44), the minus sign corresponds to rolling with lubrication while
the plus sign relates to the dry rolling condition.
Pass reduction – The effect of pass reduction on friction depends greatly

on surface roughness and the degree of work-hardening of the
workpiece. Figure 11.32 shows the results of rolling samples of low-
carbon steel with castor oil and 10% mineral oil emulsion used as
lubricants [6].
Fig. 11.32 – Effect of pass reduction on the steady-state coefficient of
friction in cold rolling. Adapted from Grudev [6].
Page 276
When rolling a strip with a rough surface, μ reduces with an increase in

reduction for both annealed and work-hardened material. When a strip
with a smooth surface is rolled, μ increases with an increase in reduction
for annealed material, but remains constant for work-hardened material.
Work roll diameter – In the case of mixed-film lubrication, the film

thickness h is given by the following equation [2]:
where
arithmetic average of roll speed and strip speed

V=
r pass reduction
=
α roll bite angle

=
η dynamic fluid viscosity.

=
As follows from Eq. (11-45), the oil film thickness h increases when the
bite angle α decreases. Since an increase in the work roll diameter
results in a smaller bite angle α, it can be expected that a lower value of
the coefficient of friction μ will be obtained.
11.36 Application of Cold Rolling Lubricants

The three main methods of lubrication in cold rolling can be described as
follows [2]:
Lubrication with separate water – This method includes applying lubricant

to the strip in neat form prior to rolling and adding water to the mill.
Lubrication by dispersion – This method involves mixing water with oil at
the mill and applying the mixture in the form of a mechanical dispersion.
Lubrication with emulsions – This method presumes the use of emulsions

which are oils or fats emulsified in water.
The steady-state coefficient of friction is often used for comparing

different types of lubricants and their method of application. Table 11.7
presents the values for the coefficient of friction that were calculated from
tests conducted by Whitton and Ford [22]. A fully annealed mild steel strip
with a thickness of 1.78 mm (0.070 in.) was rolled during using polished
steel rolls with a diameter of 100 mm (4.0 in.). The rolling speed was
approximately 0.16 m/s (32 ft/min). Lubricants were generously applied to
both the strip and the rolls.
Roll force is another parameter that is used as a criterion for evaluating

lubricants. Figure 11.33 illustrates the roll forces that were measured by
Pawelski and Kading [32] when rolling thin steel strip. When rolling thin
gauges, the rolls make direct contact outside the strip. This contact is
only part of the reason for reaching a limited reduction. Another important
contributor is roll flattening to the degree that strip deformation becomes
all elastic. The test data show that under conditions of limiting reduction,
it is advantageous to use rapeseed oil instead of mineral oil.
Page 277
Fig. 11.33 – Roll forces measured in rolling of steel strip under conditions
of limiting reduction. Adapted from Pawelski and Kading [32].
Table 11.7 Steady-state coefficients of friction in cold rolling. Data from

Whitton and Ford [22].
Viscosity at Steady-state Coefficient

37.8°C Pass Pass of Friction
Lubricant
(100°F) Redwood Number Reduction %
No. 1
Vac. R.O. 128 1

546 15.0 0.070
Vac. R.O. 37 1
950 15.6 0.069
Vac. R.O. 59 1
40A 17.0 0.061
Shell P.E. 6 120 3

23.0 0.050
Shell P.E. 6 120 4 27.9 0.053
Esso Pale 81 3
885 24.0 0.052
Esso 5500 4
Baywest 27.5 0.050
Olive oil — 2
18.1 0.057
Castor oil — 4
23.1 0.045
Lanoline — 4
26.5 0.041
Camphor — 4
flowers 27.2 0.038
Page 278
References
1. Glossary of Terms and Definitions in the Field of Friction, Wear and
Lubrication: Tribology, OECD, Paris, 1969.
2. Schey, J.A., Tribology in Metalworking: Friction, Lubrication and Wear,

American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983, pp. 11-130.
3. Bowden, F.P. and Tabor, D., The Friction and Lubrication of Solids,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, Pt. I, 1950, and Pt. II, 1964.
4. Tabor, D., Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A251, 1959.
5. Kragelski, I.V., Friction and Wear, Butterworth, Washington 1965.
6. Grudev, A.P., External Friction During Rolling, Metallurgia (Russian),

Moscow, 1973.
7. Wanheim, T. and Bay, N., CIRP, 27, 1978, pp. 189-194.
8. Challen, J.M. and Oxley, P.L.B., Wear, Vol. 53, 1979, pp. 229-243.
9. Pawelski, O., Schmiertechnik, (German), Vol. 15, 1968, pp. 129-138.
10. Booser, E.R., Handbook of Lubrication, Theory and Practice of

Tribology, Vol. II, Theory and Design, CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Fla.,
1983, p. 49.
11. Lancaster, P.R. and Rowe, G.W., Wear, Vol. 2, 1959, pp. 428-437.
12. Sargent, L.B. and Tsao, Y.H., ASLE Trans., Vol. 23, 1980, pp. 70-76.
13. Burwell, J.T., Wear, Vol. 1, 1957, pp. 119-141.
14. Tselikov, A.I., Izvestia Vuz. Machinostroenie (Russian), No. 11, 1959.
15. Ekelund, S., Steel Vol. 93, Aug. 21, 1933, pp. 27-29.
16. Smirnov, B.S. and Uk, H.P. ‘‘Treatment of Metals by Pressure,”

Machgiz, Moscow, LPI No. 203, 1959, pp. 38-48.
17. Tafel, W., Rolling and Roll Pass Design (German), Dortmund, 1923.

1969, pp. 69-202.
19. Ford, H., et al, “Cold Rolling with Strip Tension, Part 1 – A New
Approximate Method of Calculation and Comparison with Other
Methods,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 168, May 1951, pp.
57-72.
20. Sheppard, T. and Wright, D.S., Metals Technology, Vol. 8, 1981, pp.
46-57.
21. Pavlov, I.M., Theory of Rolling and Principles of Plastic Deformation

of Metals (Russian), GONTI, Moscow, 1938.
22. Whitton, P.W. and Ford, H., “Surface Friction and Lubrication in Cold
Strip Rolling,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, No.
169, 1955, pp. 123-140.
23. Pavlov, I.M. and Kuprin, M.I., “Technological Processes of Treatment

of Steels and Alloys,” Metallurgizdat, (Russian) MIC, No. 33, 1955, pp.
154-192.
24. Molotkov, L.F., “Theory and Practice of Metallurgy,” (Russian) No. 3,

1940, pp. 20-22.
25. Gelej, S, “Calculation of Forces and Energy During Plastic

Deformation of Metals,” Metallurgizdat (Russian), Moscow, 1958.
26. Robinson, C.L. and Westlake, F.J., “Roll Lubrication in Hot Strip
Mills,” Proceedings of the First European Tribology Congress, London,
Sept. 25-27, 1973, pp. 389-398.
27. Wandrei, C.L., Review of Hot Rolling Lubricant Technology for Steel,
ASLE Special Publication SP-17, Park Ridge, IL, 1984.
28. Judd, R.R. “Surface Deterioration of Grain Iron Work Rolls in the First
Stands of a Hot Strip Mill Finishing Train,” AISE Yearly Proceedings,
1979, pp. 65-74.
Page 279
29. Pawelski, O., “Lubrication and Wear,” Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Pt. 3D,
1964-65, pp. 80-92.
30. Sims, R.B. and Arthur, D.F., “Speed-Dependent Variables in Cold

Strip Rolling,” Journal of Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 172 No. 3, 1952, pp.
285-295.
31. Starchenko, D.I., et al, Izv. Vuz. Chernaya Metallurgia, No. 8, 1967,
pp. 86-91.
32. Pawelski, O. and Kading, G., Stahl von Eisen, Vol. 87, 1967, pp.
1340-1355.
Page 280

Page 281
Part III
METALLURGICAL ASPECTS OF HOT ROLLING
Page 282

Page 283
Chapter 12
HEAT TRANSFER IN HOT ROLLING
12.1 Requirements for Heating Process

The heating of ingots and slabs accomplishes the following main
objectives:
Softening the steel for rolling.

Providing a sufficiently high initial temperature, so that the rolling
process is completed in the fully austenitic temperature region.
Dissolving carbides or nitrides (where applicable) that will be
precipitated at a later stage of processing.
Surface scaling for removal of surface defects.
Because of its nature, the heating process produces coarsing of the

austenitic structure with grain diameters in the range of 100 to 1000
microns. In the process of grain coarsing the larger grains get larger
while the smaller grains tend to disappear. The grain growth can proceed
with an increase in temperature in the following two ways (Fig. 12.1):
1. Continuous growth that is typical for plain carbon steel

2. Discontinuous growth that is typical for aluminum-killed and
microalloyed steels.
During continuous grain growth, the grain coarsing of C-Mn steels

between 900 and 1200°C (1652 and 2192°F) follows the well-known
continuous grain-growth law:
where
k, a, b constants
=
D average grain diameter

=
t time
=
T temperature.
=
Page 284
Fig. 12.1 – Two types of grain growth processes during heating.
In the case of discontinuous grain growth, the process is suppressed up

to a certain temperature after which a sudden increase in grain size takes
place. This discontinuous grain growth can also start after holding the
material at the same temperature during longer time periods. The main
reason for discontinuous grain growth is suppression of the grain
boundary motion by the precipitates that are dissolved in steel.
Vanadium-bearing steels generally resist coarsing only up to 1050°C

(1922°F). Niobium-bearing steels resist grain coarsing to temperatures
up to 1150°C (2102°F). Steel containing a fine dispersion of the very
stable TiN can resist grain coarsing to temperatures above 1200°C
(2192°F). Another feature of the heating process is nonuniform increase
in the temperature of the ingot or slab, which is mainly due to the
following factors:
Penetration of heat from the metal surface to its center that

produces a rapid increase in surface temperature whereas the
center of the slab remains cold.
Uneven heating conditions in the zones surrounding the ingot or
slab.
Larger surface to volume ratio in a unit volume of the ingot or slab
near their edges in comparison to their middle portion.
Heat sink to the supportive members of the ingots or slabs which
can produce skid marks.
In application to hot rolling of flat steel products, the main requirements
for the heating process are as follows:
Achieve the desired material temperature. Plain carbon steel is

usually between 1200 to 1320°C (2192 to 2408°F).
Reduce the temperature differential between the surface and
center to a desired level which can be as low as 14°C (25°F) for
slabs with a thickness of 250 mm (10 in.).
Reduce skid marks effect.
Avoid overheating (washing) the slab surface in order to reduce
the grain coarsing as well as excessive scaling.
Reduce energy consumption for heating.
Page 285
12.2 Batch-Type Slab Reheating Furnaces

In batch-type slab reheating furnaces, the charged material remains in a
fixed position on the hearth during heating and can be divided into the
following four groups:
1. Fuel-fired furnaces
2. Electrical resistance furnaces
3. Induction furnaces
4. Dual-fuel furnaces.
Fuel-fired furnaces, shown in Fig. 12.2, utilize either gaseous or liquid

fuel with preheated or cold combustion air [1-3].
Electrical resistance furnaces, shown in Fig. 12.3, produce high-intensity

radiant energy by silicon carbide elements that are located near the slab
[4].
Fig. 12.2 – Schematic presentation of fuel-fired batch-type reheating

furnace. (From Flux, Reheating for Hot Working, Iron and Steel Institute
Publication, No. 111, London, 1968. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 12.3 – Electrical resistance batch-type reheating furnace. (From
Laws, Slab Reheating, Iron and Steel Institute Publication, London, 1973.
Page 286
Induction furnaces, shown in Fig. 12.4, provide heating by eddy-current

induced in the slab by an electromagnetic field which is generated by
induction coils that surround the slab [5].
Fig. 12.4 – Diagram of induction slab reheating furnace. (From Korey,

Slab Reheating, Iron and Steel Institute Publication, London, 1973.
Reprinted with permission.) Dual-fuel furnaces are fuel-fired furnaces that
can be used for preheating the slab followed by rapid heating to rolling
temperature in an induction heating furnace [6].
Electrical resistance and induction furnaces have several main

advantages that can be listed as follows [5]:
Instant on/off action

Maximum flexibility for scheduling of both hot and cold slabs
Minimum product in process
Reduced space requirements
Eliminate air-pollution problem.
The main disadvantage of electrical resistance and induction furnaces is

the higher cost for the electric power.
12.3 Continuous-Type Slab Reheating Furnaces

In continuous-type slab reheating furnaces, the charged material moves
inside the furnace while it is being heated. Depending on the method that
is used to move the slabs during heating, these furnaces can be
classified as follows [1]:
Pusher furnaces
Rotary hearth furnaces
Walking beam furnaces
Walking hearth furnaces
Roller-hearth (tunnel)furnaces.
Page 287
Pusher furnaces, shown in Fig. 12.5, are designed so that slabs can be
charged from either the end or through the side door [7]. The steel slabs
are moved through the furnace by pushing the last slab charged with a
pusher at the charging end while a heated slab is simultaneously
removed through the discharge door.
Rotary hearth furnaces, shown in Fig. 12.6, have a hearth section of the
furnace that revolves, while the external walls and roof remain stationary.
Fig. 12.5 – Schematic longitudinal section through a three-zone counter-
current fired pusher-type continuous furnace. (From Vance, et al, AISE
Year Book, 1978. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with
permission.)
Fig. 12.6 – Schematic arrangement of rotary hearth reheating furnace.

al, 1985. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 288
Walking beam furnaces, shown in Fig. 12.7, move the heated slabs
intermittently with so-called ‘‘walking beams”. The slabs at rest are
supported on the raised stationary ridges on the hearth. At this time, the
walking beams are located below the slabs. The walking motion is
provided in the following four steps:
1. Walking beams are raised by pivoting the bell cranks, thus lifting
the slabs from the stationary ridges.
2. Walking beams with the slabs are pushed in the direction of travel
by means of a travel cylinder.
3. Bell cranks are pivoted to lower the walking beams, thus placing
the slabs on the stationary ridges in the advanced position.
4. Walking beams are returned to the initial horizontal position by the
travel cylinder.
Fig. 12.7 – Schematic diagram (not to scale) showing a method by which

walking beams can operate to advance slabs along the hearth of a
heating furnace. (From The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, by
W.T. Lankford, et al, 1985. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with
permission.) Walking hearth furnaces are designed so that the slabs rest
on fixed refractory piers which are extended through the openings in the
hearth, thus providing a gap between the slabs and the furnace hearth.
The slabs are advanced toward the discharge end by “walking” the
hearth in a manner that is similar to “walking” the beams in a walking
beam furnaces.
Both walking beam and walking hearth furnaces can have two entrances
[8]. The second entrance is provided for preheated slabs and is usually
located at the midway of the furnace. In order to achieve the optimum
slab moving rate through the furnace, the walking beam or walking hearth
mechanism can be split into two or more independently driven sections.
Roller-hearth furnaces, shown in Fig. 12.8, move the heated slabs

through the furnace in the direction of their length on motor-driven table
rolls. This allows for the non-intermittent advance of slabs with a longer
length, which would not be practical in pusher-type or walking-beam-type
furnaces.
Page 289
Fig. 12.8 – Cross-section of a roller-hearth-type (tunnel) furnace for

reheating continuously cast slabs immediately after casting to equalize
temperature for rolling. Note over and under firing main burners and
auxiliary edge-heating burners. (From The Making, Shaping and Treating
of Steel, by W.T. Lankford, et al, 1985. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa.
12.4 Fuel-Firing in Continuous Reheating Furnaces

In continuous-type slab reheating furnaces, gaseous or liquid fuel is
normally used and mixed with air in burners. Various types of burner
designs are shown in Fig. 12.9 [9]. In low-velocity burners (Fig. 12.9a),
the air and gas flow in parallel currents at the same speeds which
produces an inefficient mixture of air and gas. In the burner with a disk
(Fig. 12.9b) the air speed can be is increased, but this design does not
provide the short flames that are required.
Better results can be achieved by utilizing the principle of air rotation. In

the burner shown in Fig. 12.9c, the central air is forced into rotation by
inclined blades while the gas is sent through a thin ring just between the
turbulent air and the parallel air current. The flame length is adjusted by
the air distribution between the two air circuits. The simplified high-
velocity burner, based on the same principle but without the flame
adjustment, is shown in Fig. 12.9d. The best results (no hot spots and
maximum possible flow variation) are produced with burners that have air
injected at high pressure (above 1 kg/cm2) through a series of holes that
are perpendicular to the burner axis as shown in Fig. 12.9e.
Strict pollution control requirements led to the development of low NOx
burners that reduce the amount of oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO2 in the
furnace emission gases [10-12]. Further improvements in fuel efficiency
as well as pollution control can be achieved by implementing oxy-fuel
combustion [11,13]. Some furnaces are also equipped with recuperators
which provide preheating of the combustion air and conserve energy
[14,15].
Depending on the arrangement of the fuel-firing burners and firing

chambers, continuous reheating furnaces can be divided into the
following groups [1,3]:
Single zone furnaces (Fig. 12.10a)

Multiple zone furnaces (Fig. 12.10b, c, d)
Roof-fired furnaces (Fig. 12.10e)
Reverse-fired furnaces (Fig. 12.10f).
Page 290
Fig. 12.9 – Burners for reheating furnaces: a) low-velocity, b) with disk, c)

high-velocity with variable flame, d) simplified high-velocity, e) high-
velocity. (From Defise, Slab Reheating, Iron and Steel Institute
Publication, London, 1973. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 12.10 – Types of continuous reheating furnaces. (From Flux,
Reheating for Hot Working, Iron and Steel Institute Publication, No. 111,
1968, London. Reprinted with permission.)
12.5 Analysis of Continuous Heating Process

In a continuous reheating furnace, the wall temperature distribution along
the furnace is regulated by a zone temperature control system. This
temperature distribution can be described by a temperature-distance
curve. When the slab push rate is known, this temperature-distance
curve can
Page 291
be converted into a temperature-time curve.
Since the heating conditions for the top and bottom furnace zones are
different, both top and bottom zone wall temperature-time curves must be
considered to accurately simulate the heating process. Mill experiments
have shown that the heat transfer in these furnaces is mainly due to
radiation, whereas heat transfer by convection contributes less than 5%
to the total heat transfer [16,17]. The heat radiated to the slab can be
expressed by the following equation:
where
As slab surface area

=
Ts slab surface temperature, °F

=
Tw furnace wall temperature, °F

=
portion of the heat flow absorbed by gases.

∈ =
Heat transfer inside the slab is attained mainly by conduction. Neglecting

both the edge effect and skid marks effect, this process can be described
by the following differential equation:
where
as slab thermal diffusivity

=
slab temperature
T =
x distance from slab surface.

=
Using the finite difference method (Fig. 12.11) proposed by Schmidt [18],
Eq. (12-3) can be replaced by:
where
n layer number
=
Δx layer thickness
=
Tn temperature of n-th layer at time t

=
Tn′ temperature of n-th layer at time t + Δt.

=
To obtain better accuracy of approximation, the time increment Δt and

layer thickness Δx must meet the following requirement [19]:
Page 292
Fig. 12.11 – Schematic presentation of finite layers of a slab used in finite

difference method.
For a given furnace wall temperature distribution along the furnace and a
given slab push rate, heat transfer analysis can define the following
parameters (Fig. 12.12):
Gas temperature distribution along the furnace length

Slab temperature at any position in the furnace
Heat flow density along the furnace length.
Fig. 12.12 – Temperature and heat flow density distribution along furnace
length. (From Hollander and Zuurbier, AISE Year Book, 1982. Copyright
AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 293
12.6 Hot Slab Charging

Hot slab charging can substantially reduce the fuel consumption that is
required for slab heating [20]. Figure 12.13 shows that the amount of fuel
saved increases with an increase in the slab charging temperature.
Fig. 12.13 – Effect of slab recharging temperature and furnace length on

fuel consumption. Adapted from Matsukawa and Yoshibe (1982).
The three most common methods of hot slab charging are as follows:
1. Charging both hot and cold slabs into a single-entrance reheating

furnace.
2. Charging both hot and cold slabs into a double-entrance reheating
furnace.
3. Charging only hot slabs into a single-entrance furnace.
When charging both hot and cold slabs into a single-entrance reheating
furnace, the furnace length is designed to receive cold slabs, and
therefore, is too long for hot charge slabs (Fig. 12.14). Furthermore, the
in-furnace stock traveling speed is matched to the cold stock. As a result,
this type of operation impairs not only the heat economy, but also product
quality and productivity because it can cause washing on the surface of
the hot stock. To achieve the optimum moving rate of both hot and cold
slabs through the furnace, the walking beam mechanism can be split into
two or more independently driven sections.
When charging both hot and cold slabs into a double-entrance reheating
furnace, the second slab charging port is designated for hot slabs. This
port is usually located at the midpoint where the temperature of the
traveling cold stock becomes equal to that of the hot stock (Fig. 12.15).
This allows the hot stock to be heated more efficiently along with the cold
stock. The double-
Page 294
entrance furnace also provides some flexibility in synchronizing the

production rates of the continuous casters and rolling mills.
When charging only hot slabs into a single-entrance furnace, the furnace
length can be substantially reduced to achieve maximum fuel savings.
Fig. 12.14 – Heating of cold and hot stock in conventional reheating

furnace. Adapted from Matsukawa and Yoshibe (1982).
Fig. 12.15 – Heating of cold and hot stock in two-entrance reheating
furnace. Adapted from Matsukawa and Yoshibe (1982).
12.7 Effects of Skid System on Heating

Skid systems have the following two main effects on heating:
Skids absorb heat from their surroundings

Skids cast radiation shadows on the stock and thus prevent heat
from reaching it.
Page 295
These effects result in the reduction of fuel efficiency and the generation
of so-called skid marks, or cooler regions on the slabs as shown in Figs.
12.16 and 12.17. The heat absorbed by a skid system can be described
by the following equation [21]:
where
q rate of heat loss

=
h heat transfer coefficient

=
surface area of skid pipes

A=
Tf mean temperature of the furnace surrounding the pipe

=
Tc temperature of skid coolant.

=
Fig. 12.16 – Temperature distribution inside a slab in a continuous

pusher-type furnace. (From Salter, Slab Reheating, Iron and Steel
Institute Publication, London, 1973. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 12.17 – Typical slab temperature distribution along its length after
reheating in continuous pusher-type furnace. (From Salter, Slab
Reheating, Iron and Steel Institute Publication, London, 1973. Reprinted
with permission.)
The skid coolant temperature is usually maintained as high as possible

and is limited by the structural properties of the steel that is used to make
the skid pipes. To reduce skid marks, the skid system should produce the
minimum radiation shadowing on the slab. Figure 12.18 shows a design
of hot skids that utilize apex-uppermost pipes. Skid marks can also be
reduced by either staggering the hot skids or by gradually changing the
distance between them. Additional improvements are achieved by using
a hot skid system that incorporates water-cooled skids [22,23].
Page 296
Fig. 12.18 – Hot skids for pusher-type furnace: a) without insulation, b)

with insulation. (From Salter, Slab Reheating, Iron and Steel Institute
Publication, London, 1973. Reprinted with permission.)
12.8 Workpiece Temperature Change in Hot Strip Mills

After reheating a slab to the desired temperature, the slab is subjected to
rolling. A rolling cycle in a typical hot strip mill includes the following main
steps:
1. Descaling the slab prior to flat rolling by using a high-pressure

water descaling system and in some cases, in combination with
edging.
2. Rough rolling the slab to a transfer bar thickness that varies from
19 to 40 mm (0.75 to 1.57 in.). Rough rolling is usually
accompanied by edging and interpass descaling.
3. Deliver the transfer bar from the roughing mill to the flying shear
which is installed ahead of the finishing mill to cut both head and
tail ends of the transfer bar.
4. Descaling the transfer bar prior to entering the finishing mill.
5. Finish rolling the transfer bar to the desired thickness with the
possible use of interstand descaling and/or strip cooling.
6. Air and water cooling of the rolled product on the runout table.
7. Coiling of the rolled product.
Various types of heat transfer from the rolled workpiece to its surrounding
matter occur during the rolling cycle. Some of the lost heat is recovered
by generating heat inside the workpiece during its deformation. The main
components of the workpiece temperature loss and gain in hot strip mills
can be identified as follows:
Loss due to radiation

Loss due to convection
Loss due to water cooling
Loss due to conduction to the work rolls and table rolls
Gain due to mechanical work and friction.
12.9 Temperature Loss Due to Radiation

Two methods have been employed to derive equations for temperature
loss due to radiation [24]. In the first method, the temperature gradient
within the material is assumed to be negligible. The amount of heat
radiated to the environment is then calculated using the Stefan-
Boltzmann law [16]:
Page 297
where
Ar surface area of body subjected to radiation, in.2

=
dqr′ amount of heat radiated by a body, Btu

=
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
S=
temperature of rolled material at time t, °F

T=
Ta ambient temperature, °F
=
t time, s
=
ξ emissivity.
=
The amount of heat lost by a body dqr″ is given by:
where
c specific heat of rolled material, Btu/lb/°F

=
νr volume of body subjected to radiation, in.3

=
ρ = density of rolled material, lb/in.3.
The rate of temperature loss αr can be calculated by considering the heat

balance condition dqr′ = dqr″ and Eqs. (12-7) and (12-8):
Some particular solutions of Eq. (12-9) have been produced by several

researchers [25-29] as summarized in Fig. 12.19. When deriving these
equations, the dependency of the parameters S, ξ, ρ, and c on
temperature is not taken into account and the final form of Eq. (12-9)
depends on the average values that are selected for these constants.
The temperature loss ΔTr during the radiation time tr can be calculated
by integrating the following differential equation:
The second method of calculating temperature loss due to radiation takes

into account the heat transfer along the thickness of the material. If z is
the distance from the center of the body toward its surface, then from a
Fourier equation we can obtain [30]:
Page 298
where
a thermal diffusivity of rolled material, in.2/s.

=
Fig. 12.19 – Temperature loss rate due to radiation as a function of

material thickness. Data from Ginzburg (1985).
Equation (12-11) can be solved numerically by the method of finite

differences. The goal of these calculations is to establish a relationship
between the average temperature of the material Tave which would
affect the rolling deformation process and the material surface
temperature Tsurface which could be measured (Fig. 12.20).
Fig. 12.20 – Difference between the average and surface temperatures of
a plate as a function of radiation time.
Page 299
12.10 Temperature Loss Due to Convection

In hot strip mills, heat transfer by convection is related to the motion of
the air surrounding the workpiece and continuously bringing new particles
of air into contact with the workpiece [16]. Depending upon whether this
air motion is forced (through an externally generated pressure difference)
or free (natural buoyancy motion), heat transfer is referred to as either
forced or free convection, which is usually the case in hot strip mills.
A key factor in calculating temperature losses due to convection is to

determine the heat transfer coefficient, which depends on material
temperature, ambient temperature, material specific heat and density,
and the dynamic viscosity of air flow and its characteristics, i.e., free,
enforced laminar, turbulent, etc. The known mathematical interpretations
of this relationship are too controversial to be recommended for practical
calculation [30]. A consensus among some researchers is that the
temperature loss due to convection ΔTcv should be expressed as a
certain percentage of the temperature loss due to radiation as follows:
where
kcv ratio between temperature loss due to convection and radiation (varies
=between 0.01 and 0.22).
12.11 Temperature Loss Due to Water Cooling

The temperature loss due to water cooling can be calculated by
assuming that conduction plays a major role in heat transfer from the
workpiece to water. Therefore, when water contacts one side of the
workpiece continuously across its width, the amount of heat passing
through the outer surface of the workpiece can be expressed by the
following formula [16]:
where
k thermal conductivity of the surface layer, Btu/in./s/°F

=
qw′ amount of heat passing through outer surface of the workpiece, Btu
=
b water contact length, in.

=
w workpiece width, in.

=
Tw water temperature, °F
=
tw water contact time, s.

=
The amount of heat released by the workpiece is given by:

Page 300
where
v volume of workpiece cooled by water, in.3

=
ΔTd temperature loss due to water cooling, °F.

=
From the heat balance condition qw′ = qw″, Eqs. (12-13) and (12-14), the
temperature loss due to water cooling is equal to:
where
hc thickness of workpiece subjected to water cooling

=
workpiece velocity, ft/min.

V=
Equation (12-15) does not show an explicit dependence of the

temperature loss on the flow rate and pressure of the cooling water. The
flow rate and pressure, however, can substantially affect the thermal
conductivity k of the surface layer that separates the body of the
workpiece from the cooling water. The surface layer consists of scale and
boiled water which act as a thermal barrier. This barrier will be weakened
to a greater degree with an increase in both the flow rate and pressure of
the cooling water. The amount of heat absorbed by the cooling water can
be expressed as:
where
ρw = density of water, lb/in.3
cw specific heat of water, Btu/lb/°F

=
νw volume of water absorbing heat, in.3

=
ΔTw temperature rise of water, °F.

=
From the heat balance qw″ = qw′″, the formula for the temperature rise of
water is as follows:
where
d water flow per unit of strip width, gal/min/in.

=
12.12 Temperature Loss Due to Conduction to Work Rolls

Temperature loss due to heat conduction to the work rolls can be
calculated if it is assumed that the two bodies of uniform initial
temperature T and Tr are pressed against each other and there is contact
resistance formed by the oxide layer at the interface which is considered
to be plane.
Page 301
Under these assumptions, the process can be described with the

following heat balance equations. The total amount of heat passed
between the rolled material and the work roll qc′ can be calculated from
the following formula [16]:
where
Ac contact area between rolled material and work rolls, in.2

=
k thermal conductivity of workpiece oxide layer, Btu/in./s/°F

=
Tr roll temperature, °F
=
tc contact time of rolled material with work roll, s

=
a thermal diffusivity of workpiece, in.2/s.

=
The amount of heat lost by the rolled metal in the roll bite is given by:
where
ΔTc temperature loss by rolled material due to contact with work rolls, °F.
=
From the heat balance condition qc′ = qc″, the formula for the
temperature loss due to conduction to work rolls is as follows:
where
work roll radius, in.

R=
ha average workpiece thickness, in.

=
Some particular solutions of Eq. (12-20) for temperature loss due to

contact with rolls have been obtained by several researchers [28,31-35]
and are plotted in Fig. 12.21. The substantial differences in temperature
losses that are calculated from these equations are due mainly to the
uncertainty in estimating the thermal conductivity k which depends on the
contact resistance of the oxide layer between the roll and the rolled
material.
12.13 Temperature Rise Due to Mechanical Work

The two key components to be considered when calculating the
temperature rise due to mechanical work are as follows [36]:
Mechanical work dissipated to the interface between the material

being rolled and roll.
Mechanical work absorbed by the material being rolled during
deformation.
Page 302
Fig. 12.21 – Accumulative temperature losses in the finishing mill due to

contact to the work rolls. Data from Ginzburg (1985).
It is assumed in hot rolling, that there is no sliding at the interface and

therefore, the component of mechanical work to overcome friction is
negligible. This mechanical work is mostly absorbed by the material
being rolled during deformation. Part of this energy is not completely
transformed into heat, but is used to create internal stresses which
appear at different points of the grains.
The heat transfer process can be described by the following heat balance
equations. The heat generated due to mechanical work is equal to [27]:
where
hl, h2 entry and exit thickness of rolled material respectively, in.

=
kw resistance to deformation, psi

=
qm′ heat generated in rolled material due to mechanical work, Btu

=
νc volume of rolled material in roll bite, in.3

=
ηm portion of mechanical work transformed into heat.

=
The amount of heat absorbed by the rolled material is given by:

where
ΔTm temperature rise by rolled material due to mechanical work, °F.

=
Page 303
From the heat balance condition qm′ = qm″, the formula for temperature
rise due to mechanical work is derived as follows:
Equations for the rise in temperature due to mechanical work, that have
been obtained by reducing some of the known equations
[25,29,34,35,37] to a compatible form, are summarized in Fig. 12.22.
Fig. 12.22 – Accumulative temperature rise in the finishing mill due to

mechanical work. Data from Ginzburg (1985).
12.14 Intermediate Reheat Facilities

Intermediate reheat facilities are used in hot strip mills for reheating the
entire body of a workpiece or just the edges [38-44]. When the entire
body of a workpiece is reheated, a tunnel furnace is normally used. When
stock passes through a tunnel furnace, the following heat balance
equations can be utilized [31]:
where
qf′ heat transfer to a body in a tunnel furnace, Btu

=
tf residence time in tunnel furnace, s

=
Wf energy generated by tunnel furnace, Btu/s

=
ηf efficiency of tunnel furnace.

=
Page 304
The heat transferred to the stock is equal to the amount of heat absorbed
by a portion of the stock residing in the furnace during the same time as
given by:
where
Ls length of stock residing in furnace, in.

=
hs, ws thickness and width of stock respectively, in.

=
The rate of temperature rise of the stock αf in the tunnel furnace can be
calculated from the heat balance qf′ = qf″:
The purpose of edge preheating is to equalize the temperature across

the width of the work-piece [45]. Figure 12.23 shows the cross-sectional
temperature profiles of a transfer bar before and after entering an
induction type edge heater that is installed upstream of the finishing mill.
Fig. 12.23 – Heat pattern of electromagnetic induction heating. Adapted

from Sugita and Oi (1984).
12.15 Thermal Covers

Thermal covers are used to reduce the heat radiation rate by maintaining
a higher ambient temperature Ta around the transfer bar as described in
Eq. (12-9). The thermal cover systems for hot strip mills can be class ified
as follows:
Insulating thermal covers

Reflecting thermal covers
Reradiating thermal covers.
Page 305
With insulating thermal covers, the transfer bar is surrounded by

insulating material that reduces heat conduction and thus provides a
higher ambient temperature around the transfer bar. Such systems are
relatively inexpensive, but their efficiency is low [46]. A mill with a full
length delay table cover of this type had an effective saving in slab
temperature of only 13°C (23°F) [47-48]. According to Laws [49], heat
insulating panels covering the top surface of the transfer bar reach an
equilibrium temperature of only 700°C (1292°F).
With reflecting thermal covers, the transfer bar is surrounded by covers

that reflect the heat from the bar. In some installations, uninsulated
aluminum reflecting covers have been used [50-51]. Limited benefits from
reflecting thermal panels have been reported along with a maximum
equilibrium temperature of 300°C (572°F). Keeping the reflectors clean
has also been a problem with this system.
With reradiating thermal covers, the transfer bar is surrounded by a thin

metallic shield covered with insulating material as shown in Fig. 12.24.
When the hot transfer bar passes the thermal cover, the metallic shield is
heated very quickly and reaches an equilibrium temperature of
approximately 1000°C (1832°F). In contrast to reflecting covers, as the
metallic shield surfaces become darker, the effectiveness of the
reradiating thermal covers increases.
Fig. 12.24 – Schematic cross-section of reradiating thermal cover. (From

Bakhtar and Ginzburg, Proceedings of 4th International Steel Rolling
Conference, 1987. Copyright IRSID, France. Reprinted with permission.)
To achieve first-bar performance, the design of the reradiating thermal

covers must provide for almost instantaneous heating of the reradiating
shield to a temperature near that of the transfer bar. As follows from the
foregoing analysis, this condition is met when the metallic shield
thickness is 200 to 500 times thinner than the thickness of the workpiece
under the thermal covers.
12.16 Heat Transfer in Reradiating Thermal Covers

The main purpose of the analysis of heat transfer in reradiating thermal
covers is to establish a relationship between the workpiece temperature
rundown inside the thermal covers and their design parameters (Fig.
12.24). This analysis involves a one-dimensional representation of heat
Page 306
flow equations using the fundamental theories of radiation and

conduction in application to a heat transfer system that includes both
thermal covers and the transfer bar [52].
After all of the interacted heat balance relationship are derived, the
equations that describe the heat transfer rates between the adjacent
components of the system can be obtained. To calculate the temperature
of each component of the system, the equations must be solved
simultaneously. The following heat balance equations are considered:
Heat balance for transfer bar

Heat balance for metallic shield
Heat transfer through insulation
Heat balance for outer metallic panel.
Figure 12.25 shows the results of a computer simulation of the metallic

shield temperature of the thermal covers installed between the roughing
and finishing stands of an 80 in. hot strip mill. When the metallic shield
thickness is equal to 0.5 mm (0.020 in.), the metallic shield temperature
reaches only 760°C (1400°F) after transferring the first bar. This
temperature is achieved only at the end of the transfer time. When the
metallic shield thickness is reduced to 0.05 mm (0.002 in.), the metallic
shield requires only 5 seconds to reach a temperature of 960°C (1760°F)
after the first bar enters the thermal cover.
Fig. 12.25 – Variation of metallic shield temperature during transfer of 28
mm (1.1 in.) thick and 1250 mm (49.2 in.) wide bars. (From Bakhtar and
Ginzburg, Proceedings of 4th International Steel Rolling Conference,
1987. Copyright IRSID, France. Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 12.26 illustrates the temperature rundown of the tail end of the
transfer bar inside of the thermal covers. When the metallic shield
thickness is equal to 0.5 mm (0.020 in.), up to four bars are needed to
reach the optimum heat conservation level, whereas first bar
performance is achieved when the metallic shield thickness is reduced to
0.05 mm (0.002 in.)
Page 307
Fig. 12.26 – Temperature rundown of the tail end of the transfer bars
inside thermal covers. (From Bakhtar and Ginzburg, Proceedings of 4th
International Steel Rolling Conference, 1987. Copyright IRSID, France.
12.17 Heat Transfer in a Coilbox

The main purpose of a coilbox is to reduce heat losses by coiling the
transfer bar while it is being delivered from the roughing mill to the
finishing mill [53-54]. By coiling the transfer bar, its equivalent thickness
ht can be increased as shown in Fig. 12.27. Coiling also reduces the
surface to volume ratio Ar/νr of the workpiece. Since heat losses in the
coilbox are mainly due to radiation, the rate of temperature loss αr also
reduces as follows from Eq. (12-9).
Additional heat conservation in a coilbox can be attained due to the fact

that the eye of the coilbox forms a cylindrical reradiating surface, so that
the heat inside the eye is self-maintained. Therefore, the heat losses in a
coilbox can be calculated assuming that the heat transfer occurs only
through the outer surfaces of the coil.
Fig. 12.27 – Schematic presentation of heat transfer in a coilbox.
Page 308
References
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2. Hollander, F., ‘‘Reheating Processes and Modifications to Rolling Mill

Operations for Energy Savings,” AISE Year Book, 1983, pp. 252-259.
3. Flux, J.H., “Reheating for Hot Working in the Steel Industry,” Reheating
for Hot Working, Iron and Steel Institute Publication, No. 111, London,
1968, pp. 70-82.
4. Laws, W.R., “Trends in Slab Reheating Furnace Requirements and

Design,” Slab Reheating, Iron and Steel Institute Publication, London,
1973, pp. 1-10.
5. Korey, W.J., “Induction Heating of Slabs Today,” Slab Reheating, Iron

and Steel Institute Publication, London, 1973, pp. 13-19.
6. Laws, W.R. and Slater, F.M., “Future Trends in Design of Continuous

Pusher Furnaces for the Hot Strip Mill,” Reheating for Hot Working, Iron
and Steel Institute Publication, No. 111, London, 1968, pp. 132-139.
7. Vance, M.W., et al, “Application of Skid Pipe Insulation in Slab

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130.
9. Defise, M., “Walking-Beam Furnaces of the Chartal Works, Cockerill,”

Slab Reheating, Iron and Steel Institute Publication, London, 1973, pp.
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Timkin,” Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1994, pp. 112-114.
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Steel Engineer, Oct. 1989, pp. 46-52.
16. Schack, A., Industrial Heat Transfer, Chapman and Hall, London,
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17. Hollander, F. and Zuurbier, S.P.A., “Design, Development and

Performance of On-Line Computer Control in a 3-Zone Reheating
Furnace,” AISE Year Book, 1982, pp. 58-66.
18. Schmidt, E. Foppls Festschrift, 1924, reported in Heat Transmission,

ed. W.H. McAdams, McGraw Hill, New York, 1954.
19. Fitzgerald, F., “Aspects of Furnace Design for Hot Working,”

Reheating for Hot Working, Iron and Steel Institute Publication, No. 111,
London, 1968, pp. 123-131.
20. Matsukawa, T. and Yoshibe, Y., “Recent Developments in Reheating

Furnaces,” Nippon Steel Technical Report, No. 20, Dec. 1982, pp. 119-
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21. Salter, F.M., “Improving Pusher Furnace Skid Systems,” Slab

Reheating, Iron and Steel Institute Publication, London, 1973, pp. 83-94.
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23. Wieczenski, D.E., et al, “Development of Skidmark Eraser System,”

Iron and Steel Engineer, Sept. 1996, pp. 155-159.

25. Tyagunov, B.A., Rational Settings of Hot Strip Mills, Metallurgizdat

(Russian), Moscow, 1944.
26. Vasin, I.I. and Gindin, A.S., Ural Metallurgical NII Proceedings
(Russian), 6, 1968, pp. 105-107.

1969, pp. 136-144.
28. Chernyavski, A.L., et al, Rolling Production, Metallurgia (Russian),

Moscow, 1971, 35, pp. 5-19.
29. Seredynski, F., “Prediction of Plate Cooling Temperature During

Rolling Mill Operations,” Journal of Iron and Steel Institute, March 1973,
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30. Konovalov, Y.B. and Ostapenko, A.L., Temperature Conditions in

Wide Hot Strip Mills, Metallurgia (Russian), Moscow, 1974.
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Roughing and Finishing Trains of Hot Strip Mills,’’ Iron and Steel
Engineer, April 1986, pp. 29-39.
32. Ventzel, H., “Rolling Process and Rolling Equipment,” Viniti (USSR),
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33. Lee, P.W., et al, “A Method for Predicting Temperature in Continuous

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34. Wright, H. and Hope, T., “Rolling of Stainless Steel in Wide Hot Strip
Mills,” Metals Technology, Dec. 1975, pp. 565-576.
35. Zheleznov, Y.D. and Tsifrinovich, B.A., “Problem of the Heat Balance
of Sheet in the Continuous Hot Rolling Mill,” IZV VUZ Chernaya Met., Vol.
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36. Wilmotte, S., et al, “Model of the Evolution of the Temperature of the
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Belgium, C.R.M. Report No. 36, Sept. 1973, pp. 35-44.
37. Zaikov, M.A., Roll Separating Forces and Deformations in Hot

Rolling, Metallurgizdat (Russian), Moscow, 1960.
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Flux,” Iron and Steel Engineer, June 1992, pp. 39-43.
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and Bar for Continuous Casting Lines,” 33 Metal Producing, Oct. 1994,
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41. Kitaura, M., “Tunnel Furnace,” Managing Technology, AISE Specialty

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Hot Strip Mill,” Iron and Steel Engineer, June 1991, pp. 58-63.
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Iron and Steel Engineer, Jan. 1998, pp. 51-55.
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Increase Product Range and Save Energy in Hot Strip Mills,”
Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling Conference: The
Science and Technology of Flat Rolling, Vol. 1, Deauville, France, June
1-3, 1987, pp. A.6.1-A.6.7.
47. Hewitt, E.C., “Hot Strip Mill Developments’’, Iron and Steelmaker, 17,
Sept. 1982.
48. “Energy Savings Through Improvements in Hot Rolling Process,”

Kobe Steel R&D Report, Nov. 29, 1980.
49. Laws, W.R., “Development of the ENCOPANEL Hot Strip Mill

Insulation System,” AISE Year Book, 1983, pp. 457-463.
50. Polukhin, P., et al, “Efficiency of Screening the Metal on the Roller
Tables of Wide Hot Strip Mills,” Steel in the USSR, Aug. 1974, pp. 649-
650.
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International, June 1984.
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Page 311
Chapter 13
STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN STEEL DURING HOT
ROLLING
13.1 Structural Changes During Reheating

During the reheating process, control of the grain coarsing behavior of
steels is an important step in designing thermomechanical processes to
achieve fine-grained products [1,2]. For microalloyed steels, the
reheating temperature must be high enough to provide solubility of stable
particles. If stable particles remain undissolved, beneficial precipitation
hardening effects cannot be obtained.
The addition of aluminum, niobium, vanadium, titanium, etc., produces an

abnormal type of grain growth (Fig. 13.1) which involves the growth of
very few grains in a relatively unchanged fine-grain matrix. This abnormal
grain growth occurs at temperatures that are significantly lower than the
microalloying solution temperature. The temperature that corresponds to
the commencing of the abnormal grain growth is sometimes referred to
as the grain-coarsing temperature.
Fig. 13.1 – Austenite grain coarsening characteristics in steels containing

various microalloying additions. (From Speich, Phase Transformation in
Ferrous Alloys, Proceedings of TMS-AIME, 1984. Reprinted with
permission.)
Page 312
The grain size distribution has a complicated dependence on the

reheating temperature as depicted in Fig. 13.2 in application to Nb-V-
microalloyed steel. When the reheating temperature is equal to 1200°C
(2192°F), the maximum area fraction of the steel microstructure
corresponds to a grain size of approximately 0.12 mm (0.0048 in.).
Fig. 13.2 – Grain-size distribution in a Nb-V-microalloyed steel after

reheating for one hour at three various temperatures. (From Kaspar and
Pawelski, Steel Research, 57, 1986. Copyright Verlag Stahleisen MbH.
When the reheating temperature is lowered to 1150°C (2102°F), the grain

size occupying the maximum area fraction is reduced to 0.06 mm (0.0024
in.). However, a further decrease in the reheating temperature to 1050°C
(1922°F) produces two pronounced peaks in the distribution of the grain
size. One is at the grain size of approximately 0.18 mm (0.0072 in.) and
the other one is at 0.022 mm (0.0009 in.).
The reheating temperature also affects the formation of so-called

deformation bands which play an important role during subsequent grain
restoration processes [3]. As can be seen from Fig. 13.3, when the
reheating temperature increases, a lesser amount of deformation bands
are formed and with less uniformity after the same reduction. While it
does not appear that the final average austenite grain size after
deformation is strongly dependent on the reheated grain size, it is likely
that the distribution of the grain sizes above average is much smaller
when the reheating temperature is kept below the grain-coarsing
temperature [1].
13.2 Grain Restoration Processes

Prior to the start of hot rolling, the steel microstructure consists of coarse
equiaxed grains of austenite as shown in Fig. 13.4. When passed
through the rolls, the austenite grains are flattened and elongated on
average, while each austenite grain undergoes a dimensional change
that corresponds to that of the workpiece as a whole [4]. Figure 13.4 also
shows that deformation bands can also be induced within the grains [5].
Page 313
Fig. 13.3 – Effect of amount of reduction on the ease of formation of

deformation bands. (From Tanaka, et al. Reprinted with permission from
Thermomechanical Processing of Microalloyed Austenite, edited by A.J.
DeArdo, G.A. Ratz, and P.J. Wray, The Metallurgical Society, 420
Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, Pa., 15086, 1981.)
Fig. 13.4 – Schematic illustration of static recrystallization during hot

rolling. (From Katsumata, et al. Reprinted with permission from
Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, Pa, 15086, 1981.)
The following three types of restoration processes are associated with

hot rolling [6]:
Dynamic restoration process which starts and completes during

deformation.
Metadynamic restoration process which starts during deformation
and completes after deformation.
Static restoration process which starts and completes after
deformation.
13.3 Dynamic Restoration Process

When steel is deformed in the austenitic state high temperatures, the flow
stress rises to a maximum and then falls to a steady-state [7,8] as shown
in Fig. 13.5a.
Page 314
Fig. 13.5 – Schematic representation of: a) stress-strain curve, b)

interrelation between three softening mechanisms (hatched area is
forbidden zone). (From Tanaka, International Metals Review, No. 4, 1981.
Copyright ASM International. Reprinted with permission.)
The strain ∈p that corresponds to the maximum value of flow stress is

equal to the following equation [9]:
where
A, n constants
=
d0 initial grain size

=
Zener-Hollomon parameter.
Z=
The Zener-Hollomon parameter is a temperature compensated strain rate

that can be expressed as:
where
strain rate
∈̇ =
Qdef activation energy

=
gas constant
R =
absolute temperature.
T =
The dynamic restoration process includes both dynamic recovery and

dynamic recrystallization. Dynamic recovery is a reduction of the work-
hardening effects without the motion of large-angle grain boundaries and
occurs in a range of strain that is less than that for peak stress. Dynamic
recrystallization takes place in the range of strain that corresponds to the
steady state of flow stress.
Page 315
The dynamically recrystallized grain size d is usually associated with the

Zener-Hollomon parameter and is given by the following equations [10]:
The role of dynamic recrystallization of austenite in actual rolling of C-Mn

steels is small, due to the fact that the critical strain required for achieving
the steady-state of the flow stress is very large even at high
temperatures. The grain refinement of these steels is usually achieved by
static recrystallization.
13.4 Static Restoration Process

Microstructures that are developed by dynamic restoration are not stable
and at elevated temperatures are modified by metadynamic and static
restoration processes. The latter processes can include static recovery,
static recrystallization, and metadynamic recrystallization (Fig. 13.5b). In
hot rolling, static recrystallization can start spontaneously. The nuclei of
recrystallization occur preferentially at the elongated grain boundaries
and interfaces of the deformation bands [4].
Softening by static recovery and recrystallization occur at rates that

depend on prior deformation conditions and holding temperatures. The
recrystallization curves generally follow an Avrami equation of the
following form [9]:
where
Xt fraction recrystallized in time t

=
tf time to produce the specified fraction of recrystallization f

=
k constant.
=
The recrystallization rate and size of the recrystallized grains are

controlled by the following three major factors [4]:
Austenite grain size prior deformation which is a function of

heating temperature
Temperature of recrystallization
Amount of deformation prior to any recrystallization.
13.5 Effect of Initial Grain Size on Static Recrystallization

Since the nucleation sites for recrystallization are located predominantly
at the grain boundaries, both recrystallization time and recrystallized
grain size are affected by the initial grain size. It was found that 50% (f =
0.5) of the recrystallization time for the range of C-Mn steels depends on
strain and can be described by the following equations [9]:
Page 316
where
d0 initial grain size, μm

=
strain
∈ =
gas constant, J/mol/K

R =
absolute temperature, K.
T =
The recrystallized grain size dr for stainless steel is given by the following
equation [11]:
where
k constant.
=
Equation (13-7) shows that the recrystallized grain size increases linearly
with an increase in initial grain size. A similar relationship is also true for
HSLA steels [5] as shown in Fig. 13.6.
Fig. 13.6 – Effect of initial austenite grain sizes and rolling reductions on
recrystallized austenite grain size at 1050°C. (From Katsumata, et al.
Reprinted with permission from Thermomechanical Processing of
Microalloyed Austenite, edited by A.J. DeArdo, G.A. Ratz, and P.J. Wray,
The Metallurgical Society, 420 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, Pa.
15086, 1981.)
Page 317
13.6 Effect of Temperature and Microalloying

As the rolling temperature increases, a greater number of deformed
grains are recrystallized. The lowest temperature at which austenite
recrystallizes completely immediately after deformation is referred to as
the recrystallization temperature. The recrystallization temperature
increases with an increase in the level of microalloy solutes [12]. This
relationship is illustrated in Fig. 13.7.
Fig. 13.7 – Increase in recrystallization temperature with increase in the

level of microalloy solutes in 0.07% C, 1.40% Mn, 0.25% Si steel. (From
Cuddy. Reprinted with permission from Thermomechanical Processing of
15086, 1981.)
Columbium, titanium, and, to a lesser degree, vanadium retard both

dynamic and static recrystallization [13]. The results obtained on a
pearlite-reduced manganese steel are shown in Fig. 13.8. A very
pronounced retardation is produced by increasing the columbium content
up to 0.06%. This effect increases with a decrease in temperature. At a
temperature below 900°C (1652°F), recrystallization can be retarded by
more than two orders of magnitude.
13.7 Effect of Amount of Deformation

Depending on the amount of rolling deformation, the static restoration
process can proceed in the following three forms [2] as shown in Fig.
13.9.
Recovery – Recovery is a form of static restoration that occurs when a

material is rolled with a reduction that is less than the critical value for
partial recrystallization. In this case, grain coalescence instead of grain
refinement occurs due to the strain-induced grain boundary migration,
and produces much larger grains than the initial ones. These large grains
formed by the slight reduction in the recovery region persist even after
many passes in the partial recrystallization zone.
Page 318
Fig. 13.8 – Effect of columbium on the recrystallization of a 0.05%

carbon, 1.8% manganese steel. (From Meyer, et al, Microalloying ‘75,
1977. Copyright STRATCOR, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 13.9 – Effect of amount of reduction and rolling temperature on

restoration behavior. Niobium steel was heated to 115°C (2102°F) which
gave a grain size of approximately 180 μm (0.007 in.) and rolled in one
pass. (From Tanaka, et al, Reprinted with permission from
Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, Pa. 15086, 1981.)
Partial recrystallization – When the rolling reduction is sufficient to initiate
partial recrystallization, a mixed microstructure of recrystallized grains
and recovered grains is produced.
Complete recrystallization – The minimum rolling reduction after which

austenite recrystallizes completely is often referred to as the critical
rolling reduction for recrystallization [5].
Page 319
Reduction in the complete recrystallization region produces a fine and

uniform recrystallized grain structure. The recrystallized austenite grain
size markedly decreases with an increase in total reduction as shown in
Fig. 13.10.
Fig. 13.10 – Effect of total reduction on recrystallized austenite grain size

in niobium steel that was reheated to 1280°C (2336°F) or 1150°C
(2102°F) and subsequently multi-pass rolled. (From Tanaka, et al.
Reprinted with permission from Thermomechanical Processing of
15086, 1981.)
13.8 Factors Affecting Critical Reduction for Recrystallization

The critical amount of deformation dividing each form of restoration
process increases rapidly with a decrease in deformation temperature
(Fig. 13.9). This amount of deformation also increases with the addition
of microalloying elements, specifically niobium (columbium) [3]. Another
factor affecting the critical reduction for recrystallization is the initial grain
size.
Figure 13.11 shows that for plain carbon steel, the critical reduction for
recrystallization is very small even when the initial grain size is quite
large. In niobium-bearing steel, when the initial grain size is large, the
critical reduction is extremely high. The influence of rolling temperature is
also very strong and the critical reduction becomes very large with a
decrease in temperature.
13.9 Grain Growth After Deformation

Grain growth after deformation is affected by both the amount of
reduction and holding time as shown in Fig. 13.12. Grain growth can be
divided into the following three regions [3].
Region I – In region I, the grain growth starts from a mixed structure that
consists of either recovered grains and giant grains or recrystallized
grains and recovered ones, depending on the amount of reduction.
Page 320
Fig. 13.11 – Effects of deformation temperature and initial grain size on

the critical amount of reduction required for completion of recrystallization
in plain carbon and niobium steels. (From Tanaka, et al. Reprinted with
permission from Thermomechanical Processing of Microalloyed
Austenite, edited by A.J. DeArdo, G.A. Ratz, and P.J. Wray, The
Metallurgical Society, 420 Commonwealth Dr., Warrendale, Pa. 15086,
1981.)
Fig. 13.12 – Effects of holding time and amount of reduction on the

progress of grain growth in plain carbon and niobium steels. (From
Tanaka, et al. Reprinted with permission from Thermomechanical
Processing of Microalloyed Austenite, edited by A.J. DeArdo, G.A. Ratz,
and P.J. Wray, The Metallurgical Society, 420 Commonwealth Dr.,
Warrendale, Pa. 15086,1981.)
Region II – In region II, the grain growth follows according to Miller’s

equation [9,14]:
where
A′, Q′
=
constants
t time.
=
Page 321
Region III – Region III corresponds to abnormal grain growth when very
large grains suddenly develop among small grains. The size of grains
coalesced from the small grain structure during this secondary
recrystallization process is much larger than the size of grains coalesced
from a large grain structure.
As shown in Figs. 13.12 and 13.13, the critical holding time required for
abnormal grain growth increases with the addition of niobium. This
differentiates the niobium-bearing steels from plain-carbon steels, as well
as the other types of steel that are microalloyed with vanadium,
aluminum, and titanium [15].
Fig. 13.13 – Recrystallization of austenite following a single deformation

of 50% in various steels. Adapted from Irvine (1970).
13.10 Structural Changes in Steel During Cooling

After hot rolling, the workpiece is then subjected to a combination of air
and water cooling. The ferrite grain size of the rolled steel is affected by
the following [16,17]:
Finishing rolling temperature

Delay time between rolling and an inception of cooling with water
Cooling rate.
As can be seen from Fig. 13.14, the grain size increases with an increase
in delay time. The effect of the finishing rolling temperature and cooling
rate on the ferrite grain size of mild steel is shown in Fig. 13.15. As the
finishing rolling temperature decreases, the ferrite grain size becomes
smaller. The grain size is also reduced with an increase in the cooling
rate.
13.11 Effect of Steel Structure on Flow Stress

During deformation of steel, energy is stored in the deformed grains in
the form of lattice defects or dislocations. Since recrystallization
eliminates the lattice defects and reduces the energy stored in
Page 322
the deformed grains, the flow stress of a completely recrystallized

structure will be less than that of a partially recrystallized structure.
Therefore, to correctly evaluate the flow stress in a hot strip mill, the
following two situations should be considered [18,19]:
Static recrystallization time tR is less than or equal to the interpass

time tI, i.e., tR ≤ tI
Static recrystallization time tR is greater than the interpass time tI
i.e., tR > tI.
Fig. 13.14 – Dependence of ferrite grain size on delay time between

rolling and accelerated cooling to 600°C (1112°F). (From Dillamore, et al,
Metals Technology, July-Aug. 1975. Copyright ASM International.
Fig. 13.15 – Effect of cooling rate and finishing temperature on ferrite
grain size of mild steel (From Dillamore, et al, Metals Technology, July-
Aug. 1975. Copyright ASM International. Reprinted with permission.)
The first case is illustrated in Fig. 13.16 where d01 is the initial grain size
prior to the first pass. The grain structure is completely recrystallized (XR
= 1) after time tR at which the grain size is equal to dR. Therefore, in this
case, the flow stress for the second pass can be determined by using the
known equation that is applicable for a completely recrystallized grain
structure.
Page 323
Fig. 13.16 – Evolution of structural parameters between passes. (From

Choquet, et al, Proceedings of 4th International Steel Rolling Conference,
1987. Copyright IRSID, France. Reprinted with permission.)
If the static recrystallization has not been completed prior to the second
pass, then the equation for flow stress would consist of the following two
components as shown in Fig. 13.17:
where
XR fraction of completely recrystallized grain structure

=
σ2(∈̄2) component of flow stress corresponding to recrystallized fraction of

=grain structure
σ1(∈̄1 + component of flow stress corresponding to non-recrystallized

∈̄2)=fraction of grain structure.
Fig. 13.17 – Principle of the multipass stress model. (From Choquet, et

al, Proceedings of 4th International Steel Rolling Conference, 1987.
Copyright IRSID, France. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 324
References
1. Speich, G.R., et al, Proc. Phase Transformation in Ferrous Alloys,
TMS-AIME, Warrendale, Pa. 1984, p. 341.
2. Kaspar, R. and Pawelski, O., ‘‘Austenite Grain in the Process of

Thermomechanical Treatment,” Steel Research, Vol. 57 No. 5, 1986, pp.
199-206.
3. Tanaka, T., et al, “Formation Mechanism of Mixed Austenite Grain

Structure Accompanying Controlled-Rolling of Niobium-Bearing Steel,”
Thermomechanical Processing of Microalloyed Austenite, Metallurgical
Society of AIME, New York, 1981, pp. 195-215.
4. Grange, R.A., “Microstructural Alterations in Iron and Steel During Hot

Working,” Fundamentals of Deformation Processing, Syracuse Univ.
Press, Syracuse, New York, 1964, pp. 299-320.
5. Katsumata, M., et al, “Recrystallization of Austenite in High-

Temperature Hot-Rolling of Niobium Bearing Steels,” Thermomechanical
Processing of Microalloyed Austenite, Metallurgical Society of AIME, New
York, 1981, pp. 101-119.
6. Brown, E.L. and DeArdo, A.J., “Influence of Hot Rolling on

Microstructure of Austenite,” Hot Working and Forming Processes,
Metals Society, London, 1980, pp. 21-26.
7. Tanaka, T. “Controlled Rolling of Steel Plate and Strip,” International

Metals Reviews, No. 4, 1981, pp. 185-212.
8. Djaic, R.A.P. and Jonas, J.J., Metall. Trans., No. 4, 1973, pp. 621-624.
9. Sellars, C.M., “The Physical Metallurgy of Hot Working,” Hot Working

and Forming Processes, Metals Society, London, 1980, pp. 3-15.
10. McQueen, H.J., Journal of Metals., Vol. 20, April 1968, pp. 31-38.
11. Towle, D.J. and Gladman, T. Met. Sci., 13, 1979, pp. 246-256.
12. Cuddy, L.J., “The Effect of Microalloy Concentration on
Recrystallization of Austenite During Hot Deformation,”
Thermomechanical Processing of Microalloyed Austenite, Metallurgical
Society of AIME, New York, 1981, pp. 129-140.
13. Meyer, L., et al, “Columbium, Titanium, and Vanadium in Normalized,

Thermomechanically Treated and Cold-Rolled Steels,” Microalloying ‘75,
Union Carbide Corp., New York, 1977, pp. 153-171.
14. Miller, O.O., Trans. ASM, 43, 1951, p. 260.
15. Irvine, K.J., et al, Journal of Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 208, 1970,
pp. 717-726.
16. Dewsnap, R.F., et al, AIME Conference on Processing and Properties

of Low-Carbon Steel, 369, Nov. 1973, Pittsburgh. Pa.
17. Dillamore, I.L., et al, “Metallurgical Aspects of Steel Rolling

Technology,” Metals Technology, July-Aug. 1975, pp. 294-302.
18. Choquet, P., et al, “FAST: A New Model for Accurate Prediction of
Rolling Force Application on the Solmer Hot Strip Mill,” Proceedings of
the 4th International Steel Rolling Conference, Deauville, France, June 1-
3, 1987, pp. B5.1-B5.8.
19. Licka, S., et al, “Rolling Load Calculation in Hot Strip Rolling with
Respect to Restoration Processes,” Proceedings of the International
Conference on Steel Rolling, Tokyo, Japan, Sept. 29-Oct. 4, 1980, pp.
840-851.
Page 325
Chapter 14
THERMOMECHANICAL TREATMENT COMBINED WITH
ROLLING
14.1 Thermomechanical Treatment of Steel

Thermomechanical treatment (TMT) is a term used to describe various
processes that combine controlled thermal and deformation treatments to
obtain the following synergistic effects [1,2]:
Higher yield strengths

Improved toughness
Improved weldability
Higher resistance to brittle cleavage
Higher resistance to low-energy ductile fractures
Lower impact-transition temperature
Improved cold forming, particularly by bending
Lower costs by using hot-rolled instead of heat-treated sections.
Additional cost reduction can be achieved by utilizing a controlled rolling

process. This type of process produces the desired material properties
with a lesser amount of alloying elements than would be required when a
conventional hot rolling process is used.
14.2 U.S. Classification of TMT

A U.S. classification of TMT has been proposed by Radcliffe and Kula [3]
and is based on where the deformation occurs relative to the phase
transformation. According to this classification, thermomechanical
treatment can be divided into the following three classes [3-10]:
Class I – Deformation takes place before the transformation of austenite.

Austenite is deformed in one of the following ranges as shown in Fig.
14.1:
Page 326
Stable austenite range above the critical temperature (A1)

Unstable austenite range above the pearlite nose
Unstable austenite range in the bay region between the pearlite
and bainite noses.
Fig. 14.1 – Schematic time-temperature-transformation diagram showing

thermomechanical treatment. (From John J. Burke, Norman L. Reed, and
Volker Weiss, Strengthening Mechanisms: Metals and Ceramics,
Syracuse University Press, 1966, p. 85. By permission of the publisher).
This type of TMT results in the formation of martensite in strain-hardened

austenite. It has been shown that austenite in hardenable steels can be
cold-worked even at temperatures above critical. In this case,
recrystallization of austenite is suppressed by rapid cooling, so that the
martensite can be formed from cold-worked instead of annealed
austenite. One of these processes is known as ausforming (ausworking
or ausrolling) which is shown schematically in Fig. 14.2. Ausforming
produces high-strength steel without the adverse effects on toughness
and ductility. Another process is known as hot-cold working (H.C.W.),
which can be either isothermal (Fig. 14.2) or thermal as shown in Fig.
14.3.
Class II – Deformation takes place during transformation of austenite in

the temperature range below the martensite transformation temperature
Ms (Fig. 14.1). The transformation products can be either pearlite,
bainite, or martensite. An example of this TMT class is isoforming (Fig.
14.2). In the isoforming process, metastable austenite is deformed until
the transformation is complete at the deformation temperature.
Isoforming does not produce significant strength improvement, but can
provide an increase in toughness due to the refined ferrite grain size and
the spheroidization of the carbide particles.
Class III – Deformation takes place after the transformation of austenite

(Fig. 14.1). This class involves the deformation of martensite, tempered
martensite, bainite, or pearlite, followed possibly by aging. The most
common names for this type of TMT are strain-aging, flow-tempering,
strain-tempering, marstraining, and temp-forming.
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Fig. 14.2 – Schematic time-temperature-transformation diagram with

thermal cycles for hot-cold working and ausforming operations. (From
Matas, et al, Mechanical Workings of Steel I, 1964. Copyright
Metallurgical Society of AIME. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 14.3 – Schematic time-temperature-transformation diagram with the

(From Matas, et al, Mechanical Workings of Steel I, 1964. Copyright
Metallurgical Society of AIME. Reprinted with permission.)
14.3 Russian Classification of TMT

According to the Russian classification, thermomechanical treatment can
be divided into the following seven groups [11]:
Standard Heat Treatment (SHT) – Conventional heat treatment without
deformation.
Thermomechanical Treatment (TMT) – A combined thermal and

mechanical treatment generally involving a phase transformation.
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Low Temperature Thermomechanical Treatment (LTMT) – Deformation

below the recrystallization temperature as shown in Fig. 14.4a.
High Temperature Thermomechanical Treatment (HTMT) – Deformation

above the recrystallization temperature (Fig. 14.4b).
Combined Thermomechanical Treatment (CTMT) – HTMT followed by

LTMT (Fig. 14.4c).
Preliminary Thermomechanical Treatment (PTMT) – Deformation by

HTMT or LTMT or cold working followed by rapid reaustenitizing and
quenching (Fig. 14.4d).
Mechanico-Thermal Treatment (MTT) – Deformation at room or elevated

temperature with or without subsequent annealing or aging applied to a
material that does not undergo a phase transformation. Similar to TMT,
deformation can be below (LTMT) or above (HTMT) the recrystallization
temperature.
Fig. 14.4 – Schematic representation of thermomechanical treatments in

relation to a TTT diagram. (From Zackay, Material Science Engineering,
Vol. 25, 1976. Copyright Elsevier Sequola S.A., Switzerland. Reprinted
with permission.)
14.4 Thermomechanical Treatment During Rolling

Hot rolling processes can be classified based on where the deformation
occurs relative to the phase transformation. According to this
classification, hot rolling processes are divided into the following four
major groups [2,12,13] as depicted schematically in Fig. 14.5.
Conventional hot rolling – During conventional hot rolling, the rolling of

steel is conducted continuously and is usually finished above the upper
cooling transformation temperature Ar3. Therefore, the deformation
occurs in the gamma region only.
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Controlled rolling – In controlled rolling, the rolling of steel is interrupted

by one or two delays which allows the steel to deform first in the gamma
region and then in the gamma-alpha two-phase region.
Low finishing temperature rolling – In low finishing temperature rolling,

the finishing rolling passes are conducted below the lower cooling
transformation temperature Ar1 which results in deformation in the alpha
region.
Continuum rolling – Continuum rolling provides deformation in the

gamma, gamma + alpha, and alpha regions.
Fig. 14.5 – Schematic representation of several common practices used

for the TMT production of HSLA steels. (From Melloy and Dennison, The
Microstructure and Design of Alloys, Vol. 1, 1973. Copyright Institute of
Metals and Iron and Steel Institute. Reprinted with permission.)
Figure 14.6 shows the effect of finishing temperature on yield strength

and Charpy transition temperature for four different hot rolling processes.
Controlled rolling provides an increase in yield strength and improves
ductility (transition temperature decreases) when compared with a
conventional hot rolling practice. Low finishing temperature rolling can
further increase yield strength, but the transition temperature is
increased. Continuum rolling substantially increases the yield strength
and simultaneously decreases the transition temperature.
14.5 Types of Controlled Rolling Processes

During controlled rolling, the enhanced properties of steel are obtained by
refining its structure. Because of the relationship between gamma and
alpha-grain sizes, refinement of the alpha structure is achieved mainly
through gamma-grain refinement [2]. As was shown in the previous
chapter, grain refinement depends on the deformation temperature.
Controlled rolling is usually conducted in either a two or three stage
process as shown in Fig. 14.7.
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Fig 14.6 – Effect of finishing temperature on yield strength and transition

temperature of 0.05% C-Mn-Nb steel plate rolled by various procedures.
(From Tanaka, International Metals Reviews, No. 4, 1981. Copyright ASM
International. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 14.7 – Simplified rolling schedules for controlled rolling two-stage
and three-stage processes. (From Lafrance, et al, Microalloying ‘75,
1977. Copyright STRATCOR, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 331
The two-stage controlled rolling process can be performed in the

following three steps [13,14]:
Step 1 – A reduction in thickness occurs in the rapid recrystallization

region which is above 990°C (1814°F). Deformation in this region
produces coarse recrystallized gamma-grains that transform to a
relatively coarse alpha and upper bainitic structure.
Step 2 – Rolling is delayed in the intermediate temperature range from

990° C (1814°F) to 800°C (1472°F) to ensure the required amount of
deformation in the non-recrystallization region. During this delay, partial
recrystallization tends to occur which leads to the formation of a mixed
grain structure.
Step 3 – The final reduction in thickness occurs in the non-

recrystallization region. Deformation below the recrystallization
temperature produces a warm-worked gamma-grain structure which
leads to a finer alpha-grain structure.
In the three-stage controlled rolling process [13,15], the reduction in the

non-recrystallization range is interrupted by a delay. Figure 14.7 shows a
comparison between the two and three-stage controlled rolling
processes. During the delay time at high temperature in the two-stage
process, recrystallization is rapid, which leads to a coarse-grained
structure at the end of the delay time. In the three-stage process, the first
delay time at a high temperature leads to a coarse-grained structure.
During the second delay time, however, recrystallization is sluggish so
that the grain size at the end of the three-stage rolling process is finer
than at the end of the two-stage rolling process.
14.6 Structural Changes in Steel During Controlled Rolling

Structural changes in steel during controlled rolling are schematically
illustrated in Fig. 14.8. These changes are related to deformation at the
following three regions [13]:
Deformation in recrystallization region – In the recrystallization region,

coarse austenite grain a is refined by repeated deformation and
recrystallization producing the recrystallized grains b. During cooling
these grains transform into relatively coarse ferrite b′.
Deformation in non-recrystallization region – In the non-recrystallization

region, deformation bands are formed in elongated, unrecrystallized
austenite c. During cooling, ferrite nucleates on the deformation bands as
well as the gamma-grain boundaries, providing fine alpha-grain c′.
Deformation in the gamma-alpha region - In the gamma-alpha region,

deformation bands continue to be formed and the deformed ferrite also
produces a substructure d. During cooling after deformation,
unrecrystallized austenite transforms into equiaxed alpha-grains, while
the deformed ferrite changes into the subgrains d′.
The formation of deformation bands is one of the principal features of

controlled rolling. In conventional hot rolling, alpha-grains nucleate
exclusively at the gamma-grain boundaries, whereas in controlled rolling,
the alpha-grain nucleation occurs at both grain interiors and grain
boundaries. Since the deformation band is equivalent to the gamma-grain
boundary with regard to ferrite nucleation, the gamma-grain is considered
to be divided into several blocks by deformation bands. This division
produces a much more refined grain structure.
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Fig 14.8 – Schematic illustration of change in microstructure with

deformation during controlled rolling. (From Tanaka, International Metals
Reviews, No. 4, 1981. Copyright ASM International. Reprinted with
permission.) The second important feature of controlled rolling is the
formation of a subgrain structure during deformation in the two-phase
region [16]. Figure 14.9 shows that as the subgrain size becomes
smaller, the strengthening effect becomes stronger.
Fig. 14.9 – Regression line between subgrain size d and its strengthening
effect ΔσSG. (From Cohen and Owen, Microalloying ‘75, 1977. Copyright
STRATCOR, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 333
Another feature of controlled rolling is the formation of a ferrite-

crystallographic texture [17,18]. Figure 14.10 shows that when HSLA
steel plate is rolled at a low-finishing temperature, there is a marked
anisotropy of yield strength attributable to the preferred orientation
texture, but a substantial strength increment arises from ferrite dislocation
hardening. The effect of precipitation strengthening is rather small as the
precipitates are mainly enhancing the retardation of the restoration
process.
Fig. 14.10 – Effect of deformation in two-phase temperature region on

yield strength of 0.1% C, 1.4% Mn, 0.02% Nb steel rolled to 19 mm (0.75
in.). (From Dillamore, et al, Metals Technology, July-Aug. 1975. Copyright
ASM International. Reprinted with permission.)
14.7 Structural Changes in Steel During Continuum Rolling

Continuum rolling can provide for the desirable combination of increased
strength and toughness in extra-low-carbon steels in the following
manner [12,13]:
Grain refinement of both gamma and alpha structure by repeated
heavy deformations.
Dynamic recovery which produces a fine polygonal substructure.
Cube-on-corner crystallographic texturing that results from the
deformation process.
Texture plays an important role in controlling the impact transition

temperature (ITT). For continuum rolled steels, the transition temperature
can be related quantitatively to a texture parameter as shown in Fig.
14.11. This texture parameter is based on the product of the intensities of
atomic planes (111) and (110) [2]. The former coincides with the rolling
plane, while the latter coincides with the transverse plane. As the
finishing temperature in the ferrite region decreases, the intensity of
atomic plane (111) increases with respect to atomic plane 110, resulting
in a lower transition temperature.
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Fig. 14.11 – Effect of texture parameter on impact-transition-temperature

in continuum rolled steels. (From Pickering, Microalloying ‘75, 1977.
Copyright STRATCOR, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
14.8 Structural Changes in Steel During Controlled Cooling

After rolling is completed, a plate or strip is usually subjected to water-
quench type cooling. The structure of steel after quenching changes
according to the variations of the cooling rate and the temperature at the
conclusion of water-quenching [19].
The relationship between the controlled-cooling path and the resulting

microstructure is presented in Fig. 14.12, by superimposing the cooling
path for processing a coil and plate on the continuous-cooling diagram for
vanadium-nitrogen steel. This diagram shows that the bainitic (B)
constituents form in this type of steel if the water-end temperature is
below 550°C (1020° F). If the steel cooling range is between 579 and
635°C (1075 and 1175°F), the microstructure consists of fine-grained
polygonal ferrite and some pearlite. This temperature also enhances the
consistency of precipitation strengthening which takes place after coiling.
14.9 Effect of Alloying Elements in Controlled Rolling

Alloying elements such as niobium (columbium), vanadium, and titanium
are frequently added to controlled rolled steels to enhance the strength of
steel [13,20]. The effects of Nb, V, and Ti on the strength of steel are
shown in Fig. 14.13.
Niobium increases strength by promoting both grain refinement and

precipitation hardening as shown in Fig. 14.13a. Vanadium causes a
large increase in strength mainly through precipitation hardening (Fig.
14.13b). Titanium produces only a slight increase in strength via grain
refinement and precipitation strengthening (Fig. 14.13c). Since niobium
promotes grain refinement, both strength and toughness can be
simultaneously enhanced in a controlled-rolled niobium steel.
Page 335
Fig. 14.12 – Continuous-cooling transformation diagrams for a vanadium-

nitrogen microalloyed steel (0.16% C, 1.4% Mn, 0.004% P, 0.012% S,
0.4% Si, 0.04% Al, 0.11% V, and 0.018% N). Cooling paths for controlled-
cooled coils and plates are superimposed on this diagram. (From Grozier,
Microalloying ‘75, 1977. Copyright STRATCOR, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted
with permission.)
Fig. 14.13 – Correlation between alloy content and increase in yield
strength as a result of grain refinement (σG) and precipitation
strengthening (σph). (From Tanaka, International Metals Reviews, No. 4,
1981. Copyright ASM International. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 336
14.10 Controlled Rolling in Hot Strip Mills

The controlled rolling practice in a typical hot strip mill consists of the
following six steps [3]:
1. Slab reheating that is accompanying grain growth.

2. Roughing rolling that is regarded as deformation in the
recrystallization region.
3. Delay time between roughing and finishing rolling.
4. Finishing rolling that is considered as deformation in the non-
recrystallization two-phase region.
5. Rapid cooling on the runout table.
6. Holding at the coiling temperature during which precipitation of Nb
and V proceeds causing a large increase in yield strength.
The desired properties of controlled-rolled steels can be affected by a

variety of processing factors. The most important factors are as follows
[2,13,20]:
Lowering the slab reheating temperature to obtain a small and

uniform gamma-grain size, but allowing for a complete solution of
alloying elements.
Selection of a suitable amount of reduction per pass during the
initial passes to obtain a fine and uniform recrystallized gamma-
grain structure.
Selection of temperature and delay time between the
recrystallization region and the non-recrystallization region.
Selection of a suitable amount of reduction and rolling temperature
in the two-phase region.
Selection of the appropriate cooling rate and optimum coiling
temperature.
Since all of these processing factors serve the same purpose, a suitable
combination of some of them enables the desired properties of the
controlled-rolled steel to be obtained. The diversity of the developed
controlled rolling practices is due mainly to the difference in capacity,
cooling power, and stability of operation in rolling mills. To reduce the
delay time between roughing and finishing rolling (step 3), Intermediate
Forced Cooling (IFC) was introduced in some mills [21].
14.11 Precipitation Strengthening

The effect of rolling variables on precipitation strengthening is explicitly
revealed in high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels containing vanadium
and nitrogen. It is well known that the precipitation of vanadium carbides
and nitrides in ferrite produces precipitation strengthening. In
experiments conducted by Amin, et al [22], a slab was reheated for rolling
at 1300, 1150, and 1000°C (2372, 2102, and 1832°F) followed by rolling
in one pass with a 20 or 50% reduction in thickness. After rolling, the
workpieces were held for 100 to 1000 seconds at elevated temperatures
before being cooled to room temperature at the rate of 400°K/min. The
intensity of the produced precipitation strengthening was evaluated from
hardness measurements which were compensated for the variation of
grain size.
Figure 14.14 shows the effect of the reheating temperature on the

precipitation strengthening of some high-nitrogen vanadium steels. The
0.14% V steel showed no effect of reheating tempera-
Page 337
ture, whereas 0.25% V steel and especially 0.46% V steel show an

explicit dependence of precipitation strengthening on the reheating
temperature.
Fig. 14.14 – Effect of reheating temperature on precipitation

strengthening in high-NV steels rolled to 50% reduction at 950°C and
held at 950°C for: a) 100 seconds, b) 1000 seconds. (From Amin, et al,
Metals Technology, Vol. 8, 1981. Copyright Institute of Metals. Reprinted
with permission.)
Figure 14.15 shows a very distinct dependence of the precipitation

strengthening on rolling temperature for all three grades of steels with
minimum strengthening when the rolling temperature is approximately
1000°C (1832°F).
Fig. 14.15 – Effect of rolling temperature on precipitation strengthening in
high-NV steels reheated at 1300°C and held at 750°C for 100 seconds.
(From Amin, et al, Metals Technology, Vol. 8, 1981. Copyright Institute of
Metals. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 338
The effects of holding temperature and holding time on precipitation

strengthening in high-nitrogen vanadium steels are shown in Fig. 14.16.
In general, decreasing the holding temperature decreases the
precipitation strengthening.
Fig. 14.16 – Effect of holding temperature and holding time on

precipitation strengthening in high-NV steels rolled to 50% reduction: a)
reheated at 1300°C and rolled at 1250°C, b) reheated at 1300°C and
rolled at 950°C, c) reheated at 1150°C and rolled at 950°C. (From Amin,
et al, Metals Technology, Vol. 8, 1981. Copyright Institute of Metals.
14.12 Hot Rolling of Acicular Ferrite Steel

In conventionally rolled low-carbon (less than 0.06%) Mn-Mo-Nb steel,
austenite transforms to upper bainite. When transformation is accelerated
by controlled rolling, the hot-rolled gammagrain structure transforms into
acicular ferrite structure [13]. The acicular ferrite structure consists of fine
non-equiaxed ferrite dispersed with cementite and martensite islands.
The process of rolling acicular ferrite, HSLA steel, has been developed by
Climax Molybdenum Company. A significant improvement in toughness
of this steel is obtained by:
Lowering the finishing temperature
Increasing the amount of deformation in the non-recrystallization
region.
An increase in the amount of deformation in the non-recrystallization

region increases the volume fraction of fine-grained polygonal ferrite at
the expense of acicular ferrite (Fig. 14.17). This causes improvement in
strength and low-temperature toughness. The optimum combination of
strength and toughness corresponds to the structure containing
approximately 15% of polygonal ferrite.
14.13 Hot Rolling of Dual-Phase Steel

Dual-phase (DP) steel combines high strength with good formability and
cost performance. Hot rolled dual-phase steel can be classified into the
following three types [23]:
1. Si-Mn steel treated after conventional hot rolling

Page 339
Fig. 14.17 – Acicular ferrite volume fraction, strengths, and Charpy

impact properties plotted against amount of reduction in non-
recrystallization region in 0.07% C, 2.0% Mn, 0.6% Nb, 0.5% Mo acicular
ferrite steel. (From Tanaka, International Metals Reviews, No. 4, 1981.
Copyright ASM International. Reprinted with permission.)
1. Steel with high content of Si, Sr, and Mo produced only by

conventional hot rolling
2. Simple Si-Mn steel produced by thermomechanical process
utilizing controlled cooling and extra low temperature cooling
method.
The thermomechanical process for producing DP steel coil that was

developed by Nippon Kokan is schematically shown in Fig. 14.18. In this
process, the strip is finished to roll in an austenite region near above Ar3
critical temperature. The strip is then subjected to cooling in three
regulated steps.
The first step is water cooling the strip to rapidly reduce its temperature to
an intermediate temperature of about 700 to 750°C (1292 to 1382°F).
The second step is air cooling during which ferrite (α) of approximately
80% in volume fraction finely precipitates. The third step is water cooling
to rapidly reduce the strip temperature to below 200°C (392°F). During
this step, the remaining austenite (γ) is transformed into martensite (α′)
and the dual-phase (α + α′) microstructure is then formed.
The principal processing factors that affect the quality of steel through
formation of the appropriate microstructure are finish rolling temperature,
intermediate temperature, and coiling temperature. These factors are
briefly discussed in application to low-carbon Si-Mn steel [23] in the
following section.
Page 340
Fig. 14.18 – Cooling pattern in the manufacturing process of a hot-rolled

dual-phase steel. (From Okita, et al, Nippon Kokan Technical Report,
Overseas No. 43, 1985. Copyright Nippon Kokan K.K. Reprinted with
permission.)
Finish rolling temperature – As shown in Fig. 14.19, both maximum total

elongation and minimum yield ratio (ratio of yield strength to tensile
strength) are attained at a finish rolling temperature of about 830°C
(1526° F). Higher finish rolling temperatures can lead to higher tensile
strength due to the fractional increase of the second hardening phase
which leads to the deterioration of ductility and higher yield ratio.
Fig. 14.19 – Effect of finishing and intermediate temperatures on
mechanical properties of hot-rolled dual-phase steel. (From Okita, et al,
Nippon Kokan Technical Report, Overseas No. 43, 1985. Copyright
Nippon Kokan K.K. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 341
Finish rolling temperatures that are below 800°C (1472°F) are also
detrimental to the mechanical properties due to the formation of a
deformed microstructure with a high density of dislocation. The most
favorable dual-phase structure is obtained at a finish rolling temperature
just above Ar3.
Intermediate temperature – The intermediate temperature determines the

volume fraction of ferrite that will precipitate during air cooling after the
first rapid cooling. As shown in Fig. 14.19, high ductility can be attained at
the intermediate temperature range from 720 to 750°C (1328 to 1382°F).
Higher intermediate temperatures lead to harder and less ductile steel,
due to excess of the second phase in volume fraction.
Coiling temperature – As shown in Fig. 14.20, the yield ratio increases

with an increase in coiling temperature. Yield point elongation appears
when the coiling temperature exceeds approximately 200°C (392°F). The
reduction in strength and elongation by increasing the coiling temperature
up to 350°C (662°F) is relatively small. From the viewpoint of
controllability of the coiling process, the coiling temperature is usually set
below 100°C (212° F).
Fig. 14.20 – Effect of coiling temperature on tensile properties of hot
rolled dual-phase steel. (From Okita, et al, Nippon Kokan Technical
Report, Overseas No. 43, 1985. Copyright Nippon Kokan K.K. Reprinted
with permission.)
14.14 Controlled Rolling of Arctic Grade Steel

The controlled rolling process developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries
for rolling arctic grade steel is another example of a practical
implementation of the controlled rolling concept [24]. The
Page 342
requirements for arctic grade steel used in large-diameter pipes include

high strength, high toughness and high absorbed energy. The use of
controlled rolling can achieve these requirements by selecting the
appropriate slab reheating and finishing temperatures along with the
application of dynamic accelerated cooling, microalloying, and
transformation hardening.
Effect of slab reheating and finishing temperatures – Figure 14.21 shows

the optimum range of the slab reheating and finishing rolling
temperatures within which the desired mechanical properties can be
obtained. Expansion of the strength limit (1) can be obtained by
application of precipitation and/or transformation hardening. Grain
refinement will expand the low temperature toughness limit (2). A higher
absorbed energy limit (3) can be achieved by using cleaner steel that has
a lower sulfur and carbon content and is produced with optimum shape
control.
Fig. 14.21 – Optimum region of rolling conditions for desired properties.

(From Terasaki, et al, Sumitomo Search, No. 33, Nov. 1986. Copyright
Sumitomo Metals. Reprinted with permission.)
The microstructural changes that occur during controlled rolling of steel

are shown schematically in Fig. 14.22. This process provides the
following:
Grain refining of heated austenite structure by lowering the slab

temperature and/or adding approximately 0.015 Ti as a microalloy.
Grain refining of recrystallized austenite grain by increasing the
reduction in the high temperature range.
Increase of the amount of fine grain ferrite due to the production of
deformation bands by heavy reduction in the non-recrystallization
austenite region just above Ar3 temperature.
Steel strengthening by optimum dual-phase rolling in the
austenite-ferrite region.
Obtaining a mixed structure of fine ferrite and bainite by using an
accelerated cooling process.
Page 343
Fig. 14.22 – Change in microstructure during controlled rolling and

accelerated cooling. (From Terasaki, et al, Sumitomo Search, No. 33,
Nov. 1986. Copyright Sumitomo Metals. Reprinted with permission.)
14.15 Ferritic Rolling

Ferritic rolling is used to produce the following hot rolled products [25,26]:
Thin gauge hot strip for direct application (hot band),
corresponding to a nonaging, soft and ductile grade; this product
can be used as a substitute for conventionally rolled and annealed
sheet.
Soft hot strip intended for cold rolling and annealing with a higher
performance during cold rolling with respect to productivity and
width-thickness range.
Strained thin hot strip intended for direct annealing and most
advantageously applicable for hot dip galvanizing followed
immediately after pickling.
Page 344
Extra-low carbon (ELC) steel that is used for ferritic rolling typically
contains the following elements [25].
Chemical Composition for ELC Steel, %
C Mn Si S P Al N
<
0.0180.1500.0100.0100.0150.0500.0035
The two principal types of ferritic rolling that are utilized are high-
temperature ferritic rolling and low temperature ferritic rolling as shown in
Fig. 14.23.
Fig. 14.23 – Temperature diagrams of conventional and ferritic hot rolling

processes. Adapted from Harlet, et al [25].
High-temperature ferritic rolling – In this process, the slab temperature is

lowered to 1150°C (1250°C is typical for conventional rolling) to reduce
aluminum nitride (AlN) dissolution and minimize the delay time prior to
finishing rolling. Roughing rolling is produced in the austenitic region,
while finishing rolling is performed in the ferritic region between 780 and
750°C and coiling between 700 and 650°C. During this process,
complete recrystallization and substantial grain occurs resulting in
significant softening of the ELC ferritic hot strips as shown in Fig. 14.24.
Low-temperature ferritic rolling – In this process, the slab temperature is
further lowered to 1050°C. Roughing rolling is partially performed in the
ferritic range and the coiling operation is executed below 500°C to obtain
strained microstructures after cooling the coils.
14.16 Accelerated Cooling

Accelerated cooling is utilized to enhance the tensile strength, toughness,
weldability and other properties of controlled-rolled thick plates.
Numerous accelerated cooling processes have been developed and
some of the most common ones are briefly described in the following
section.
Page 345
Fig. 14.24 – Mechanical properties of strip produced by conventional and

ferritic hot rolling processes. Adapted from Harlet, et al [25].
Multipurpose Accelerated Cooling System (MACS) – The MACS system

was developed by Kawasaki Steel Corporation [27] to enhance the
tensile strength of Si-Mn, Arctic quality steel plates without sacrificing
notch toughness. The method that is used to attain these properties is by
improving the microstructure. The desired microstructure cannot be
generally achieved by the process designated in Fig. 14.25 as F1, a
process that subjects the plate to accelerated cooling after uncontrolled
hot rolling. Nor can the desired microstructure be attained to any
satisfactory extent by the process F4, in which controlled rolling is
followed by air cooling. A satisfactory improvement of the microstructure
is obtained by both the F2 and F3 processes which combine controlled
rolling with accelerated cooling.
Tensile strength increases with an increase in the cooling rate and a

decrease in the finish-cooling temperature. However, since the lowering
of finish-cooling temperature tends to cause strain in the plate and also
adversely affects cooling efficiency, the finish-cooling temperature range
is designated between 500 and 400°C (932 and 752°F).
On-Line Accelerated Cooling (OLAC) – The OLAC process was

developed by Nippon Kokan [28] and is also applied to the production of
Si-Mn steel plates with a yield strength of 36 kg/mm2 (51,192 psi). In this
process, the plate is finished-rolled at above Ar3 temperature as shown
in Fig. 14.26. The plate is then immediately subjected to accelerated
cooling at a rate of 3 to 15°C/s (5.4 to 27°F/s) down to 600 or 500°C
(1112 or 932°F). The plate is then air-cooled down to room temperature
during which self-tempering is performed.
Dynamic Accelerated Cooling (DAC) – The DAC process was developed

by Sumitomo Metals Industries [23,29] and consists of the following two
phases. The first phase called DAC-I is a slow cooling halfway-stop type,
while the second phase (DAC-II) cools the product to room temperature
by a comparatively fast cooling rate (Fig. 14.27). When the cooling rate in
the DAC-I process is between 7 and 17°C/s, the cooling curve of 0.10%
C – 0.03% Nb steel goes nearly to the nose of the ferrite-pearlite and/or
bainite transformation region in the CCT diagram. The resulting structure
is clearly affected by both the cooling rate and cooling stop temperature.
Page 346
Fig. 14.25 – Comparison of the microstructures of Si-Mn steel plates

subjected to accelerated cooling from different temperatures. Cooling
rate is approximately 10°C/s (18°F/s). (From Kawasaki Steel Corporation
Publication YE1A 714 8504Ab, 1985. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 14.26 – Schematic diagram for production of 25 mm (1 in.) thick steel
plate with a yield strength of 36 kg/mm2 (51,192 psi) by the OLAC
process. (From Tsukada, et al, Nippon Kokan Technical Report,
Overseas No. 35, 1982. Copyright Nippon Kokan K.K. Reprinted with
permission.)
Page 347
Fig. 14.27 – Layout of thermomechanical treatment facilities at Kashima

Steel Works plate mill. (From Takeuchi, et al, Sumitomo Search, No. 32,
May 1986. Copyright Sumitomo Metals. Reprinted with permission.)
RAC Process – In the RAC process that was developed by Usinor, the
plates are conveyed in a tunnel by 9 pairs of rollers and the cooling water
flows over the two plate surfaces in passages which are bounded by the
sides of the tunnel and the plate itself. The prototype plant was installed
in Usinor, Dunkirk, after the hot leveller and designed for plates of 8 to 50
mm in thickness, 1500 to 4000 mm in width and 12 to 16 meters in
length. The cooling rate is 120°C/s for a 10 mm thick plate and 30°C/s for
a 30 mm thick plate [30]. This process was developed for the
manufacture of water-quenched and tempered weldable structural steels.
Consequently, reheating in an austenizing furnace was eliminated. After
quenching the plates, conventional tempering is carried out.
Subsequently, this process was also applied for quenching only to
improve the properties of microalloyed steels or for the same properties,
reduce the content of microalloying elements and the carbon equivalent.
14.17 Cold Rolling and Annealing of Steel

After hot rolling, the coils are usually uncoiled, pickled, dried, oiled, and
then recoiled. The oil serves as a protection against rusting and as a
lubricant during cold rolling [31].
The prime objective of the cold rolling process is a further reduction in

thickness of the hot rolled product. The thickness range for sheet
products obtained after hot rolling is usually between 1.24 and 5.0 mm
(0.049 and 0.197 in.). The total reduction during cold rolling can be from
45 to 75 percent for most sheet gauges and from 80 to 90 percent for
most tinplate.
During cold rolling the material is also work hardened, due to the
jamming of dislocations. As shown in Fig. 14.28, the original equiaxed
grain structure is distorted by cold working and an elongated grain
structure with a smaller grain size is produced [32,33]. These internal
changes are mainly responsible for increasing both hardness and
strength, as well as decreasing the ductility of steel subjected to cold
rolling. The increased-energy state of a cold-worked metal causes it to be
more chemically active and consequently less resistant to corrosion [34].
Page 348
Fig. 14.28 – Effect of cold working on microstructure and properties.

(From Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, by S.H. Avner. Copyright 1974
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Reprinted with permission.)
During annealing of cold-rolled steel, the grain restoration process

occurs, which consists of recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth
(Fig. 14.29). The recrystallization temperature depends on the amount of
cold reduction. As the amount of cold reduction increases, the
temperature at which steel recrystallizes is lowered [35]. The recovery
process is accompanied by negligible changes in hardness, strength, and
ductility. During recrystallization, both hardness and strength rapidly
decrease, whereas ductility increases. This trend in the change of
properties gradually attenuates during grain growth.
14.18 Temper Rolling of Steel

In most sheet products, the principle purpose of temper rolling is to
suppress the yield-point elongation (Fig. 14.30) that is present in the as-
annealed state for most steels [31]. Suppressing the yield-point
elongation eliminates the formation of surface markings that are often
referred to as stretcher-strain markings or luder lines.
Temper rolling is also used to improve the shape, profile, and surface
conditions of flat rolled products. The process features of temper rolling
depend on the product requirements as described in the following
sections.
Tin mill products – Temper rolling is used to develop the proper stiffness
or temper by cold working the steel in a controlled amount.
Page 349
Fig. 14.29 – Effect of annealing on microstructure and properties of cold-

worked material. (From Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, by Avner,
Copyright 1974, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Reprinted with
permission.)
Fig. 14.30 – Stress-strain curve for box-annealed rimmed deep-drawing
steel. (From the Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, by W.T. Lankford,
et al, Tenth Edition, 1985. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with
permission.)
Page 350
High-strength cold-rolled sheets – Heavy temper rolling (1.5 to 3.0

percent elongation) can be used to raise the strength of as-annealed
sheet to a specified minimum yield strength level.
Electrical sheets – Heavy temper rolling (2 to 8 percent elongation) is

used especially for cold rolled motor laminations to improve the magnetic
properties.
Deep-drawing sheets – Light tempering (0.5 to 1.0 percent elongation) is

normally sufficient to suppress the formation of stretcher-strain markings
during formation without significantly impairing the ductility.
The influence of temper reduction on yield strength and the drop in yield
strength from the as-annealed values for various columbium steels are
shown in Fig. 14.31. Most of the decrease in yield strength for these
steels occurs after less than 1 percent temper reduction [36]. Although
the initial yield strength is obviously lower at higher annealing
temperatures, the decrease in yield strength after tempering is not related
to the annealing temperature. However, with similar cementite
morphologies, the decrease appears to be larger for finer grain sizes.
Fig. 14.31 – Effect of temper rolling on the yield strength of columbium

steels. (From Gupta and Hughes, Microalloying ‘75, 1977. Copyright
STRATCOR, Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
14.19 Cooling Intensity

During the accelerated cooling of plates, one of the most important goals
is to obtain a desirable hardness gradient across the plate thickness. This
hardness gradient is directly related to the type of structure between the
surface and core of the plate that is usually in the following order.
Martensite and bainite ate located just under the surface followed by
ferrite and pearlite.
According to Bon and Perdix [37], the hardness difference Δ(HV) can be
found from the following empirical equation:
where
Δ(HV) hardness difference, Vickers hardness number HV

=
Page 351
h plate thickness, m
=
q density of heat flow, W/m2

=
Ceq
=
carbon equivalent
a constant, 2.86 × 10-3 m/W

=
b constant, 46.3.
=
The cooling rate CR is given by the following equation:

where
CR cooling rate, K/s

=
cp specific heat, j/kg/K

=
ρ specific density, kg/m3.

=
Figure 14.32 shows several plots of Eq. (14-2) for various hardness
differences Δ(HV). This graph shows that lower cooling rates must be
used to reduce the hardness difference. The cooling rates must also be
reduced inverse proportionally to the square of the plate thickness to
reduce the hardness difference.
Fig. 14.32 – Cooling rates as a function of hardness difference Δ(HV) and

plate thickness h.
References
Park, Ohio, 1981, pp. 73-74.
2. Pickering, F.B., ‘‘High-Strength, Low-Alloy Steels - A Decade of

Progress,” Microalloying ‘75, Union Carbide Corp., New York, 1977, pp.
9-31.
3. Radcliffe, S.V. and Kula, E.B., “Deformation, Transformation, and

Strength,” Fundamentals of Deformation Processing, Syracuse University
Press, Syracuse, N.Y., 1964, pp. 321-363.
Page 352
4. Kula, E.B., “Strengthening of Steel by Thermomechanical Treatment of

Metals,” Journal of Applied Metalworking, Vol. 1 No. 2, 1980, pp. 5-34.

6. Matas, S.J., et al, “Ausforming and Hot-Cold Workings – Methods and

Properties,” Mechanical Working of Steel I, Metallurgical Society of AIME,
New York, 1964, pp. 143-178.
7. Encyclopedia of Material Science and Engineering, Vol. 7, 1986, pp.

4976-4977.
8. Zackay, V.F., “Thermomechanical Processing,’’ Materials Science

Engineering, Vol. 25, 1976, pp. 247-261.
9. May, M.J. and Latham, D.J, “Thermomechanical Treatment of Steels,

Part I,” Met. Treating, Oct.-Nov. 1972, pp. 3-13.
10. May, M.J. and Latham, D.J, “Thermomechanical Treatment of Steels,

Part II,” Met. Treating, Dec.-Jan. 1973, pp. 3-9.
11. Azrin, M., et al, “Soviet Progress in Thermomechanical Treatment of

Metals,” Journal of Applied Metalworking, Vol. 1 No. 2, 1980, pp. 5-34.
12. Melloy, G.F. and Dennison, J.D., “Continuum Rolling – A Unique

Thermomechanical Treatment for Plain-Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels,”
The Microstructure and Design of Alloys, Vol. 1, Institute of Metals and
Iron and Steel Institute, Cambridge, 1973, pp. 60-64.
13. Tanaka, T., “Controlled Rolling of Steel Plate and Strip,” International
Metals Reviews, No. 4, 1981, pp. 185-212.
14. Bairn, J.D. and Preston, R.R., “Processing and Properties of Low-
Carbon Steel,” Mechanical Working of Steel I, Metallurgical Society of
AIME, New York, 1973, pp. 1-46.
15. Lafrance, M., et al, Microalloying ‘75, Union Carbide Corp., New York,
1977, pp. 367-374.
16. Cohen, M. and Owen, W.S., “Thermo-Mechanical Processing of

1977, pp. 2-8.
17. Dillamore, I.L., et al, “Metallurgical Aspects of Steel Rolling

Technology,” Metals Technology, July-Aug. 1975, pp. 294-302.
18. Little, J.M., et al, Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on the

Strength of Metals and Alloys, Institute of Metals/Iron and Steel Institute,
London, Publication No.36, Vol. 1, 1973, pp. 80-84.
19. Grozier, J.D., “Production of Microalloyed Strip and Plate by

Controlled Cooling,” Microalloying ‘75, Union Carbide Corp., New York,
1977, pp. 241-250.
20. Heisterkamp, F. and Meyer, L., Thyssenforschung, Vol. 3, 1971, pp.

44-65.
21. Gorni, A.A., “Recent Developments in Controlled Rolling,” Advanced

Steel, 1997-98, pp. 178-180.
22. Amin, R.K., et al, “Effect of Rolling Variables on Precipitation

Strengthening in High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels Containing Vanadium
and Nitrogen,” Metals Technology, Vol. 8 No. 7, July 1981, pp. 250-262.
23. Okita, T., et al, “Production and Quality of Hot Rolled Dual Phase
Steel,” Nippon Kokan Technical Report, Overseas No. 43, 1985, pp. 25-
32.
24. Terasaki, F., et al, “Research and Development on Large-Diameter

Line Pipe for Arctic Usage,” Sumitomo Search, No. 33, Nov. 1986, pp.
72-85.
Page 353
25. Harlet, P.H., et al, “New Soft Steel Grades Produced by Ferritic
Rolling at Cockerill Sambre,” International Symposium on Low-Carbon
Steels for 90’s, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, 1993, pp. 389-
396.
26. Herman, J.C. and Leroy, V., “Ferritic Hot Rolling and the Potential for
Hot Rolled and Cold Rolled Products,” The Future of Flat Rolled Steel
Production, Vol. 2, AISE Specialty Conference, Chicago, Ill, June 11-14,
1995, pp. 1-10.
27. MACS – Multipurpose Accelerated Cooling System, Kawasaki Steel

Corp. Publication, Japan, April 1985.
28. Tsukada, K., et al, “Development of YS 36kgf/mm2 Steel with Low-

Carbon Equivalent Using On-Line Accelerated Cooling (OLAC) –
Development of OLAC, Part 2,” Nippon Kokan Technical Report,
Overseas No. 35, 1982, pp. 35-46.
29. Takeuchi, H., et al, “Recent Development of Thermomechanical

Treatment Technique in Sumitomo Metals,” Sumitomo Search, No. 32,
May 1986, pp. 8-18.
30. Lederer, A., “Thermomechanical Rolling of Plates,’’ MDS

Mannesmann Demag Sack GmbH Technical Report, May, 1984.
Pa., 1985, pp. 1103-1120.

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1974, pp. 129-145.
33. Smith, C.O., The Science of Engineering Materials, Prentice-Hall Inc.,

Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969.
34. Higgins, R.A., Engineering Metallurgy, Part I, Applied Physical

1983, pp. 90-99.
35. Sauveur, A., The Metallography and Heat Treatment of Iron and
Steel, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York and
London, 1935.
36. Gupta, I. and Hughes, I.F., “Metallurgical and Processing

Considerations in Producing High-Strength, Cold-Rolled Sheet,”
Microalloying ‘75, Union Carbide Corp., New York, 1977, pp. 303-310.
37. Ludwig, B., “Systems for the Accelerated Cooling of Plates,”

Metallurgical Plant and Technology, April, 1988, pp. 10-17.
Page 354
Chapter 15
METALLURGICAL DEFECTS IN CAST SLABS AND HOT
ROLLED PRODUCTS
15.1 Classification of Defects in Cast Slabs

Defects in cast slabs can be divided into the following four main groups
as proposed by BISRA [1,2]:
Internal defects
External cracks
Surface defects
Shape defects.
15.2 Internal Defects in Slabs

The internal defects are usually include segregation, non-metallic
inclusions, and various types of cracks.
Segregation - Segregation is a concentration of dissolved impurities in

that portion of the metal which solidifies last. The dendrites which form
are almost pure metal, and therefore the impurities become progressively
more concentrated in the remaining liquid.
Non-metallic inclusions - Non-metallic inclusions are the oxidized

materials and sulfides in various combinations with each other. They are
a result of oxidizing reactions which take place during refining process;
they can also be associated with the erosion of ladle or other refractories.
A more detailed definition of internal defects is given in Table 15.1.

Page 355
Table 15.1 Internal defects in slabs [1-3].
No. Defect Appearance
Minor segregation - A local concentration of

1 impurities at the crystal boundaries that causes overall
brittleness of the castings.
Major segregation - A concentration of impurities in

2 the central portion of an ingot as V-shaped markings
Diagonal crack - A pronounced crack following the

3 interface of two different planes of crystallization that
are caused by thermal stresses, which have been
attributed to severe or uneven secondary cooling of
slabs during solidification.
Halfway crack - An intercolumnar crack occurring in

4 positions approximately midway between the outside
and center of the slab.
Central unsoundness - A cavity or porosity inside the

5 cast product. Severity of this defect depends upon
casting conditions, particularly, teeming temperature
or variation of the withdrawal speed.
Star cracks - Radial cracks in the form of a star

6 originating from the center of the product, caused by
severe secondary cooling.
Withdrawal roll cracks - Parallel transverse internal

7 cracks, normal to the axes of the rolls that are caused
by reduction of the product while the center is still in a
semimolten state.
Page 356
Table 15.2 External cracks in slabs [1,2].
Hanger crack - Occurs when the ingot is suspended in

1 the mold due to worn or improperly fitted feeder head,
or due to overfilling of the mold.
Fin cracks - Caused by restrictions resulting from a fin.

2
Basal cracks - Occurs when free contraction of the

3 ingot is limited by fins or flashes.
Double skin crack - A crack that is usually associated

4 with double skin.
Transverse facial crack - A crack that runs from the

5 corner of the cast product across its face.
Teeming arrest - Appears as a transverse break in the

6 continuity if the slab skin extends completely around
the product and is caused by a temporary stoppage in
teeming.
Longitudinal facial crack - A crack that runs along the

7 slab face.
Page 357
Table 15.3 Surface defects in slabs [1,2].
Heavy reciprocation marks - Distances between these

1 marks are usually related to the amount of the product
that has descended in one cycle of reciprocation.
False wall - A surface irregularity that completely

2 rounds the product and is caused by temporary
separation of the skin from the descending strand.
Bleed - A result of exudation of molten metal through a

3 rupture in the skin.
Lap - A fold in the skin caused by the rising molten

4 metal that engulfs a layer that is already solidifying
against the mold wall.
Plating - Appears as a shallow indent on the surface.

5 The origin of this defect is from the metal that has
solidified on the surface of the meniscus and is then
drawn toward the mold walls and subsequently
entrapped.
Blowholes - Large holes that are elongated in the

6 direction of columnar growth and can also break the
surface. This defect is generally due to an incorrect
level of oxidation. In stainless steel grades, hydrogen
can be the cause.
Pinholes - Small holes close to the surface and often in

7 clusters. When they appear on the surface, they are
known as skin holes. Pinholes are frequently located
under the skin of the cast product and are attributed to
high levels of oxygen or hydrogen in steels.
Page 358
Table 15.4 Shape defects in slabs [1,2]
Longitudinal depression - This is a channel-shaped

1 depression on the face of the slab, running in the
direction of the axis.
Transverse depression - This is a localized depression

2 of the slab surface, normal to the axis of the slab. This
defect is mainly caused by uneven lubrication, too
rapid cooling, and fluctuating level of metal in the
mold.
Fin - This is a thin strip of metal protruding

3 approximately at right angle to the surface of the slab.
It is caused by molten steel having run into the open
cracks in the mold.
Rhomboidity - It is defined as a relative difference

4 between diagonals of a rectangular section of the slab.
Concavity - It is a distortion of the slab which appears

5 as a concave surface. This defect is usually attributed
to an incorrect spray-cooling pattern.
Bulging - It is a distortion of the slab giving rise to a

6 convex surface or surfaces. This defect is usually due
to inadequate support of the skin against the effects of
ferrostatic pressure.
15.3 External Cracks in Slabs

Cracks or ruptures in slabs may be caused by a number of reasons such
as the following [1,2]:
Restriction to the ingot skin during cooling

Inability of the skin to withstand the stresses resulting from
ferrostatic pressure exerted by the liquid steel
A too high teeming temperature
A too high teeming rate
Page 359
A too high mold temperature

Steel entering the mold towards one side instead of the center.
Inadequate mold design
Distortion or wear of the mold
Fast or uneven cooling in the mold
Fast or uneven secondary cooling of different faces of the slabs
Bending or straightening of the slab at a low temperature.
A brief description of the most common types of external cracks in slabs

is shown in Table 15.2. Not included in the table is the slab defect known
as hot shortness that is defined below.
Hot shortness - This is a localized cracking normally associated with

concentration of copper and tin in the grain boundaries.
15.4 Surface Defects in Slabs

Continuously cast slab may have surface defects which are attributed to
the certain specifics of the casting process. The most typical surface
defects of this type are listed in Table 15.3. In addition, the following
surface defects may be found in the slabs.
Guide marks - This is a mechanical damage arising from irregularities on

the guides, support, bending or straightening rolls. The guide marks can
also be caused by extraneous metal adhering to the parts of the guiding
mechanism.
Carburization - This is a localized surface pick-up of carbon from oil

lubrication. It is encountered especially in the casting of low-carbon
stainless-steel grades.
Splash - It is a generally spattered surface caused by small particles of

metal trapped between the product skin and mold wall.
Entrapped scum - These are the patches on the ingot or slab surfaces.
They are formed by the products of deoxidation or refractory erosion that
are trapped at the meniscus.
Bruises - This is a mechanical injury to the ingot or slab skin such as dog
marks from crane or indentations caused by sharp objects.
15.5 Slab Shape Defects

Table 15. 4 describes major surface defects in slabs. One of these
defects, known as rhombodity R, can be expressed quantitatively by the
equation:
where
d1
=
longer diagonal
d2 shorter diagonal.
=
Page 360
15.6 Scaling of Steel During Reheating

Scaling is a process of forming a layer of oxidation products formed on
metal at high temperature [1]. The following three types of iron oxides are
present in scale at elevated temperatures [5-8]: A. Wustite (FeO)
B. Magnetite (Fe3O4) C. Hematite (Fe2O3) These chemical compounds

are formed by the following reactions:
Wustite (FeO) is the innermost phase adjacent to metal (Fig. 15.1) with
the lowest oxygen content. Below 570°C (1058°F) wustite is not stable.
Its content in scale increases with increase in temperature and when the
steel temperature is above 700°C (1292°F), wustite occupies about 95%
of the scale layer. The wustite phase has a relatively low melting point,
1370 to 1425°C (2498 to 2597°F), compared with that of other phases of
scale and of the steel itself. Melting of the wustite layer (‘washing’)
accelerates the scaling rate and further increases grain boundary
penetration that produces inferior surface quality, increases fuel
consumption and reduces yield.
Fig. 15.1 – Sketch illustrating the structure of scale. From Hot Rolling of
Steel, by W.L. Roberts, 1983. Marcel Dekker, Inc. Copyright Marcel
Dekker, Inc. Reprinted with permission.) Magnetite (Fe3O4) is the
intermediate phase of scale. When the steel temperature is below 500°C
(932°F), the scale contains only magnetite (Fig. 15.2). As the
temperature increases to about 700°C (1292°F), formation of wustite
takes place at the expense of magnetite and, at elevated temperatures,
magnetite occupies only 4% of the scale layer. Magnetite is harder and
more abrasive than wustite.
Hematite (Fe2O3) is the outer phase of scale (Fig. 15.1). Hematite is

formed at the temperature
Page 361
above approximately 800°C (1472°F) as shown in Fig. 15.2 and, at

elevated temperatures, it occupies about 1% of the scale layer. Similar to
magnetite, hematite is hard and abrasive.
Fig. 15.2 – Approximate percentages of FeO, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4 on iron

oxidized in oxygen. (From Sacks and Tuck, Iron and Steel Institute
Publication 111, 1968. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 15.3 – Relationship between time and metal loss at constant
temperature. (From Cook and Rasmussen, AISE Year Book, 1970.
Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Reprinted with permission.)
15.7 Scaling Rate

The scaling process initiates through the formation of an iron oxide film at
the metal surface and progresses by diffusion of oxygen into iron-iron
oxide interface. This diffusion process is de-
Page 362
scribed by a general relationship which is exponential with temperature

and parabolic with time [9,10]:
where
h, w, L slab thickness, width, and length respectively, in.

=
weight of scale loss per unit of slab weight, tons/ton

M=
t scaling time
=
slab temperature, °F
T=
ρ slab density, lb/in3

=
a, b constants depending on type of steel and furnace atmosphere.

=
For slabs made of carbon steel with 0.30% C, residing in the furnace with
100% combustion air, a = 31.7 and b = 22.8 (Fig. 15.3). Scaling model for
hot strip mill is described in [11].
15.8 Effect of the Atmosphere on Scaling

In respect to oxidation of steel the gases containing in the atmosphere
surrounding the steel may be divided into two groups:
1. Oxidizing gases: oxygen (O2), water vapor (H2O), and carbon dioxide
(CO2)
2. Reducing gases: carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2).
Fig. 15.4 – Equilibrium temperatures for various gas ratios: a) CO2/Co, b)

H2O/H2. (From Cook and Rasmussen, AISE Year Book, 1970. Copyright
The oxidation and reduction processes are reversible and described by

the following formulas [6]:
Page 363
These oxidation-reduction relationship may be best presented by the

curves developed by Murphy and Jominy (Fig. 15.4a), and by Marshall
(Fig. 15.4b). These curves define the equilibrium temperature at which
various gas ratios of CO2/CO and H2O/H2 are neutral to iron [9]. Figure
15.4 also depicts the equilibrium products of combustion of natural gas
related to percentage of theoretical combustion air at 2500°F flue gas
temperature. Note that the reduction in percentage of the combustion air
produces less oxidizing atmosphere.
Fig. 15.5 – Quantitative effect of air-gas ratio on scaling rate at constant

temperatures. (From Cook and Rasmussen, AISE Year Book. Copyright
The quantitative effect of the air-gas ratio on scaling rate is shown in Fig.
15.5 for carbon steel with 0.30% C after one hour of heating. At elevated
temperatures, the scale-free atmosphere requires the air-gas ratio to be
close to 50 percent. Figure 15.6 illustrates a firing strategy to reduce
furnace scale losses. According to this strategy, the air-gas ratio is
gradually reduced from 100 to 50% while the slab surface temperature
increases from 760 to 1038°C (1400 to 1900°F).
Gas velocity is another factor that affects the scaling rate. It was found [7]
that the oxidation rate increases progressively with gas flow rate until
critical flow rate was reached. The critical flow rate for both carbon
dioxide and air is equal to 1.5 m/min (5 ft/min). For steam it is as high as
7 m/min (23 ft/min).
The other important constituent of furnace gases is sulfur dioxide (SO2).

In chemical reaction with steel it forms the liquid sulphides such as FeS
in scale. This enhances the scaling process. Additional complication
associated with the formation of sulphides is an increase in metal-scale
Page 364
adhesion, which results in difficulty of scale removal [12]. In reducing

atmosphere the sulphide phase is formed and grows very rapidly.
Therefore, in order to alleviate this problem, the air-fuel ratio is usually
increased so that there is at least 4% excess of oxygen in furnace
atmosphere.
Fig. 15.6 – Heating practice utilizing variable air-gas ratio control. (From
Cook and Rasmussen, AISE Year Book, 1970. Copyright AISE,
Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
15.9 Effect of Residual and Alloying Elements on Scaling

The scaling rate can be modified if residual or alloying elements are
present in steel (Fig. 15.7).
Fig. 15.7 – Scale losses of some steels at elevated temperatures. (From
Cook and Rasmussen, AISE Year Book, 1970. Copyright AISE,
Pittsburgh, Pa. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 365
The effect of the following elements is briefly described in the following

sections.
Carbon - Carbon diffuses to the oxide-metal interface where it forms

carbon monoxide CO as a result of the chemical reaction with iron oxide
FeO. In the presence of carbon monoxide at the oxide-metal interface,
the gap formation between the scale and metal enhances and scale
adhesion reduces. Gap formation without gross cracking of scale slows
the scaling rate. However, at high temperature and high carbon content,
gas pressure in the gaps causes gross cracking of the scale. It increases
contact of the metal with the furnace atmosphere and thereby increases
the scaling rate.
Manganese - Manganese that is present in mild steel produces a

negligible effect on the oxidation properties [7].
Chromium - The effect of chromium on the oxidation rate is negligible

when it is present in steel as a residual element. In stainless steels,
chromium forms a protective layer of chromium oxide Cr2O3 that
provides oxidation resistance. The process of forming this protective
layer is often referred to as the passivation process [13].
Aluminum - Aluminum is also not effective when present in steel at a

residual level. As an alloying element, it forms a hard protective layer of
aluminum oxide AI2O3 that reduces the oxidation rate.
Silicon - Silicon reacts with oxygen diffusing into the steel ahead of the
oxide-metal interface and precipitates as a silicon oxide SiO2 [14]. The
particles of SiO2 form a separate phase, fayalite Fe2SiO4, that retards
the scaling rate. This phase melts at 1171°C (2140°F). With the formation
of the molten phase the protective effect disappears and the scaling rate
increases sharply [15, 16]. Silicon-killed steels contain only about
0.25%Si. However, this is sufficient to form pools and extended silicate
stringers in the scale layer that increase the adhesion of the scale to steel
[7].
Nickel - Since the diffusion coefficient for nickel in iron is low, it is
concentrated in the thin layer around the alloy core. This layer lowers the
scaling rate. However, the resulting nickel-alloy lacework in the oxide
makes the scale adhere during rolling giving rise to excessive rolled-in
scale [7,17]. This problem becomes more severe with increase in nickel
content.
Copper - Similar to nickel, copper is rejected at the oxide-metal interface.

However, copper does not create a sticky-scale problem as with nickel.
When the copper content in the metal oxide interface exceeds 8%, a
separate copper-rich phase is precipitated. This phase melts at 1096°C
(2005°F) and forms a layer between the metal and the oxide that causes
hot shortness and surface defects [7].
15.10 Scaling and Decarburization

The decarburization process in steels is described by the following
formulas [6]:
Page 366
Decarburization below the A3 and A1 temperatures is rather slow.

However, this process intensifies significantly above these temperatures
when austenite is formed. When the steel temperature is about 1200 to
1290°C (2192 to 2354°F), decarburization occurs simultaneously with
scaling [18]. Both the scaling rate and the decarburization rate increase
with temperature.
The carbon-depleted zone is usually known as the decarburization zone

and is located between the interior of the steel and the oxide-metal
interface. Decarburization has a detrimental effect on subsequent
processing of certain high-carbon special steels. It usually produces no
quality problems in low-carbon steels.
15.11 Scaling of Steel During Roughing Passes

As was previously discussed, the scale of a reheated slab consists of
three distinct layers: wustite (FeO), magnetite (Fe3O4), and hematite
(Fe2O3). Since the bonding between these layers is much stronger than
that of the interface bond between the scale and the steel, the descaling
and rolling process will tend to break the interface bond rather than
bonding between the scale layers.
According to Blazevic [19], the behavior of scale on the surface of a

workpiece during roughing passes can be illustrated as follows. Let us
consider a typical slab with 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) thick primary scale which
was not removed from the slab surface prior to rolling. As the slab enters
the first pass in the rougher (Fig. 15.8), the scale breaks free from the
slab (details X and Y). Some of the scale particles may fly out of the roll
bite (detail Z), but most of them will enter the roll bite, become slightly
elongated and pressed back into the steel. Since the elongation of the
scale particles is not quite equal to the slab elongation, small spaces
between the scale particles will be formed.
Fig. 15.8 – Schematic presentation of the scale behavior during the first
roughing pass. (From David T. Blazevic-Hot Rolling Consultants, 1983.
As the slab enters the second pass the scale becomes less plastic due to
lower temperature and breaks into smaller pieces. These pieces will be
more deeply embedded into the slab surface with greater gaps between
them. The slab surface along those gaps will be exposed to oxidation and
a secondary scale (oxide) will begin to form. By the time the slab enters
the third pass, the scale has lost its plasticity and compressibility due to
low temperature and further embeds into the steel.
During the fourth pass (Fig. 15.9), the scale is totally embedded in the
steel. Since the bite angle is reduced, the fracturing of the particles is
also reduced. The roll is now sliding across the
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scale particles resulting in so-called sandpapering the scale off the steel
surface.
Fig. 15.9 – Schematic presentation of the scale behavior during the fourth
roughing pass. (From David T. Blazevic-Hot Rolling Consultants, 1983.
Elongation of a patch of scale during roughing passes is shown in Fig.

15.10. This particle of scale (a) of about 25 × 25 mm (1 × 1 in.) in size
comes out of the first roughing pass being fractured into smaller pieces
(b). As the process of fracturing, pinching of the edges, and elongation
between the particles continues, the particles take the shapes shown in
d, e, and f.
Fig. 15.10 – Elongation of a 25 × 25 mm (1 × 1 in.) patch of scale during

roughing passes. (From David T. Blazevic-Hot Rolling Consultants, 1983.
Fig. 15.11 – Schematic presentation of scale on the transfer bar prior
descaling at the entry of finishing mill. (From David T. Blazevic-Hot
Rolling Consultants, 1983. Reprinted with permission.)
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15.12 Scaling of Steel During Finishing Passes

As the transfer bar approaches the descaling box, located at the entrance
of the finishing mill, its surface will be covered with sheets of secondary
scale (Fig. 15.11) which vary from 12.7 to 150 mm (0.5 to 6 in.) in length
and from 0.08 to 0.40 mm (0.003 to 0.015 in.) in thickness [19]. After
descaling at the entry of the finishing mill, the final form of iron oxide,
known as tertiary scale, starts to appear. During passing through the mill,
the iron oxide will elongate while continuing to grow. By the time the strip
enters last finishing mill stand its temperature reduces. The bite angle on
this stand is usually very small, so little scale fracturing takes place. The
rolling action now causes the roll to slide across the oxide and
‘sandpaper’ the oxide off the strip surface.
Figure 15.12 shows the scale pattern after the finishing mill produced by
the patch of scale 25 × 25 (1 × 1 in.) in size entering the roughing mill. So
the patch of scale is now a series of small jagged ‘teardrops’ spread in a
pattern about 25 mm (1 in.) wide and up to 2030 (80 in.) long.
Fig. 15.12 – Elongation of a 25 × 25 mm (1 × 1 in.) patch scale after

rolling through both roughing and finishing mills. (From David T. Blazevic-
Hot Rolling Consultants, 1983. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 15.13 – Schematic presentation of the oxide pattern on the coiled
strip. (From David T. Blazevic-Hot Rolling Consultants, 1983. Reprinted
with permission.)
15.13 Scaling of Steel During Coiling

The oxide growth is slowed during water cooling on the runout table.
During coiling, however, the rate of growth increases. The coiled strip
shows a so-called ‘annealing pattern’ [19] as shown in Fig. 15.13. This
pattern is due to various cooling rates across the strip width. The ends
and edges
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of the coil cool off at the fastest rates and are usually covered with blue
oxide. This oxide is very dense and is the hardest to pickle. Following the
shoulder of the strip cross-sectional profile, there is a narrow band of
dark blue and/or gold color. Finally, the center of the strip is varying
shades of light grey.
15.14 Classification of Scale

Blazevic [16] has identified the following types of scale formed in hot strip
mill:
Primary scale
Secondary scale
Rebound scale
Contraction gouges
Heavy primary scale
Red oxide
Salt and pepper
Scratches
Furnace scale
Scale streaks
Heat pattern
Gouges
Refractory scale
Plugged nozzle streaks
Roll wear scale
Slivers
In turn, the red oxide scale is divided into four types:

Teardrop red oxide scale
Line type red oxide scale
Blotchy red oxide scale Tail end red oxide scale.
Table 15.5 shows the appearances of various types of scale. The scale
can be identified by color as well as by shape and patterns. As shown in
Table 15.6 the color of the scale or its resulting defect on the strip
depends on where the scale is observed. The color varies from black to
yellow with many combinations in between. Table 15.7 identifies the
various types of scale by shape and patterns. The probability of
occurrence of each type of scale in relation to the location or pattern is
shown in Table 15.8. More detailed description of various types of scale
is given below according to Blazevic [20].
15.15 Primary and Heavy Primary Scales

Primary scale - Primary scale is formed in the reheat furnace and
appears on finished hot rolled sheet as a jagged teardrop, or a group of
jagged teardrops (Table. 15.5a). The primary scale is more frequently
seen on the top surface and away from the edges and coil ends. In the
roughing mill it appears as black particles. The scale removed by the
descaler may fly back (rebound) on the top surface of the slab and will
become rolled into the surface. Recommendations to reduce the surface
defects caused by primary scale include [20]:
Establishing the furnace practices to produce a scale that tends to

breakup into sheets at the vertical edger and primary descaler.
Establishing the width control practice that requires a sufficient
edge work to fracture the entire interface bond.
Providing a possibility for descaling in front of both the first and
second roughing mills (or passes).
Heavy primary scale - Heavy primary scale is a more severe version of

the primary scale. It appears on the surface of a slab that is kept in a
reheating furnace for an extended period of time.
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The rolled-in scale appears as a jagged teardrop on the finished hot

rolled sheet. Since the particles are embedded in the initial stages of
rolling process, the distance between particles on the final sheet can be
quite extended. During the rolling operation, the particles can be seen on
the top surface of the rolled product as the black elongated teardrops
with rounded off corners and smoothed edges. In the pickled sheet, it
appears as a black or frosty area which after cold rolling may turn to
holes, a rough surface, or a frosty pattern. The major cause of the rolled-
in scale is a failure to break and remove heavy primary scale during initial
rolling passes. One of the remedies to the problem is to maintain an
excess air practice in the soaking pits so a porous and loose scale is
produced.
15.16 Furnace Scale

Furnace scale is a special type of primary scale with a very strong
interface bond between the scale and steel [20]. The shape of the rolled-
in particles may vary from a slightly jagged to a very smooth teardrop. A
cluster of defects may be seen on the finished hot rolled sheet (Table.
15.5b). The furnace scale is usually a result of overheating the slab,
especially in the soak zone. The slab surface temperature becomes so
high, that the scale fuses back into the slab. This melting process creates
a metallurgical bond at the interface. A furnace reducing atmosphere
enhances this process. The measures for reducing the furnace scale
include:
Cleaning off all loose scale prior charging the slab into the reheat
furnace
Maintaining oxidizing atmosphere
Firing the bottom zones at a lower temperature than the top zones
Setting the burners to produce long soft flames, rather than short
hot flames
Avoiding overheating the slab surface.
15.17 Refractory Scale

Refractory scale is a combination of refractory and furnace scale [20].
One of the causes for development of refractory scale is using an
improper refractory that has low melting temperature and may drop on
the slab. Once the refractory scale gets onto the slab surface, it seals the
furnace scale from further oxidation and bonds itself to the steel.
The color of the refractory scale on hot rolled surface depends on the
type of refractory used and can be red, reddish orange, purple, brown or
black (Fig. 15.5c). The measures for reducing the surface defects caused
by refractory scale usually involve tighter control on refractory used in the
furnace as well as cleaning of the slab surfaces after extensive repairs of
the furnace refractory.
15.18 Secondary Scale

Secondary scale is formed after the first descaling of the slab [20]. Its
thickness is a function of the chemistry and temperature of the slab,
efficiency of previous descaling, and the oxidation time after descaling.
Although the individual grain size of the secondary scale is small, they
are often grouped. Surface defects caused by secondary scale may
appear on the finished hot rolled sheet as slightly jagged teardrop (a),
wavy pattern (b), smooth teardrop (c), and a streamlined particle, or
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smooth smeared area (d) as shown in Table 15.5d. Because of the small
grain size, the patterns of secondary scale are much more narrow than
those of primary scale. Reduction of surface defects relating to
secondary scale can be achieved by a proper design and operation of the
secondary descaling system.
Table 15.5 Appearances of various types of scale. Adapted from D.T. Blazevic,
Hot Rolling Consultants (1983).
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Table 15.5 (cont) Appearances of various types of scale. Adapted from D.T.
Blazevic, Hot Rolling Consultants (1983).
15.19 Red Oxide Scale

Red oxide scale is a term that identifies various types of scale which are
related to iron oxide FeO. The color of the red oxide scale is mostly rusty
red, but the color pattern may vary from dusty red to grey black and is
probably temperature related [21]. If the red oxide scale is originated in
the roughing mill where the temperature is higher, the scale will have a
purple or darker color. The red oxide scale that originates in the finishing
mill has a reddish orange or rust color. The chemical composition of the
rolled product can also affect the color of the red scale. Silicon is found to
be a contributing factor to the formation of red oxide. The next element
often mentioned to also contribute is columbium.
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However, chemical composition is not considered to be the basic cause

of red oxide. Formation of red oxide is originated in the furnace. Under
certain conditions, a so-called sticky scale is produced. After primary
descaling, the scale is getting broken at the intermediate layer between
wustite (FeO) and magnetite (Fe3O4), thus leaving the former on the slab
surface in the form of red oxide. The bounding between red oxide and
slab is so strong that the red oxide survives many more descaling
operations. Five forms of red oxide scale are usually identified.
Teardrop red oxide scale - Appears on the finished hot rolled sheet as
shown in Table 15.5e. The teardrop shapes are very symmetrical, and
the edges of the surface defects are very smooth. The color is usually
rust red. The defect can be seen in different parts of the sheet surface
but occurs primarily on the top surface. The teardrop red oxide scale is
found to be originated by droplets of water splashing on the rolled sheet
surface between finishing mill stands, especially in the F1, F2 and F3 mill
areas. The surface defects due to the teardrop red oxide are eliminated
by drying up this mill areas. Also, the problem can be alleviated by
moving the secondary descaling box closer to F1 mill stand, thus
reducing the oxidation time prior to the finishing rolling.
Primary blotchy red oxide scale - Originates in the roughing mills and
appears as shown in Table 15.5f. The pattern often includes geometric
corners, jagged straight lines, indentations on the edges within the
general free-form or blotchy appearance of the top surface [17].
Secondary blotchy oxide scale - This scale is formed after secondary

descaling. The scale is presumably caused by chilling of the oxide which
at this point is mostly iron oxide FeO. The chilling of the oxide may freeze
further chemical action. The surface defect appears as a free-form or
blotchy pattern. The sides of the pattern are very smooth as shown in
Table 15.5g. The defect occurs mainly on the top surface of the rolled
sheet.
Line Type Red Oxide Scale - Usually appears on the finished hot rolled
sheet as very precise stream-line patterns [21] as shown in Table 15.5h.
It may look like scratches (a) which may be either very fine lines within 6
to 18 mm (0.25 to 0.75 in.) of the edge or much heavier lines extending in
further from the edges. The rust red color can be seen in the scratches.
The scratch pattern may also be located in the middle of the strip (b).
Another variation of the line type red oxide scale may look like the red
oxide painted along the edges (c). The scratch pattern in the middle of
the strip is mostly seen on the top surface while the other types can be
seen on both top and bottom surfaces.
Tail End Red Oxide Scale - Occurs on the tail end of the coil [21] and
appears as a band of red oxide 50 to 125 mm (2 to 5 in.) wide that
follows the contour of the tail end. This surface defect is not seen on coils
which have the fishtail end but it often occurs on the strip with the tail end
curved outwardly as illustrated in Table 15.5i.
15.20 Scale Related to Descaling Process

Several types of scale are related to the descaling process and are briefly
discussed in the following sections.
Scale streaks - A rolled-in primary, secondary, or even red oxide scale

that occurs in a streaky pattern in the rolling direction as shown in Table
15.5j. The furnace defects related to the scale streaks are usually caused
by worn out or leaking descaling nozzles or insufficient overlap between
the sprays [20]. The scale streaks can also be caused by a strip bouncing
under the sprays.
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Plugged nozzle scale - A more serious type of scale streak that is caused
by a plugged nozzle, or nozzle strainer (Table 15.5k). This also may be
caused by an oversized strainer or by operating without strainers.
Rebound scale - A special type of secondary scale where after secondary

descaling, the scale is broken into very small particles which will fly
toward the F1 mill and land in the water or on the top of the strip [20].
These particles will be then sucked into the mill and rolled into the strip.
The surface defect appears on the finished hot rolled sheet as a short
streamlined frosty area with a pit in the middle (Table 15.51). This
problem can be solved by the following measures:
Elevating the pass line at the F1 mill stand above the pass line at
the descaler, so the water will flow away from the mill.
Enclosing the descaling hood.
Protecting the entry of the mill from bouncing descaling water by
installing soft curtains, damming rolls, etc.
15.21 Scale Related to Roll Wear

Several types of scale are related to roll wear.
Salt and pepper - Salt and pepper owes its name to its appearance on
the finished hot rolled sheet (Table 15.5m). It is believed to come from
fracturing the finishing mill scale by worn-out work rolls of the F2 mill
stand [20]. The fractured particles are then carried by the rolls and
embedded back into the strip on the next revolution.
Heat pattern scale - Heat pattern scale (Table 15.5n) is caused by the
same phenomena as salt and pepper scale but usually occurs on heavier
thickness sheets. Since these sheets are rolled at higher rolling
temperatures and slower speeds, the rate of growth of the oxide prior to
the entry of the F2 mill increases.
Roll wear scale - Roll wear scale is related to peeling and banding of the
work rolls. Pealing is a result of the breakdown of the roll surface. The
broken rough surface of the roll tears the oxide layer off the strip surface
and the oxide layer bands around the roll and embeds back into the strip
surface on the next revolution [20,22]. The heaviest scale particles are
usually located near the periphery of the peeling area (Table 15.5o). Salt
and pepper scale can be seen inside the pattern boundary. When a roll is
completely peeled in a band (a) around its circumference, the surface
begins to polish itself, and the scale may disappear. The rolled-in scale
problem related to roll wear is minimized by:
Improving roll cooling

Introducing oil lubrication
Introducing a width comedown schedule
Introducing roll side-shifting.
15.22 Contraction Gouges

Contraction gouges are often mistaken for rolled-in scale because of a
presence of small particles of scale in this defect after a sheet is pickled
[20]. The pattern of this defect is always a pit with a
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comet tail and small black dots as shown in Table 15.5p. The comet tail
can be parallel or perpendicular to the rolling direction, or have a curved
shape. The color of the pits before pickling are usually gold (straw),
whereas the comets are dark grey. The small dots are thin layers of oxide
and are black. The defect usually occurs during coiling at high
temperature and high tension, causing oxide to weld together on the high
spots between the coil layers where the pressure is the greatest. The
comet effect is created by the spot of oxide pulling free and scraping the
surface of the opposite wrap. The problem is alleviated by lowering both
coiling temperature and coiling tension.
15.23 Scratches and Gouges

Scratches (Table 15.5q) and gouges (Table 15.5r) are caused by pulling a
workpiece across a slower moving roll, a frozen roll, plate, or apron in the
mill [20]. The slower moving rolls have usually become firecracked, and
the rough surface will cut easier the surface of the rolled piece. The
secondary oxide usually forms in the scratches and near the edges of the
gouges. Because of that the gouges are often confused with rolled-in
scale. The defects of this nature may be prevented by:
Checking the pass line on all mills to eliminate the potential spots
for scratching
Eliminating the metal stringers, or scablike pieces near the vertical
edges
Checking the speed matching of the table rolls with the mill
Water cooling of all aprons, spacers, plates, etc., to prevent
firecracking, and providing lubrication as the strip passes over.
Table 15.6 Scale color at point of observation. After D.T. Blazevic, Hot Rolling
Consultants [20].
Page 376
15.24 Slivers
Slivers and scabs are often confused with rolled-in scale. In case of
slivers, the confusion comes in two ways: (1) the black edges and
surface openings often look like scale, and (2) the slivers are not seen
prior to the hot rolling or pickling [20]. The slivers are mainly caused by
subsurface defects, or impurities in the steel. During rolling the impurities
will be elongated in the rolling direction. This gives them a long stringy
appearance. Since the impurities do not elongate the same amount as
steel, the surface area often breaks open.
Table 15.7 Probability of occurrence of different types of scale by shape or

pattern. After D.T. Blazevic, Hot Rolling Consultants [20].

Page 377
Table 15.8 Probability of occurrence of different types of scale by location on

the strip. After D.T. Blazevic, Hot Rolling Consultants [20].
References
1. Definitions and Causes of Continuous Casting Defects, BISRA, ISI
Publication 106, The Iron and Steel Institute, London, 1967, pp. 1-39.
2. Surface Defects in Ingots and Their Products, BISRA Special Report

No. 63, The Iron and Steel Institute, London, 1958, pp. 2-24.

1983, pp. 68-77.

Park, Ohio, 1981, p. 62.
Pa., 1985, pp. 783-860.
6. Fisher, A.J., ‘‘Furnace Atmosphere,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1937,

pp. 131-139.
7. Sachs, K. and Tuck, C.W., “Surface Oxidation of Steel in Industrial

Furnaces,” Reheating for Hot Working, Iron and Steel Institute,
Publication No. 111, London, 1968, pp. 1-17.
8. Roberts, W.L., Hot Rolling of Steel, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York,
1983, p. 644.
9. Cook, E.A. and Rasmussen, K.E., “Scale-Free Heating of Slabs and

Billets,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1970, pp. 175-181.
Page 378
10. Browne, K.M., “Modeling Scaling and Descaling in Hot Strip Mills,”
1995 International Mechanical Engineering Conference and Exposition,
Nov. 12-17, 1995, San Francisco, Calif., pp. 1-12.

Roughing and Finishing Trains of Hot Strip Mills,” Iron and Steel
Engineer, Apr. 1986, pp. 29-39.
12. Birks, N., ‘‘High-Temperature Corrosion in Complex Atmospheres,”

Chemical Metallurgy of Iron and Steel, Iron and Steel Institute Publication
No. 146, London, 1973, pp. 402-411.
13. Lula, R.A., Stainless Steel, American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio, 1986, pp. 129-130.
14. Schurman, E., et al, “On the Scaling of Unalloyed Steel,” Archivfur
das Eisenhuttenwesen, Vol. 44 No. 12, Dec. 1973, pp. 927-934.
15. Haffe, K., Oxidation of Metals, Plenum Press, New York, 1965.
16. Wood, G.C., “Fundamental Factors Determining the Mode of Scaling

of Heat-Resistant Alloys,” Werkstoffe und Korrosion, Vol. 22 No.6, June
1971, pp. 491-503.
17. Boggs, W.E., “The Role of Structural and Compositional Factors in

the Oxidation of Iron and Iron-Based Alloys, High Temperature Gas-Metal
Reactions in Mixed Environments,” eds. S.A. Jansson and Z.A. Foroulis,
Metallurgical Society of AIME, New York, 1973, pp. 84-128.
18. Birks, N. and Jackson, W. “A Quantitative Treatment of

Simultaneously Scaling and Decarburization of Steels,” Journal of Iron
and Steel Institute, Vol. 208, Jan. 1970, pp. 81-85.
19. Blazevic, D.T., “Rolled in Scale: The Continual Problem, Part 1 -

Scale Formation and Rolling Characteristics,” Hot Rolling Consultants,
Ltd., Homewood, Ill., Feb. 1983.
20. Blazevic, D.T., “Rolled in Scale: The Continual Problem, Part II -
Rolled in Scale Descriptions, Causes, and Cures,” Hot Rolling
Consultants, Ltd., Homewood, Ill., Feb. 1983.
21. Blazevic, D.T., “Rolled in Scale: The Continual Problem, Part IV - Red
Oxide Scale,” Hot Rolling Consultants, Ltd., Olympia Fields, Ill., July
1985.
22. Betts, W.H., “Basic Concepts of Roll Surface Behavior in Stands F1,
F2, and F3,” AISE Yearbook, 1977, pp. 12-18.
Page 379
Part IV
ROLLING MILLS FOR FLAT PRODUCTS
Page 380

Page 381
Chapter 16
TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS
16.1 Main Components of a Mill Stand

A typical mill for rolling of flat products includes one or a number of the
mill stands.
Fig. 16.1 Schematic illustration of a horizontal mill stand (side view).

Page 382
These stands are arranged, usually in line, to produce a sequential

reduction in thickness and width of the rolled product. Although a variety
of the mill stand designs are known, it is possible to identify their common
components from functional viewpoint. Figures 16.1 and 16.2 illustrate
schematically a mill stand designed for reducing the workpiece thickness.
Fig. 16.2 Schematic illustration of two horizontal mill stands (front view)
with: a) pinion stand drive and b) independent drive.
Main functional components of this mill stand are:
Work rolls are the work tools which directly contact the rolled
product.
Backup and intermediate rolls support the work rolls to reduce
their deflection under rolling load.
Mill housing is designed to contain the mill stand components and
to withstand the rolling load.
Main drive train provides rotation of the rolls with desired speed
and rolling torque.
Roll gap actuators provide the required gap between work rolls
Pass line adjustment mechanism provides adjustment of elevation
of the pass line.
Strip profile and flatness actuators provide the displacement
and/or deflection of the rolls to achieve the desired strip profile and
flatness.
Page 383
16.2 Classification of Mill Stands

Mill stands for rolling flat products can be classified by the following
categories [1-3].
Fig. 16.3 Vertical mill stand (front view). Adapted from IHI Publication
8403-1000.
Direction of roll axes - The mill stands can be identified in association

with direction of the roll axes as following:
a) Horizontal mill stand. In the horizontal mill stand all rolls are parallel to
the mill floor (Figs. 16.1, 16.2)
b) Vertical mill stand, or edger. The roll axes of the vertical mill stands are
perpendicular to the mill floor (Fig. 16.3)
Roll arrangement - Depending on the roll arrangement in the mill

housing, the horizontal mill stands are referred to as (Fig. 16.4):
a) Two-high (2-hi) mill stand. This mill stand contains two work rolls.
b) Three-high (3-hi) mill stand. In three-high mill stands, the top and
bottom rolls revolve in the same direction and the middle roll in the
opposite direction. After completing the bottom pass (solid line), the
workpiece is lifted to provide the reversing top pass (dotted line).
c) Four-high (4-hi) mill stand. This is the most common roll arrangement
that includes two work rolls and two backup rolls.
d) Five-high (5-hi) mill stand. In the five-high mill stand arrangement, an
intermediate roll is added between one of the work rolls and a backup
roll.
e) Six-high (6-hi) mill stand. In addition to two work rolls and two backup
rolls, the six-high
Page 384
mill stand has two intermediate rolls.

f) Cluster type mill stand. Main feature of the cluster type mill stand is that
each work roll is surrounded by more than one intermediate roll which in
their turn are supported by a number of backup rolls. Both asymmetrical
(Fig. 16.5a) and symmetrical (Fig. 16.5b) cluster type rolling mill stands
have been developed.
Direction of rolling - Three types of the mill stands are usually considered
with regard to rolling direction:
a) Non-reversing mill stand. This mill stand is designed to roll in one

direction.
b) Reversing mill stand. This mill stand provides rolling in both directions.
c) Back-pass mill stand. In the back-pass mill stand, the rolls are always
rotating in the same direction. After completing the rolling pass, the roll
gap is opened and the workpiece is back-passed toward the entry side of
the mill. Then the roll gap closes and the next rolling pass proceeds.
Fig. 16.4 Types of roll arrangements in the mill stands.

Fig. 16.5 Cluster type mill stands: a) asymmetrical, b) symmetrical.
Adapted from Kawamani, et al [1].
Page 385
Drive train arrangement - The principal drive train arrangements can be

a) Direct drive. The direct drive train provides connection of the motor
with driven rolls without any change in angular speed.
b) Gear drive. In the gear drive, the angular speed of the motor is either
reduced or increased by installing a gear box in the drive train.
c) Pinion stand drive. The drive train with a pinion stand (Fig. 16.2a)
allows one to drive both top and bottom rolls from a single motor.
d) Independent drive. In the independent drive train (Fig. 16.2b), top and
bottom rolls are driven by independent motors.
The drive train arrangements can also be identified in relation to what

type of roll is driven:
a) Train with driven work rolls

b) Train with driven backup rolls
c) Train with driven intermediate roll.
Special design mill stands - A number of mill stands of special design

have been developed. They include:
a) Mill with offset rolls (MKW mill)

b) Planetary mills
b) Rolling-Drawing mills
c) Contact-Bend-Stretch mills
d) Reciprocating mills, etc.
A brief description of some of these mills will be given in the next chapter.
16.3 General Classification of Rolling Mills

In general terms, rolling mills can be classified in respect to rolling
temperature, type of rolled product, and type of the mill stand
arrangement.
Rolling temperature - In regard to rolling temperature, the rolling mills are

usually identified as:
Hot rolling mills - Hot rolling process of steels generally begins
when the workpiece temperature is equal or less than 1315°C
(2400°F) and completes at the temperatures which are either
above or slightly lower than A3 critical temperature which, for low-
carbon steel, is about 900°C (1650°F). Thus, the bulk of the rolling
process occurs when the rolled material is in austenitic phase.
Cold rolling mills - Cold rolling process is usually conducted with a
workpiece that has initial temperature equal to a room
temperature. During cold rolling the rolled material temperature
may rise to between 50 and 65°C (122 and 150°F).
Warm rolling mills - Warm rolling process is generally conducted at
elevated temperatures substantially lower than A1 critical
temperature which, for low-carbon steel, is approximately 730°C
(1346°F). The desired rolling temperatures are obtained by either
preheating of the workpiece or by a controlled lubrication utilizing
the heat generated during the rolling process.
Rolled product - In relation to a type of rolled product, the rolling mills are
identified as:
Slabbing mills - The slabbing mills roll ingots into slabs which
usually vary in thickness from 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 in.). The mill
stand may have a provision for a large opening of the roll
Page 386
high lift), so the width reduction can be made by rolling the slab on its
edge. Plate mills - The hot plate mills roll slabs into plates. The rolled
product can be either in a flat form or in a coil form with a consequent
uncoiling and cutting the product into the plates of desired lengths. The
most distinguished characteristic of both hot and cold plate mills is the
width of the rolled plates which for some mills may be as wide as 5334
mm (210 in.). Strip mills - Conventional hot strip mills reduce a slab to a
strip with thickness as thin as 1.2 mm (0.047 in.). Cold strip mill further
reduce the strip to a desired final gauge. The width of the steel coils are
usually between 600 and 2000 mm (23 and 79 in.).
Fig. 16.6 Flow of Rolled Material in Rolling Mills.
Mill stand arrangement - Depending on the distance between the two

adjacent mill stands in relation to the length of the rolled product, the mill
stand arrangements are usually referred to as [4]:
Open mill stand arrangement - In open mill stand arrangement, the

distance between two adjacent stands is always greater then the
length of the rolled bar exiting the upstream mill stand. This allows
rolling on these stand with independent speeds.
Close-coupled mill stand arrangement - In the close-coupled mill
stand arrangement, the distance between adjacent stands is less
than the length of the rolled bar exiting the upstream mill stand. So
the bar is rolled simultaneously on adjacent stands. This requires
synchronization of speed of these mill stands to provide a constant
mass flow of the metal.
The close-coupled mill stand arrangements are used in two types
of well-known rolling mills:
Page 387
1. Universal rolling mill. The universal rolling mill includes a

horizontal mill stand and, at least, one vertical mill stand. In this
mill both edging and flat rolling may be conducted simultaneously.
2. Tandem rolling mill. In tandem rolling mills, two or more mill stands
of the same type (usually horizontal) have a close-coupled
arrangement with each other.
16.4 Flow of Rolled Material in Rolling Mills

The incoming products of the hot strip mills can be in the form of ingots,
thick slabs, intermediate slabs, thin slabs, and cast strip (Fig. 16.6).
Depending on the type of the incoming product, the rolled material
follows the following routes in hot strip mills:
Rolling from ingot - The ingots with initial thickness up to 900 mm (35.4
in.) are rolled in a slabbing mill where they are reduced to a thick slab
size of about 180 - 250 mm (7-10 in.) in thickness. The slabs are then
reduced in thickness in a roughing mill to obtain a transfer bar with
thickness that usually ranges from 19 to 45 mm (0.75-1.75 in.). The final
hot rolled coils are obtained after rolling in a finishing mill. The thickness
of the hot rolled coils is usually between 1.0 and 12.7 mm. If the coils are
intended for cold rolling they are further reduced in a cold mill to a
desired thickness.
Rolling from thick slab - This process eliminates rolling in a slabbing mill
but still requires the roughing and finishing hot rolling, and also a cold
rolling when cold reduction is needed.
Rolling from intermediate slab - The intermediate slab thickness is

usually from 80 to 150 mm (3.15 - 6.0 in). This allows to reduce a number
of roughing passes but then the transfer bar is rolled in the same manner
as in the previous cases.
Rolling from thin slab - The thickness of the thin slab varies from 10 to 80
mm (0.4 - 3.15 in.). The process may eliminate roughing rolling passes.
In some cases, however, at least one roughing pass may be found
beneficial to improve surface quality.
Rolling from cast strip - The cast strip thickness ranges from 1 to 10 mm
(0.040 - 0.4 in.). This allows to eliminate completely the hot rolling
process.
16.5 Main Components of High-Production Hot Strip Mill

The term ‘high-production hot strip mill’ is conventionally applied to the
mills with yearly production rate equal to or greater than 2,000,000 metric
tons (2,400,000 short tons). These mills usually utilize the thick slabs.
The main components of these mills (Fig. 16.7) are briefly discussed
below [5].
Reheat furnaces - In the reheat furnaces, cold or warm slabs are heated
to a desired temperature for rolling.
Roughing mill - The roughing mill, or train, consists of a series of

horizontal and vertical mill stands.
Transfer table - The transfer table, or delay table, is located between

roughing and finishing mill. The table is usually long enough to
accommodate a full length of the transfer bar. This allows one to roll at
least two bars independently, one on the roughing mill and another on the
finishing mill.
Shear - The shear is located in front of finishing mill. It is usually

designed to cut both the head
Page 388
and tail ends of the transfer bar prior to their entry into the finishing mill.
Finishing mill - The finishing mill, or train, consists of one or a series of

horizontal mill stands. In tandem finishing train, there are loopers
installed between stands. Each looper maintains a desired interstand
strip tension by pushing a free rotating roller against the strip.
Runout table - The runout table is located between the finishing mill and
coilers. A series of water cooling headers are installed above and under
runout table. The water coolant system is designed to reduce the strip or
plate temperature before the rolled material enters a coiler.
Coilers - The coilers are usually located at the end of the runout table. In
some cases, when cooling of the strip is not required, the coilers may be
installed right after the finishing mill.
Descaling system - Removing the scale from the surfaces of the rolled
piece is provided by using a series of high-pressure water spray headers
installed at different location of hot strip mills. In some hot strip mills,
vertical and horizontal mill stands, known as scale breakers, are added to
improve efficiency of descaling process.
Roll coolant system - In the mill stands, the rolls are cooled with the water
spray headers located in close vicinity with the rolls. The roll coolant
system is frequently supplemented with the roll lubrication system.
Interstand cooling system - The interstand cooling system is installed in

some high-speed finishing trains to reduce the strip temperature. The
strip is cooled by the water sprays located between the mill stands.
Fig. 16.7 Principal layouts of high-production hot strip mills: a) semi-
continuous, b) with twin reversing rougher, c) three-quarter continuous
and d) fully continuous. Adapted from Mitsubishi Brochure HD20-04662.
Page 389
16.6 Classification of High-Production Hot Strip Mills

Finishing trains of the high-production hot strip mills have customarily
from four to seven horizontal mill stands arranged in tandem. The
principal difference between hot strip mills is mainly in layouts of the
roughing mills. This difference is often used as a base for their
classification into four distinct types [4, 5].
Semi-continuous hot strip mill - The roughing mill of the semi-continuous

hot strip mill has one vertical and one horizontal reversing mill stand
which are usually combined into one universal roughing mill stand (Fig.
16.7a). These mills may also include both vertical and horizontal scale
breakers installed upstream in relation to the reversing rougher.
Hot strip mill with twin reversing roughing train - This mill contains two
universal roughing mill stands (Fig. 16.7b).
Three-quarter continuous hot strip mill - The roughing train of the three-
quarter continuous hot strip mill has one or more horizontal single-pass
stands after reversing roughing mill, in open or close-coupled
configuration (Fig. 16.7c).
Fully continuous hot strip mill - Fully continuous hot strip mill has four or
more horizontal roughing mill stands, the last two stands being either
open or close-coupled.
16.7 Compact Hot Strip Mills

By definition, the compact hot strip mills are shorter and comprise lesser
number of the mill stands. Figures 16.8b-e give a diagrammatic
comparison of the layouts of some compact hot strip mills with a layout of
semi-continuous hot strip mill (Fig. 16.8a).
Fig. 16.8 Comparison of layouts of compact hot strip mills (b-e) with a
layout of semi-continuous hot strip mill.
Coilbox arrangement - The length of the transfer table between roughing

and finishing mills
Page 390
can be reduced by installation of a Coilbox [6] in front of the finishing train

(Fig. 16.8b). After completing the last roughing pass the transfer bar is
coiled in the Coilbox; then the coil is transferred downstream and
uncoiled prior to entering the finishing train.
Reversing finishing mill arrangement - This type of mill comprises a

reversing roughing mill and a reversing finishing mill known as a Steckel
mill. In this mill, to conserve heat during intermediate finishing passes,
the rolled strip is coiled on the preheated drums adjacent to the mill
stand. The length of the hot strip mill with the Steckel mill can be further
reduced by using the close-coupled arrangement between roughing and
finishing mills as shown in Fig.16.8c.
Twin reversing hot strip mill - In this arrangement [7], the distance
between reversing roughing and finishing mill stands is very short and the
coiling furnaces are located as shown in Fig. 16.8d. Roughing passes are
intended to be rolled without coiling. Since the mill stands are close-
coupled, the rolling passes can be made simultaneously on both stands.
Single-stand reversing hot strip mill - This mill is designed to roll both
roughing and finishing passes using the same mill stand (Fig. 16.8e).
This is the simplest hot strip mill arrangement which is used for rolling
both strip and plate in coil form [8].
Fig. 16.9 Nippon Kokan Hot Direct charging Rolling (HDR) combined
with continuous casting (From Emoto, et al, Proceedings of London
Conference on Restructuring Steel Plants for the Nineties, May 1986.
Copyright Institute of Metals. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 391
16.8 Hot Strip Mill Integrated with Thick Slab Caster

Integration of continuous casting process with hot rolling process allows
one to eliminate reheating of slabs and thus to conserve energy, improve
quality and yield.
Figure 16.9 illustrates schematically Hot Direct charging Rolling (HDR)

combined with continuous casting machine developed by Nippon Kokan
K.K. [9]. To achieve desired temperature of the bar prior to its entry into
roughing mill, the following equipment is added:
1. induction type edge heater that provides uniform bar temperature

2. heat insulator that reduces heat losses of the bar during its
transfer toward hot strip mill
3. bar warp modifier that measures the height of the bar warp and
adjust the gap between the inductor coils and bar to reduce its
warping.
An additional heat insulator is installed on transfer table between

roughing and finishing mill.
16.9 Hot Strip Mill Integrated with Intermediate and Thin Slab
Casters
The hot strip mills integrated with thin and intermediate slab casters can
be divided into the following four groups: Group A - Hot strip mills that
include only tandem finishing mills (Tables 16.1 and 16.2) Group B - Hot
strip mills that include at least one roughing mill stand followed by a
tandem finishing mill (Tables 16.3 - 16.8) Group C - Hot strip mills that
include coilbox as a heat retention device followed by a tandem finishing
mill (Tables 16.9 - 16.14) Group D - Hot strip mills that incorporate
Steckel mill (Tables 16.15 - 16.22).
Table 16.1 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group A1 [10-12].
Slab thickness range, mm Number of roughing stands 0
40 - 60
Type of reheat furnance tunner Location of roughing mill n/a
Heat conservation device tunnel furnace Type of finishing mill tandem
Type of roughing mill n/a Number of finishing stands

5 or 6
Page 392
Table 16.2 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group A2 [10].

40 - 60
Type of reheat furnace tunnel Location of roughing mill n/a
Heat conservation device tunnel furnace Type of finishing mill tandem
Type of roughing mill n/a Number of finishing stands 6
Table 16.3 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group B1 [13].
Slab thickness range, Number of roughing 1

mm 50 - 60 stands
Type of reheat tunnel Location of roughing close-coupled with
furnace mill caster
Heat conservation tunnel Type of finishing mill tandem

device furnace
Type of roughing mill nonreversingNumber of finishing

stands 5 or 6
Page 393
Table 16.4 Hot strip mills integrated with intermediate slab caster - Group B2
[14].
Slab thickness Number of roughing 2

range, mm 80 - 100 stands
Type of reheat tunnel Location of close-coupled with

furnace roughing mill finishing mill
Heat conservation tunnel furnace Type of finishing tandem

device mill
Type of roughing tandem, Number of finishing 6

mill nonreversing stands
Table 16.5 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group B3 [15-17].
60 - 70
Type of reheat furnace tunnel Location of roughing mill stand-alone
Heat conservation device tunnel furnaceType of finishing mill tandem
Type of roughing mill nonreversing Number of finishing stands 6

Page 394
[18].

mm 80 - 100 stands
Type of reheat furnace tunnel Location of roughing stand-

mill alone
Heat conservation tunnel furnace Type of finishing mill tandem

device
Type of roughing mill tandem, Number of finishing 6

nonreversing stands
[19].
100 - 150
Type of reheat furnace walking beam Location of roughing mill stand-alone
Heat conservation device tunnel furnaceType of finishing mill tandem
Type of roughing mill reversing Number of finishing stands 6

Page 395
Table 16.8 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group B6.


furnace mill finishing mill
Heat conservation tunnel Type of finishing tandem

device furnace mill
Type of roughing nonreversingNumber of finishing 6

mill stands
Table 16.9 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group C1 [20].
mm 50 - 60 stands
Type of reheat furnace induction Location of roughing close-coupled with

mill caster
Heat conservation coilbox Type of finishing mill tandem

device

stands 4 or 5
Page 396
Slab thickness range, Number of rouging

mm 50 - 60 stands 2 per strand
Type of reheat furnace induction Location of roughing close-coupled with

mill caster

device
Type of roughing mill nonreversingNumber of finishing 4

stands
Table 16.11 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group C3 [22, 23].
Type of reheat induction Location of roughing close-coupled with

furnace mill caster
Heat conservation dual coiling Type of finishing mill tandem

device furnace
Type of roughing nonreversing Number of finishing 4

mill stands
Page 397

mm 60 - 80 stands

furnace mill coilbox
Heat conservation coibox Type of finishing mill tandem

device

stands 5 or 6
Table 16.13 Hot strip mills integrated with intermediate slab caster - Group C5
[24-26]

furnace mill coilbox

device
Type of roughing nonreversing Number of finishing

mill tandem stands 5 or 6
Page 398
Table 16.14 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group C6 [24, 27].
Slab thickness range, mm Number of rouging stands 0

40 - 60
Type of reheat furnace tunnel, rotary hearth Location of rouging mill n/a
Heat conservation device coilbox Type of finishing mill tandem

5 or 6
Table 16.15 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group D1.
Slab thickness range, 60 - 80 Number of roughing 0
mm stands
Heat conservation dual coiling Type of finishing mill Steckel

device furnace mill
Type of roughing mill n/a Number of finishing

stands 1 or 2
Page 399
Table 16.16 Hot strip mills integrated with intermediate slab caster - Group D2
[28-30].

100 - 150
Type of reheat furnace walking beam Location of roughing mill n/a
Heat conservation device coiling furnaceType of finishing mill Steckel mill

1 or 2
Table 16.17 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group D3 [31].

Type of reheat induction Location of roughing close-coupled with

furnace mill caster
Heat conservation dual coiling Type of finishing mill Steckel mill

device furnace
Type of roughing nonreversing Number of finishing

mill stands 1 or 2
Page 400

mm 40 - 60 stands
Heat conservation dual coiling Type of finishing mill Steckel

device furnace mill
Type of roughing mill n/a Number of finishing

stands 1 or 2
mm 40 - 60 stands
Heat conservation coiling Type of finishing mill Steckel +

device furnace tandem
Type of roughing mill n/a Number of finishing 4

stands
Page 401
Table 16.20 Hot strip mills integrated with thin slab caster - Group D6.


furnace mill Steckel mill
Heat conservation coiling Type of finishing mill Steckel + tandem

device furnace
Type of roughing nonreversingNumber of finishing 4

mill stands
mm 40 - stands
60
Type of reheat furnace tunnel Location of roughing close-coupled with

mill caster
Heat conservation coilboxType of finishing mill Steckel mill

device
Type of roughing mill tandemNumber of finishing

stands 1 or 2
Page 402

mm 40 - 60 stands
Type of reheat furnace inductionLocation of roughing close-coupled with

mill caster
Heat conservation coilbox Type of finishing mill Steckel mill

device
Type of roughing mill tandem Number of finishing

stands 1 or 2
16.10 Hot Strip Mill Integrated with Thick and Thin Slab Casters
Hot strip mill can simultaneously be integrated with both thin and thick
slab casters as proposed by Danieli United and International Rolling Mill
Consultants [35]. As shown in Table 16.23, both thick slab caster and thin
slab caster feed a combination roughing and finishing hot strip mill. After
reheating in the reheat tunnel furnace, thin slabs are rolled straight
through the mill. Thick slabs are reheated in the walking beam furnace
and then rolled in three reversing passes. The first two reversing passes
are the roughing passes. They can be performed by using from two to all
four mill stands. After the second pass, the bar is coiled in the coiling
furnace before initiation of the last reversing pass that is the finishing
pass.
Page 403
Table 16.23 Hot strip mills integrated with thin and thick slab caster [35].
Slab thickness (40 - 60)/(180 - Number of roughing

range, mm 200) stands 2 - 4
Type of reheat tunnel and Location of combined with

furnace walking beam roughing mill finishing mill
Heat conservation coiling furnace Type of finishing tandem

device mill
Type of roughing tandem, reversing Number of finishing 4

mill stands
16.11 Endless Hot Rolling Process

The endless hot rolling process involves rolling a workpiece with a length
that is approximately from 8 to 10 times longer than the length of the
transfer bars in the conventional hot strip mills. The main objectives of
endless rolling are [36]:
Stabilization of quality and improvement of yield

Improved productivity and quality when rolling thin products
Production of ultrathin gauges as thin as 0.8 mm (0.032 in.) wider
than 1250 mm (49 in.)
Production of advanced products with new material properties by
lubricated rolling and rolling with forced cooling.
Endless rolling can be applied to the hot strip mills utilizing thick,
intermediate and thin slabs.
Page 404
Endless rolling with thick slabs - An example of the hot strip mill utilizing
thick slabs is shown in Figure 16.10. In this mill, developed Kawasaki
Steel, the transfer bar with thickness from 20 to 40 mm (0.79 to 1.58 in.)
is first coiled in the Coilbox. The crop shear is installed downstream the
Coilbox and is used to crop end of the preceding bar and head end of the
following bar. The next in line is the bar joining machine that is self-driven
and is equipped with induction heaters. The joining machine travels with
the transfer bars. Inside the joining machine, the tail end of a preceding
bar and a head end of succeeding bar are clamped with a slight gap, the
joint is heated and then upset to complete the joining operation. The
joining the bars is completed within a 20-meter (65.6 ft) traveling stroke.
Then the clamps open and the joining machine returns to the initial
position. Following the joining machine is the deburring unit that cuts the
raised area at the joint. At the entry of two downcoilers, there is a high-
speed shear to cut the strip and to deflect the head end of the new coil
toward the appropriate downcoiler.
Fig. 16.10 Endless hot rolling process with thick slabs. From Takano, et
al [36]. Reproduced through the courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
A similar endless hot rolling process for thick slabs was developed by
Nippon Steel [37] in which the induction type welder was replaced with
the hot-laser flying welder.
Endless rolling with intermediate and thin slabs - When intermediate and
thin slab caster are arranged in line with the hot strip mill, it is possible to
introduce endless rolling without welding the bars [38]. In that case,
multiple slab lengths are cast in one piece without having to be divided.
The long slab is then rolled in the finishing mill as one piece. After rolling
and cooling the strip is divided by a flying shear before coiling. Mill
configurations can vary depending on the type of product to be produced
as shown in Fig. 16.11.
Further improvement of efficiency of the endless rolling process can be

achieved by implementing superlarge coilers (Fig. 16.12) as proposed by
Danieli and International Rolling Mill Consultants [57]. The superlarge
coiler will be capable to produce a coil ten times larger then conventional
coils. This would eliminate a necessity for a high-speed flying shear.
Another advantage of using the superlarge coils will be obtained from

reducing a number of welding and shearing operations performed in the
pickle line, cold rolling mill, and galvanizing line.
Page 405
Fig. 16.11 CSP endless hot rolling process with thin slabs. From Kneppe
and Rosenstahl [38]. Reproduced through the courtesy of MPT
International.
Fig. 16.12 Steel-production processes utilizing the superlarge coils.

Adapted From Ginzburg [57].
Page 406
16.12 Configurations of Cold Rolling Mills

The configurations of cold rolling mills can be divided into five groups: 1.
Single-stand cold mills (Table 16.24), including: a) Reversing cold mill
b) Temper mill
c) Combination reversing cold/temper mill
Table 16.24 Single-stand cold mills.

Mill type
Mill configuration
Reversing
cold mill
Temper mill
Combination
reversing
cold/temper
mill
Page 407
2. Two-stand cold mills (Table 16.25), including:
a) Reversing cold mill

b) Temper mill
c) Double cold reduction (DCR) mill
d) Combination reversing cold/temper mill/DCR mill
Table 16.25 Two-stand cold mills.
Mill type Mill configuration
Reversing cold
mill
Temper mill or
Double cold
reduction (DCR)
mill
Combination
reversing
cold/temper/DCR
mill
Page 408
3. Three-stand cold mills, (Table 16.26), including:
a) Reversing cold mill

b) Temper mill
c) Double cold reduction (DCR) mill
d) Combination reversing cold/temper mill/DCR mill
Table 16.26 Three-stand cold mills.
Reversing cold
mill
Temper mill or
Double cold
reduction (DCR)
mill
Combination
reversing
cold/temper/DCR
mill
Page 409
4. Multiple-stand tandem cold mills (Table 16.27), including:
a) Three-stand tandem cold mill

b) Four-stand tandem cold mill
c) Five-stand tandem cold mill
d) Six-stand tandem cold mill
Table 16.27 Multiple-stand cold mills.
Three-stand
Four-stand
Five-stand
Page 410
5. Endless Rolling Tandem Cold Mill (Table 16.28 and Fig. 16.13),
including: a) Continuous tandem cold mill
b) Fully continuous tandem cold mill [39]
c) Fully integrated process line [40].
Table 16.28 Endless rolling tandem cold mills.

Mill type
Mill configuration
Continuous
tandem cold mill
Fully continuous
tandem cold mill
Fig. 16.13 Nippon’s Steel’s fully integrated process line. (From

Kawasaki, et al, Proceedings of 4-th International Steel Conference,
1987, Copyright IRSID, France. Reprinted with permission.)
Page 411
16.13 Limitations of Conventional Cold Rolling Mills

Reductions which can be taken in a single pass by conventional rolling
mills are limited not only by the mill capacity but also by the nature of the
mill design. The most obvious way to increase the reduction capability of
a rolling mill is to reduce the work roll diameter. However, this leads to
higher contact stresses between the rolls, lesser work roll stability in
horizontal plane and also produces an increased roll wear.
Although the high reduction rolling mills also utilize small work roll
diameters, they have, in addition to that, a number of other features
added to their design to avoid the drawbacks typical for conventional
rolling mills using small work roll diameters.
These design features include:
Offsetting the work rolls in relation to the backup roll center line
and incorporating the support rolls for lateral restraining of the
work rolls [41-43].
Supporting the work rolls by utilizing the cluster roll arrangements
[44-46].
Combining the rolling deformation process with drawing and
bending [47-49].
Extending the length of the deformation zone by either
reciprocating movement of the work rolls in relation to the
workpiece [50-53] or by introducing the planetary arrangement of
the rolls [53-56].
The rolling mills utilizing these design features are briefly described
below.
16.14 Cold Mills with Offset Rolls

Cold mills with offset rolls can have 4-hi, 5-hi and 6-hi configurations as
Fig. 16.14 Types of cold mills with offset rolls.
The 4-high mill configuration with offset rolls is known as MKW mill [41,
42] shown in Fig. 16.15. In MKW mill, the work rolls of substantially
smaller diameters are displaced to one side from the vertical center-line
of the backup rolls and are laterally restrained by intermediate rolls and a
Page 412
support system. Torque is transmitted through the backup rolls and the
work rolls are driven by frictional forces transmitted from the backup rolls.
This design allows one to substantially reduce the work roll diameter that
can be as much as six times smaller than the backup roll diameter.
Because of the out-of-center arrangement of the work rolls, the vertically

acting rolling force Q is divided into two components: a) the vertical
component Q′ and b) the horizontal component P. The peripheral force U
transmitted by friction from the backup rolls to the work rolls in the
direction opposite to the direction of rolling. In the reversing mill, the
peripheral force U will be either added to or subtracted from the
horizontal component P. In the latter case, in order to avoid the work rolls
moving out of the support plane, the horizontal component P must always
be greater than the peripheral force U.
Fig. 16.15 Distribution of forces in MKW cold mill. (from Hilbert, et al,
AISE Book, 1976, Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Reprinted
with permission.)
Table 16.29 presents main data for MKW cold mills designed for
production of both nonoriented and oriented silicon steel strip. 6-high mill
configuration with offset rolls is known as UC mill; it will be described
later.
Table 16.29 Main data for MKW cold

mills. Data from Hilbert, et al.
Mill parameters Material: silicon

steel
nonorientedoriented
Backup roll 1320 1320

diameter, mm
Work roll diameter, 250 225,

mm 165
Barrel length, mm 1400 1250
Max. rolling speed, 720 900

mpm
Total drive power, 11,000 13,000

hp
Max. mill speed, 720 900

mpm
Max. strip width, 1250 1100

mm
Min. strip width, 0.5

mm 0.28
Further improvement in strip profile and shape control are achieved with
introduction of Flexible
Page 413
Flatness Control (FFC) mill that utilizes the following concepts [43]:
A combination of two work rolls with different diameters. The

average diameter of the two rolls is usually smaller than in a
conventional mill.
Driving the two rolls at different peripheral speeds.
Horizontal bending of the work rolls with a horizontal roll bending
mechanism.
Vertical bending of the work rolls with either single-chock or
double-chock roll bending device.
The horizontal bending mechanism of FFC mills consists of a support roll

and a sectional backup roll. Each section of the backup roll is supported
by a position regulated hydraulic cylinder. These cylinders allow one to
establish the desired pressure distribution on the work roll. This pressure
pattern in horizontal plane is correlated with the pressure pattern in
vertical plane produced by the horizontal bending mechanism striving to
obtain the desired strip profile and flatness.
16.15 Cluster Cold Rolling Mills

Main purpose of the multi-high, or cluster, roll arrangement in rolling mills
is to provide an adequate support for the work rolls with a small roll
diameter. This would allow one to roll thinner gauges and achieve high
reductions on the materials which quickly work-hardened.
Figure 16.16 shows the predominant layout of the Sendzimir mill [44, 45]
that is known as the 1-2-3-4 arrangement. In this mill, there are eight
backing shafts A through H. Shafts B and C have roller bearings. Vertical
position of these shafts is controlled by hydraulic cylinders installed on
the top of the mill. This control allows one to adjust the roll gap. Vertical
position of shafts F and G is controlled by hydraulic cylinder installed in
front of the mill. This control serves two purposes: first, it adjusts the
passline in the mill and second, it allows one to take out all the slack
between the rolls.
Fig. 16.16 Roll arrangement in type 1-2-3-4 Sedzimir cold mill. (From T.
Sendzimir, Inc. Publication 3/80/5M 1980. Copyright T. Sendzimir, Inc.
Page 414
Fig. 16.17 Z-high cold reduction mill. (from T. Sendzimir, Inc. Publication
3/80/5M 1980. Copyright T. Sendzimir, Inc. Reprinted with permission.)
Fig. 16.18 Typical Sendzimir Z-high insert. Adapted from 33 Metal
Producing Publication (1981).
Page 415
Another development is the Sendzimir Z-high insert (Figs. 16.17 and

16.18) that is designed to be installed in place of the two work rolls of a
conventional 4-high mill. Typical roll diameters for the Z-high insert
designed for rolling of the 660 mm (26 in.)-wide strip are following [46]:
Work roll:
minimum 66.7 mm (2.625 in.)
maximum 165 mm (6.50 in.)
Intermediate roll: 216 mm (8.5 in.)
Backing roll:
minimum 660 mm (26.0 in.)
maximum 711 mm (28.0 in.).
References
1. Kawamani, T., et al, ‘‘Characteristics of Shape Control in Cluster Type
Rolling Mill (CR),” Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Technical Review, June
1985, pp. 171-177.
2. Hilbert, H.G., et al, “MKW Cold Mill-Rolling Silicon Steel Strip,” AISE
Year Book, 1976, pp. 364-370.
3. Comparison of Rolling Mill Types, Metals Society Conference

Proceedings, Cardiff, Wales, November 1984, pp. 142-146.
4. Keefe, J.M., et al, “Review of Hot Strip Mill Developments,” Iron and
Steelmaking, No. 4, 1979, pp. 156-172.
5. Mitsubishi Hot Strip Mill Brochure HD 20-04662, (1.0), 85-9,B, pp. 1-2.
6. Husken, H.G. and Herwig, K., “Use of the Coilbox in the Wide Hot Strip
Mill of Krupp Stahl AG,” Metallurgical Plant and Technology, No. 4, 1983,
pp. 53-59.
7. Wiesinger, H., et al, “Hot Strip Rolling for Compact Mills: The HSRC
Mill,” Iron and Steel Engineer, August 1987, pp. 50-55.
8. “Southern Cross Builds Stainless Steel Mill for Half the Cost,” Iron and
Steel Engineer, Jan. 1984, p. 73.
9. Wakatsuki, H., et al, “The Facilities and Operation of the HDR Process
at the No. 2 Hot Strip Mill of Fukuyama Works,” Proceedings of the 4th
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Page 418
Chapter 17
OPTIMIZATION AND MODERNIZATION OF HOT STRIP
MILLS
17.1 Main Strategy in Optimization of Rolling Process

In the process of rolling a uniformly preheated slab in hot strip mill, its
temperature changes due to the various types of the heat transfer have
been described earlier. The following three temperature profiles are
usually used for evaluating the temperature rundown of the workpiece as
well as a degree of uniformity of the temperature along its length and
width:
Temperature rundown of a selected portion (for example, a head

end, tail end, or a middle portion of the workpiece) expressed in
relation to each rolling pass.
Temperature variation along the workpiece length after the same
rolling pass.
Temperature variation across the workpiece width.
The temperature rundown in hot strip mill is shown in general form in Fig.
17.1. The main parameters of the temperature rundown include [1]:
T0 slab reheat furnace dropout temperature

=
TR bar temperature after leaving roughing train

=
TF bar temperature at finishing train entry

=
TE strip temperature at finishing train exit.

=
The temperature variation along the workpiece length is usually defined

by the following parameters:
ΔT0=absolute value of temperature differential between slab head and tail ends
ΔTF absolute value of temperature differential between transfer bar head and
=tail ends at
Page 419

finishing
train entry
ΔTE absolute value of temperature differential between strip head and

=tail ends at finishing train exit.
The temperature variation across the workpiece length can be defined as

a difference between the temperatures measured at the middle and near
the edge of the workpiece ΔTw.
Fig. 17.1 Main parameters of temperature rundown in hot strip mill.

(From Ginzburg and Schmiedberg, Iron and Steel Engineer, 1986.
The strategy of controlling the workpiece temperature during hot rolling is

twofold. Firstly, it is necessary to maintain the optimum temperature of
the rolled piece which allows one to obtain the desired properties of the
rolled product with minimum energy consumption, required production
rate, and maximum yield. Secondly, it is desirable to achieve a uniform
workpiece temperature in both longitudinal and transverse direction
during each rolling pass which helps to improve quality of the rolled
product.
17.2 Metallurgical Requirements

The boundary conditions for material temperature during the rolling
deformation process are defined by metallurgical requirements [1]. To
ensure the homogeneity of the rolled product, all deformations in
conventional hot rolling process are usually made in the austenitic phase.
For low-carbon steel, this implies that the last deformation must occur at
a strip temperature TE above the phase transformation point between
austenite and ferrite; for low-carbon steel the optimum range for TE is
1550 to 1650°F.
The second important metallurgical requirement is that the slab

temperature T0 be high enough to ensure dissolution of intermetallic
phases or compounds resulting from the addition of alloying elements.
From this point of view, the minimum value of T0 for low-carbon steel is
approximately 2000°F. The maximum value of T0 is usually limited
because of another metallurgical phenomenon
Page 420
related to excessive grain coarsening, which can have a detrimental

effect on the final product. The maximum value of T0 for low-carbon steel
is approximately 2400°F [2].
More detailed description of the metallurgical requirements for rolling of

different types of steels is given in the following chapters.
17.3 Energy Consumption Requirements

Energy consumption directly related to the hot rolling process can be
divided into three components:
1. energy required for heating the slab in the reheat furnace

2. energy required for maintaining heat during transfer of the
workpiece between rolling mill stands
3. energy required for hot rolling of the workpiece [1].
Savings in fuel energy consumption resulting from changing the slab

dropout temperature from T01 to T02 can be defined as follows:
where
Ef fuel energy savings, MBtu/ton

=
cs slab specific heat, Btu/lb/°F

=
ηm reheat furnace efficiency.

=
Savings in electrical energy consumption by the main mill drive motors

can be achieved by increasing the slab dropout temperature,
redistributing reductions between stands and changing mill speeds.
These savings can be calculated as follows:
where
H1, H2 total specific power for rolling slab to coil for cases 1 and 2, hp-hr/ton
=
Ee savings in electrical energy consumption, kwhr/ton

=
ηr average mill drive efficiency.

=
17.4 Yield Requirements

Scaling of steel during reheating and rolling is a principal reason for
reduction in yield of the hot rolled product. One of the most effective ways
to reduce formation of scale is by lowering the slab dropout temperature.
Reduction in scale weight per unit of slab weight due to reduction in slab
Page 421
dropout temperature from T01 to T02 can be calculated from the

following equation [1]:
where
T01, slab dropout temperatures, °F

T02=
m weight of scale loss per unit of slab weight, tons/ton

=
ts scaling time, hr
=
hs slab thickness, in.

=
ws slab width, in.

=
Ls slab length, in.

=
ρs slab density, lb/cu in.

=
a, b constants depending on type of steel. For low-carbon steel a = 31.7 and

=b = 22.83.
The slab dropout temperature is usually determined by metallurgical

requirements and by power limitations of rolling mill.
17.5 Product Quality Requirements

Temperature variation of the rolled material in both the longitudinal and
the transverse direction is a major obstacle in maintaining the required
strip gage, profile and shape tolerance. The most drastic variation in the
longitudinal direction occurs when the transfer bar enters the first
finishing stand. Because the head end of the bar is usually transferred
from the last roughing stand to the first finishing stand in less time than
the tail end of the bar, the tail end is subjected to heat radiation loss for a
longer time than the head end. The resulting temperature rundown
increases with increasing slab weight. As will be shown later, if no
preventive measures are taken to reduce this rundown, the temperature
differential between head and tail end of the bar at the entry of the
finishing train ΔTF can be as much as 300°F for a 1000-PIW coil.
The adverse effect of this temperature differential on strip shape is

inversely proportional to the rolled material thickness. The mean
temperature differential (MTD) of the entire hot strip mill can be therefore
calculated as follows [1]:
where
ΔTi temperature differential at exit of each pass

=
hi
=
exit thickness for each pass
Page 422
n total number of rolling passes

=
c constant depending on adverse effect of thickness on strip shape. For a

=conventional hot strip mill it is assumed that c = 0.5.
Rolled material temperature variation in the transverse direction is mainly

due to excessive radiation near the edges where the surface-to-volume
ratio increases substantially. If no measures are taken to reduce edge
cooling, the transverse temperature variation ΔTF can be as much as
180°F [3].
17.6 Analysis of Temperature Conditions in Hot Strip Mills

Review of the foregoing requirements shows that there is no universal
definition of optimum temperature conditions for hot strip mills. For
example, a possible reduction in reheat furnace temperature due to heat
conservation on the transfer table might not be fully utilized because of
power limitations of the roughing train. Another reason for incomplete
utilization of the available power is poor surface quality of the slabs
loaded into the furnace, which requires maintaining the higher reheat
furnace temperature needed to enhance the scaling process that helps to
improve the slab surface.
These facts suggest that the optimum temperature conditions must be

found for each hot strip mill on an individual basis. However, the following
common criteria can be applied for objective evaluation of different
solutions [1]:
Reduction in mean temperature differential, MTD

Reduction in primary scale, m
Savings in fuel energy, Ef
Savings in electrical energy consumption, Ee
Total annual cost savings due to reheating and rolling optimization,
St
Total additional capital cost, Ct
Payback time, PBT.
On the basis of equations (17-1) through (17-3), the following equation
for total annual cost savings due to optimization of the reheating and
rolling processes can be derived:
where
St annual cost savings, $/year

=
Cm rolled material cost, $/ton

=
Cf fuel energy cost, $/MBtu

=
Ce electrical energy cost, $/kwhr

=
annual production, tons.

G=
The payback time can be defined as:

Page 423
where
payback time, years

PBT =
Ct total additional capital cost, $.

=
17.7 Methods of Optimizing Temperature Conditions

Because the temperature rundown in a hot strip mill is primarily due to
heat radiation losses, factors affecting the heat radiation process must be
considered. The temperature loss rate due to radiation αr is equal to:
Thus, the temperature loss rate due to radiation αr can be reduced by the
following methods:
1. decreasing the radiation time, tr

2. increasing the rolled material thickness, h
3. increasing the ambient temperature, Ta
4. decreasing the initial transfer bar temperature, T.
These methods are utilized in the technology for optimizing temperature

condition in hot strip mills listed below [1].
Optimizing operating parameters - The most effective methods for

optimizing operating parameters include:
Lowering slab heating temperature

Uneven slab heating
Increasing the transfer bar thickness, and
Zoom rolling, which is a gradual acceleration of rolling speed in the
finishing train.
Optimizing mill configuration - The main approaches to optimizing mill

configuration may include:
Close coupling of continuous rougher with finishing mill

Close coupling of a reversing rougher with finishing mill
Combining a reversing rougher with a continuous finishing mill.
Conserving and adding heat - Typical systems for conserving and adding
heat in hot strip mills are:
Page 424
Coilbox
Intermediate Steckel mill
Intermediate reheat facilities
Thermal covers.
A more detailed description of the technology for optimizing temperature

conditions in hot strip mill is given in the following text.
17.8 Optimizing Operating Parameters

For quantitative evaluation of some methods for optimizing operating
parameters, an off-line computer model has been utilized [1].
Fig. 17.2 Simulated temperature rundown in hot strip mill prior to

optimization of operating parameters. (From Ginzburg and Schmiedberg,
Iron and Steel Engineer, 1986. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Rolling parameters of a continuous hot strip mill have been calculated for
the following conditions: slab thickness, 10.0 in.; slab width, 50.0 in.; slab
weight, 1000 PIW; slab material, low-carbon steel; and strip thickness,
0.080 in.
The simulated temperature rundown for both head and tail ends of the
product rolled in a continuous hot strip mill prior to the optimization of
operating parameters is shown in Fig. 17.2. In this simulation, the slab
was assumed to be evenly heated. It was rolled in roughing train to a
transfer bar thickness of 25.4 mm (1.0 in.) and then rolled in finishing mill
at constant speed (no zoom).
After optimizing operating parameters by lowering slab heating

temperature, uneven slab heating, increasing the transfer bar thickness
to 38.1 mm (1.5 in.) and introducing the zoom rolling, the mean
temperature differential, MTD, was reduced from 129°C (232°F) to 33°C
(59°F) as shown in Fig. 17.3.
In addition, this optimization produces substantial savings in both fuel

energy and scale losses
Page 425
with a relatively small increase in electrical energy that is due to higher

loading of the roughing mill stands. It is worth mentioning that uneven
slab heating leads to cost savings only if the average slab dropout
temperature is lowered as a result of the optimization. Also, in zoom
rolling, it is difficult to achieve strip temperature uniformity in the
longitudinal direction throughout the entire length of the strip leaving the
finishing train [3]. This is mainly because the finishing train is usually
accelerated only after the head end of the strip is engaged in the coiler.
As a result, the strip temperature profile in one longitudinal direction has
a pronounced dip. This problem may be alleviated by increasing transfer
bar thickness and by using high speed threading as shown in Fig. 17.4.
Fig. 17.3 Simulated temperature rundown in hot strip mill after

optimization of operating parameters. (From Ginzburg and Schmiedberg,
Iron and Steel Engineer, 1986. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Fig. 17.4 Temperature distribution in the longitudinal direction of a coil.
Adapted from Sugita and Oi (1984).
Page 426
Another drawback of zoom rolling is that the strip temperature rundown at

the entry of the finishing train entry remains large. In addition, zoom
rolling requires a substantial increase in available rolling power, which
calls for a substantial increase in capital costs. This investment, however,
can be justified if an increase in production rate is also required.
Fig. 17.5 Principle of high-speed entry rolling method. Adapted from

Sasada, et al (1981).
Fig. 17.6 Principle of zigzag threading method. Adapted from Sasada, et

al (1981).
Some improvements in zoom rolling practice may be achieved by
applying two methods developed by Nippon Steel [4]:
High-speed entry rolling method

Zigzag threading method.
Page 427
The high-speed entry rolling method involves threading the strip through
the finishing mill at higher speed until its head end reaches the last mill
stand as shown schematically in Fig. 17.5.
Under the zigzag method, the strip exits finishing mill at the speed higher
than that in conventional rolling. The strip loop caused by high traveling
speed is eliminated by short-time deceleration. The strip is repeatedly
accelerated and decelerated in a zigzag manner to increase the average
threading speed as illustrated in Fig. 17.6.
17.9 Close Coupling of Continuous Rougher with Finishing Mill

Close coupling of continuous roughing mill stands with the finishing train
allows an increase in transfer bar thickness. According to Eq. (17-7),
since rolling cycle time remains practically the same, temperature losses
of the transfer bar decrease as its thickness increases. The effect of
increasing the transfer bar thickness on heat conservation was
recognized in 1979 when a heavy reduction intermediate stand (an M
stand) was installed in front of the finishing train at Nippon Steel’s
Muroran works [5].
Fig. 17.7 Conversion of continuous strip mill to continuous tandem hot

strip mill. (From Ginzburg and Schmiedberg, Iron and Steel Engineer,
1986. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Reprinted with
permission.)
This method of heat conservation has also been utilized in the concept of
a continuous tandem hot strip mill [6, 7]. An example is shown in Fig.
17.7 which illustrates steps by which a typical continuous hot strip mill
with five roughing mill stands is gradually converted to a continuous
tandem hot strip mill by relocating the roughing mill stands closer to the
finishing train. As a result, the transfer bar thickness increases each time
another roughing mill stand is relocated. After relocating the last mill
stand, the transfer bar thickness will be equal to the slab thickness. The
computer study shows [1] that the final mill configuration will reduce the
mean temperature differential to 14°C (26°F).
In this configuration, however, the roughing passes are rolled at much

lower speed than originally, which may produce two negative effects:
overheating of rolls and excessive formation
Page 428
pass, which would require a higher slab dropout temperature.
Fig. 17.8 Close coupling of Reversing roughing mill with finishing mill.
(From Ginzburg and Schmiedberg, Iron and Steel Engineer, 1986.
17.10 Close Coupling of Reversing Rougher with Finishing Mill

Close coupling of a reversing roughing mill with the finishing train
provides results that are similar to those obtained with the previous
approach, although with less efficiency. Three possible arrangements for
close coupling of a reversing roughing mill are shown in Fig. 17.8:
Conventional semi-continuous hot strip mill with the distance

between the reversing roughing mill and finishing train being
greater than the length of the transfer bar LT (arrangement a).
Semi-continuous hot strip mill with the distance between the
reversing roughing mill and finishing train being great enough to
accommodate the rolled bar during all intermediate roughing
passes but less than the length of the transfer bar (arrangement
b). As a result, the roughing mill will be close-coupled with the
finishing train during the last roughing pass [8].
Semi-continuous hot strip mill with the distance between the
reversing roughing mill and finishing train being less than the
length of the rolled bar during intermediate roughing passes
(arrangement c). In this case, the roll gaps of the finishing mill
stands are kept open until all intermediate roughing passes are
completed [9].
17.11 Combining Reversing Rougher with Finishing Mill

Combining reversing roughing mill with continuous finishing train is a
logical extension of the two previous approaches. This idea is illustrated
in Fig. 17.9, which shows three pass schedules (a, b and c). In all three
schedules, the last six finishing passes are made in a conventional way
by continuous rolling on all six stands. The difference between the three
schedules is in the sequencing of the
Page 429
roughing passes [1].
Fig. 17.9 Combining Reversing roughing mill with finishing mill. (From
Ginzburg and Schmiedberg, Iron and Steel Engineer, 1986. Copyright
AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Reprinted with permission.)
In schedule a, six roughing passes are made on stands F1 and F2. In

schedule b, the roughing passes are made on stands F1, F2 and F3. In
schedule c, an ultimate utilization, all stands are used for roughing
passes. Although the use of schedule c will result in maximum
production, it is the least desirable when strip surface quality is critical,
since the last mill stands are used for both roughing and finishing passes.
A combination of reversing roughing mill with continuous finishing train is

the shortest hot strip mill arrangement which provides finishing passes
with close-coupled mill stands. Although its production rate is lower than
that of the continuous tandem hot strip mill, its capital investment may be
less. Also, it can roll the roughing passes at much higher speeds, which
reduces roll firecracking as well as secondary scale formation.
17.12 Coilbox
The Stelco Coilbox [10] is usually installed at the entry side of the
finishing train. Upon leaving the mill after the last roughing pass, the
transfer bar is directed into the Coilbox entry chute and through the
bending rolls to form the coil (Fig. 17.10a). This coil is then transferred to
the uncoiling position for threading through the finishing train while the
next transfer bar is being coiled.
Heat conservation in the Coilbox is due to the increase in equivalent

thickness of the body subjected to radiation, and to the increase in
ambient temperature differential inside the eye of the coil. Also, the
change in direction of the transfer bar helps reduce the temperature
differential of the bar in the longitudinal direction. In some cases,
however, special measures must be taken to prevent an excessive
temperature rise, especially when the finishing train is being accelerated
to increase production rate.
Use of the Coilbox allows a substantial decrease in transfer table length

and reduces installed rolling mill power. These features may partly offset
the Coilbox initial cost. Additional maintenance and operating costs may
be offset by savings due to lower temperature of the slab leaving the
reheat furnace, improved yield and better gage control. However, with the
Coilbox, it
Page 430
is difficult to automatically control the longitudinal temperature gradient.

The most convenient method of control, by varying the finishing train
speed, is not practical because a speed increase would result in an
undesirable temperature rise, whereas speed decrease would lower
production rate.
Fig. 17.10 Basic concept of: a) conventional Coilbox and b) inverse

Coilbox. (From Ginzburg and Schmiedberg, Iron and Steel Engineer,
1986. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Reprinted with
permission.)
This problem has been solved in the inverse design of the Coilbox (Fig.
17.10b), which provides coiling of the transfer bar beginning from its tail
end rather than head end [11]. In the inverse arrangement, the coiling
process begins after the transfer bar head end enters the finishing train
and the tail end leaves the roughing train. This method of control allows
the required temperature rundown to be maintained by adjusting the
coiling rate. It can also be applied when mill acceleration is desirable.
Fig. 17.11 Steckel mill as an intermediate stand between roughing and
finishing mills. (From Ginzburg and Schmiedberg, Iron and Steel
Engineer, 1986. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Reprinted
with permission.)
17.13 Intermediate Steckel Mill

Installation of Steckel mill in front of the finishing train [12] can be
expected to have effects combining those results from installation of the
M stand and the Coilbox. In this arrangement, a
Page 431
thicker transfer bar can enter the Steckel mill (a feature similar to that
with the M stand arrangement), and then after passing through the mill
stand, the material is coiled (a feature similar to that with the Coilbox).
As an example, the case when three reversing passes are being made at
the Steckel mill before material enters the finishing train is illustrated in
Fig. 17.11a. A major drawback of this arrangement is that it does not
allow use of the Steckel mill to roll the next bar during the final finishing
pass of the previous bar; consequently, it results in a lower production
rate. This problem is eliminated by introduction of a third coiling furnace
[13] (Fig. 17.11b).
17.14 Reradiating Thermal Cover System

The concept of a complete reradiating thermal cover system for a hot
strip mill [1] is illustrated in Fig. 17.12. Each top cover can have three
positions over the transfer table: top (maintenance) position, intermediate
(threading) position, in which the covers are elevated approximately 1250
mm (50 in.) above the table, and rolling position, in which the gap
between the top cover and the transfer table can be as low as 300 mm
(12 in.). The ability to position the covers allows for reduction of the air
gap between the transfer bar and the reradiating shield during rolling on
the finishing train. Also, it insures maximum system reliability, thus
reducing maintenance cost.
Fig. 17.12 Reradiating thermal cover system. (From Ginzburg and

Schmiedberg, Iron and Steel Engineer, 1986. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. Reprinted with permission.)
For example, during transfer of the head end of the bar from the roughing
train to the shear, the thermal covers can be kept in threading position,
which would protect them from possible damage due to abnormal rolling
conditions such as bar turn-up, cobble, etc. Then, as soon as the head
end of the bar reaches the shear, the covers can be lowered to rolling
position. The required temperature rundown can be achieved by
regulating the elevation of the thermal covers during threading as
suggested by Gray [14].
The heat conservation effect of thermal cover system with the reradiating
insulating blocks installed above and underneath the pass line of the
transfer table is illustrated in Fig. 17.13. With a use of these system, the
mean temperature differential can be reduced to as low as 9.5°C (17°F).
Page 432
Fig. 17.13 Simulated temperature rundown in hot strip mill with the
reradiating thermal cover system installed between roughing and
finishing mills. (From Ginzburg and Schmiedberg, Iron and Steel
Engineer, 1986. Copyright AISE, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Reprinted
with permission.)
17.15 Example of a ‘‘What-If” Analysis for a Hot Strip Mill

The first continuous hot strip mills were built more than sixty years ago.
Some of them are still in operation in spite of a tremendous change in the
production requirements. The survival of these mills was possible only
due to their periodic modernization. As an example, Table. 17.1 illustrates
the changes of the main parameters of Weirton Steel Hot Strip mill which
took place between 1927 and 1954 [15]:
Table 17.1 Changes in parameters of Weirton Steel Hot

Strip Mill between 1927 to 1954.
Year
Mill parameters
1927 1947 1954
Design capacity, short

tons/year 380,0001,620,0002,400,000
Total main drive power,
hp 16,600 28,000 57,000
Maximum mill speed,

fpm 1100 1590 2400
Maximum coil specific

weight, PIW 115 255 830
The main objectives for modernization of the existing hot strip mills may
vary from one mill to another. At Weirton Steel those objectives in the
recent modernization program have included:
Increase in the mill design capacity

Improving quality of the rolled product
Modification of the rolled product mix
Page 433
Increase in weight of the rolled coils

Increasing the edging capabilities
Providing high degree of automation of the rolling process.
Fig. 17.14 Hot Strip Mill arrangements used in sensitivity analysis at

Weirton Steel. (From Ginzburg, et al, Iron and Steel Engineer, 1988.
Once the main objectives for modernization were established, Weirton

Steel has utilized its own experience as well as the experience of other
experts to limit a number of possible solutions viable for a further detailed
analysis. The comparative analysis of the proposed solutions has been
made by utilizing the off-line computer model MILLMAXR, developed by
United Engineering, Inc. and International Rolling Mill Consultants.
In order to accurately evaluate and also to objectively compare different

proposed solutions for modernization of the mill, the off-line computer
model has to be provided with the following properties [16]:
Applicability to wide variety of existing or perspective mill

configurations.
Accuracy in simulation of existing rolling conditions.
Extrapolative accuracy, or the capability to be accurate for
conditions different than those that existed during calibration of the
model.
Efficiency in utilization, or the capability to be accurate when a
limited number of empirical constants is used for wide variety of
rolled products.
Efficiency in calibration, or the capability to utilize standard test
equipment and on-line instrumentation available in the mill.
The best known method to achieve the accuracy in simulation of existing

rolling conditions is by calibrating the model using actual rolling data. This
method allows one to take into account
Page 434
specific features of each particular mill. The process of calibration

involves statistical analysis of the data obtained during rolling of the
preselected products. Another vital aspect is a provision of the
extrapolative accuracy of the model. This is usually achieved by using in
the model the algorithms, which are based on the physics of the
processes taking place during rolling of metals.
Table 17.2 Comparative performance of different mill

arrangements. Representative rolled finished product:
low-carbon steel, thickness = 2.92 mm (0.115 in.), width
= 1024 mm (40.3 in.) [15].
Mill arrangement (Fig. 17.14)

Parameter Units
1 2 3 & 4 5
Slab thickness in 8.5 10.0 10.0 10.0
Specific coil PIW 712 1144 1144 1144

weight
Threading fpm 1800 1800 1800 1800

speed
Top speed fpm 1800 2170 2200 2750
Production
rate:
• furnace short 825 800 800 800

tons/hr
• roughing short 625 1300 1070 915

mill tons/hr
• finishing short 550 745 775 830

mill tons/hr
Material
temperature
differential: deg.F 65 47 44 37
• mean deg.F 55 0 0 0
• exit
Savings: $/ton base

case 0.096 0.048 0.147
• fuel $/ton base

case 0.233 0.121 0.334
• yield $/ton base -0.106 -0.045 -

case 0.165
• electric
power
Total savings $/year base 667,980371,876948,693

case
Figure 17.14 presents schematically the hot strip mill arrangements used
in sensitivity analysis at Weirton Steel [15]. The following criteria have
been used in this analysis:
1. Mill production rate has to be 3,000,000 tons/year

2. Mill has to provide rolling of both carbon steel and HSLA products
3. Mill has to roll the required strip width with the slab width
increments up to 4 in.
4. Mill has to provide optimum temperature condition for rolled
materials.
In addition to the above criteria, the following factors have been taken
into account:
Adverse effect of temperature differential between head and tail
ends of the strip on its shape
Scale losses in reheat furnace
Conservation of energy.
Page 435
The results of the comparative analysis are summarized in Table 17.2.

The mill arrangement No. 5 was found superior to the others in meeting
the main objectives and, therefore, was selected to be used for the
modernized hot strip mill. As follows from Fig. 17.16, the selected mill
arrangement calls for a replacement of the existing vertical scalebreaker
VSB, the roughing mill stands R1, R2 and R3 and the attached edgers
E2 and E3 with a new equipment that included a descaling box DSB, a
reversing rougher RR with front and back edgers EF and EB. It also has
a provision for an additional finishing mill stand F7. Later development of
the modernization program at the Weirton Steel had led to an installation
of the reradiating heat covers [1] on the transfer table between roughing
and finishing mills.
References
Roughing and Finishing Trains of Hot Strip Mills,” Iron and Steel
Engineer, April 1986, pp. 29-39.
Pennsylvania, p. 851 (1985).
3. Sugita, K. and Oi, J., “Maintenance of Temperature in Hot Strip Mill

Under Continuous Casting - Direct Rolling Process,” Nippon Steel
Technical Report No. 23, June 1984.
4. Sasada, T., et al, “Modernization Technology of Conventional Hot Strip

Mills,’’ Nippon Steel Technical Report, No. 18, Dec. 1981, pp. 1-21.
5. Kamii, N. and Terakado, R., “Modernization of 56-Inch Hot Strip Mill at

Nippon Steel’s Muroran Works,” AISE Year Book, 1981, pp. 66-70.
6. Ginzburg, V.B., U.S. Patent No. 4,444,038, Apr. 24, 1984.
7. Ginzburg, V.B., U.S. Patent No. 4,430,876, Feb. 14, 1984.
8. Tippins, G.W. and Ginzburg, V.B., U.S. Patent No. 4,433,566, Feb. 28,
1984.
9. Tippins, G.W. and Ginzburg, V.B., U.S. Patent No. 4,503,697, March
12, 1985.
10. Smith, W. and Watson, A.G.,”The Coilbox - A New Approach to Hot

Strip Rolling,” AISE Year Book, 1981, pp. 342-436.
11. Ginzburg, V.B. and Thomas, J.E., US Patent No. 4,491,006, Jan 1,
1985.
12. Tippins, G.W., US Patent No. 4,348,882, Sept. 14, 1982.
13. Tippins, G.W., Ginzburg V.B., and Pottmeyer W.G., U.S. Patent No.
4,430,874, Feb. 14, 1984.
14. Gray, R., U.S. Patent No. 3,344,648, Oct. 3, 1967.
15. Ginzburg, V.B., et al, “Application of the Off-line Computer Model

MILLMAX at Weirton Steel’s Hot Strip Mill”, Iron and Steel Engineer, June
1988, pp. 24-33.

Cold and Hot Strip Mills”, Iron and Steel Engineer, Sept. 1985, pp. 21-35.
Page 436

Page 437
Part V
GEOMETRY OF FLAT ROLLED PRODUCTS
Page 438

Page 439
Chapter 18
DEFINITION OF GEOMETRICAL PARAMETERS OF
ROLLED PRODUCTS
18.1 Main Parameters of Strip Profile

The term strip profile is used to describe a variation of the strip thickness
along the strip width in the plane that is perpendicular to the strip length.
In general, the strip profile has an extremely irregular shape that is

affected by the following major factors:
Roll deflections by rolling load

Roll deflection by roll bending mechanism
Roll flattening
Roll mechanical crown
Roll thermal expansion
Roll wear
Roll banding
Strip lateral spread.
In spite of the extreme irregularity of the strip profile, it is possible to

identify in each profile the following three distinct zones (Fig. 18.1):
Center zone
Edge drop zone
Feather zone.
With this division into three zones, the strip profile can be described in
more precise terms. It is also more convenient to analyze the effects of
various factors on the shape of these zones.
Page 440
Fig. 18.1 Section across the strip width.
18.2 Key Thicknesses of Strip Profile

Generally, the strip profile can be described as a set of thicknesses
measured at predetermined intervals across the strip width. Although this
approach gives the most precise description of each individual profile, it
may not be as effective in the evaluation or comparison of various strip
profiles. It was found that this evaluation or comparison of strip profiles
can be satisfactorily accomplished with the use of the following key
thicknesses [1] as shown in Fig. 18.1 and 18.2.
Fig. 18.2 Main parameters of strip profile. Adapted after Ginzburg [2].
Page 441
Center gauge (hc) - Center gauge is the workpiece thickness measured

at the centerline dividing the workpiece width into two equal halves. The
center gauge is one of the principal parameters characterizing the
geometry of flat rolled products.
Edge drop thickness (hJ) - Edge drop thickness is usually measured at

the distance J ranging from 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3 in.) from the strip edge.
At this distance, the strip thickness starts to rapidly decrease toward the
edge which is the phenomenon known as edge drop.
Feather thickness (hI) - Feather thickness defines the strip thickness at

the distance I ranging from 9.5 to 25 mm (0.375 to 1.0 in.) from the strip
edge. The portion of the strip profile that begins from this distance and
extends toward the strip edge is known as the feather zone. In the
feather zone, the rate of the decrease in thickness is usually much
greater than in the edge drop zone.
Edge thickness (he) - Edge thickness is measured at the distance e

ranging from 2 to 3 mm (0.08 to 0.12 in.) from the strip edge.
Since the strip profile is not exactly symmetrical, the key strip profile
thicknesses are measured from both operator and drive sides of the strip.
The arithmetic average of these measurements is also commonly used
as defined and illustrated in Table 18.1.
Table 18.1 Key strip profile thicknesses.
ParameterSymbol Definition Formula
Center hc Workpiece thickness

gauge measured at its centerline -
Edge drop hJ′ Workpiece thickness J ′= 50

thickness: measured at distance J ′ from to 75
• drive drive side edge mm
side
• operator hJ ″ Workpiece thickness J″′= 50
side measured at distance J″ from to 75
operator side edge mm
• average Arithmetic average of hJ′ and hJ = (hJ

hJ hJ″ ′+hJ″)/2
Feather
thickness: hI′ Workpiece thickness I′ = 9.5
• drive measured at distance I′ from to 25
side drive side edge mm
• operator hI″ Workpiece thickness I″′ = 9.5

side measured at distance I″ from to 25
operator side edge mm
• average Arithmetic average of hI′ and hI = (hI′

hI hI″ +hI″)/2
Edge
thickness: he′ Workpiece thickness e′ = 2 to
• drive measured at distance e′ from 3 mm
side drive side edge
• operator he″ Workpiece thickness e″′ = 2

side measured at distance e″ from to 3 mm
operator side edge
• average he Arithmetic average of he′ and he = (he

he″ ′ +he
″)/2
Page 442
18.3 Types of Profile Crowns

The following two types of crowns can be identified in the workpiece
profile (Table 18.2):
Center crown
Side crown.
Center crown - Center crown is usually defined as the difference between

the center gauge and the arithmetic average of either the feather
thickness or edge drop thickness. The former is designated as an overall
center crown and the latter as a partial center crown [2]. Thus the overall
center crown is equal to the following:
where
hc center gauge
=
arithmetic average feather thickness.

hI =
The partial center crown is given by:
where
arithmetic average edge drop thickness.

hJ =
Table 18.2 Types of crown of workpiece profile.
ParameterSymbol Definition Formula
Center hc Workpiece thickness measured at its

gauge centerline
Center
crown: chl Difference between the center gauge chI = hc
• overall and arithmetic average feather - hI
thickness
• partial chJ Difference between the center gauge chJ =

and arithmetic average edge drop hc - hJ
thickness
Side
crown: chI′ Difference between the center gauge chI′ =
• drive and drive side feather thickness hc - hI′
side
• operator chJ″ Difference between the center gauge chJ″ =

side and operator side edge drop thickness hc - hJ″
The usefulness of this classification can be illustrated by comparing the

strip profiles shown in
Page 443
Fig. 18.2a and 18.2b. In the first case, both overall and partial center
crowns chI and chJ are greater than zero. Therefore, when the overall
center crown chI is decreased by an actuator, it would also result in the
reduction of the partial center crown chJ as well. However, in the second
case, the overall center crown chI and the partial center chJ have
opposite signs and attempts to reduce the overall crown chI may lead to
an increased convexity of the partial center crown chJ.
Side crown - Side crown is defined as the difference between the center
gauge and the feather thickness of either the drive or operator sides.
Therefore, the drive side crown is equal to:
and the operator side crown is equal to:

where
hI′
=
drive side feather thickness
hI″ operator side feather thickness.

=
It is very common to express the crown in relation to the workpiece

center gauge. This term is known as crown ratio. The overall center
crown ratio is defined as:
where
chI
=
overall center crown
hc center gauge.
=
18.4 Profile Wedge and Level

The profile wedge and level [3] are terms used to evaluate the
asymmetry of the workpiece profile as shown in Table 18.3.
Profile wedge - The term profile wedge describes the workpiece profile
asymmetry in qualitative terms. The drive side profile wedge is identified
as the strip profile with the center gauge hc being less than the drive side
feather thickness hI′ and greater than the operator side feather thickness
hI″
The operator side profile wedge is identified as the strip profile with the
center gauge hc being less than the operator side feather thickness hI″
and greater than the drive side feather thickness hI’ as shown in Table
18.3.
Profile level - The term profile level provides a quantitative definition of

the workpiece asymmetry and is defined as the difference between the
drive side and the operator side feather thicknesses hI′ and hI″ as shown
in Table 18.3.
Page 444
Table 18.3 Profile wedge and level of workpiece.

Parameter
Symbol
Definition
Formula
Profile wedge• drive side
Strip profile with center gauge being less than drive side feather
thickness and greater than operator side feather thickness
hI′ > hc > hI″
• operator side
Strip profile with center gauge being less than operator side feather
thickness and greater than drive side feather thickness
hl″ >hc > hI′

Profile level
δhI
Difference between drive and operator side feather thickness.
δhI = hI′ - hI″
18.5 Edge Drop, Feather, and Ridge/Valley

Generally, the rate of change in thickness in a strip profile varies across
the workpiece width. This rate of change is usually minimum in the center
zone of the strip profile (Fig. 18.1 and 18.2), while it is substantially
greater in the edge drop zone and maximum in the feather zone.
Table 18.4 Edge drop, feather, and ridge/valley.

Parameter
Symbol
Definition
Formula
Edge drop:• drive side
eh′
Difference between drive side edge drop thickness and drive side feather
thickness.
eh′ = hJ′ - hI′
• operator side
eh″
Difference between operator side edge drop thickness and operator side
feather thickness.
eh″ = hJ″ - hI″
• average
eh
Arithmetic average of eh′ and eh″
eh′ = (eh′ + eh′)/2
Feather:• drive side
fh′
Difference between drive side feather thickness and drive side edge
thickness.
fh′ = hI′ - he′
• operator side
fh″
Difference between operator side feather thickness and operator side

edge thickness.
fh″ = hI″ - he″
• average
fh
Arithmetic average of fh′ and fh″
fh′=(fh′+fh″)/2
Ridge/Valley
hs
Deviation in thickness either above or below nominal thickness in the

local strip profile that projects beyond the rectangular window of
predefined width b and height h.
b = 10 mmh = 10μm
The terms that quantitatively describe the change in profile thickness in

both the edge drop and feather zones are known as edge drop and
feather respectively. Since the lengths of these
Page 445
zones are predefined (see Table 18.1), the rates of change in the strip
profile thickness can be readily obtained from the measured values of the
edge drop and feather.
Edge drop - Three kinds of edge drop [3] can be identified: drive side
edge drop, operator side edge drop, and average edge drop as shown in
Table 18.4.
Feather - Similar to edge drop, there are three kinds of feather that are
usually identified: drive side feather, operator side feather, and average
feather as shown in Table 18.4.
Ridge and valley - The ridge and valley are the parameters that describes
respectively the local thickening and thinning in the workpiece profile as
shown in Fig. 18.3. Quantitatively, the ridge and valley are proposed to
be measured as the deviation in thickness either above or below the
nominal thickness in the local workpiece profile that projects beyond the
rectangular window of the predefined width b and height h with the
dimensions given in Table 18.4. The nominal thickness can be
determined by a nonlinear curve-fitting method utilizing regression
analysis [3].
Fig. 18.3 Definition of ridge and valley. Adapted from Ginzburg [1].
18.6 Basic Types of Hot Strip Profiles

The four basic types of hot strip profiles [4] as shown in Fig. 18.4, are as
follows:
Flat
Convex
Concave
Bulging.
Each of these profiles can be further classified into the following three
groups:
Symmetrical
Asymmetrical
Irregular.
The asymmetrical profiles are usually associated with wedge conditions

and are known as flat wedge, convex wedge, and concave wedge. The
irregular profiles are associated with the ridges
Page 446
or valleys and are known as irregular flat, irregular convex, and irregular
concave.
A thickening of the workpiece near its edges that is produced by an

edging process is usually referred to as bulging. The resulting shape of
the workpiece near its edges is known as dog bone shape. The
maximum height of the dog bone can be described quantitatively as
follows (Fig. 18.5):
where
hb
=
workpiece thickness at peak bulging
ho thickness of workpiece prior to edging.

=
Fig. 18.4 Basic types of hot strip cross-sectional profile.
According to Huismann [5] and Okado [6], for a complete description of

the dog bone geometry, the following additional three parameters are
needed:
Peak position of dog bone, A.

Sphere of influence of dog bone, C.
Increase in edging tool contact, (hr - ho).
Page 447
Fig. 18.5 Geometrical parameters of bulging cross-sectional profile.
18.7 Edge Cross-sectional Shape

The edge cross-sectional shape of a slab may be defined as one of the
following three types as shown in Fig. 18.6:
Drawn in or overlap
Square
Bulged.
Fig. 18.6 Edge cross-sectional shape. Adapted from Pawelski and Piber
[7].
The drawn in and bulged edges appear in a slab as a result of the
nonuniform lateral spreading that occurs in the slab during flat horizontal
passes. Pawelski and Piber [7] have determined the conditions of
occurrence of various edge shapes after a slab, with an initial square
cross section, was rolled in a horizontal mill. The drawn in or overlap
edge appears when the ratio of the roll contact length to the initial slab
thickness is less than 0.68. When this ratio is greater than 0.68, the edge
becomes bulged. Thus, by selecting an appropriate draft, a square edge
shape can be
Page 448
obtained. These relationships must be adjusted when the initial slab

cross-sectional shape is not rectangular. Indeed, the occurrence of a
drawn in shape will be increased if the initial edge shape is also drawn in.
The same is true with respect to the bulged edge shape.
18.8 Plan View Geometry of Workpiece Body

The two parameters that are conventionally used to evaluate the
workpiece plan view geometry are camber and out-of-square deviation.
Camber - According to American Standard ASTM A 568 [8], ‘‘camber is

the greatest deviation of a side edge from a straight line, the
measurement being taken on the concave side with a straightedge” as
shown in Fig. 18.7.
Out-of-square deviation - Out-of-square deviation (Fig. 18.8) is also

defined by ASTM A 568 [8] as “the greatest deviation of an end edge
from a straight line at right angle to a side and touching one corner. It is
also obtained by measuring the difference between the diagonals (ac and
bd) of the cut length. The out-of-square deviation is one-half of that
difference.”
Fig. 18.7 Geometrical parameters defining camber.

Fig. 18.8 Geometrical parameters defining the out-of-square shape.
18.9 Plan View Geometry of Workpiece Ends

One of the consequences of the edging process is the formation of a fish
tail or tongue at the ends of a workpiece as shown in Fig. 18.9. This is
caused by a nonuniform elongation of a slab in
Page 449
which its cross-sections were distorted during the preceding edging

passes. This nonuniformity of the edging process is more explicit at the
slab ends because of the metal at these ends having a tendency to flow
more freely in the rolling direction rather than to spread and thicken the
slab.
Fig. 18.9 End shapes of rolled stock. Adapted from Pawelski and Piber
[7].
Pawelski and Piber [7] have established that the tongue shape appears
when the ratio of the width draft to the thickness draft is approximately
less than 0.55. When this ratio is greater than 0.55, the end shape will
resemble a fish tail.
The fish tail is usually accompanied with either widening (Fig. 18.10a) or
narrowing (Fig. 18.10b) of the workpiece ends. The end portions of the
workpiece with the width deviations exceeding the acceptable tolerances
are usually cut. The length of the workpiece being cut is known as the
crop length.
Fig. 18.10 Two types of fish tail: a) widening and b) narrowing.
18.10 Forms of Strip Shape

The following forms of strip shape [9] are usually considered (Fig. 18.11):
Ideal shape
Latent shape
Page 450
Manifest shape
Dual shape
Shape affected by tension.
Fig. 18.11 Forms of strip shape.
Ideal shape - Ideal shape is a flat shape which is a result of the equality
of the internal stresses acting across the strip width. The ideal shape
remains flat after the external stresses are removed as well as after the
strip has been slit.
Latent shape - Latent shape corresponds to the case when the internal
stresses are not uniform across the strip width but the strip internal latent
forces are sufficiently strong to resist deterioration of the shape. The
latent shape remains flat after the external forces are removed. Slitting of
the strip, however, releases the latent forces which causes irregularities
in shape.
Manifest shape - Manifest shape relates to the case when the internal
stresses across the strip width are not uniform and, at the same time, the
internal latent forces are not strong enough to
Page 451
resist deterioration of the strip shape. As a result, local elastic buckles

are produced. Removing external stresses and slitting accentuate the
manifest shape.
Dual shape - Dual shape occurs when various portions of the strip have
different forms of strip shape. For example, when one portion of the strip
has latent shape, the other portion of the strip has manifest shape.
Shape affected by tension - Shape affected by tension may appear flat if

the external stresses created by tension are strong enough to reduce the
overall (internal and external) compressive stresses to a level at which
the manifest shape is transformed into latent shape.
18.11 Strip Latent Shape

The latent shape of the strip [10] can be divided into the following four
distinct types (Fig. 18.12):
Coilset or curl
Crossbow or guttering
Upbow
Twist.
Coilset or curl - Coilset or curl occurs when the sheet curves in a

longitudinal direction. Types of coilset or curl include:
Regular coilset - Curvature is the same across the sheet

Single edge coilset - Coilset occurs on one edge only
Differential coilset - Coilset is more severe on one edge than on
the other
Positive coilset - Curvature is in the same direction as in the coil
Negative coilset - Curvature is in the opposite direction to that in
the coil.
Crossbow or guttering - Crossbow or guttering occurs when the sheet

curves in a transverse direction. Types of crossbow or guttering include:
Positive crossbow - Curvature is in the same direction as in the

coil.
Negative crossbow - Curvature is in the opposite direction to that
in the coil.
Single edge crossbow or hooked edge.
Upbow - Upbow occurs when all four corners of the sheet curve in the
same direction. Types of upbow include:
Regular upbow - Four corners are displaced by the same amount.

Differential upbow - Corner displacements are unequal.
Twist - Twist occurs when two diagonally opposed corners curve up and
two curve down. Types of twist include:
Page 452
Regular twist - Four corners are displaced by the same amount.

Differential twist - Corner displacements are unequal.
Fig. 18.12 Forms of strip latent shape.
18.12 Strip Manifest Shape

The strip manifest shape [11-13] is usually classified into the types shown
in Fig. 18.13.
Strip camber - Strip camber is also known as sabre. It is the result of a

gradual increase of the strip elongation across the entire width of the strip
from one edge to another.
Long center - Long center is also known as full center, long middle,
center wave, and loose center. It is produced by a gradual decrease of
the strip elongation across the entire width of the strip from its center
toward both edges.
Long edges - Long edges are also known as edge waves. This shape is
produced by a gradual increase of the strip elongation across the entire
width of the strip from its center toward both
Page 453
edges. A single-side long edge is known as bad leveling.
Quarter buckles - Quarter buckles are a result of local increases in the

strip elongation along the lines located approximately one-fourth of the
strip width from the strip edges.
Edge buckles - Edge buckles are also known as pie crust edges and are
produced by local increases in the strip elongation along the strip edges.
Center buckles - Center buckles are also known as center ridges and
wavy lines in the center. This shape is a result of local increases in the
strip elongation along its center line.
Side buckles - Side buckles are also known as side ridges and wavy lines
along the strip. This shape is produced by local increases in the strip
elongation along the lines located very close to the strip edges.
Herringbone - Herringbone is a result of a very sophisticated mismatch in

the strip elongation along its width. It appears as elongated buckles
oriented at approximately 45 degrees from the strip center line.
Fig. 18.13 Forms of strip manifest shape
Page 454
18.13 Strip Running Flutter

The strip running flutter is a strip flatness disturbance caused by its
motion rather than its nonuniform elongation. Two types of strip running
flutter [14] as shown in Fig. 18.14 can be identified as follows:
Up and down flutter

Swing flutter.
The up and down flutter corresponds to the case when the deviations
from a perfect flat plane of all points of the strip across its width are
identical as shown in Fig. 18.14a. The swing flutter (Fig. 18.14b) relates
to the case when there is no height variation in the center of the strip, but
only at the edges. These height oscillations at the edges of the strip have
opposite phases.
Fig. 18.14 Strip running flutter: a) up and down motion and b) swing
motion. Adapted from Matsui, et al [14].
Fig. 18.15 Flatness defects due to the thermal gradients.
18.14 Flatness Defects Due to Thermal Gradients

Disturbances in the strip flatness may be caused by nonuniform strip
heating or cooling. This
Page 455
nonuniform heating or cooling leads to the creation of internal stresses.

At the extreme, these stresses can reach the yield stress of the material.
As a result, local plastic deformation occurs. The flatness defects due to
thermal gradients can be divided into four types shown in Fig. 18.15 [15].
The appearance of the strip having these flatness defects across its width
is similar to either long edges or edge buckles. The through the thickness
on body flatness defect appears as a bow along the strip body whereas
the through the thickness on head and tail end flatness defect appears as
local tapered bows at the strip ends. The along the length flatness defect
can be seen in relatively short thin plates.
18.15 Strip Flatness versus Elongation

Simple qualitative relationships between the strip elongation and flatness
(Fig. 18.16) can be derived for the three most common strip manifest
shapes as follows.
Fig. 18.16 Qualitative relationships between strip elongation and

flatness.
Fig. 18.17 Strip length in transverse direction.
Page 456
More sophisticated qualitative relationships between the strip flatness

and elongation can be derived if the following equations are used to
express the strip elongation in differential terms [16] as shown in Fig.
18.17.
Fig. 18.18 Qualitative relationship between differential elongation across

the width and flatness. Adapted from Fujita et al [16].
The values of Δεe and Δεq shown in Fig. 18.18 are determined by the
equations:
where
Δεe
=
edge wave differential elongation
Δεq
=
quarter buckle differential elongation
εe′
=
drive side edge wave elongation
εe″
=
operator side edge wave elongation
εq′
=
drive side quarter buckle elongation
εq″
=
operator side quarter buckle elongation
εc elongation at center of strip.

=
Page 457
By using the differential elongations Δεe and Δεq, the appearance of

more sophisticated flatness defects can be predicted as illustrated in Fig.
18.18.
18.16 Formulas for Strip Flatness

The five principal parameters that are commonly used for the quantitative
evaluation of strip flatness [3] are shown in Table 18.5.
Table 18.5 Formulas for strip flatness.
I-unit (I) is expressed as:
where
ΔL/L strip waviness

=
wavelength.
L =
The strip waviness corresponding to the manifest component of the strip

shape is equal to:
Page 458
where
k wave shape factor

=
wave height.
H =
For the sinusoidal wave k = π/2, we are able to obtain from Eqs. (18-9)
and (18-10) the following:
Fig. 18.19. Relationship between various flatness parameters.
Height (H) is the peak-to-peak wave amplitude as illustrated in Fig. 18.19.

Per cent (%)steepness (S) is given by:
Per cent (%) elongation (e) for a sinusoidal wave is equal to:
Page 459
Per cent (%) flatness (f) for a sinusoidal wave is expressed as follows:
The above relationships are illustrated graphically in Fig. 18.19.
References
1. Ginzburg, V.B, Steel-Rolling Technology: Theory and Practice, Marcel
Dekker, New York, 1989.
2. Ginzburg, V.B., ‘‘Strip Profile Control with Flexible Edge Backup Rolls,”
AISE Year Book, 1987, pp. 277-288.
3. AISE Hot Strip Mill Profile and Flatness Study, Phase I, Association of
Iron and Steel Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1986, pp. 20-22.
4. Gilbertson, W.F., “Hot Rolled Strip Abnormalities Leading to Ridge in

Cold Reduced Sheets and Tinplate,” Journal of the Iron and Steel
Institute, June 1965, pp. 553-561.
5. Huismann, R.L., Large Width Reductions in a Hot Strip Mill,

Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 1983.
6. Okado, M. et al, “New Light on Behavior of Width of Edge of Head and

Tail of Slabs in Hot Strip Rolling Mills,” Journal of the Iron and Steel
Institute of Japan, Vol. 67 No. 15, 1981, pp. 2516-2525.
7. Pawelski, O. and Piber, V., “Possibilities and Limits of Deformation in

Width Direction in Hot Flat Rolling,” Stahl und Eisen, Vol. 100 No. 17,
Aug. 25, 1980, pp. 937-949.
8. ASTM A 568, American Society for Testing and Materials Standard

Specification for Steel, Sheet, Carbon, and High Strength, Low Alloy, Hot
Rolled and Cold Rolled, General Requirements for, Annual Book of
ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.03, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, Pa., 1992, pp. 232-250.
9. Sheppard, T., “Shape in Metal Strip: The State of the Art,” Shape
Control, Metals Society, London, 1976, pp. 11-18.
10. MacDonald, D.J. et al, “Shape Defects in Tinplates,” Mechanical

Working and Steel Processing XVIII, AIME Iron and Steel Society,
Warrendale, Pa., 1980, pp. 472-488.
11. Keck, R. and E. Neuschutz, R., “German System Brings Accuracy to

Flatness Measurement,” Iron and Steel International, Vol. 53 No. 4, Aug.
1980, pp. 215-220.
12. Wistreich, J.G, “Control of Strip Shape During Cold Rolling,” Journal
of the Iron and Steel Institute, Dec. 1968, pp. 1203-1206.
13. Luling, L. and Hollmann, F.W., “Thermal Flatness Control During Cold
Rolling,” Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling Conference:
The Science and Technology of Flat Rolling, Vol. 2, Deauville, France,
June 1987, pp. E.16.1-E.16.5.
14. Matsui, K. et al, “Shape Meter for Hot Strip Mill,” Sumitomo Search,
No. 38, May 1989, pp. 105-114.
Page 460
15. Guglielmetti, G. et al, “Accelerated Cooling Process for Plates,”

1987, pp. D.3.1 - D.3.6.
16. Fujita, F. et al, “Development of a New Type of Cold Rolling Mill for
Sheet Products,” AISE Year Book, 1985, pp. 264-271.
Page 461
Chapter 19
STANDARD DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES OF ROLLED
PRODUCTS
19.1 Principal Aims of Standardization

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in Geneva
defines the principal aims of standardization as being the promotion of
[1]:
Overall economy in terms of human effort, materials, power, etc.,

in the production and exchange of goods.
The protection of consumer interest through adequate and
consistent quality of goods and services.
Provision of a means of expression and communication among all
interested parties. Although, these aims may sound like
propaganda statements, nevertheless, they carry a profound
social, technical, and economic meaning. Two of these aims of
standardization that are mentioned above are considered in more
detail in the following sections.
19.2 Achieving Overall Economy

Figure 19.1 illustrates a block diagram of the principal parties which are
involved in producing consumer goods based on steel products. At the
top of the hierarchy is the consumer who, through the market
mechanism, dictates both quality and price of the goods. Thus, for
example, if the consumer demands a better fit of car panels, the car
manufacturer may consider the following approaches:
Demand tighter geometrical tolerances of the coils being supplied

by steel producers.
Modernize production equipment so that the quality of the
assembly process can be improved without tightening the
geometrical tolerances of the supplied coils.
Page 462
Distribute improvements in quality fairly between the car

manufacturers and steel producers.
If the car manufacturer decides to tighten the tolerances of the purchased

coils to 50% of the standard value, then the steel producer in his turn,
would have to consider the following similar approaches:
A. Demand the machinery supplier to install mill equipment that will

produce coils with geometrical tolerances within 25% of the standard
value.
B. Improve maintenance, operating practices, and quality control so that

the desired tolerances can be obtained without modernization of the mill
equipment.
C. Distribute improvements in quality fairly between the steel producers

and machinery suppliers.
During the last decade, tremendous efforts have been made by all parties
to improve the quality of products that are produced by their own
facilities. There are, however, two questions which one may ask. The first
question is if the burden of improving quality has been fairly distributed
between all parties so that the overall economy is maximized. If the
answer is no, then who is going to make this fair distribution of
responsibilities for improvement of quality. Obviously, in the long run, it
will be enforced by our market system. In the short term, however, it is
very difficult to prevent the passing of a disproportionate burden by the
parties located at the higher hierarchical levels of the production process
to the ones at the lower levels.
From this point of view, standards may play an important role by

stipulating technically and economically reasonable geometrical
tolerances that would be required to be achieved for each particular
application. Further improvements in the overall economy of production
can be achieved by a better understanding of the requirements for tighter
geometrical tolerances at each production stage as well as the difficulties
involved in achieving them.
Fig. 19.1 Hierarchy of subordination and distribution of tolerances

between consumer goods manufacturer, metal producer, and machinery
supplier.
Page 463
19.3 Provision of Communication

Communication between all of the involved parties becomes difficult and
inefficient unless the same terminology is used to describe the subject.
Also, the competition between interested parties becomes unfair when
the rules of the game are different. The present standards for flat steel
products leave a lot of room for improvement in this area. As was shown
in Chapter 18, there are at least five different definitions of strip flatness
that are widely used in the metal industry and incidentally, only one of
these definitions is used by most of the standards. Various standards
even differ as to how they define strip, sheet, and plate and have different
tolerances applied to the same product.
An attempt was made by the Association of Iron Steel Engineers [2] and
others including the author [3], to unify the terminology related to the
geometry of flat rolled products. As will be shown in Chapter 20, the
tolerances that are stipulated by various standards can be unified as well
as presented in a more effective way.
Standards may also play a very important role in defining the quality
level. The chairman and CEO of a leading steel producer was quoted as
saying [4], “I don’t want any defects [shipped] to our customers.” This
statement may be applauded politically, but is somewhat idealistic and
lacks technical and economic merit. As tolerances become increasingly
tighter, the importance of random errors proportionally increases. Since
these types of errors will always be present in any manufacturing
process, we can only speak about the quality level in statistical terms
which can indicate how close we are to the ideal case.
Another important subject is the accuracy of the measurement of

geometrical parameters. The current standards barely specify the
methodology of the measurements and the requirements for accuracy of
the instrumentation being used. This freedom of choice may not only
complicate the comparison of the results of measurements, but may also
distort the actual quality performance.
19.4 Steel Industry Requirements

There are two principal reasons for tightening the geometrical tolerances
in rolling mills:
Requirements of the steel users

Internal requirements of the steel producers.
In many cases, tightening the thickness and width tolerances is dictated

by a demand for a guaranteed surface area of purchased flat product.
The U.S. system stipulates a minimum delivered coil length Lmin
according to the following formula:
where
Wi
=
invoiced coil weight
hmin
=
specified minimum thickness
wmin
=
specified minimum width
Page 464
ρ steel density.
=
Consequently, by producing flat products with a thickness and width as

close as possible to the specified minimum values, the steel producer
can also maximize the yield.
In the case of a hot rolled product intended for cold rolling, there are
internal requirements for tightening the geometrical tolerances so that the
gauge performance during cold rolling can be improved. There is,
however, a principal difference between the gauge requirements for hot
rolled coils that are sold as hot band as compared to those intended for
cold rolling. It is expected to have the hot band gauge as close as
possible to the target value. However, the most important goal in
application to coils intended for cold rolling would be to produce a gauge
of a constant value which may not necessary be its target value.
19.5 Automotive Industry Requirements

In the automobile industry, weight penalty is very important. According to
Davies [5], even a 1% variance in strip thickness applied to one car body
could add 3 kg to the curb weight which could easily affect compliance
with the applicable inertia band regulations. Additional demands for
tighter geometrical tolerances are dictated by the pressworking and
assembly operations.
Pressworking - Both quality and productivity of pressworking are affected

by the thickness, width, and flatness tolerances of the deformed product
as reported by Davies. The variation of the incoming thickness has a
great influence on the geometry of the panels that are produced by
pressing. This is best illustrated by the simple forming operation shown in
Fig. 19.2. When a bracket or channel is made of a sheet having the
thickness h with tolerances ±Δ, a clearance gap d = h + Δ must be
incorporated. Using any thickness less than the clearance gap d will
result in an underdeformed section and the previously pierced holes will
be misaligned. In automated press lines, any thickness variation must be
avoided to prevent splitting or shape deterioration as a result of
excessive (restricted) metal flow through draw beads and blank holders.
Width variation can also cause problems in press lines by jamming the
coil that is being fed into a blanking press. Width variation also introduces
inaccuracies in nested blanking operations and results in asymmetric
dimensions in interleaved “T” shapes.
Flatness defects such as long edges may also cause jamming of a coil
being fed into a blanking press. Fouling edges can also create a debris
problem and promote surface defects via particles that are transferred to
the punch and die. Blank waviness within a stack of blanks can cause
erratic magnetic pick-up on transfer or lead to backward ejection as
sensors mistake the condition for a double blank.
Assembly - The accuracy required by contemporary car assembly

techniques is dictated by the fit-up necessary for jig location and
repeatable robotics operations. The introduction of complex multi-welding
operations has also demanded much greater precision regarding the
location of the welded pieces and the gap between them.
Reducing the geometrical tolerances can be further justified by the desire

for an accurate fit-up of parts during sealing and glazing operations. For
matching form body lines conditions, a tolerance of ±0.5 mm is presently
applied. While this appears to be a large allowance, it should be
remembered that each assembly condition represents the cumulative
variation associated with all the
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component panels.
Fig. 19.2 Simple forming operation commonly used to provide brackets

and channel sections. Adapted from Davies [5].
19.6 Metal Packaging Industry Requirements

Can bodies for the metal packaging industry can be produced by the
following methods:
Draw and wall iron (DWI) process, where a cup after being formed
from a disc by deep drawing is subsequently subjected to further
thinning of its wall by ironing between carbide dies.
Draw/redraw (DRD) process, which also uses a disc and cupping
operation but is followed by one or more redraws that does not
reduce the can thickness but reduces the can diameter along with
increasing the can height [6].
Welding tinplate onto cylinders by electrical resistance welding.
As reported by Habberley [7], the operations which demand the tightest

geometrical tolerances are those which occur during the DWI, welding,
and printing processes.
DWI process - The length of the can wall obtained by the DWI process is
heavily dependent on the blank volume, and more particular, on the
combination of blank thickness and blank diameter. As shown in Fig.
19.3, an increase in the blank thickness would require a smaller blank
diameter. There is however, a certain combination of the blank diameter
and thickness at which the relative material cost is minimum. It is,
therefore, desirable to maintain the thickness tolerances as tight as
possible so that the minimum cost can be assured.
Tighter thickness and width tolerances are also required for a more
effective use of material. This would allow, for example, to reduce the
earring levels (Fig. 19.4) and thus reduce scrap losses. Simultaneously,
the useful cup height increases so that the blank diameter can be
reduced leading to additional savings in metal cost.
Longitudinal microcyclic gauge variations (Fig. 19.5) are a serious

problem that may cause a number of operational difficulties such as long
cans, lopsidedness, bodymaker and trimmer wrecks,
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and other problems resulting in the loss of output and efficiency.
Fig. 19.3 Blank diameter and relative cost of material as a function of

strip thickness. Adapted from Habberley [7].
Fig. 19.4 Effect of earring level on useful cup size. Adapted from
Habberley [7].
Welding - The welding process also requires tight material specifications.
Maintaining a high-speed welding line involves achieving the desired
specified overlap (Fig. 19.6) with a minimum resetting of the roll forming
station. For a given roll forming station setting, the overlap is affected by
both plate thickness and plate strength or springback. If the latitude on
overlap is too small or the distribution of the material thickness-strength
too large, then persistent resetting of the roll forming station is required,
which reduces the line efficiency.
Page 467
Printing - The reliability of fast feeding and positioning of the sheets

during printing depends to a high degree on the quality of the sheet
edges. Bad flatness leads to lower production speeds and will give
registration problems resulting in poor print quality. A typical maximum
flatness tolerance for the edges is 3 mm, but it is desirable to reduce this
tolerance to 2 mm.
Fig. 19.5 Variation of material thickness along coil. Adapted from

Habberley [7].
Fig. 19.6 Dependence of springback during welding of can body on

strength-to-thickness combinations. Adapted from Habberley [7].
Tables 19.1 through 19.3 illustrate the current and future dimensional
tolerances specified for steel products that are used in various
canmaking processes as reported by Bentz [6].
Page 468
Table 19.1 Evolution of tolerances for centerline

thickness. Adapted from Bentz [6].
Tolerances, %
Process
1980 1985 1992 Future
General ± 10 ± 10 ± 5 to ± 8 ± 5
DWI process ± 7 ± 5 ± 3.5 ± 2
DRD process ± 7 ± 5 ± 4 ± 2
Table 19.2 Evaluation of tolerances for crown and

feather. Adapted form Bentz [6].
Tolerances, crown/feather, %
Process
1980 1985 1992 Future
General 5/5 5/5 5/5 Total 5
DWI process 5/5 Total 6 Total 5 Total 5
DRD process 5/5 Total 6 Total 5 Total 5
Table 19.3 Evolution of tolerances for flatness. Adapted

from Bentz [6].
Tolerances, crown/feather, %
Process
1980 1985 1992 Future
General 39 39 39 20
DWI process 39 39 39
10 - 20
DRD process 39 39 20 5 - 10
19.7 Requirements in Processing Lamination Steels

The products that are made from lamination steels are used in items
such as motors, solenoids, ballasts, and transformers. The following
characteristics make these products unique [8]:
The material is uniquely designed to provide magnetic properties.

Most classical mechanical properties are considered subservient.
The end part lamination must be flat and hold dimensional
tolerances tightly. The part has no mechanical strengthening from
ribs, folds, etc., to provide support.
When stacked, the assembly of parts acts as a mechanical
integrator for thickness variations, i.e. the variations are additive.
Variations across the punching width are particularly troublesome.
Lamination steels are generally purchased as full coils and slit in required
widths by either
Page 469
straight or scroll slitters. Three to five master coils can be made out of
one full coil. Many apparatus manufacturers purchase coils already slit.
Lamination steels are usually punched or slit into two fundamental
configurations before assembly by stacking apparatus. Transformer
punchings take the form of E’s or I’s if the unit is stacked. If wound, the
strip is conventionally slit before winding.
The most critical parameters of the processed lamination steels with

respect to dimensional tolerances are edge drop (gamma) and variation
in nominal thickness. To illustrate the detrimental effect of edge drop and
variation in nominal thickness, Maucione [8] gives the following
examples:
Since punchings generally come out of the punch press in registry,

the stack will begin to lean to one side as a result of edge drop if
the punchings are not rotated or randomized. For example, if the
edge drop for each sheet is equal to 0.0005 in., then the stacking
error at the outside diameter of a 3 in. stack of 0.025 in. thick steel
would be equal to 0.060 in.. Since the part assembly tolerances
are less than one-tenth of this, there is obviously a problem. The
core manufacturers must adjust their operation to accommodate
this thickness variability resulting in negative productivity and
quality.
A similar problem exists on average thickness variability within a
coil of steel. The problem here is not a result of variations in
thickness within the punchings, but rather the assembly of
punchings does not repeatedly give the same lineal dimension.
Using the previous example, and assuming zero edge drop, to get
a 3 in. stack will take 120 press strokes if the steel is 0.025 in. and
the stacking factor is one. The sheet tolerance can be ±10% and
therefore, the stack height can not be defined by press strokes,
but only by physically measuring the assembly of punchings,
which is a separate step.
Gauge inconsistency can lead to press misfeeds, die casting
defects, and the need to machine the stacks. Gauge inconsistency
can also contribute to excessive magnetic losses, noise, and
vibration in the finished units that are assembled with lamination
steels.
19.8 Appliance Industry Requirements

The appliance industry utilizes cold rolled sheet for manufacturing major
appliances such as refrigerators, ranges, microwave ovens, dishwashers,
washing machines, dryers, etc. The gauge variation that is usually
specified by the appliance industry is 50% of the tolerances specified by
the American standards. The most critical requirements, however, are
related to strip flatness. There are two principal reasons for justification of
these requirements [9].
The first reason is related to the quality and efficiency of the appliance
production process. Contemporary appliance production processes utilize
automated transfer systems along with sophisticated sensors that can be
adversely affected when materials with flatness problems are processed.
Flatness defects can also lead to distortions on porcelain enameled
parts.
The second reason relates to the actual performance of the finished

product. As an example, some parts of an appliance that have flatness
defects can cause noise problems during operation. As stated by Rens
[9], ‘‘This is an annoying condition from the point of view that whenever a
force is applied to the part, the panel caves in giving a sense of
instability.” Because of these reasons, a continual improvement in
flatness of the incoming product remains a high priority in the appliance
industry.
Page 470
19.9 Standards for Dimensional Tolerances

Dimensional tolerances for hot and cold rolled flat products are specified
by the standards developed in many countries. The following industrial
standards have been selected for comparison:
DIN, Deutsches Institut fur Normung e.V., Germany [10,11].

JIS, Japanese Industrial Standard, Japan [12-19].
ASTM, American Society for Testing and Materials, United States
[20,21].
BS, British Standards Institution, Great Britain [22].
ISO, International Organization for Standardization, Switzerland
[23].
These standards are applied to the flat rolled products which are
classified as strips, sheets, and plates. The dimensional tolerances,
provided by the industrial standards, are usually applied to a steel
product of a specified quality.
19.10 Exclusions to Dimensional Tolerances

It is customarily to specify exclusions to the dimensional tolerances for
flat rolled products. These exclusions are most frequently justified by the
following:
Variability of the rolling conditions during processing of the same

product
Imperfections in hardness and geometry of the incoming product
used for rolling
Imperfections of the mill setup equipment
Imperfections of the measuring equipment.
Variable rolling conditions during threading, mill acceleration,

deceleration, and tail-out are common causes for increased variations of
the workpiece geometrical parameters. For these reasons, it is customary
to apply the tightest tolerances to the workpiece length, rolled under
steady-state conditions, while assigning less tight tolerances for the
remaining length. Imperfections in hardness and geometry of the
incoming product may be of such magnitude that producing the specified
tolerances may not be possible with the given equipment. In this case,
the limits for these imperfections are usually specified. Alternatively, the
increased tolerances may be given in the case when the imperfections of
the incoming product exceed the specified values.
Imperfections of the mill setup equipment is another cause for increased

geometrical tolerances for the head end of the rolled product. To separate
this cause for error in the mill performance, it is customary to specify the
mill performance for the head end of the rolled product separately
allowing for slightly greater strip tolerances in comparison with the
tolerances for the remaining length of the strip.
Imperfections of the measuring equipment may reduce the reliability of

the measured data. For example, an x-ray gage is less accurate if strip
tension is not established. The strip profile gage may not be very
accurate when scanning too close to the strip edges. These
imperfections of the measuring equipment are usually taken into account
by excluding the portions of the strip
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which cannot be measured with the desired accuracy.
19.11 Definitions of Strip, Sheet, and Plate

There are various definitions of strip, sheet, and plate according to the
industrial standards that are established by different countries.
Strip - According to the German Standard DIN 1016 [10], strip is defined
as “a flat product which is wound to form a coil immediately after the final
rolling pass or after having passed the installations connected to the
rolls.”
The Japanese Industrial Standard JIS G 3193 [17] simply defines steel
strip as flat “rolled steel supplied in coil form.” A similar definition of strip
is stated by the British Standard BS 1449, Part 1 [22].
A quite different definition of strip is given by the American Society for

Metals [24] in which the strip is defined as ‘‘a flat rolled metal product of
some maximum thickness and width arbitrarily dependent on the type of
metal. It is narrower than sheet.”
Sheet or plate - The German Standard DIN 1016 defines sheet or plate
as “a flat product of unspecified edge form which is supplied in panels
usually of quadrangular (square or rectangular) shape, its edges being as
rolled (i.e. slightly curved) or cut mechanical means.” Sheet is identified
as a product with a thickness less than 3 mm and plate is a product with
thickness equal or greater than 3 mm.
According to the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS G 3193, steel sheet

and plate are defined as “rolled steel sheet supplied in flat form, including
the plate cut from steel strip and excluding flat bar and steel piece to be
used for re-rolling.” Sheet and plate are similarly defined by the British
Standard BS 1449, Part 1.
Table 19.4 Lengths from longitudinal

edges excluded from thickness
measurements for hot rolled products as
specified by various standards [10, 17,
20, 22].
Product Width Thickness

type range, mm range, mm
Plate 203 and

over 4.57 and
over
Strip:
hot Up to 88.9 From 0.65 to
rolled From 89 to 5.16
152 From 0.87 to
From 152 to 12.7
cold 305 From 1.14 to
rolled From 13 to 12.7
608 Up to 6.35
Sheet:
hot 305 and From 1.14 to
rolled over 12.7
cold 305 and From 0.36 and
rolled over over
The American Society of Metals [21] identifies sheet as “a flat-rolled

metal product of some maximum thickness and minimum width arbitrarily
dependent on the type of metal. It is thinner than plate, and has a width-
to-thickness ratio greater than about 50.”
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Table 19.4 presents the dimensional ranges of plates, strip, and sheet as
defined by the Iron and Steel Society (ISS) in application to carbon steels
[25-27].
According to the International Standard ISO 3574 [23], “cold-reduced

steel sheet is produced in thicknesses of 0.36 mm and thicker (commonly
produced up to 4 mm) and in widths of 600 mm and over, in coils and cut
lengths.”
19.12 Thickness Tolerances

The thickness tolerances for hot and cold rolled products that are
specified by various industrial standards are graphically presented in
Figs. 19.7 through 19.18. The tolerances shown in these graphs are the
allowable deviations, over or under, from the specified nominal
thicknesses. These tolerances reflect the limitations of the rolling process
to various degrees as described in the following sections.
Effect of width - Generally, most industrial standards stipulate greater

thickness tolerances for wider flat products. In some standards (Figs.
19.7, 19.11, 19.15), the absolute increment in the thickness tolerance due
to width change does not change with the thickness. In other standards,
this increment either increases or decreases with an increase in the
thickness.
Effect of thickness - Difficulties in rolling thinner products are recognized

by most industrial standards. Although the absolute tolerances decrease
with a decrease in thickness, the relative tolerances increase with a
decrease in thickness. Some standards such as the American Standard
ASTM A 623 [21], set the same relative thickness tolerance for all
thicknesses of tin products.
Allowance for strip ends - Some industrial standards allow for an

increased tolerance for the strip ends, thus considering the complications
in gauge control during threading, acceleration, deceleration, and tailing
out the strip. For example, the German Standard DIN 1016 stipulates that
when the thickness, width, and edge camber of a hot rolled strip with
rough-rolled ends and mill edges are measured, the following total length
at both ends shall be excluded:
where
Le total length at both ends excluded from measurement, m

=
h product thickness, mm.

=
The length Le excluded from the measurement in accordance with Eq.

(19-2) should not exceed the following limits:
Width is less than 600 mm Le ≤ 6.0 m
Width is greater than 600 mm Le ≤ 20.0 m.
For cold rolled strip, the German Standard DIN 1541 [11] states that the
thickness tolerances for the ends of the coils over the total length of 30
meters per coil are permitted to be increased with respect to the
tolerances for the coil body by the following ratio R:
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Strip thickness is less than 1.5 mm R ≤1.5
Strip thickness is greater than 1.5 mm R ≤1.3.
Allowance for weld - Both the German Standard DIN 1541 and the
International Standard ISO 3574 recognize the difficulties in controlling
the strip thickness at the weld and its vicinity. For strip, in the vicinity of
the welds over a specified strip length, the thickness tolerances are
permitted to be increased with respect to the tolerances for the coil body
by the ratios shown in Table 19.5.
Table 19.5 Strip tolerance factor due to weld and

specified strip length in vicinity of weld for which the
tolerance factor is applied [11, 23].
Strip thickness tolerance Specified strip

Strip increase factor length, m
thickness,
mm DIN 1541 ISO 3574 DIN ISO
1541 3574
Less than 1.5 20 15

2.0 2.0
20 15
1.5 and 1.6 2.0
greater
Overall allowances - The overall allowances cover both the systematic

and random deviations from the theoretical thickness at any portion of the
strip. For example, in application to tin products, the American Standard
ASTM A 623 establishes the minimum percentage of the specified base
weight of the delivered coils for which the thickness tolerances of ±10%
of the theoretical thickness have to be maintained. This minimum
percentage of the specified base weight increases with an increase in the
lot size as shown in Table 19.6.
Table 19.6 Percentage of base coil weight with in
specified (±10%) deviation from theoretical
thickness as given by American Standard ASTM
A623 [21].
Lot size, t Percentage Lot size, t Percentage,

% %
0 to 5.5 over 13.6 to

95.0 68.0 99.0
5.5 to over 68.0

13.6 97.5 99.5
Thickness deviation within one coil - For hot rolled strip intended for cold
rolling, it is very important to reduce the variation of strip thickness.
However, in many instances, when the head end of the strip is rolled off-
gauge, it is more advantageous to maintain the thickness of the
remaining length of the coil as close as possible to the head-end gauge
rather than trying to achieve the target gauge. This preference is
reflected by the German Standard DIN 1016 and shown in Fig. 19.13.
Exclusion of strip edge zones - In the majority of industrial standards, a

certain strip edge zone is excluded from the measurement of thickness.
There are two principal reasons for not applying the thickness tolerances
to the strip edge zones. The first reason is the technical
Page 474
difficulties in controlling the strip thickness near the strip edge inside the
so-called feather edge zone. The second reason is the difficulties in
accurately measuring the strip thickness inside these zones.
The industrial standards which exclude this zone from measurement of

the strip thickness differ only in the specified lengths of this zone as
summarized in Tables 19.7 and 19.8. Some standards, such as American
Standard ASTM A 623, require measurement of the thickness within the
feather edge zone but allow for an increased thickness tolerance within
this zone by 50%.
Table 19.7 Lengths from longitudinal edges excluded from

thickness measurements for hot rolled products [10, 17, 20, 22]
Length, mm Length, mm
Width, Width,
Standard Mill Cut Standard Mill Cut
mm mm
edge edge edge edge
DIN 40 - 600 20 20 ASTM not 19

1016 600 - 40 25 A568 specifies 9.5
2000
JIS G 50 and 25 - BS 1449 75 - 600 10 -

3193 over - 15 Part 1 over 600 25 15
30 and
over
Table 19.9 summarizes the strip zones with the exclusions for thickness
tolerances as specified by various industrial standards. Although, the
majority of standards specify the exclusions for thickness tolerances for
the edge zones, there is no unanimity regarding exclusions for the weld
and end zones. So the question still remains as to whether the exclusions
for the weld and end zones shall be part of the standards for the
geometry of flat rolled products. There is a good reason to positively
answer this question.
Table 19.8 Lengths from longitudinal edges excluded
from thickness measurements for cold rolled products
[10, 17, 20, 22].
Standard Width Length Standard Width Length

mm mm mm mm
DIN 80 and 40 ASTM not

1016 over A623 specifies 25.4
JIS G 30 and 15 BS 1449 over 600 15

3141 over Part 1
ASTM not ISO 3574 over 600 25

A568 specifies 9.5
Figure 19.19 illustrates a typical chart recording of the thickness deviation

from nominal value at the exit of a 5-stand tandem cold mill. The
thickness deviation is greater at the end and weld zones of the strip
which are rolled during unsteady conditions (absence of front or back
tension, mill acceleration, and deceleration).
Page 475
Fig. 19.7 DIN (German) thickness tolerances of hot rolled unalloyed and
alloyed steel. Data from DIN 1016 [10].
Fig. 19.8 JIS (Japanese) thickness tolerances of hot rolled steel sheet
for automobile structural uses. Data from JIS G 3113 [12].
Page 476
Fig. 19.9 JIS (Japanese) thickness tolerances of hot rolled carbon steel
for pipes and tubes. Data from JIS G 3132 [15].
Fig. 19.10 ASTM (USA) thickness tolerances of hot rolled carbon steel
sheet. Data from ASTM A 568 [20].
Page 477
Fig. 19.11 ASTM (USA) thickness tolerances of hot rolled high strength
low alloy steel sheet. Data from ASTM A 568 [20].
Fig. 19.12 BS (British) thickness tolerances of hot rolled carbon and
carbon-manganese steel strip. Data from BS 1449, Part 1 [22].
Page 478
Fig. 19.13 DIN (German) permissible difference in thickness within one

coil of hot rolled strip intended for cold reduction. Data from DIN 1016
[10].
Fig. 19.14 DIN (German) thickness tolerances of cold rolled unalloyed
steels. Data from DIN 1541 [11].
Page 479
Fig. 19.15 DIN (German) close (F) thickness tolerances of cold rolled
unalloyed steels. Data from DIN 1541 [11].
Fig. 19.16 JIS (Japanese) thickness tolerances of cold rolled carbon
steel sheets and strip. Data from JIS G 3141 [19].
Page 480
Fig. 19.17 ASTM (USA) thickness tolerances of cold rolled carbon and
high strength low alloy steels. Data from ASTM A 568 [20].
Fig. 19.18 BS (British) thickness tolerances of cold rolled carbon and
carbon-manganese steels. Data from BS 1449, Part 1 [22].
Page 481
Fig. 19.19 Chart recording of mill speed and deviation from nominal
finish thickness of tandem cold mill.
19.13 Width Tolerances

Width tolerances are usually specified as positive deviations from the
nominal value. The tolerances for the products with mill edges are
distinctly differentiated from the tolerances for the products with cut
edges. The width tolerances generally increase with an increase in width
and are also greater for high-strength materials as shown in Figs. 19.20
through 19.27.
Fig. 19.20 DIN (German) width tolerances of hot rolled strip with mill and
trimmed edges. Data from DIN 1016 [10].
Page 482
Fig. 19.21 JIS (Japanese) width tolerances of hot rolled flat products.
Data from JIS G 3193 [17].
Fig. 19.22 ASTM (USA) width tolerances of hot rolled carbon steel sheet
with mill edge. Data from ASTM A 568 [20].
Page 483
Fig. 19.23 ASTM (USA) width tolerances of hot rolled cut edge sheet
and cold rolled sheet of carbon and high strength low alloy steels. Data
from ASTM A 568 [20].
Fig. 19.24 BS (British) width tolerances of hot rolled carbon and carbon-
manganese steel strip. Data from BS 1449, Part 1 [22].
Page 484
Fig. 19.25 DIN (German) width tolerances of cold rolled unalloyed steels.
Data from DIN 1541 [11].
Fig. 19.26 JIS (Japanese) width tolerances of cold rolled carbon steel
sheets and strip (A = regular tolerances, B = close tolerances). Data from
JIS G 3141 [19].
Page 485
Fig. 19.27 BS (British) width tolerances of cold rolled carbon and carbon-
manganese steel strip. Data from BS 1449, Part 1 [22].
19.14 Flatness Tolerances

Flatness tolerances are generally considered to be the maximum
distance between the sheet and a flat horizontal surface on which it rests
during measurement. This distance is somewhat related to the wave
height as defined in Section 18.16, Formulas for Strip Flatness. The
flatness tolerances generally increase with an increase in width and with
a decrease in thickness, as shown in Figs. 19.28 through 19.35.
Page 486
Fig. 19.28 DIN (German) flatness tolerances of hot rolled sheet. Data
from DIN 1016 [10].
Fig. 19.29 JIS (Japanese) flatness tolerances of hot rolled plate and
sheet. Data from JIS G 3193 [17].
Page 487
Fig. 19.30 ASTM (USA) flatness tolerances of hot rolled carbon steel
Fig. 19.31 BS (British) flatness tolerances of hot rolled carbon and
Page 488
Fig. 19.32 DIN (German) flatness tolerances of cold rolled strip. Data
from DIN 1541 [11].
Fig. 19.33 JIS (Japanese) flatness tolerances of cold rolled carbon steel
sheets and strip (A = regular tolerances, B = close tolerances). Data from
JIS G 3141 [19].
Page 489
Fig. 19.34 ASTM (USA) flatness tolerances of cold rolled carbon steel
Fig. 19.35 BS (British) flatness tolerances of cold rolled carbon and
Page 490
19.15 Edge Camber Tolerances

Edge camber tolerances are defined as the maximum edge camber, i.e.
the greatest deviation of a side edge from a straight line, with the
measurement being taken on the concave side with a straight edge along
a predetermined strip length. This length may vary from 2500 to 10,000
mm.
Where it is not practical to measure the edge camber over a specified

length, the equivalent camber tolerances ECT can be calculated from the
following formula [22]:
where
Lm measured length
=
Ls specified length
=
camber tolerance specified for length Ls.

SCT =
The edge camber tolerances differ by various standards with respect to

the product nominal width (Figs. 19.36 - 19.40).
Fig. 19.36 DIN (German) edge camber tolerances per 5000 mm of
length of hot rolled strip. Data from DIN 1016 [10].
Page 491
Fig. 19.37 JIS (Japanese) edge camber tolerances per 10,000 mm of

length of hot rolled strip. Data from JIS G 3193 [17].
Fig. 19.38 ASTM (USA) edge camber tolerances of hot rolled and cold
rolled sheet of carbon and high strength low alloy steels. Data from
ASTM A 568 [20].
Page 492
Fig. 19.39 DIN (German) edge camber tolerances per 2500 mm of

length of cold rolled strip. Data from DIN 1541 [11].
Fig. 19.40 JIS (Japanese) edge camber tolerances per 2000 mm of
length of cold rolled carbon steel sheets and strip. Data from JIS G 3141
[19].
Page 493
19.16 Crown Tolerances

Most industrial standards do not specify crown tolerances. The German
Standard DIN 1016 gives the permissible crown range for strip intended
for cold reduction, as shown in Fig. 19.41.
Fig. 19.41 DIN (German) permissible crown range for reduction with
minimum distance between measuring point and longitudinal edge of 40
mm. Data from DIN 1016 [10].
The crown requirements and tolerances depend on the type of rolled

product. Table 19.10 shows the crown requirements for hot rolled
products that are produced by Nippon Steel, Japan [29]. The crown
requirements and tolerances for hot rolled products that are produced by
the BHP Port Kembla 68 in. hot strip mill are presented in Table 19.11
[30].
Table 19.9 Crown requirements for hot

rolled products. Data from Nippon
Steel. [29].
Product Type Strip crown mm (in.)
Tin plate 0.0392
(0.00154)
Hot strip intended for cold 0.0373

rolling (0.00147)
Electric sheet steels 0.0150 (0.0006)
Page 494
Table 19.10 Crown requirements for hot rolled

products. Data from BHP Port Kembla 68 in. hot strip
mill [30].
Product type Thickness Width Crown Tolerances

mm mm mm mm
Tin plate 1.9 - 2.5 630 - ± 0.015

1100 0.050
Coated 1.9 - 4.5 630 - ± 0.015

products 1350 0.030
Hot band 1.6 - 12.7 700 - ± 0.020

1550 0.010
19.17 Comparison of Dimensional Tolerances

Industrial standards specify dimensional tolerances with respect to the
selected ranges of thickness and width of the rolled product. These
ranges vary from one standard to another. Therefore, for an objective
comparison of the tolerances described by various standards, the
thickness and width ranges shall be used which are common for all
standards under consideration.
Following this rule, the comparison of thickness, width, and flatness

tolerances for both hot rolled and cold rolled carbon steel flat products is
given in Figs. 19.42 through 19.47.
Fig. 19.42 Comparison of thickness tolerances of hot rolled carbon steel
strip.
Page 495
Fig. 19.43 Comparison of thickness tolerances of cold rolled carbon steel

strip.
Fig. 19.44 Comparison of width tolerances of hot rolled carbon steel
strip.
Page 496
Fig. 19.45 Comparison of width tolerances of cold rolled carbon steel

strip trimmed before cold rolling.
Fig. 19.46 Comparison of flatness tolerances of hot rolled carbon steel
strip.
Page 497
Fig. 19.47 Comparison of flatness tolerances of cold rolled carbon steel

strip.
19.18 Slab Tolerances

To achieve required dimensional tolerances in a hot strip mill it is
important that the geometry of the incoming slabs were within certain
tolerances. Table 19.11 shows typical tolerances for thick slabs.
Page 498
Table 19.11 Typical tolerances for thick slabs.

Page 499
Table 19.11 Cont. Typical tolerances for thick slabs.
References
1. ‘‘An Introduction to Steel Standards,” Steel Times, Vol. 218, March
1990; p. 161.
2. AISE Hot Strip Mill Profile and Flatness Study, Phase I, Association of
Iron and Steel Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa., Oct. 1986.
3. Ginzburg, V.B., Geometry of Flat Rolled Products, Rolling Mill

Technology Series, Vol. 2, United Engineering, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pa.,
1990.
4. Dinnen, S., “Can American Steel Find Quality?,” Industry Week, Jan.
20, 1992, pp. 36-38.
5. Davies, G.M., “Effects of Dimensional and Shape Deviation of Steel

Products on Automotive Processing Operations,” 5th International Rolling
Conference: Dimensional Control in Rolling Mills, London, Sept. 1990,
pp. 1-7.
6. Bentz, R.J., “The Container Maker’s Needs,” AISE Cold Strip Mill
Profile, Flatness and Surface Seminar, Association of Iron and Steel
Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa., Feb. 1992.
7. Habberley, P.J., “Market Requirements of Metal Packaging,” 5th
International Rolling Conference: Dimensional Control in Rolling Mills,
London, Sept. 1990, pp. 8-17.
8. Maucione, C.M., “Thickness Uniformity Requirements in Processing

Contemporary Lamination Steel,” AISE Cold Strip Mill Profile, Flatness
and Surface Seminar, Association of Iron and Steel Engineers,
Pittsburgh, Pa., Feb. 1992.
9. Rens, P.D., “Cold Rolled Sheet Steel Requirements for Appliance

Applications,” AISE Cold Strip Mill Profile, Flatness and Surface Seminar,
Association of Iron and Steel Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa., Feb. 1992.
10. DIN 1016, German Standard for Steel Flat Products; Hot Rolled
Sheet and Strip; Permissible Dimensional Deviations and Deviations of
Form and Mass, Deutsches Institut fur Normung e.V., Berlin, 1986.
11. DIN 1541, German Standard for Flat Steel Products; Cold Rolled
Wide Mill Strip and Sheet of Unalloyed Steels; Dimensions, Permissible
Variations on Dimension and Form, Deutsches Institut fur Normung e.V.,
Berlin, 1986.
Page 500
12. JIS G 3113, Japanese Industrial Standard for Hot Rolled Steel Plates,
Sheets, and Strip for Automobile Structural Uses, Japanese Standards
Association, Tokyo, 1987.
13. JIS G 3116, Japanese Industrial Standard for Steel Sheets, Plates,
and Strip for Gas Cylinders, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo,
1987.
14. JIS G 3131, Japanese Industrial Standard for Hot Rolled Mild Steel
Plates, Sheets, and Strip, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo, 1987.
15. JIS G 3132, Japanese Industrial Standard for Hot Rolled Carbon
Steel Strip for Pipes and Tubes, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo,
1987.
16. JIS G 3134, Japanese Industrial Standard for Hot Rolled High
Strength Steel Sheets with Improved Formability for Automobile
Structural Uses, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo, 1986.
17. JIS G 3193, Japanese Industrial Standard for Dimensions, Weight,

and Permissible Variations of Hot Rolled Steel Plates, Sheets, and Strip,
Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo, 1977, (reaffirmed 1985).
18. JIS G 3135, Japanese Industrial Standard for Cold Rolled High
Strength Steel Sheets with Improved Formability for Automobile
Structural Uses, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo, 1986.
19. JIS G 3141, Japanese Industrial Standard for Cold Rolled Carbon
Steel Sheets and Strip, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo, 1987.
Specification for Steel, Sheet, Carbon and High Strength, Low Alloy, Hot
Specification for Tin Mill Products, General Requirements, Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.06, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., 1988, pp. 143-168.
22. BS 1449, Part 1, British Standard for Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip,
Part 1, Specification for Carbon and Carbon-Manganese Plate, Sheet,
and Strip, British Standards Institution, London, 1983.
23. ISO 3574, International Standard for Cold Reduced Carbon Steel
Sheet of Commercial and Drawing Qualities, 2nd Edition, International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 1986.
Park, Ohio, 1981, p. 71.
25. Steel Products Manual # Sheet Steel: Carbon, High Strength Low
Alloy, and Alloy Coils and Cut Lengths (Including Coated Products), Iron
and Steel Society, Warrendale, Pa., Jan. 1988.
26. Steel Products Manual # Strip Steel: Carbon, High Strength Low
Alloy, and Alloy, Iron and Steel Society, Warrendale, Pa., Aug. 1988.
27. Steel Products Manual # Plates: Rolled Floor Plates, Carbon, High
Strength Low Alloy, and Alloy Steel, Iron and Steel Society, Warrendale,
Pa., May 1991.
28. Sheet Steel Thickness Tolerances as Frequently Specified for

Automotive Applications, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington,
D.C.
Page 501
29. Hongo, Y., et al, “Crown Control Technologies for Hot Strip Mill on
Modifying Existing Mills,” AISE Hot Strip Mill Profile and Flatness
Seminar, Association of Iron and Steel Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa., Nov.
1988.
30. Wood, G.E. and Wilbers, P., “The Major Upgrade to the Port Kembla
Hot Strip Mill Control System,” AISE Hot Strip Mill Profile and Flatness
Seminar, Association of Iron and Steel Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa., Nov.
1988.
Page 502
Chapter 20
STATISTICAL AND ANALYTICAL DIMENSIONAL
TOLERANCES
20.1 Upgrading and Unification of Standards

A review of the current standards for the geometry of flat rolled products
illustrates that the standards developed by the key steel producing
countries show a great diversity in definitions, values of tolerances, and
exclusions to the tolerances. Considering the international character of
the steel production process, efforts must be concentrated on unification
of these standards. In the development of unified standards, the following
two challenges should be pursued:
Presenting the tolerances in a more effective form

Considering the statistical character of the data related to the
geometry of flat rolled products.
The concept of presenting the existing standards in statistical and

analytical forms is discussed in more detail in the subsequent sections.
20.2 Principal Statistical Terms

The following principal statistical terms are commonly used with respect
to measurement: population, sample, sample mean, sample variance,
and standard deviation. These terms are described as follows [1]:
Population - Population is the entire set of data under consideration.
Sample - Sample is a representative part of the population.
Sample mean - Sample mean x̄ is calculated from the following equation:

Page 503
where
n
=
number of observations
xi i-th measured value.

=
Sample variance - Sample variance s2, which defines the dispersion of

the measured values from the mean, is found from the following
equation:
Standard deviation - Standard deviation s can then be computed by using

the square root of the sample variance, i.e.:
20.3 Histograms and Normal Distribution Curves

Statistical treatment of measured data is customarily performed by using
the terms range (R) and subrange or class (r) in application to a
histogram shown in Fig. 20.1
Fig. 20.1 Histogram.
Range R of the set data is determined by:

where
xmax
=
maximum measured value
xmin minimum measured value.

=
Page 504
Subrange or class r is defined by:

where
m number of equal subranges or classes.

=
To draw a histogram, the number of measurements in each class, which

are referred to as frequencies, is determined. The class boundaries are
drawn along a horizontal axis of the histogram. On the top of each
subrange or class is drawn a rectangle, whose height is proportional to
the frequencies.
Normal distribution curve - The normal distribution curve is a histogram

that corresponds to a very large number of measurements that can be
mathematically expressed by the following equation for a normal
distribution [2]:
where
x value of random variable (-∞ < x < ∞)

=
μ
=
mean of probability distribution
σ standard deviation of the mean.

=
Fig. 20.2 Normal distribution curve.
When the number of observations n is infinitely large, then x = µ and s =

σ. As shown in Fig. 20.2, this curve has its maximum at the point x = µ
and tapers off toward zero as x becomes either very large or very small.
The following significant conclusions can be derived from the normal
distribution curve representing a very large population:
Page 505
Approximately 68% of the population members lie within one

standard deviation of the mean.
Approximately 95% of the population members lie within two
standard deviations of the mean.
Approximately 99.7% of the population members lie within three
standard deviations of the mean.
20.4 Specified and Natural Tolerance Limits

Inherent in every phase of industrial quality control is the problem of
comparing the quality characteristics of the measurement of a finished
product against a given specification [1].
In application to the geometry of flat rolled products, the quality

characteristics are usually given in the form of specified tolerance limits.
If the production process is very well organized, one may expect that a
high proportion of coils will have deviations from the nominal dimensions
that fall within the specified tolerance limits.
The maximum deviations from the nominal dimensions that are provided
by a production process are called natural tolerance limits. The natural
tolerance limits are a function of the proportion P of the population that
have deviations from the nominal dimensions within the natural tolerance
limits. The relationship between the proportion P of the population and
the limits depends on the character of the distribution of measurements.
For a normal distribution of measurements with the mean µ and standard

deviation σ, the relationship between the proportion P of the population
and the symmetrical natural tolerance limits is given by the following
equation (Fig. 20.3):
where
UNL, LNL upper and lower natural tolerance limits respectively

=
m natural tolerance coefficient for normal population.

=
Fig. 20.3 Relationship between specified and natural tolerance limits.

Page 506
The natural tolerance coefficient for a normal population m depends on

the proportion P of the population. Each unit of the population has
deviations from the nominal dimensions within the natural tolerance limits
that are shown in Table 20.1. As follows from Eq. (20-7) and Table 20.1,
for a normal distribution, 99% of the normal population will have
deviations from the nominal dimensions within the tolerance limits of
±2.58 σ.
In most practical applications, the true values of m and σ are not known.
Nevertheless, it is possible to determine the symmetrical natural
tolerance limits by using the following equation [1]:
where
s
=
standard deviation of practical
sample
k natural tolerance coefficient for practical

=population.
Table 20.1 Natural tolerance

coefficients m for normal
population. Adapted from
Miller, et al [1] and Sachs [3].
Proportion of Natural
population P, tolerance
% coefficient, m
68.27 1.000
90.00 1.645
95.00 1.960
95.45 2.000
99.00 2.580
99.73 3.000
99.90 3.290
Table 20.2 presents the values of k as a function of the following three

parameters:
Proportion P of the population with all units within the proportion

having deviations from the nominal dimensions within the natural
tolerance limits.
Confidence level C in the fact that all units in the proportion P have
deviations from the nominal dimensions within the natural
tolerance limits.
Sample size n.
For example, by using Eq. (20-8) and Table 20.2, one can assert with a
confidence level of 99% that for a practical population with 100 samples,
95% of the population will have deviations from the nominal dimensions
within the tolerance limits of ±2.355s.
Page 507
Table 20.2 Natural tolerance coefficients k for

practical population. Adapted from Miller, et
al[1].
Confidence level C, %
95 99
Sample size n
Proportion of population P, %
95 99 95 99
20
2.752 3.615 3.168 4.161
40
2.445 3.213 2.677 3.518
80
2.272 2.986 2.414 3.173
100
2.233 2.934 2.355 3.096
200
2.143 2.816 2.222 2.921
500
2.070 2.721 2.117 2.783
1000
2.033 2.676 2.068 2.718
∞ 2.160 2.576 1.960 2.576

20.5 Process Capability Index
The process capability index establishes the relationship between the
natural (UNL - LNL) and specified (USL - LSL) tolerance intervals and is
determined from the following equation [4]:
The following three cases are shown in Fig. 20.4:
a) Cp < 1: The natural tolerance interval is greater than the specified

tolerance interval. In this case, a portion of the products will not conform
to the requirements of the specification.
b) Cp = 1: The process capability is exactly at the level that is just
sufficient to meet the requirements of the specification.
c) Cp > 1: The process has greater capability than what is required to
conform to the specified tolerances.
If the tolerance limits are symmetrical (USL = LSL = SL and UNL = LNL =
NL), then for a normal population, we can obtain from Eqs. (20-7) and
(20-9) the process capability index Cp that is equal to the following:
where
SL one-half of the specified symmetrical tolerance interval.

=
Page 508
Similarly, for a practical population, we can consider Eqs. (20-8) and (20-
9) and find the following expression for the process capability index Cp:
Fig. 20.4 Histograms corresponding to various values of process

capability index Cp.
20.6 Specifying Tolerances in Statistical Terms

When a production process is under complete control, one can assume
that all systematic errors are eliminated and only random errors remain.
To specify tolerances in terms of standard deviation, it is necessary to
assign a value for the process capability index Cp. For symmetrical
tolerances, we can then calculate the standard deviation σ for a normal
population from Eq. (20-10) as follows:
and for a practical population from Eq. (20-11):
Page 509
Let us consider an example in application to a normal population with a

selected proportion P of the population equal to 99%. From Table 20.1,
we find that m = 2.58, therefore, for Cp = 1, we can obtain from Eq. (20-
12) the following expression for standard deviation σ:
Thus, if the standard deviation σ is equal or less than 0.39 times the
specified tolerance ± SL, then 99% of the units of the entire population
will be within the specified tolerance ± SL. Let us consider another
example in application to a practical population of 100 samples with the
selected proportion P of the population equal to 99%. Assuming the
confidence level C = 99%, we can find from Table 20.2 that k = 3.096.
Therefore, for Cp = 1, we can obtain from Eq. (20-13) the following
expression for the standard deviation s:
Thus, if the standard deviation s for 100 samples of data is equal or less
than 0.32 times the specified tolerance ± SL, then we can believe with a
99% confidence level that 99% of the samples of the entire population
will be within the specified tolerance ± SL. The non-statistical tolerance
limits SL that are specified by the standards, can be then converted into
statistical tolerances such as standard deviation s (Fig. 20.5).
Fig. 20.5 Quality control utilizing non-statistical and statistical terms.
Page 510
20.7 Analytical Presentation of Tolerances

Nearly all of the existing standards for the geometry of flat rolled products
present tolerances in the form of tables. The tables establish the ranges
of the product thickness, widths, and lengths within which certain
tolerances must be maintained. The following deficiencies exist in this
form of presenting these tolerances:
Step changes occur in tolerances from one thickness range to

another. For example, according to American Standard ASTM A
568 [5], for widths up to 1829 mm (72 in.), the thickness tolerance
for strip thickness of 0.49 mm (0.1093 in.) is 50% greater than for
strip thickness of 0.48 mm (0.0189 in.).
Step changes occur in the tolerances from one width range to
another and are often as large as 20%.
Introduction of smaller ranges leads to an increased amount of
data to be established and later maintained during any upgrading
of the standards.
Most geometrical tolerances are presented in absolute values.
However, in many cases, it is more convenient to use relative
tolerances.
During the rolling process, there are no step changes in the rolling
conditions when small increments in geometry of the rolled product are
made. Therefore, step changes in the tolerances that are provided by the
existing tolerance tables are not warranted. The best way of providing a
smooth dependence of tolerances on the nominal thickness and width of
the product is by expressing the tolerances in an analytical form. Both
absolute and relative tolerances are considered in the following sections.
Absolute tolerances - As shown in Figs. 20.6 and 20.7, the absolute

thickness tolerances for cold rolled products that are specified by various
standards [5-12] can be closely approximated by using regression
analysis with the following equation:
where
e absolute thickness tolerance, mm

=
h product nominal thickness, mm

=
w product nominal width, mm

=
A, B, C, D, wo = constants which values are shown in Figs. 20.6 and 20.7.
Relative tolerances - The relative thickness tolerances Y can be readily

calculated from the absolute tolerances using the following formula:
Page 511
Figures 20.8 and 20.9 graphically illustrate the relative thickness

tolerances for cold rolled products that were calculated using Eq. (20-17).
These relative tolerances utilize the absolute thickness tolerances that
are specified by various standards and are approximated by using
regression analysis with the following equation:
where
A, B, C, D, wo = constants which values are shown in Figs. 20.8 and

20.9.
Fig. 20.6 Analytical presentation of absolute thickness tolerances

specified by German [8] and Japanese [12] standards for cold rolled
products.
Page 512
Fig. 20.7 Analytical presentation of absolute thickness tolerances
specified by American [5], British [11], and International [9] standards.
Page 513
Fig. 20.8 Analytical presentation of relative thickness tolerances
specified by German [8], Japanese [12], and American [5] standards for
cold rolled products.
Page 514
Fig. 20.9 Analytical presentation of relative thickness tolerances

specified by British [11] and International [9] standards.
Examining Figs. 20.6 through 20.9 shows that the thickness tolerances
that are presented by the standards in table form can be replaced with
high accuracy by the analytical Eqs. (20-16) or (20-18) with each of them
containing only five constants. When presenting tolerances in statistical
terms, the natural tolerance limit coefficient k in Eq. (20-13) can also be
approximated with the following equation (Fig. 20.10):
where
n
=
number of samples
A, B, C constants which values are shown in Fig. 20.10.

=
Page 515
Fig. 20.10 Natural tolerance limit coefficient.
20.8 Performance of Dofasco 68 in. Hot Strip Mill

The Dofasco 68 in. hot strip mill was built in 1983 and rolled 100% of its
product directly from ingots through a large reversing slabbing/roughing
mill and a 5-stand finishing mill to a single downcoiler [13]. The finishing
mill stands were equipped with mechanical screwdown roll gap control
systems which were able to achieve a thickness performance of ±0.05
mm for 98% of the full coil length.
Fig. 20.11 Layout of Dofasco 68 in. semi-continuous hot strip mill in

1989.
In 1989, Dofasco completed a modernization program of the hot strip mill
that resulted in the installation of the following mill equipment as shown in
Fig. 20.11 and Table 20.3:
Two reheat furnaces to provide the capability for rolling from

continuously cast slabs.
Two additional finishing mill stands.
Work roll side shifting with a stroke of ±75 mm for all stands.
Positive (crown-in) roll bending for all stands.
Page 516
Negative (crown-out) roll bending for the last four stands.

Hydraulic roll gap control system for the last four stands.
Two additional downcoilers.
The gauge, flatness, crown, and width performance of the mill are
presented in Tables 20.4 through 20.9.
Table 20.3 Equipment for finishing stands of Dofasco

1727 mm (68 in.) hot strip mill. Data from Holten [13].
Mill stand
Equipment
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7
Hydraulic roll gap control No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Positive work roll bending YesYesYes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Negative work roll bending No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Work roll shifting YesYesYes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Table 20.4 Head end gauge

performance of Dofasco 1727
mm (68 in.) hot strip mill. Data
from Holten [13].
Gauge Standard deviation

range, mm (σ), mm
Less than
2.50 0.0225
From 2.50
to 7.19 0.0190
Greater than
7.19 0.0218
Table 20.5 Full coil gauge performance of

Dofasco 1727 mm (68 in.) hot strip mill. Data
from Holten [13].
Strip length, %
Gauge range,
mm within ± 0.025 within ± 0.050
mm mm
Less than 2.50

97.0 99.2
From 2.50 to
7.19 96.9 99.3
Greater than
7.19 86.7 98.0
Table 20.6 Strip flatness performance of

Dofasco 1727 mm (68 in.) hot strip mill. Data
from Holten [13].
Strip length within 25 I-units,

Gauge range, %
mm
head end tail end
Less than 2.50

91.6 95.7
From 2.50 to
7.19 82.8 92.4
Greater than
7.19 93.0 98.1
Page 517
Table 20.7 Flatness error for all coils produced

by Dofasco 1727 mm (68 in.) hot strip mill.
Date from Holten [13].
Flatness error, I-units

Flatness error parameter
head end tail end
Mean value (μ)

4.8 4.5
Standard deviation (σ)

22.8 16.5
Table 20.8 Head end strip crown performance at Dofasco 1727

mm (68 in.) hot strip mill. Data from Holten [13].
Gauge Distance from strip edge Target strip crown, mm

range, excluded from
mm measurements 0
0.080
μ, mm σ, mmμ, mmσ, mm
All 19
products 0.015 0.0330.0610.031
51
0.000 0.0190.0200.016
Less than 19
3 0.040 0.0270.0580.029
51
0.008 0.0130.0170.013
From 3 to 19 0.008 0.0280.0670.033
5
51
-0.0050.0160.0260.018
Greater 19
than 5 0.000 0.0390.0410.027
51
-0.0040.0230.0160.017
Table 20.9 Strip width performance at Dofasco

1727 mm (68 in.) hot strip mill. Data from
Holten [13].
Standard Strip length, %

deviation (σ), for the width
Parameter mm within
± 3 mm ± 6 mm
Roughing mill
exit average 1.80 91.5 98.7
width
Finishing mill ….
exit strip body 71.3 90.8
width
Full length rolled ….

60.4 87.1
20.9 Effect of Hydraulic Gap Control on Gauge Performance

The effect of the number of stands that are equipped with hydraulic gap
control systems on the gauge performance of a hot strip mill is based on
data from Hewitt and Earnshaw [14] and illustrated in Tables 20.10 and
20.11.
Page 518
Table 20.10 Gauge performance of hot

strip mill with hydraulic automatic
gauge control (HAGC) installed in last
three finishing stands. Data from Hewitt
and Earnshaw [14].
Finish Gauge Strip length

gauge tolerance within tolerance
mm mm %
± 0.035 98
1.8
± 0.040 98
2.4
± 0.045 97
3.3
± 0.055 96
4.5
± 0.065 95
8.0
Table 20.11 Gauge performance of hot strip mill with

hydraulic automatic guage control (HAGC) installed in
six finishing stands. Data from Hewitt and Earnshaw
[14].
Finish Gauge Strip length Gauge Strip length

gauge, tolerance, within tolerance, within
mm mm tolerance, % mm tolerance, %
± 0.025 99 ± 0.035
1.8 99.6
± 0.030 99 ± 0.040
2.4 99.6
± 0.035 98 ± 0.045
3.3 99.2
± 0.045 97 ± 0.055
4.5 98.5
± 0.050 97 ± 0.065
8.0 98.5
References
1. Miller, I.,et al, Probability and Statistics for Engineers, 4th Edit.,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1990.
2. Newbold, P., Statistics for Business and Economics, Prentice Hall,

3. Sachs, L., Applied Statistics, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1982.
4. Evans, J.R., Statistical Process Control for Quality Improvement: A

Training Guide to Learning SPC, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1991.

Specification for Steel, Sheet, Carbon and High Strength, Low Alloy, Hot

Specification for Tin Mill Products, General Requirements, Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Vol. 01.06, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., 1988, pp. 143-168.
7. DIN 1016, German Standard for Steel Flat Products; Hot Rolled Sheet
and Strip; Permissible Dimensional Deviations and Deviations of Form
and Mass, Deutsches Institut fur Normung e.V., Berlin, 1986.
Page 519
8. DIN 1541, German Standard for Flat Steel Products; Cold Rolled Wide
Mill Strip and Sheet of Unalloyed Steels; Dimensions, Permissible
Variations on Dimension and Form, Deutsches Institut fur Normung e.V.,
Berlin, 1986.
9. ISO 3574, International Standard for Cold Reduced Carbon Steel

Sheet of Commercial and Drawing Qualities, 2nd Edition, International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva, 1986.
10. JIS G 3193, Japanese Industrial Standard for Dimensions, Weight,

and Permissible Variations of Hot Rolled Steel Plates, Sheets, and Strip,
Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo, 1977 (reaffirmed 1985).
11. BS 1449, Part 1, British Standard for Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip,
Part 1, Specification for Carbon and Carbon-Manganese Plate, Sheet,
and Strip, British Standards Institution, London, 1983.
12. JIS G 3141, Japanese Industrial Standard for Cold Rolled Carbon
Steel Sheets and Strip, Japanese Standards Association, Tokyo, 1987.
13. Holten, L.J., ‘‘Automation Enhancements at Dofasco’s No. 2 Hot Strip

Mill,” Iron and Steel Engineer, Jan. 1990, pp. 42-50.
14. E.C. Hewitt and E. Earnshaw, “Technical Options for Modernizing Hot
Strip Mills,” Restructuring Steelplants for the Nineties, Institute of Metals,
London, 1986, pp. 85-95.
Page 520

Page 521
Part VI
GAUGE CONTROL
Page 522

Page 523
Chapter 21
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT OF ROLLING
PARAMETERS
21.1 Process of Measurement

When a physical quantity, property, or condition is observed and
measured, it is usually referred to as a measurand [1]. Hence, examples
of measurands in the flat rolling process are the geometrical parameters
of the rolled product or the process parameters, such as roll separating
force, hydraulic pressure, temperature, and flow rate of the cooling fluid.
The process of measurement involves obtaining a quantitative

comparison between a predefined standard and a measurand. The
standards for measurement are usually prescribed by one of the following
recognized agencies or organizations:
National Institute of Standards and Technology, formerly National

Bureau of Standards (NBS)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Fig. 21.1 Fundamental measuring process utilizing direct comparison

method.
For example, if the thickness of a rolled product is measured in

millimeters, the value of a
Page 524
millimeter shall be the same as prescribed by the respective standard.
Figure 21.1 illustrates an example of a fundamental measuring process.

In this process, the measurand is the input quantity to the measuring
process. This quantity is compared to a standard during the process
measurement which then produces a result or readout as the output
quantity.
21.2 Basic Methods of Measurement

The following two basic methods of measurement are known [1]:
Direct comparison method

Indirect comparison method.
Direct comparison method - The direct comparison method involves a

comparison of a measurand with either a primary or a secondary
standard which has the same physical nature as the measurand (Fig.
21.1). The measurement of the strip width with a steel tape is a typical
example of an application of the direct comparison method.
The standards that are used in routine measurements are called

secondary standards. The ancestry of these secondary standards can be
traced back through no more than four generations to a primary standard.
The primary standard is usually related to a physical parameter that can
be established and reproduced with very high accuracy. For example, the
primary length standard is the specific radiation wavelength from the
element Krypton 86.
Indirect comparison method - The application of the direct comparison

method may not be very productive and sometimes even impractical in
many industrial processes such as rolling. The indirect comparison
method is the main method that is widely used in contemporary
measurement and control systems.
The indirect comparison method of measurement consists of two stages

as shown in Fig. 21.2. The first stage involves converting both the
standard and measurand into the type of output parameters that are
convenient for further processing. Most commonly, the output parameters
are electrical signals that are either analog or digital. The second stage of
measurement provides a comparison of the first stage output parameters
related to the standard and measurand.
Fig. 21.2 Fundamental measuring process utilizing indirect comparison

method.
A typical example of an application of the indirect comparison method in

a rolling mill is the
Page 525
process of measuring the strip thickness during rolling. The standard can
be readily converted to an electrical signal. For example, the output
signal of 10 volts can correspond to a standard thickness of 1 mm. The
same conversion scale of 10 v/mm can be used for the conversion of the
measured thickness so that the comparison of the measured thickness
with the standard can be made in volts. The device that converts a
physical quantity into an electrical signal is known as a transducer.
21.3 Nature of Measured Parameters in Rolling Mills

The parameters that are measured in rolling mills can be classified into
the following three distinct groups:
1. Load parameters of rolling mills including:
Main drive load parameters (voltage, current, speed, power, and

frequency)
Roll load parameters (roll separating force, rolling torque, roll
bending and balance forces).
Fig. 21.3 Major types of transducers used in rolling mills.
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Fig. 21.3 Cont. Major types of transducers used in rolling mills.
1. Process parameters of the principal auxiliary equipment including:
Reheat furnace parameters (zone temperatures, air-to-fuel ratio,

and slab pushing rate)
Descaling water parameters (pressure and flow rate)
Roll coolant fluid parameters (pressure, flow rate, viscosity, and
temperature)
Strip cooling water parameters (pressure, flow rate, and
temperature).
Rolled product parameters including:

Geometrical parameters (thickness, width, length, camber, profile,
flatness, and coil telescope)
Metallurgical parameters (temperature and surface conditions).
Page 527
21.4 Purpose and Classification of Transducers

A transducer is defined as a device that provides a usable output in
response to a specified measurand [2]. The output often has dimensions
that are different from the input. For example, the transducer for
measuring the roll separating force may convert the measured quantity of
the roll separating force into an electrical output signal that is expressed
in volts.
Transducers are normally classified according to a certain measured

parameter. The transducers that are most commonly used in rolling mills
are shown in Fig. 21.3.
21.5 Purpose and Classification of Sensors

The transformation of a measurand into an output is generally performed
by a transducer in two or more stages. Each stage of the transformation
usually makes use of a physical phenomenon that explicitly reveals the
effects of the input parameter on the output parameter.
The part of a transducer that performs a single-stage transformation can

be further called a sensor. Based on the utilized physical phenomenon,
sensors can be classified into the types shown in Table 21.1.
Table 21.1 Classification of sensors. Adapted from

Beckwith and Marangoni [1,9].
Type of sensor
Input parameter
Output parameter
Elastic:
Tension load cell Tensile force Linear
Compression loadCompressive force displacement
cell Bending force Linear
Bending load cell Torque displacement
Torsion load cell Force Linear
Proving ring Pressure displacement
Bourdon tube Pressure Angular
Bellows Pressure displacement
Diaphragm Force Displacement
Helical spring Pressure Displacement
Liquid column Displacement
Displacement
Linear
displacement
Displacement
Inertial:
Seismic mass Forcing function Relative
Pendulum Gravitational displacement
Pendulum acceleration Frequency or
Liquid column Force period
Pressure Displacement
Displacement
Thermal:
Thermocouple Temperature Electric current
Bimaterial Temperature Displacement
Thermoresistive Temperature Electrical
Chemical Temperature resistance
composition Chemical phase
Page 528
Table 21.1 Cont.

Type of sensor
Input parameter
Output parameter
Hydropneumatic:
Float Fluid level Displacement
Hydrometer Specific Relative
Obstruction meter gravity displacement
Pressure probes Fluid Pressure
Pitot tube velocity Pressure
Vanes Fluid Pressure
Turbines velocity Force
Fluid Angular velocity
velocity
Velocity
Linear
velocity
Electrical resistive:
Contacting (switch) Displacement Electrical
Variable length Displacementresistance
conductor Displacement Electrical
Variable area resistance
conductor Electrical
resistance
Inductive:
Variable coil DisplacementInductance
dimension DisplacementInductance
Variable air gap DisplacementInductance
Variable core material DisplacementInductance
Variable core position DisplacementInductance
Variable coil position Velocity Inductance
Moving coil Velocity Inductance
Moving core Velocity Inductance
Moving permanent Inductance
magnet
Capacitive:
Variable air gap DisplacementCapacitance
Variable plate area DisplacementCapacitance
Variable dielectric DisplacementCapacitance
Piezoelectric:
Direct DisplacementVoltage
Inverse Voltage Displacement
Photoelectric:
Photovoltaic Light Voltage
Photoresistive intensity Electric resistance
Photoemissive Light Electric current
intensity
Light
intensity
Magnetoelastic:
Direct Stress Magnetic
Inverse Magnetic properties
(magnetostrictive) field Elongation
Radiation absorption Thickness
Density
Voltage
Doppler
Velocity
Velocity
Page 529
21.6 Performance Characteristics of Transducers

Performance characteristics of transducers are commonly categorized as
follows [2]:
Static characteristics - Static characteristics describe the performance at

room temperature conditions, with very slow changes in the measurand.
Room conditions are established, in general, to be a temperature of 25
±10°C, a relative humidity of 90% or less, and a barometric pressure of
880 to 1080 µbar.
Dynamic characteristics - Dynamic characteristics relate the performance

of a transducer to variations of the measurand with time.
Environmental characteristics - Environmental characteristics relate the

performance of a transducer to its exposure to external conditions such
as temperature, vibration, and shock.
Reliability characteristics - Reliability characteristics relate to the life

expectancy of a transducer and to any hazards that may be presented by
its malfunction to the system in which it is intended to operate.
Theoretical characteristics - Theoretical characteristics indicate the ideal

behavior of a transducer as defined by the relationship between the
output and the input in the form of a table of values, a graph, or a
mathematical equation.
Noise characteristics - The effects that produce changes in the output

signal, but are not related to the input signal are called noise. Noise
characteristics cause modification of the transducer response due to
variations in temperature, humidity, electromagnetic surroundings,
corrosive atmosphere, aging of transducer elements, and other effects.
21.7 Static Characteristics of Transducers

In the technical literature, there are numerous definitions of the static
characteristics of transducers that are often contradictory to each other.
Several of these definitions are listed as follows [2-6]:
Error of measurement - Error of measurement is the algebraic difference
between the result of measurement and the true value of the quantity
measured. The two types of errors that are frequently identified are
absolute errors and relative errors.
Absolute error Ea is expressed in specific units of measurement, i.e.:

where
Um
=
result of measurement
Ut true value of quantity measured.

=
Relative error er can be expressed either as a percentage of the true

value of the quantity measured Ut, ie.:
Page 530
or as a percentage of some specified value, usually full scale indication

Uf, i.e.:
In the strictest sense, a true value is never really known. Therefore, either
conventional or theoretical true values are used. For example, if the
calibration of a pressure meter, having a maximum permissible error of
±0.5%, is verified by means of a standard pressure gage having an error
of indication in the same range not greater than ±0.05%, then the
standard pressure gage will indicate the conventional true value of
pressure.
Repeatability - Repeatability is the closeness of agreement of a group of

measurements of the same measured quantity made by the same
observer, using the same conditions, methods, and apparatus. This is
affected by internal noise and drift. For example, if a displacement
transducer is repeatedly subjected to an accurately known displacement,
then its repeatability would be ±0.1% if all the readings lay within these
limits (Fig. 21.4).
Fig. 21.4 Repeatability of measurement.
Precision - Precision is a measure of repeatability. The terms precision

and repeatability are practically synonymous.
Sensitivity - Sensitivity is the ratio of the change in the magnitude of the

instrument output to the corresponding change in the magnitude of the
instrument input, sometimes termed (incremental) gain or scale factor.
Thus, the sensitivity S at the point A (Fig. 21.5) is equal to:
where
ΔUo change in magnitude of instrument output

=
ΔUi change in magnitude of instrument input

=
Page 531
α slope angle.
=
Fig. 21.5 Sensitivity.
Linearity - Most instruments are designed so that the output is a linear

function of the input (Fig. 21.6). Linearity is the maximum deviation El of
the output of an instrument from a best-fitting straight line at any
measurand value Ui. Linearity is based on the type of straight line fitted to
the calibration data. For example, ‘‘least-squares linearity” is referenced
to that straight line for which the sum of the squares of the residuals is
minimized. The term “residual” refers to the deviations of output readings
from their corresponding values on the straight line fitted through the
data. Linearity is often expressed as a percentage of full scale.
Fig. 21.6 Linearity.
Hysteresis - Hysteresis is the maximum difference in output Eh (Fig.

21.7), at any measurand value Ui within the specified range, when the
value is approached first with an increasing and then with a decreasing
measurand. Hysteresis is typically caused by a lag in the action of the
sensing element of the transducer. Loading the instrument initially
through a cycle of increasing values followed by decreasing values of the
measurand provides a hysteresis loop. Hysteresis is usually expressed
as a percentage of full-scale output.
Page 532
Fig. 21.7 Hysteresis.
Threshold - Threshold is the minimum input for which there will be an

output. Below this minimum input, the instrument will read zero.
Dead band - Dead band is the largest change of the measurand to which
the instrument does not respond and is produced by friction, backlash, or
hysteresis in the instrument.
Resolution (Discrimination) - Resolution is the smallest increment of the

measurand that can be detected with certainty by the instrument. For
example, if a digital instrument has a maximum reading of 999, its
resolution is 1 or 1 in 999.
Drift (Creep) - Drift is a change in output that occurs over a specific time
period while the measurand is held constant at a value other than zero,
and all environmental conditions are held constant. Drift may be caused
by internal temperature changes and component instability.
Fig. 21.8 Backlash.
Zero drift - Zero drift is the change in output from its set zero value over a
specified period of time. Zero drift occurs due to changes in ambient
conditions, changes in electrical conditions, aging of components, or
mechanical damage. The error that is introduced may be significant when
a transducer is used for long-term measurement.
Page 533
Zero stability - Zero stability is the measure of the ability of the instrument
to restore to a zero reading after the measurand has returned to zero,
and other variations (temperature, pressure, humidity, vibration, etc.)
have been removed.
Backlash - Backlash is the maximum distance or angle through which

any part of a mechanical system may be moved in one direction without
applying appreciable force or motion to the next part in a mechanical
sequence. For example, if there is a backlash in a screwdown
mechanism of a rolling mill stand, then the relationship between the
angular positions of the screw and the output of the angular position
transducer installed at the wormgear shaft will be similar to the one
depicted in Fig. 21.8.
Static friction - Static friction, or sticking friction is the force or torque that
is necessary to initiate motion from rest.
Error band - Error band is the band of maximum deviation of output

values from a specified reference line or curve. A static error band is
obtained by static calibration and is determined on the basis of the
maximum deviations that are observed over at least two consecutive
calibration cycles so as to include repeatability. Error band accounts for
deviations that may be due to nonlinearity, nonrepeatability, hysteresis,
zero-shift, sensitivity shift, and so forth (Fig. 21.9) and is a convenient
way to specify transducer behavior when individual types of deviations
need not be specified nor determined [5].
Fig. 21.9 Static error band. Adapted from Nachtigal [2].
21.8 Static Calibration of Measuring Systems

Static calibration is the process of measuring the static characteristics of
an instrument and involves applying a range of known values of static
input to the instrument and recording the corresponding output. The data
obtained are presented in a tabular or graphic form [2]. For example, a
pressure gage is calibrated by a device called a dead weight tester,
where known pressures are applied to the gage and the output of the
gage is recorded over its complete range of operation.
The calibration signal should, as closely as possible, be the same as the

type of input signal to be measured. Static calibration should include both
increasing and decreasing values of the known input signal along with a
repetition of the input signal. This allows one to determine the hysteresis
as well as the repeatability of the measuring system. The sensitivity of
the measuring system is obtained from the slope of a suitable line or
curve that is plotted through the calibration points at any
Page 534
level of the input signal (Fig. 21.5).
21.9 Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers

The dynamic characteristics of a transducer describe the relationship
between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when
the instrument output response attains a steady value. These
characteristics are defined by differential equations. The type of dynamic
response characteristic depends on the order of the differential equation
[7].
Zero order instrument - The differential equation for a zero order

instrument reduces to the form:
where
qo output quantity
=
qi input quantity
=
static sensitivity.
K =
The zero order instrument output responds and reaches its steady value
almost instantaneously following a step change in the measured quantity
that is applied to its input.
First order instrument - The dynamic characteristics of a first order

instrument are described by the following differential equation:
where
a1, a, bo constants
=
t time.
=
The solution of Eq. (21-6) is given by:
where
a1/ao = time constant

T =
bo/ao = static sensitivity

K =
s Laplace operator.
=
The time constant T is defined as the time taken for the output quantity
qo to reach 63% of its
Page 535
final value. In a first order instrument, the output quantity qo, in response
to a step change in the measured quantity qi, varies with time in the
manner shown in Fig. 21.10.
Fig. 21.10 Time response characteristics of first order instrument.

Adapted from Morris [7].
Fig. 21.11 Time response characteristics of second order instrument.

Adapted from Morris [7].
Second order instrument - The differential equation describing the

dynamic characteristics of a second order instrument has the form:
where
a1, a, bo = constants.
The solution of Eq. (21-8) is given by:

Page 536
where
ω ao/a2 = undumped natural frequency

=
ξ a1(2aoa2) = damping ratio

=
bo/ao = static sensitivity.

K=
The time response characteristics of a second order instrument are

greatly dependent on the static sensitivity K, undumped natural frequency
ω, and damping ratio ξ. The time required to achieve steady conditions
depends mainly on the damping ratio as shown in Fig. 21.11.
21.10 Analysis of Errors

Every measurement (except for the counting of numbers, which can be
made without any error) is accompanied by an error. The two types of
errors are systematic and random and can be defined as follows [2]:
Systematic errors - Systematic errors are of a consistent form and result

from conditions or procedures that are correctable. These types of errors
may generally be eliminated by calibration.
Random errors - Random errors are accidental errors that occur in all
measurements. These errors are inconsistent by nature and their origin
can not be determined in the measurement process. In general, an error
always has two components: a systematic component and a random
component. It is assumed that accidental errors and major blunders have
been avoided. The examples of systematic errors are the static or
dynamic instrument errors, zero offset, incorrect calibration, etc. The
errors caused by sporadic noise or by inconsistent reading of the results
of measurements are typical examples of random errors. These random
errors can be estimated by statistical analysis.
21.11 Propagation of Errors

Indirect measurements are often obtained by using a number of direct
measurements. For example, when several sheets are put on top each
other, the overall thickness of the pack can indirectly be measured if
direct measurements of the thicknesses of each sheet are made.
Each direct measurement contains a random error. The laws of

probability establish the relationships between the error of indirect
measurement and the random errors of direct measurements. These
relationships depend on the type of mathematical operation to be
performed to obtain the indirect measurement as illustrated in the
following sections [8].
Addition of values containing errors - When n quantities are added, each

containing an error Ei, their sum Esum is equal to:
Page 537
Subtraction of values containing errors - When the quantity containing an

error E1 is subtracted from the quantity containing an error E2, the
resulting error Ediff is equal to:
Multiplication of values containing errors - When multiplying two

quantities A and B that contain errors Ea and Eb respectively, the
resulting error Eprod is equal to:
Division of values containing errors - Similarly to the multiplication case,

the resulting error in a quotient Equot is equal to:
21.12 Compatibility of Tolerances with Measurement Technology

A contemporary measuring system implements the following processes
(Fig. 21.12):
Signal sensing by transducer

Signal conditioning
Data transmission
Signal recovery
Data processing.
It is only natural that the signal treatment provided by each of these

processes is accompanied by an error. These errors can be either
legitimate, which are attributed to the limitations of the selected
technology or illegitimate, which are caused by improper treatment of the
measured signals. For the purpose of establishing the proper specified
tolerances, only legitimate errors shall be considered.
The following types of errors can occur during signal treatment [1,7,10-
23]:
Signal sensing errors, including the errors described earlier in this

chapter.
Page 538
Signal conditioning errors, including:
Signal conditioning drift

Signal conditioning noise
Signal conditioning modulation-demodulation error.
Data transmission errors, including:
Analog-digital signal conversion error

Signal sampling error
Signal modulation-demodulation error
Multiplexing error.
Signal recovery errors, including:
Signal filtering error

Signal averaging error
Signal correlation error.
Fig. 21.12 General functional diagram of a measuring system.
If we assume, that all of the errors listed above are random, then the
overall error of the measurement can be calculated based on the formula
for propagation of errors. In the case of the addition of n values
containing errors, the overall error Esum is given by the Eq. (21-10).
As an example, let us calculate the overall error of measurement for the

system shown in Fig. 21.12. If there are 14 errors (n = 14) that are
produced during the various stages of signal treatment and assuming
that each of these errors is equal to ±0.25%, we can determine from Eq.
(21-10) that the overall error of measurement Esum is ± 0.94%. These
approximate calculations show that when one-quarter of the ASTM
thickness tolerances are specified, the overall error may become
comparable with the tolerances.
21.13 Avoiding Illegitimate Errors of Measurement

Illegitimate errors are caused by improper treatment of the measured
signals and can be avoided by
Page 539
abiding by the following rules:
The selected carrier frequency fc, sampling frequency fp,

frequency and pulse modulation bandwidths fb, time-division
multiplex sampling rate fs, etc., should be selected with respect to
the highest frequency component fh in the signal as prescribed by
the conditions shown in Table 21.2.
The highest frequency components of the signal fh should not be
interpreted as random noise and subsequently filtered.
Table 21.2 Conditions for minimizing errors of

measurement. Adapted from Jones [3].
Parameter Condition for minimizing

error of measurement
AC signal conditioner fc ≥ 5 fh
carrier frequency
Signal sampling fp ≥ 5 fh
frequency
Frequency fb ≥ 2(D + fh)

modulation
bandwidth
Pulse modulation fb ≥ N fbo

bandwidth
Time-division fs ≥ 5 fh
multiplex sampling
rate
In Table 21.2:
fh highest frequency component in the signal

=
maximum deviation in carrier frequency from unmodulated frequency
D=
number of digits in binary code

N=
fbo bandwidth of original signal prior to modulation.

=
To illustrate these points, Fig. 21.13 shows a sampling of a thickness

deviation signal. Thickness deviation is assumed to be caused by backup
roll eccentricity and work roll ovality, with the roll eccentricity contributing
twice as much to the deviation as the ovality.
Figures 21.13b and 21.13c compare the original signal, which is shown in
Fig. 21.13a, with the output signals that are obtained by scanning the
original signal every 10 µs and averaging the scanned signal every 100
µs. A comparison of Figs. 21.13b and 21.13c clearly shows that the
goodness of fit of the output signals after scanning and averaging with
the input signal is greatly affected by mill speed. A good fitness of the
output signals was obtained for a mill speed of 1000 ft/min (Fig. 21.13b).
However, for a mill speed of 5000 ft/min (Fig. 21.13c), the sampling and
averaging produces a substantial attenuation of the original signal.
21.14 Avoiding Sampling Errors

The nature of measuring the geometrical parameters of flat rolled
products in a rolling mill is very similar to sampling inspection. Even when
a continuous measurement of the strip thickness is
Page 540
possible, it is generally done only for the center portion of the strip
leaving the remaining portions unchecked.
Fig. 21.13 Sampling of thickness deviation signal: a) original output, b)
sampling at mill speed of 1000 ft/min, and c) sampling at mill speed of
5000 ft/min.
Page 541
When data acquisition technology is utilized in a mill, the strip thickness

will be measured in a discrete form with a certain pitch along the strip
centerline as shown in Fig. 21.14. This sampling pitch is a function of the
sampling rate and strip speed. For example, if the strip speed is 4800
ft/min (80 ft/s) and the sampling rate is 10 µs, the sampling pitch will be
equal to 0.8 ft.
Fig. 21.14 Sampling of thickness along centerline of strip.
The errors of measurement along the strip centerline can be avoided or

substantially reduced by selecting adequate sampling rates and by
following the proper signal treatment rules. The question, however, still
remains as to what type of sampling of the strip thickness across the strip
width shall be provided to ensure compliance with the specification
requirements for the remaining portions of the strip. Since the thickness
measurement of the entire strip area may be impractical, the possibility of
improved sampling should be considered by providing additional
thickness gages that are targeted to measure the portions of the strip
between the strip centerline and its edges.
References
1. Beckwith, T.G. and Marangoni, R.D., Mechanical Measurements, 4th
Edition, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1990.
2. Nachtigal, C.L. (Ed.), Instrumentation and Control: Fundamentals and

Applications, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1990.
3. Jones, B.E., Instrumentation, Measurement, and Feedback, McGraw-

Hill, London, 1977.
4. Yothers, M.T. (Ed.), Standards and Practices for Instrumentation, 5th

Edition, Instrument Society of America, Durham, N.C., 1977.
5. Norton, H.N., Sensor and Analyzer Handbook, Prentice-Hall,

6. ‘‘Electrical F.H. F.H. Transducer Nomenclature and Terminology,” ANSI

Standard MC 6.1-1975 (ISA S37.1), Instrument Society of America,
Durham, N.C., 1975.
7. Morris, A.S., Measurement and Calibration for Quality Assurance,

Prentice Hall, New York, 1991.
8. Barry, B.A., Errors in Practical Measurement in Science, Engineering,

and Technology, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1978.
9. Ginzburg, V.B., Magnetoelastic Transducers, (Russian), Energia,

Moscow, 1970.
Page 542
10. Graeme, J.G., et al, Operational Amplifiers $ Design and

Applications, McGraw-Hill, 1971.
11. Graeme, J.G., Applications of Operational Amplifiers $ Third

Generation Techniques, McGraw-Hill, 1973.
12. Morrison, R., DC Amplifiers in Instrumentation, Wiley-Interscience,

1970.
13.Schmid, H., Electronic Analog/Digital Conversion, Van Nostrand

Reinhold, 1970.
14. Engineering Product Handbook, Datel Systems, 1974.
15. Bennett, W.R., and Davey, J.R., Data Transmission, McGraw-Hill,

1965.
16. Gruenberg, E.L. (Ed.), Handbook of Telemetry and Remote Control,

McGraw-Hill, 1967.
17. Swoboda, E.L., Telecontrol $ Methods and Applications and

Telemetering and Remote Control, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971.
18. Young, R.E., Telemetry Engineering, Iliffe, 1968.
19. Bendat, J.S. and Piersol, A.G., Measurement and Analysis of

Random Data, Wiley, 1966.
20. Soliman, S.S. and Srinath, M.D., Continuous and Discrete Signals
and Systems, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1990.
21. Morrison, R., Grounding and Shielding Techniques in

Instrumentation, Wiley, 1967.
22. Bryan, W. E. and Black, T.K. “Statistical Measurements Today,” I.E.E.

Electronics and Power, Vol. 17, 1971, p. 237.
23. Lange, F. H., Correlation Techniques, Iliffe, 1967.
Page 543
Chapter 22
CAUSES OF GAUGE VARIATION
22.1 Analysis of Gauge Variation

The principal causes of gauge variation in flat rolling may be analyzed
from the following well-known expression which is often referred to as the
gaugemeter equation:
where
h2 exit thickness of rolled product

=
Co no-load roll gap

=
P roll force
=
Ks mill structural stiffness.

=
The ratio P/Ks is known as the mill spring. Thus, to obtain the desired exit
rolled product thickness h2, the no-load roll gap Co must be less than the
exit rolled product thickness h2 by the amount that is equal to the mill
spring P/Ks.
The gaugemeter equation is graphically shown in Fig. 22.1a, where the

slope of line A represents the mill structural stiffness Ks that is equal to:
where
ΔP increment in roll force
=
ΔC increment in roll gap

=
Page 544
α slope of line A.
=
The slope of line B represents the rolled material stiffness Km that is

given by:
where
Δh
=
change in rolled material thickness
β slope of line B.
=
The intersection of lines A and B is denoted by the point n, which

determines the values of the roll force P and exit thickness h2. Equation
(22-1) and Fig. 22.1 can be conveniently used for analyzing the causes of
gauge variation.
Fig. 22.1 Gaugemeter diagrams for: a) initial roll gap conditions, b)

change in roll gap setting, c) change in entry thickness of rolled material,
d) change in mill stiffness, and e) change in rolled material stiffness.
Effect of roll gap setting - Opening the roll gap shifts line A to the right
(Fig. 22.1b). A new equilibrium in the mill will be achieved at the lower roll
force P′ with the thicker exit rolled material thickness h′2.
Effect of entry thickness - An increase in the entry thickness shifts line B

to the right (Fig.
Page 545
22.1c), so that the equilibrium in the mill is achieved at the higher roll
force P′. This results in the rolling of a thicker exit thickness h′2.
Effect of mill stiffness - A change in the mill stiffness is equivalent to a

change in the slope of line A (Fig. 22.1d). An increase in the slope will
produce equilibrium in the mill at the higher force P′ and a thinner exit
thickness h′2 will be rolled.
Effect of workpiece stiffness - A change in the stiffness of a workpiece is

illustrated in Fig. 22.1e as a change in the slope of line B. A decrease in
the slope will result in the lower roll force P′ at which the mill will be in a
state of equilibrium. Moreover, a thinner exit thickness h′2 will be
produced.
22.2 Main Factors Affecting Gauge Performance

The disturbances that affect the gauge performance in rolling mills can be
caused by the following factors:
Imperfection of mill mechanical and hydraulic equipment.

Imperfections of mill control systems.
Imperfections of incoming rolled product.
Disturbances from mill mechanical and hydraulic equipment - The

imperfections and variability of certain parameters of the mechanical and
hydraulic equipment can produce undesirable variations in the no-load
roll gap and mill stiffness. The no-load roll gap variations are usually a
result of the factors shown in Fig. 22.2 while the mill structural stiffness
mainly depends on the parameters shown in Fig. 22.3.
Fig. 22.2 Main factors affecting the no-load roll gap.
Page 546
Fig. 22.3 Main factors affecting mill stiffness.
Disturbances from mill control systems - These disturbances are caused

by imperfections of the following control systems shown in Fig. 22.4.
Fig. 22.4 Mill control systems affecting gauge performance.
Disturbances from incoming rolled product - Gauge performance can also

be affected by the following variations in the geometry of the incoming
rolled product:
Gauge variation
Hardness variation
Width variation
Page 547
Profile variation
Flatness variation.
22.3 Gauge Variation in Hot Strip Mills

The basic cause of gauge variation in hot strip mills is the fluctuation of
strip temperature along the length of the strip [1]. The following patterns
of strip temperature variation are usually recognized:
Overall temperature rundown (occasionally run-up) from the head

end to the tail end of the strip
Local cold spots on the strip known as skid marks which are
generated in the slab reheat furnace at the points where the slab
is in contact with the furnace skids.
Figure 22.5 shows the gauge deviation after the last finishing pass when
measures are not taken to correct the gauge error. In this case, the
gauge gradually increases from the head end to the tail end of the coil
along with a decrease in strip temperature. There is also local increases
in gauge caused by skid marks.
Fig. 22.5 Strip temperature and thickness variation in hot strip mill
without gauge control. From Jenkins, et al, [1]. Reproduced through the
courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
22.4 Effect of Strip Tension on Gauge

As was shown in Chapter 8 [2-4], both the entry and exit strip tensions
reduce the normal pressure in the roll bite, leading to a reduced roll force
Ps which can then be calculated from the following formula:
Page 548
where
Ps roll force with strip tension

=
roll force without strip tension

P=
Kw resistance to deformation
=
m1, m2 strip tension effect factors related to entry and exit tension respectively.
=
The effect of entry strip tension on the roll separating force was found to
be much greater than that of the exit strip tension. Based on various
sources, the factor m1 varies between 0.5 and 0.667, whereas the range
for the factor m2 is between 0.333 and 0.5. A change in the roll force Ps,
due to variations in strip tension, leads to a variation in the mill stretch Ps
/ Ks, thus producing changes in the strip gauge.
22.5 Effect of Mill Speed on Gauge

The two major factors that cause variation of strip gauge as a function of
mill speed are:
Oil film thickness in oil film backup roll bearing

Lubricant film thickness in roll bite.
Fig. 22.6 Relationship between oil film thickness hf and ratio of roll
speed V to roll force P. Adapted from Kawamata, et al [5].
The oil film thickness depends on mill speed and roll force. To enhance
formation of the oil film at slower speeds, it is a common practice to use a
hydrostatic lubricating system which is activated
Page 549
when the mill speed decreases below a certain value. When hydrostatic
lubrication is used, oil viscosity becomes approximately constant and the
oil film thickness hf can be expressed by the equation [5]:
where
roll speed
V =
roll force
P =
a, b constants.
=
Figure 22.6 compares Eq. (22-5) with the test results obtained by
Kawamata, et al [5]. The observations were made under kiss-rolling
conditions, i.e. by loading the mill without the strip. Measurements were
also taken after accelerating or decelerating the mill as well as holding
the mill at constant speed. The transient conditions in the formation of an
oil film during acceleration and deceleration result in noticeable variations
of the oil film thickness and are compensated as a function of the mill
acceleration rate.
The lubricant film thickness in the roll bite changes with the speed in the
same manner as the oil film thickness in the bearings. As the mill speed
increases, a greater amount of lubricant is sucked into the roll bite, thus
increasing the lubricant film thickness. As a consequence of this process,
the effective roll gap decreases and a thinner strip gauge is produced.
The cumulative effect of the oil film and lubricant film thickness variation
on strip gauge is shown in Fig. 22.7. The strip was rolled in a 5-stand
tandem cold mill without speed effect compensation control. A distinct
increase in strip thickness can be seen at lower mill speeds especially
below 500 ft/min. The gauge performance, however, is almost
independent of the mill speed when the speed is greater than 1000 ft/min
[6].
Fig. 22.7 Strip thickness at exit of 5-stand tandem cold mill as a function
of mill speed without speed effect compensation control. Adapted from
Stoltz and Brinks [6].
Page 550
22.6 Effect of Mill Chatter on Gauge

Chatter is a phenomenon that occurs during the rolling of strip and
causes the appearance of light and dark lines across the width of the
rolled strip. There may or may not be a gauge variation associated with
these marked lines [7,8]. The principal modes of chatter that most
frequently occur in cold mills are the torsional and vertical modes which
are described in the following sections.
Torsional mode - On large production mills, the torsional mode of chatter

usually occurs with a natural frequency ranging from 5 to 20 Hz. In the
oscillating mass-spring system that produces the chatter, the rolls act
mainly as a rotational inertia and the spindles act mainly as torsional
springs. Torsional chatter produces very small fluctuations in the
thickness of the rolled strip. The maximum gauge change due to chatter,
expressed as a percentage of the strip thickness rolled without chatter,
can be given by the equation [8]:
where
θm maximum angular displacement of work rolls associated with chatter

=
ft torsional chatter frequency, Hz

=
Dw work roll diameter

=
exit strip speed.

V=
The torsional chatter frequency ft can be calculated from the equation:

where
k torsional spring constant

=
total rotary inertia.

J =
The total rotary inertia J is given by:
where
Jw, Jb rotary inertia of one work roll and one backup roll respectively
=
Dw, Db work roll and backup roll diameters respectively.

=
Page 551
The wavelength of torsional chatter is relatively long. For example, a

chatter frequency of 10 Hz would correspond to a wavelength of 1270
mm (50 in.) at a mill speed of 760 m/min (2500 ft/min).
Third-octave vertical mode - The third-octave vertical mode of chatter

usually occurs in the range of the third musical octave between 128 and
258 Hz and is characterized by a very sudden occurrence, reaching its
maximum amplitude within a few seconds (Fig. 22.8) [9]. This mode of
chatter results in severe gauge variation in the rolled strip and very
pronounced tension fluctuations between stands, which often causes
strip breakage.
Fig. 22.8 Strip thickness variation during chatter in 5-stand tandem cold
mill. Adapted from Chefneux, et al [9].
According to Roberts [9], the resonant frequency of the third octave

chatter f3 may be approximately defined from the following equation:
where
Db backup roll diameter, in.

=
The third-octave mode of chatter is usually characterized by a natural

frequency that is close to 130 Hz. A similar type of chatter has been
observed on a 5-stand tin mill with a frequency range between 230 and
260 Hz. The higher frequency chatter does not appear to be as severe as
the lower frequency chatter and is usually accompanied by a modulation
in the range of 10 - 20 Hz.
Fifth-octave vertical mode - The fifth-octave vertical mode of chatter

occurs in high-speed mills and exhibits a natural frequency generally in
the range of 500 to 700 Hz. According to Roberts, the frequency of the
fifth-octave mode of chatter can be approximated by the equation:
Page 552
where
Dw work roll diameter, in.

=
Contrary to the third mode of chatter, the fifth mode of chatter tends to
develop gradually and is often accompanied by the development of
chatter marks on the rolls. These roll marks can excite the mill into
resonance and cause parallel lines to be printed on the strip surface. The
fifth-octave mode of chatter does not affect the strip gauge and is only
detrimental from an aesthetic and operational viewpoint.
22.7 Definition and Causes of Roll Eccentricity

In broad terms, the roll eccentricity effect can be described as cyclic
gauge variations in rolled materials caused by irregularities in the mill
rolls and roll bearings [10,11]. These irregularities can include the
following (Fig. 22.9):
Eccentricity of the backup roll journals with respect to the roll body
and to each other
Ovality of work rolls and backup rolls determined as a difference
between maximum and minimum dimensions of the roll body
Eccentricity of the rotating sleeves of the backup roll bearings with
respect to the roll journals and to the roll body
Nonuniformity of the roll bodies around their peripheries
Nonuniformity of the journals around their peripheries
Nonuniformity of the rotating sleeves of the backup roll bearings
around their peripheries
Nonuniformity of the rollers in the roller bearings.
Fig. 22.9 Backup roll surfaces used for grinding and measuring of roll
eccentricity. Adapted from Walker and Davies [10].
Page 553
In spite of the variety of irregularities, the resulting cyclic gauge variation

is commonly called roll eccentricity. The causes of roll eccentricity can be
classified into the following five groups:
Design imperfections - These are mainly design features of the bearings,

such as keys in oil film type bearings, which produce a local
nonuniformity of the rotating sleeves of the backup roll bearings around
their peripheries.
Assembling imperfections - These are imperfections such as scratches

and foreign bodies, which may be introduced when disassembling or
assembling the bearings and also during their mounting on the rolls and
in the chocks. In case of the sleeved rolls, additional roll eccentricity may
be added by improper mounting of the sleeves [12].
Roll and bearing distortions - The distortions in geometry of both the rolls
and the bearings may occur after loading beyond their design capacity
resulting in local plastic deformations and metal disruptions. Overloading
of sleeved backup rolls may produce distortion of roll geometry as a
result of shifting the sleeve with respect to roll arbor [13-15]. When the
wear of the rolls and the bearings is not uniform around their peripheries,
it would also cause roll eccentricity.
Grinding imperfections - Grinding imperfections are caused by

imperfections in the grinding equipment and by deficiencies in operation
and maintenance [16-19].
Roll gap control imperfections - Depending on the type of roll gap control,
the roll eccentricity effect may be suppressed, exaggerated, or not
changed at all [20].
By using state-of-the-art technology and creating a well planned

environment with reasonable attention to maintenance, it can be
expected to achieve the following accuracy of roll grinding [16]:
Roll diameter, resolution 0.002 mm(0.00008

in.)
Roll diameter, ±0.005 mm(±0.00020

repeatability in.)
Roll concentricity 0.005 mm(0.00020 in.)
Roll cylindricity (taper) 0.010 mm(0.00040 in.)
22.8 Effect of Roll Eccentricity on Roll Force

When the position of the roll gap actuators is maintained constant by a
control system, the roll gap will undergo periodic changes along with the
angular position of the rolls. This variation in the roll gap will be a function
of the overall eccentricity produced by the rolls. If the roll gap is closed,
then the eccentricity of the rotating rolls will produce periodic changes in
the roll separating force.
The cyclic variation of the roll force is not sinusoidal because it is affected
by the roll imperfections, changes in the material thickness and hardness,
as well as by variations in strip tension. The main frequency cycle times,
however, will still be dependent on the frequency of the rotation of the
backup rolls (Fig. 22.10).
Roll eccentricity shows a beat phenomenon [21] caused by the difference

in the diameter between the top and bottom backup rolls (Fig. 22.11). A
beat cycle Tb is the period of time during which one of two backup rolls,
having a smaller diameter, rotates through exactly one revolution more
than the other roll.
The beat cycle time Tb is given by:

Page 554
where
D1, D2=smaller and larger diameters of backup rolls respectively, mm
V=mill speed, mm/s.
Fig. 22.10 Variations in roll force during rolling in 5-stand tandem cold
mill.
Fig. 22.11 Beat phenomenon in 4-high mill stand. Adapted from
Hashimoto, et al [21].
Page 555
The beat phenomenon is readily exposed by recording the variation of

roll force during the rotation of the rolls under kiss rolling conditions.
During each beat cycle, the roll force varies from a minimum to maximum
value and then back to a minimum value as shown in Fig. 22.11. The roll
force variation is maximum when a mutual angular position of the backup
rolls is such that the eccentricities of the top and bottom backup rolls are
added, and is minimum when the eccentricities are subtracted.
22.9 Effect of Roll Eccentricity on Rolled Material Thickness

In a mill stand, the eccentricity of each individual roll contributes to the
combined roll eccentricity e. Therefore, the roll gap may vary with the
rotation of the rolls. If the roll gap closes due to roll eccentricity in the
presence of roll separating force, an additional roll force ΔPe will be
developed (Fig. 22.12). This force will stretch the mill by the amount ΔSe
which is equal to [22,23]:
where
KSA apparent mill structural stiffness as will be defined later.

=
Fig. 22.12 Simplified graphical interpretation of mill structural stiffness

Ks, hydraulic stiffness KH, and rolled material stiffness KM. Adapted from
Ginzburg [22].
At the same time, the rolled material thickness will be decreased by the
amount Δhe that is equal to:
Page 556
where
KM rolled material stiffness.

=
Since the roll eccentricity e is given by:
the relationship between the roll eccentricity e and the corresponding

additional roll force ΔPe is equal to:
The apparent mill structural stiffness KsA is equal to:

where
Ks mill natural (nonadjusted) structural stiffness

=
a mill stiffness adjustment ratio.

=
The ratio of the variation of rolled material thickness Δhe to the combined
roll eccentricity e is called the roll eccentricity imprint ratio, it is equal to:
The mill stiffness adjustment ratio a depends on the mode of operation of

the roll gap control as shown in Table 22.1.
Roll force mode - In this control mode, the roll force is maintained
constant. Therefore, as soon as the roll gap tends to close or open due to
roll eccentricity, the control will immediately produce a roll gap correction
signal to maintain a constant force. As a result, the same physical
distance between the peripheral surfaces of the work rolls in the roll bite
will also be maintained. With an adequate response time, this control
mode practically eliminates the effect of roll eccentricity on the gauge of
the rolled product. This condition is met when the apparent mill structural
stiffness KSA is equal to zero, i.e. a = 0. Thus, the apparent mill structural
stiffness is infinitely small. In this case, Δhe = 0, or no change in the
rolled material thickness.
Page 557
Table 22.1 Roll eccentricity imprint

ratio.
Roll gap control mode
Mill stiffness adjustment ratio
Imprint ratio
Roll force a = 0
Position a = 1
Gaugemeter a = ∞
Position mode - In this control mode, the position of the roll gap actuator
(hydraulic cylinder or screwdown mechanism) is held constant. The
apparent mill structural stiffness KSA is kept equal to the natural mill
structural stiffness KS, i.e. a = 1. In the position mode, a part of the
combined roll eccentricity will be imprinted on the rolled material. The
imprinting portion depends on the ratio between the material stiffness KM
and the mill natural structural stiffness KS. As this ratio increases, the
portion of the roll eccentricity that will be imprinted on the rolled material
decreases as shown in Fig. 22.13.
Fig. 22.13 Effect of the ratio of the material stiffness KM to structural

stiffness KS on the eccentricity imprint ratio a.
Gaugemeter mode - In this control mode, the mill stretch is continuously

compensated by
Page 558
an appropriate adjustment of the roll gap. The amount of this adjustment

depends on the selected value for the mill stiffness adjustment ratio a,
which may vary from 1 (no mill stretch compensation) to infinite (full mill
stretch compensation). When a is infinite, then:
Thus, in the gaugemeter mode with infinite apparent mill structural

stiffness, the full magnitude of roll eccentricity will be imprinted on the
rolled material.
22.10 Effect of Roll Eccentricity on Gauge Variation in Tandem Cold

Mills
The effect of roll eccentricity on the gauge performance of a tandem cold
mill may be evaluated by applying spectral analysis to the exit gauge
variation (Fig. 22.14). The Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) method was
used by Stelco [11] to analyze the digitized 5-stand exit gauge signals of
numerous coils. By isolating all periodic components and from knowledge
of the rotational speeds and sizes of all rolls, most spectral peaks could
be identified. The influence of each roll on the exit gauge variation for any
coil can be measured by utilizing selective filtering on the spectra, in
combination with inverse FFT techniques.
Fig. 22.14 Gauge deviation measured at the exit of 5-stand tandem cold
mill. Adapted from Barnes, et al [11].
The exit gauge spectra (Fig. 22.15) explicitly reveals that the majority of
peaks corresponds to the rotational frequencies of the cold mill backup
rolls. However, the influence of the hot strip mill backup rolls, as well as
the cold mill work rolls, may also be significant.
According to Barnes [11], the sources of gauge variation in coils that

were rolled over several months at a 56 in. 5-stand tandem cold mill, are
as follows:
Hot strip mill gauge variation 30 - 40%
Stand 1 backup roll eccentricity 14 - 45%
Stands 2 - 5 backup roll eccentricity 6 - 45%.

Page 559
Fig. 22.15 Spectra of gauge deviation measured at the exit of 5-stand

tandem cold mill. Adapted from Barnes, et al [11].
This summary shows that the roll eccentricity of the stand 1 backup rolls
and the hot strip mill gauge variability are the major factors that affect the
exit gauge variation in tandem cold mills.
A similar application of the Fast Fourier Transform technique was

reported by Tajima, et al [24] of Sumitomo Metals Industries. The results
of the their study have shown that the backup roll eccentricity of stand 1
of a 5-stand tandem cold mill has a major effect on periodic variations of
the exit gauge, whereas the influence of the other stands is insignificant.
Analytical studies conducted by Watanaba and Takahashi [25] of IHI,

Japan have also shown that the backup roll eccentricity of the initial
stands of a tandem cold mill has a significantly greater influence on the
exit gauge variability than the backup roll eccentricity of the downstream
stands.
Cory, et al [26], of Structural Dynamics Research, have adapted the

synchronous time domain averaging (STDA) method to monitor the
effects of roll eccentricity on the strip thickness at the exit of a tandem
rolling mill. The conventional spectrum analysis techniques fail to identify
the roll contribution when the rolls have the same harmonic frequency,
causing the spectrum peaks to combine. With the STDA technique, the
measurements are processed in the time domain, which overcomes the
spectrum analysis limitations.
References
1. Jenkins, W.G., et al, ‘‘Sparrows Point 56 in. Hot Strip Mill Gauge
Control System,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1969, pp. 339-348.
2. Bland, D.R. and Ford H., “The Calculation of Roll Force and Torque in
Cold Strip Rolling with Tensions,” Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 159, 1948, pp. 144-153.
3. Hill, R., “Relations Between Roll Force, Torque, and the Applied
Tensions in Strip Rolling,”
Page 560
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 163, 1950,

pp. 135-140.
4. Hessenberg, W.C.F. and Sims, R.B., “The Effect of Tension on Torque

and Roll Force in Cold Strip Rolling,” Journal of the Iron and Steel
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Mills,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1972, pp. 419-426.
6. Stoltz, G.E. and Brinks, J.W., ‘‘Cold Rolling of Tinplate,” AISE Yearly
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Book, 1981, pp. 60-65.
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1988.
9. Chefneux, L., et al, “Study and Industrial Control of Chatter in Cold

Rolling,” AISE Year Book, 1984, pp. 504-513.
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Eccentricity,” Iron and Steelmaker, Oct. 1987, pp. 27-33.
11. Barnes, K.R., et al, “Close Tinplate Gage Tolerances Through Low-
Cost Technological Improvements,” Iron and Steel Engineer, Jan. 1988,
pp. 49-55.
12. Faires, V.M., Design of Machine Elements, MacMillan, New York,

1965, p. 258.
13. Patula, E.J., “A Possible Mechanism for Causing Eccentricity in

Sleeved Backup Rolls on Cold Rolling Mills,” ASME Journal of
Engineering for Industry, Aug. 1975, pp. 1053-1059.
14. Linhart, J.W., “Differential Heat Treatment of Rolls to Improve Life and
Performance,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1972, pp. 662-668.
15. Roberts, W.L., Hot Rolling of Steel, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1983,
p. 553.
16. Easter, H.C. and Gridley, T.H., “Automated Roll Grinding: Finish,
Concentricity, and Roll Crack/Bruise Detection,” Proceedings of the
Seminar on Rolling Assembly Technology, Aluminum Association,
Chicago, Nov. 4-5, 1987.
17. “Roll Grinders, Roll Turning Lathes, etc.” Maschinenfabrik Herkules

Publication, Germany.
18. “Armco Devises a Roll Grinding Gage for To-the-Tee Shape

Measurement,” Metal Producing, April 1978, p. 41.
19. Ooi, T., et al, “Advanced Thickness Control Technology for Tandem
Cold Mill,” Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling Conference:
June 1-3, 1987, pp. E.27.1 - E.27.12.
20. Lindsey, E.G., “Backup Rolls and Their Contribution to Gage

Variation,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1960, pp. 189-196.
21. Hashimoto, K., et al, “A New Roll Eccentricity Control System

(MARECS) for Rolling Mill,” Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Technical
Review, Vol. 18 No. 3, Oct. 1981, pp. 248-253.
22. Ginzburg, V.B., “Dynamic Characteristics of Automatic Gauge Control

System with Hydraulic Actuators,” AISE Year Book, 1984, pp. 75-83.
23. Wiedemer, K., et al, “Cold Rolling with Direct Hydraulic Roll Screw-
Down and Roll Gap Measuring and Regulating System,” Metallurgical
Plant and Technology.
24. Tajima, S., et al, “Development of a New Type AGC System for a
Tandem Cold Mill,”
Page 561
25. Watanaba, H. and Takahashi, N., “Control Equations for Dynamic

Characteristics of Cold Rolling Tandem Mills,” AISE Year Book, 1974, pp.
91-96.
26. Cory, J.F., et al, “Roll Eccentricity Monitoring for Strip Quality Control,”
Iron and Steel Engineer, Feb. 1990, pp. 24-26.
Page 562
Chapter 23
GAUGE CONTROL SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
23.1 Classification of Thickness Gages

Thickness gages that are used in rolling mills can be either contact or
noncontact type. Contact thickness gages [1] are suitable for off-line
measurements whereas noncontact thickness gages are commonly used
for on-line measurements. Noncontact thickness gages can be divided
into the following three groups [2]:
Optical gages
Isotope gages
X-Ray gages.
The thickness gages that belong to each of these groups differ not only
by their principle of operation but also by the range of measured
thickness, accuracy of measurement, and dynamic response
characteristics.
23.2 Optical Thickness Gages

Two types of optical thickness gages are used in rolling mills. The
sensors in these gages differ by the method of their operation which is
either the comparison or shifting images method.
Comparison method - The comparison method involves the evaluation of

the image of an object that is projected by an optical system of known
magnification onto a graduated standard (Fig. 23.1). With a known focal
length d of the camera lens and distance X between the object and the
camera, dimensions m1, and m2 of the image can be related to the
measured thickness h by a simple geometrical relationship. The
comparison method is used in the optical thickness gage that was
developed by Broken Hill Proprietary Co. (BHP), Australia [3].
Shifting images method - The principle of thickness measurement based

on the shifting images method is illustrated in Fig. 23.2. The sensors that
implement this principle utilize a light beam that is emitted by a laser and
the images are detected by photo-sensitive diode arrays. The
Page 563
laser beam and receiving camera axes are fixed with respect to the table
roller. The image m1 corresponds to the laser spot a1 on the table roller
whereas the image m2 corresponds to the laser spot a2 on the slab top
surface. After measuring the distance between the images m1 and m2,
the slab thickness h can readily be calculated by using well-known
trigonometrical relationships.
Fig. 23.1 Principle of optical thickness measurement utilizing comparison

method. Adapted from Kenyon [3].
An example of an optical thickness gage that utilizes the triangulation

method is the slab thickness measurement system developed by
Qualimatrix [4]. The specifications of this system are as follows:
Slab thickness 50 to 500 mm (2 to 20

in.)
Scanning frequency:
16,000 Hz
Accuracy ±0.75 mm (±0.03 in.)
Maximum slab temperature 1260°C (2300° F)
Maximum slab speed 305 m/min (1000 ft/min)
Sensor elevation above pass 1220 mm (48 in.)

line
Fig. 23.2 Principle of optical thickness measurement utilizing method of
shifting images. Adapted from [4].
The main advantage of optical gages is that the measurements can be

made without
Page 564
penetrating the rolled product, therefore, the readings are independent of

the material metallurgy. Another advantage of optical gages is their high
response characteristics. Optical gages are preferred to other types of
gages in application to thick plates and slabs. For slab thicknesses less
than 50 mm (2 in.), isotope gages become viable [2].
23.3 Isotope Thickness Gages

In isotope thickness gages, the attenuation of radiation from a nuclear
source is measured to determine the product thickness [2]. The gage
readings are required to be adjusted as a function of the rolled material
metallurgy and optimum thickness range. The intensity of the radiation
varies as the isotope decays, but the rate is predictable and can be
defined by the isotope half life which is, for example, 460 years for an
Americium 241 source [5]. Thickness gages that utilize this radiative
source are claimed to be insensitive to the composition changes of
carbon steel rolled products.
The response time of isotope thickness gages is longer than that of

optical and X-ray thickness gages. The main advantage of an isotope
gage is its simplicity in operation and maintenance. The main
disadvantage is that isotope gages utilize either gamma or beta ray
radiation sources that can be potentially dangerous. A typical
specification of an isotope gage that utilizes a gamma ray radiation
source in application to steel products is listed as follows [6]:
Range 0 - 6 mm (0 - 0.250 in.)
Air gap 50 # 600 mm (2 # 23.4 in.)
Stability at 75° F ± 0.25% in 8 hours

(25°C)
Filter time constant

25 or 100 ms
Calibration accuracy ±0.25%

Precision (noise) ±0.20% at 25 ms response time
±0.13% at 100 ms response

time
Response time
1 ms for step change
Source
1 Ci Americium 241
Radiation detector Ion chamber
At a thickness of approximately 20 mm (0.787 in.), the X-ray gage

technology begins to compete with both optical and isotope gage
systems.
23.4 X-ray Thickness Gages

An X-ray thickness gage operates on the principle that a material of
known metallurgy absorbs radiation at a determinable rate. Once the
coefficient of absorption is known, the measuring device can be
calibrated to express thickness as a function of the attenuation of the
radiation produced from the X-ray generator [2]. To achieve the desired
accuracy, an X-ray thickness gage must be calibrated with respect to
both metallurgy and thickness of the measured material.
A standards magazine, which contains disks of precisely known
thicknesses certified to meet National Institute of Standards &
Technology specifications, provides the basis for thickness calibration. In
addition, the metallurgy of the next rolled product must be taken into
account. This is accomplished by means of an alloy library.
Page 565
The most important advantages of X-ray thickness gages are the fast
response and relative insensitivity to steam and ambient air temperature.
The most serious disadvantage of X-ray gages is the hazardous radiation
energy, although its potential danger is moderated by the fact that
radiation is present only when the X-ray generator is powered. Typical
specifications of X-ray thickness gages in application to both hot and cold
rolled products are listed as follows [7]:
Mill type Hot strip millCold mill
Typical thickness range 1 - 19 mm; 0.2 - 3.0 mm
(0.04 - 0.75 (0.008 - 0.120

in.) in.)
Maximum thickness 25 mm (1
in.)
Typical # noise for 90% of ±0.10% ±0.05%

time
(at 30 ms response time)
Standards accuracy ±0.1% ±0.1%
Calibration time 3 - 4 s 3 - 4 s
Head-end response
0.3 s max 0.3 s max
Fig. 23.3 Radiation thickness gage developed by Isotope Measuring
System with: a) single detector and b) dual detector. Adapted from [8].
An X-ray thickness gage usually has a single radiative source and a

single detector (Fig. 23.3a). When the strip is not flat or horizontal, the X-
ray beam will not be perpendicular to the material causing an error in
measurement. To detect this error, a system with two radioactive sources
and two detectors was proposed by Isotope Measuring Systems, UK [8].
The radiative sources generate two beams which cross inside the strip
(Fig. 23.3b). The detected thicknesses will only agree with one another
when the strip is flat and horizontal.
23.5 Methods of Measurement of Roll Gap

Direct measurement of the roll gap with the workpiece present in the roll
bite is a problem yet to
Page 566
be resolved. Currently, only indirect methods of roll gap measurement

have been developed.
One of the most common methods involves measuring the actual

thickness of the rolled material at the exit of a mill stand. A major
deficiency of this method is the time delay due to the fact that the
thickness sensor cannot be easily installed close to the roll bite. This
deficiency is eliminated by locating the roll gap sensors between the work
rolls [9]. In applying this method, however, another error, which is caused
by roll bending, is introduced. In some roll gap control systems [10,11],
the sensors are installed either between the backup roll chocks or
between the backup roll chocks and part of the housing post called a
“Mae West” block.
The measurement of the roll gap during rolling is often determined by

using the gaugemeter principle. In this method, the roll gap C can be
computed under rolling conditions from the following equation:
This equation is obtained by assuming that under loading conditions, the

exit thickness of the rolled product is equal to the roll gap. Therefore, the
roll gap during rolling can be measured if the no-load roll gap Co, roll
force P, and mill stiffness Ks are known. The no-load gap measurement
is usually provided by position transducers and the measurement of roll
force is made with either load cells or pressure transducers. Although
numerous types of position transducers have been introduced, the three
basic types of position transducers that have been utilized in automatic
gauge control systems are:
Analog induction type [12]

Digital induction type [13]
Magnetostrictive type [14].
The analog induction type position transducers usually have limited

working range and their performance was found to be inadequate for the
gauge control systems.
23.6 Digital Induction Position Transducers

The Sony Magnescale [13] is a typical example of a digital induction
position transducer that consists of the following three main parts:
magnetic scale, scale-reading head, and detector. Figure 23.4 shows a
magnetic scale on which a scale signal is magnetically recorded in a
certain pitch. The scale-reading head is made of a number of single-gap
heads that are lined up in the same intervals as the magnetic pattern and
connected to each other in series. When this kind of head is used, only
the magnetic scale signal is sensed, while the ac signals of different
wavelengths and the dc signals are neglected.
When a carrier sine wave sin (ωt/2) is fed into a multi-gap head and the
scale-reading head is moved along the magnetic scale, the following pair
of second harmonic signals e1 and e2 are generated:
Page 567
where
signal amplitude
E=
x head displacement in relation to scale

=
ω circular frequency
=
λ distance between heads

=
t time.
=
Fig. 23.4 Principle of operation of Sony Magnescale. Adapted from [13].
The detector is the electronic circuit that rectifies the signals expressed
by Eqs. (23-2) and (23-3), and makes them applicable to various uses.
The detector generates pulses at the points where the sine and cosine
waves of the scale signal cross the zero level. These pulses are then
used for the digital indication. A more refined treatment of the sine and
cosine waves allows for interpolation of the measurement between the
zero level pulses and also to detect the direction of displacement.
Another modification of a digital induction type transducer is known as
Inductosyn. The principle of Inductosyn is similar to that of the Sony
Magnescale, but the main difference is that electromagnets rather than
permanent magnets are used in Inductosyn.
23.7 Magnetostrictive Position Transducers

A magnetostrictive position transducer that was developed by MTS
Systems is known by the trade name Temposonics™ [14]. The principle
of operation of Temposonics (Fig. 23.5) is based
Page 568
on measuring the time interval between an interrogating pulse and a

return pulse. The interrogating pulse is transmitted through the
transducer waveguide and the return pulse is generated by a permanent
magnet that represents the displacement to be measured. The
transducer includes a linear displacement sensor, a magnet, and the
electronics that are necessary to generate the interrogating pulse, sense
the return pulse, and develop an analog output signal.
The electronics assembly sends the interrogating pulse to the linear

displacement sensor and starts the leading edge of the pulse-width
modulation signal. The pulse is transmitted in a wire conducting element
that is threaded through a magnetostrictive tube called a waveguide. The
waveguide is mounted under tension inside a nonmagnetic stainless
steel tube (not shown). A permanent magnet is positioned along the
stainless steel tube and mounted to the device from which the
displacement is to be measured. The interaction of the two magnetic
fields that are created by the interrogating pulse and the external
permanent magnet causes a twist in the waveguide. This twist (or
torsional strain pulse) is transmitted along the waveguide. The torsional
strain pulse is dampened at the end of the waveguide and sensed in a
transducer head.
To sense the torsional strain pulse, two magnetic strain sensitive tapes
are used. These tapes are attached to the waveguide and located inside
sensing coils in the transducer head. A dc magnetic field is generated
inside the magnetic tapes by permanent magnets that are located near
each sensing coil. When the strain tapes remain motionless with respect
to the sensing coils, voltage will not be induced in these coils. The
torsional strain pulse from the waveguide causes a small vibration of the
tapes producing a change in the magnetic field. This magnetic field
induces a voltage in the coils that is amplified and conditioned in the
transducer head assembly and then sent back to the electronics box as
the return pulse.
Fig. 23.5 Principle of operation of Temposonics™. Adapted from [14].
The performance characteristics of the Temposonics magnetostrictive

position transducer are listed as follows [10]:
Page 569
Linearity ±0.05% of full scale
Hysteresis ±0.002 mm (0.0008 in.)
Repeatability ±0.001% of full scale.
23.8 Measurement of Roll Separating Force

An accurate measurement of roll separating force is required to properly
calculate the roll gap correction as a function of variation of the roll
separating force.
The accuracy of measurement of the roll separating force depends not

only on the metrological characteristics of the transducers, but also the
location of the transducers with respect to the roll bite. As shown in Fig.
23.6, the vertical forces Pc/2 that are applied to the backup roll chocks
are transmitted through the backup rolls and, partially, through the crown-
out work roll bending cylinders to the work rolls. The work rolls then split
the vertical force Pc into three parts. One part is applied to the rolled
material and presents the actual roll separation force P. The other two
parts Fi are bypassed by the crown-in roll bending cylinders.
Fig. 23.6 Vertical forces transmitted through roll stack and rolled
material.
When the roll separating force P is determined from measuring the

vertical forces Pc/2 that are applied to the backup roll chocks, it is also
necessary to take into account the frictional force Pf that acts between
the roll chocks and their retainers as described in the following equation:
where
Pc total force applied to backup roll chocks

=
Fi crown-in roll bending force applied to one work roll chock

=
Page 570
Pf frictional force.
=
23.9 Roll Separating Force Transducers

The following three groups of transducers are used for measurement of
the roll separating force:
Load cells.
Extensiometers.
Pressure transducers.
Load cells - The two types of load cells that are most frequently installed
in rolling mills are strain gage [15-18] and magnetoelastic [19]. The strain
gage type load cells are less sensitive to overload conditions than the
magnetoelastic type load cells. The magnetoelastic type load cells,
however, have a more powerful output signal that makes this signal less
sensitive to noise as well as to losses of cable resistance to ground.
Fig. 23.7 Two types of Kelk load cells: a) washer load cell installed under
screwdown nut and b) disk load cell installed between screw and top
backup roll chock. From [15, 16].
The load cells are made in the form of a washer, disk, slab, or T-block
[15-18]. The washer load cells are mounted under the nut of a
screwdown mechanism as shown in Fig. 23.7a [15]. The disk load cells
are commonly installed under the screw of a screwdown mechanism as
illustrated in Fig. 23.7b [16]. The usual location for the slab and T-block
load cells is under the bottom backup roll chock as shown in Fig. 23.8
[17,18]. The desired performance characteristics of load cells are
achieved by the appropriate machining of the mill parts that contact the
load cell to avoid off-center loading.
Extensiometers - An extensiometer [20] is a modification of a strain gage

load cell that is conveniently mounted on the surface of the mill housing.
An extensiometer measures the stretch
Page 571
of the housing which is a function of the roll separating force. To

compensate for bending stresses, two extensiometers can be installed at
the opposite sides of the same housing post [21].
Fig. 23.8 Kelk T-block load cell installed under bottom backup roll chock.
From [18].
Table 23.1 Typical specifications for strain gage load cells, extensiometers,
pressure transducers, and tensiometers [15, 20, 22, 23].
Parameters
Strain gage load cells
Extensiometers
Pressure transducers
Tensiometers
Accuracy of calibration* ±0.1% ±0.1% ±0.1%
-
Linearity* ±0.5% ±0.15% ±0.25%

Hysteresis* ±0.3% ±0.05% ±0.1%
Combined* ±0.1%
Repeatibility* ±0.1% ±0.1% ±0.01% ±0.05%
Zero drift* ±0.005% ±0.006% ±0.005% ±0.005%
per 1°C per 1°C per 1°C per 1°C
Response time <0.1μs <1.5μs <1.5μs
-
Operating temperature 20 to 150°C -10 to 150°C 0 to 100°C 20 to 100°C
range (68 to (14 to (32 to (68 to
302°F) 302°F) 212°F) 212°F)
Load limit without:

zero shift 300% 25×10-5 - -
change in characteristics 500% - -
mechanical damage 700% 200% 2000%
*) Parameters are expressed as a percentage of a full scale output.

Page 572
Pressure transducers - When hydraulic roll gap actuators are used in

rolling mills, the application of pressure transducers to measure the roll
separating force is often justified [22]. When hydraulic pressures at both
sides of the actuators are known, the vertical forces that are generated
by the actuator may be readily calculated. Measures must be taken
though to reduce the effect of frictional forces between the pistons and
cylinders on the output of the pressure transducers.
The two most important advantages of pressure transducers when

compared to load cells and extensiometers are their simplicity of
mounting and convenience in calibrating. Table 23.1 shows the typical
specifications for strain gage type load cells, extensiometers, and
pressure transducers.
23.10 Measurement of Strip Tension

One of the most common devices that is used to measure strip tension in
cold mills is known as a tension meter or tensiometer. Figure 23.9
illustrates the tensiometer that was developed by Kelk [23], which has a
tensiometer roll supported by pillow block bearings. Each pillow block is
mounted on the top plate and separated from the bottom plate by a
flexure and load cell. The vertical component Fv of the force generated
by strip tension S and transmitted through the center of the pillow block is
equal to:
where
strip tension
S=
α, ß strip entry and exit wrap angles respectively.

=
Fig. 23.9 Kelk tensiometer system. Adapted from [23].
The load cell senses the load Flc that is proportional to the force Fv and
hence to the strip
Page 573
tension S. Typical performance characteristics of the Kelk tensiometer

load cell assemblies are given in Table 23.1.
23.11 Measurement of Strip Velocity

The strip velocity can be measured by using either indirect or direct
methods of measurement. In the indirect method, the strip speed is
determined from measuring the angular speed of a roll that contacts the
strip. This method of measurement has an inherent error due to slippage
of the contacting roll during acceleration and deceleration. The problem is
further increased when the strip speed is evaluated from measuring the
angular speed of the work roll. In this case, it is necessary to take into
account the strip forward slip which is a very difficult task.
Direct measurement of strip velocity has become possible with the

advance of noncontact laser velocity sensors utilizing Doppler effect.
Figure 23.10 illustrates schematically a dual beam laser Doppler
velocimeter (LDV) that is comprised of the following major components
[24]:
Laser as a coherent light source.

Transmitting optics.
Receiving optics.
Photodetector.
Signal processor.
Fig. 23.10 Dual beam Doppler Velocimeter (LVD). Adapted from Kimbal
and Buttler [24].
The light beam that is generated by the laser is split into two beams of
equal intensity by an acousto-optic modulator (AOM). The light source
frequency is generally 40 MHz. As the material passes through the
measurement region C, where the two beams cross, the scattered light is
shifted in frequency by the small amount Fr which is proportional to the
material velocity V. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler effect.
The material velocity V can be calculated by using the following equation:
Page 574
where
light source wavelength

Y=
α half angle between split laser beams.

=
Since both the light source wavelength Y and the angle between the split
laser beams 2α are maintained constant, the material velocity V is
directly proportional to the Doppler shift frequency Fd.
Fig. 23.11 Noncontact measurement of strip elongation.
Direct measurement can eliminate process errors due to slippage, but

other errors pertinent to the specific sensor design must be taken into
account. In application to a Doppler velocity sensor [24], the system
errors can include the following components:
Signal processor error - Signal processor error depends on the optics

configuration and material velocity. The auto-correlation signal processor
can measure the Doppler frequency with an accuracy that ranges from
±0.1 to ±0.2%.
Fringe flare error - Fringe flare error is caused by aberrations in the laser
beam wave fronts. This aberration produces an error as large as ±0.05%
when the measuring region is equal to ±100 mm (±4.0 in.) and reduces to
±0.02% for a measuring region of ±38 mm (±1.5 in.).
Temperature error of diode laser - Temperature error of diode laser can

be controlled within ±0.1% over an ambient temperature range from 0 to
60°C (32 to 140°F).
The other possible causes of error are instability of the diode laser
current, variation of beam crossing angle, and sensor misalignment. The
overall accuracy of ±0.2% can easily be obtained, but in some
applications, greater accuracy is required. For example, when measuring
the elongation E based on the entry and exit speed measurements (Fig.
23.11), the following formula is applied:
Page 575
where
V1, V2 entry and exit strip velocities respectively.

=
A need for a high accuracy of the velocity measurement is especially

important in temper and skin pass mills, where very small ratios of the
velocities are being measured causing a 0.2% error in speed
measurement to produce a 20% error in calculated elongation.
23.12 Actuators for Roll Gap Control

Actuators for roll gap control can be divided into the following two major
groups:
Mechanical
Hydraulic.
Mechanical actuators are usually designed as electrically driven

mechanical screws with the nuts installed stationary in the housing posts.
The electrically or hydraulically driven wedge type mechanism is another
version of a mechanical actuator. To decrease the coefficient of friction
and increase the load carrying capabilities of the wedge type actuators, a
Teflon cloth is installed at the interface between the wedge and the ram
[25], as shown in Fig. 23.12.
Fig. 23.12 Wedge type roll gap control actuator. Adapted from Lefoley
[25].
Hydraulic actuators, known as roll force cylinders, are usually installed

either above the top backup roll chocks or under the bottom backup roll
chocks [10]. In some mill stands, the actuators are installed between the
top and bottom backup rolls [26]. Figure 23.13a illustrates a typical
combination of a mechanical screwdown mechanism with a hydraulic
actuator. In this arrangement, the screwdown mechanism is used for a
rough adjustment of the roll gap whereas
Page 576
the fine roll gap control is achieved with the short-stroke hydraulic
cylinder. A more advanced solution is when the screwdown mechanism is
eliminated and the roll gap control is solely provided by the long-stroke
hydraulic actuator (Fig. 23.13b).
Figure 23.14 shows schematically two mill stand arrangements in which a

conventional screwdown mechanism is replaced with either a single
overhead hydraulic cylinder (Fig. 23.14a) installed on the top of the
housing post, or dual tandem hydraulic cylinders (Fig. 23.14b).
Fig. 23.13 Hydraulic actuators installed above top backup roll: a) short-
stroke and b) long-stroke.
Fig. 23.14 Schematic presentation of replacing mechanical screwdown

mechanism with: a) overhead hydraulic cylinder and b) dual tandem
hydraulic cylinders.
References
1. Vollmer, F. and Wallace, J., ‘‘Advanced Continuous Gauging
Techniques for Cold Strip Rolling Mills,” Light Metal Age, Aug. 1975, pp.
16-19.
2. Christoffel, J., “Hot Steel Thickness Measurement: Mystique or

Technique,” 33 Metal
Page 577
Producing, Sept. 1991, pp. 50-61.
3. Kenyon, M., “Australian Developments in Steel Product Measurement

and Inspection,” Iron and Steel Engineer, July 1985, pp. 32-37.
4. “Slab Thickness Measurement System,” Qualimatrix, Emeryville, Calif.
5. McCaughan, J.E., “Continuously Calibrated X-ray Gage for Cold

Rolling Applications,” Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1990, pp. 50-55.
6. “Noncontact Thickness Measuring Gage,” Gamma Instruments,

Sunnyvale, Calif., 1988.
7. “XactRayC Series 4000 Gages,’’ Weston Controls, Archbald, Pa.,

1987.
8. “Thickness Profile or Mass Flow Profile Measurement,” Isotope

Measuring Systems, Northampton, UK, Oct. 1988.
9. Liedtke, J. and Fellenberg, M. “Modernization of a Universal Cold

Rolling Mill Line,” Metallurgical Plant and Technology, May 1983, pp. 82-
87.
10. “IHI Hydraulic Mill,” Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries, Japan,

1983.
11. Hegenscheid, H.H., et al, “The SGC Method for Strip Thickness
Control,” Achenbach BBC Publication, DIA 70 111 E, Germany.
12. “LVDT and RVDT Linear and Angular Displacement Transducers,”

Schaevitz Engineering, Technical Bulletin 1002E, Pennsauken, N.J.,
1987.
13. “Sony Magnescale,” Sony Magnescale Inc., Tokyo, 1972.
14. “Temponsonics™ Brand Absolute Linear Displacement Transducer,”

MTS Systems Corp., Plainview, N.Y., 1988.
15. “Washer Load Cell,” Kelk Publication WLC-DS-537, George Kelk
Limited, Toronto, Canada.
16. “Disc Load Cell,” Kelk Publication DLC-DS-539, George Kelk Limited,
Toronto, Canada.
17. “Slab Load Cell,” Kelk Publication SLC-DS-538, George Kelk Limited,
Toronto, Canada.
18. “T-Block Load Cell,” Kelk Publication TLC-DS-624, George Kelk

Limited, Toronto, Canada.
19. “Millmate Pressductor System,” ABB Automation, Vasteras, Sweden,

1989.
20. “Strain Gage Extensometer,” Kelk Publication SGE-DS-357-2,

George Kelk Limited, Toronto, Canada.
21. Belsham, P., “Measurement of the Force Exerted by the Rollers of a

Steel Mill,” Steel Times, May 1982, pp. 280-283.
22. “Fluid Pressure Transducer,” Kelk Publication FPT-DS-391-1, George

Kelk Limited, Toronto, Canada.
23. “Tensiometer Load Cell Assemblies,” Kelk Publication TCA-DS-542,

George Kelk Limited, Toronto, Canada.
24. Kimball, V. and Buttler, A., “Use of Noncontact Speed Sensors to

Improve Tempering and Gauge Control Processes,” Paper presented at
the 1991 AISE Annual Convention, Association of Iron and Steel
Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 23-26, 1991.
25. Lefoley, G.M., “Servo Controlled Wedge Actuator Rolls Steel Sheet,”
Hydraulic & Pneumatics, Oct. 1967, pp. 108-114.
Page 578
Chapter 24
AUTOMATIC GAUGE CONTROL SYSTEMS
24.1 Close-Loop Control of Hydraulic Actuators

A typical closed-loop control system for one hydraulic actuator is shown
in Fig. 24.1 [1]. The two modes of cylinder control that are most
frequently used are:
Position control mode.

Roll force or pressure control mode.
When position control mode is selected, the cylinder position reference

signal is compared with a feedback signal that is provided by a cylinder
position transducer. The error signal is then amplified and fed into an
electrohydraulic servovalve. The servovalve translates this analog
electrical signal into fluid flow, either into or out of the hydraulic cylinder,
depending on the required direction of movement.
Fig. 24.1 Hydraulic cylinder position and pressure control system.

Page 579
Identical closed-loop control systems are provided for the hydraulic

cylinders that are located at the operating and drive sides of the mill
stands. A common position reference is used for both systems to ensure
that the cylinders move simultaneously. To achieve control of tracking the
strip throughout the mill, the additional reference of opposite polarities is
provided to each cylinder control system. When the roll force or pressure
control mode is selected, the roll force or cylinder pressure reference is
compared with a feedback signal that is provided by either a load cell or
pressure transducer as shown in Fig. 24.1.
24.2 Dynamic Characteristics of Automatic Control Systems

The following types of characteristics are commonly used to evaluate the
dynamic response of automatic control systems [2]:
Step-function response
Frequency response
Phase shift.
Step-function response - Step-function response or rise time is the

characteristic curve or output plotted against time that results from the
input application of a step function. The step-function response of the
hydraulic roll gap control system that was developed by Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries, Japan [3] is shown in Fig. 24.2.
Fig. 24.2 Step-function response of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries

hydraulic roll gap control system. Adapted from Hayama, et al [3].
Frequency response - In general terms, frequency response is the
portion of the frequency spectrum that can be passed by a device as it
produces an output within specified limits of amplitude error. As an
example, Fig. 24.3 illustrates the frequency response characteristics of
the hydraulic roll gap control system that was developed by Ishikawajima-
Harima Heavy Industries (IHI), Japan [4].
Decibels (dB) are widely used to specify the power gain (or attenuation)
which is equal to:
Page 580
where
P1, P2 input and output power in system respectively.

=
Fig. 24.3 Frequency response characteristics of IHI hydraulic roll gap

control system. Adapted from Saotome and Yamazawa [4].
Phase shift - Phase shift is the change in the phase relationship between
the input and output periodic functions.
A more detail analysis of the dynamic characteristics of the hydraulic

automatic gauge control system is described in [5].
24.3 Gaugemeter Control

Gaugemeter control can be used with either hydraulic or mechanical
actuators. Gaugemeter control with a hydraulic actuator was developed
jointly by BISRA and Davy-United, both of UK [1] and is briefly described
in the following section. Gaugemeter control implements the algorithm
that can be described by the following equation:
Page 581
where
Cr no-load roll gap position reference

=
h2r exit gauge reference

=
roll force
P=
Ks δh/δP = mill structural stiffness

=
crown-in roll bending force applied to one work roll chock

F=
Kb δh/δF = roll bender constant.

=
As shown in Fig. 24.4, the measurement of roll force P is used by an

electronic shaper to calculate mill deflection, or mill stretch P/Ks. This
value is then subtracted from the exit gauge reference h2r to obtain the
no-load roll gap position reference Cr. The no-load roll gap position
reference signal is then compared with the measured value that was
provided by a position transducer as previously described.
Fig. 24.4 Gaugemeter control of hydraulic actuator.
The gaugemeter system increases the mill stiffness beyond its natural
value. By a complete compensation (100%) for mill stretch, the mill stand
can be made infinitely stiff so that the roll gap will not vary with the
variation in thickness or hardness of the incoming product. To achieve
optimum gauge and strip flatness performance characteristics, along with
stability of the control
Page 582
system, gaugemeter control is usually adjusted to provide greater mill

stiffness for the earlier mill stands and less mill stiffness for the
downstream mill stands. However, when friction in the hydraulic system
and roll stack is eliminated, the stability of the control system can be
sustained at 100% compensation for mill stretch.
24.4 Gauge Deviation Control

The following two methods are used for gauge deviation control of a
single mill stand:
Feedback.
Feedforward.
In the feedback method, the measured outgoing gauge error serves as a

feedback signal in the gauge control system. When gaugemeter control is
utilized (Fig. 24.5), the feedback signal from the outgoing gauge monitor
provides a fine correction signal to compensate for any imperfections of
the gaugemeter control.
Fig. 24.5 Davy-Loewy feedforward control of single mill stand. From

Dendle [1]. Copyright Institute of Metals. Reprinted with permission.
The feedforward method of control [1] requires a thickness gage to

measure the thickness of the material entering the mill. Since the
incoming gauge monitor is installed at a distance from the roll bite, the
measured incoming gauge error is fed into a block that computes the
delay time taken by the strip to transverse the distance between the
gauge monitor and the roll gap. The gauge error is then used to change
the position of the cylinders.
Page 583
Fig. 24.6 Strip tension control with a hydraulic actuator. From Dendle [1].
Copyright Institute of Metals. Reprinted with permission.
Fig. 24.7 Schematic presentation of AGC proposed by Tippins
Machinery employing gaugemeter control combined with strip tension
and roll bending control. Adapted from Ginzburg and Snitkin [6].
Page 584
24.5 Strip Tension Control System in Cold Mills

The strip tension control system consists of a roll gap control system with
a tension closed-loop control established around it [1]. The roll gap
disturbances that are caused by incoming thickness and hardness
variations, roll eccentricity, oil film thickness fluctuations, etc., can
produce changes in strip tension.
A tensiometer is used to detect the actual strip tension as shown in Fig.

24.6. The tensiometer output signal is compared with the tension
reference signal and the error signal is fed into either the roll gap position
regulator or the speed regulator of one of the adjacent mill stands. In the
former case, the control is usually referred to as tension control by gap,
while in the latter case the control is known as tension control by speed.
Strip tension control can be combined with gaugemeter control as

proposed by Tippins Machinery [6]. In this control system (Fig. 24.7),
variations in mill stretch are compensated by adjusting the strip tension
as long as the desired tension is within the allowable range. When the
value of the strip tension exceeds this range, any further compensations
for mill stretch are made by changing the roll gap as in a regular
gaugemeter control.
24.6 Roll Gap and Strip Tension Decoupling Control

In a single stand cold rolling mill, the strip tension fluctuation may
adversely interact with the roll gap adjustments that are governed by
AGC. For example, when the strip at the exit side is thicker than desired,
the AGC will reduce the roll gap resulting in lower entry strip tension.
Consequently, when the entry strip tension reduces, the exit strip
thickness increases, canceling the effect of AGC.
Fig. 24.8 Block diagram of roll gap and strip tension decoupling control
developed by Furukawa Aluminum and Hitachi. Adapted from Hishikawa,
et al [7].
To overcome this problem, Furukawa Aluminum and Hitachi, both of

Japan [7], have jointly developed a roll gap and strip tension decoupling
control. As shown in Fig. 24.8, the
Page 585
feedforward AGC tracks the strip thickness deviation at the entry side of
the mill stand and produces an appropriate roll gap adjustment.
Simultaneously, the strip tension correction signal is calculated to
compensate for the change in the entry strip tension that is caused by the
AGC roll gap adjustment. By deducting the strip tension correction from
the uncoiler tension reference, a new uncoiler tension reference is
produced that decouples the roll gap and entry tension control loops.
24.7 Interstand Tension Control in Hot Strip Mills with Loopers

In hot strip mills, interstand tension is usually maintained with so-called
loopers. The following three types of loopers are known [8]:
Electric looper driven by an electric motor

Pneumatic looper driven by an air cylinder
Hydraulic looper driven by a hydraulic cylinder.
A looper is a mechanism that includes a free rotating roll that is elevated

above the pass line after the strip is threaded through the mill. The
elevation of the looper and strip tension is continuously monitored. The
aim of the control is to achieve the desired interstand tension when the
looper roll is elevated to a predetermined position. If the desired tension
is obtained at any different looper position, then the roll gap or roll speed
of one of the adjacent stands is adjusted.
Fig. 24.9 Interstand tension control in a hot strip mill with electric looper.
Figure 24.9 illustrates schematically interstand tension control with an

electric looper. The control has incorporated two control loops. The first
control loop maintains a constant strip tension S. The actual strip tension
SA is calculated based on the measured values of the looper motor
current IL and of the looper angular position φA. The error signal, due to
the difference between the actual looper strip tension SA and the strip
tension reference SR, is fed into the
Page 586
current regulator of the looper motor. The current regulator then adjusts
the torque of the looper motor so that the desired strip tension is
achieved.
The second control loop provides a constant angular position of the

looper. The error signal, due to the difference between the actual looper
angular position φA and the position reference φR, is fed into the speed
regulator of the mill motor of one of the adjacent mill stands. The speed
regulator then adjusts the speed of the mill stand so that the desired
looper position is provided.
A more advanced design of a hydraulic looper was developed by IHI,

Japan [8] and incorporates load cells and an accelerometer to measure
both steady-state and dynamic strip tension. The hydraulic system
utilizes a servovalve to enhance the time response characteristics of the
looper.
To objectively evaluate the dynamic characteristics of electric and

hydraulic loopers, Nagai, et al [9] used a computer simulation model. The
model simulated the strip tension variations after disturbances due to
changes in roll gap, looper angle, and interstand tension occurred.
Results of the simulation have shown that hydraulic loopers provide more
stable rolling conditions.
24.8 Interaction of Strip Tension and Roll Gap Control

Strip tension and roll gap control systems must be compatible to insure
stability and adequate performance of the overall system. The following
two problems can occur in a hot finishing train as a result of improper
interactions between the strip tension and roll gap control systems [10]:
a) During tight threading, the looper is pulled down causing the strip
tension to increase above the target value and resulting in a lower roll
separating force of a downstream stand. If the roll gap is controlled by
using the gaugemeter principle, this decrease in roll force will generate a
roll gap correction signal to open the roll gap which tends to pull the strip
even tighter. Eventually, this interaction may cause narrowing of the strip
which is known as strip necking.
b) When large gauge corrections are made by a gauge monitor, the strip
tension control may not be able to keep up with the changes in mass
flow. Therefore, the strip tension will be either too high causing strip
necking or too low resulting in crimps, folds, and cobbles.
The best solution to resolve these two problems is to increase the speed
of response of the strip tension control. However, even when low inertial
loopers are used, the speed of response of the tension control still has an
order of magnitude lower than that of the roll gap control with hydraulic
actuators. A compromised solution may be found by implementing the
following strategies:
Reducing the speed of response of the roll gap regulator of a

downstream stand whenever a looper falls below the acceptable
range.
Maintaining low speed response of the roll gap regulators of all
stands during the first few seconds after threading to allow the
looper regulators to establish a steady-state mass flow.
Delaying activation of the gaugemeter function and gauge monitor
corrections when rolling
Page 587
Ramping the gauge monitor corrections as a function of strip

thickness to reduce the disturbances in mass flow.
The droop in stand speed is another cause for destabilizing the mass
flow during threading. This problem can be prevented by speed droop
compensation that is based on stand speed and predicted roll torque.
24.9 Looperless Tension Control

Interstand loopers in hot strip finishing mills can be eliminated if
alternative methods of strip tension measurement are utilized [11-15]. A
method known as minimum tension control (MTC), that has been
developed by Siemens, Germany [11], determines the amount of strip
tension by comparing the roll torque measured at the upstream stand
before and after the strip enters the downstream stand (Fig. 24.10). The
roll torque in the i-th stand GRO(i) in a tension-free condition is equal to:
where
mr(i) roll torque arm length at i-th stand

=
F(i) roll force at i-th stand.

=
Fig. 24.10 Block diagram of minimum tension control (MTC) system

developed by Siemens. Adapted from Bass and Hartmann [11].
Page 588
After the material has entered the (i +1)-th stand and strip tension has
been established, the roll torque of the i-th mill stand GR(i) will be equal
to:
where
mt,(i) arm length at the i-th stand with respect to strip tension
=
TE(i) strip tension between i-th and (i +1)-th stands.

=
Considering the fact that a change in torque due to interstand tension is

relatively small in comparison to roll torque, the torque measurement
must be very accurate. Also, if torque is measured as a function of the
main drive current, then the appropriate compensation for acceleration
current must be made in the control system. The alternative solution
would be to utilize torque meters that directly measure the roll torque.
Ultimately, the load frictional torque must also be taken into account.
Accurate control of the interstand tension is achieved by superimposing a

minimum tension control (MTC) as an outer loop control over the main
drive speed control. The superimposed system generates the correct
cascaded speed set points to control the interstand material flow. Since
direct measurement of the tension between stands is difficult, the MTC
calculates the tension value from the tension-dependent changes in the
rolling torque.
During the calculation of the torque arm for the (i +1)-th stand and the
other stands, the tension value determined for the i-th stand must be
taken into account to achieve the value for tension-free conditions. The
difference between the preset set point and the actual value, known as
the control actuation differential, is fed into a proportional integral (PI)
controller which then generates the correction actuation value for the
speed controller.
24.10 Three-Stage AGC for Tandem Cold Mills

The three-stage AGC system that was developed by Davy-Loewy, UK [1]
is a typical example of AGC for a tandem cold mill that consists of the
following distinct stages:
Entry AGC
Interstand AGC
Exit AGC.
The entry AGC (Fig. 24.11) incorporates the gaugemeter and gauge
deviation control and, as an option, roll eccentricity compensation on
stands S1 and S2. The interstand AGC provides constant mass flow on
stands S3 and S4. The exit AGC regulates the constant roll gap and also
includes the gauge deviation feedback control on stand S5. The
gaugemeter control at stands S1 and S2, along with the gauge deviation
feedback control, assures constant gauge material exiting stand S2.
Since the speed of stand S2 is also constant, the material will be fed into
stand S3 with a constant mass flow.
Strip tension between stands S1 and S2 is maintained by adjusting the

roll speed of stand S1.
Page 589
Strip tension between stands S2 and S3, as well as between stands S3

and S4, is controlled by changing the roll gap of the respective
downstream stand. Both types of strip tension control, as described
above, are available between stands S4 and S5. Gauge deviation
feedback control provides adjustments of speeds of stands S1, S2, S3,
S4, and S5 whenever a correction of the exit gauge is required.
Fig. 24.11 Davy-Loewy three-stage AGC for tandem cold mills. From
Dendle [1]. Copyright Institute of Metals. Reprinted with permission.
Fig. 24.12 Three-stage AGC for tandem hot strip mills. 1 - roll gap
gaugemeter control, 2 - roll gap position control, 3 - looper control, 4 -
main drive speed control, 5 - exit gauge error feedback control.
24.11 Three-Stage AGC for Tandem Hot Strip Mills

A typical three-stage AGC for tandem hot strip mills can be exemplified
by the gauge control system that is described below. The first stage of
the AGC (Fig. 24.12) incorporates gaugemeter
Page 590
control at stands 1, 2 and 3. The second stage provides constant mass

flow by maintaining constant interstand strip tension with loopers. The
interstand tension is controlled by regulating the mill speeds. The third
stage includes the roll gap position control of the latter stands and exit
gauge error feedback system that controls the absolute delivery gauge by
trimming the roll gaps of the mill stands. A certain proportion between
adjustments of the roll gaps of these stands is maintained to assure a
minimum distortion of mass flow.
24.12 Feedforward AGC for Tandem Cold Mills

In the most modem AGC systems for tandem cold mills, feedforward
control is incorporated at stands 1 and 2 [16]. The main objective of
feedforward control is to eliminate the deviation of the incoming gauge at
stand 2. To achieve this objective, the tension between stands 1 and 2 is
regulated by changing the roll speed of stand 1.
A schematic arrangement of the feedforward AGC that was developed by

Sumitomo Metal Industries, Japan is shown in Fig. 24.13. The thickness
deviation is monitored by a thickness gage installed after stand 1. The
average thickness deviation ΔH2 for a selected segment of strip is
calculated by a computer and the position of each segment is tracked as
it passes through the mill stands. The computer also predicts the time
when each segment reaches stand 2 and the amount of speed change
ΔV1 of stand 1.
Fig. 24.13 Schematic arrangement of feedforward AGC for tandem cold
mills developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries. From Tajima, et al [16].
Reproduced through the courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
24.13 Flow-Stress Feedforward AGC for Tandem Cold Mills

A modified version of feedforward AGC for tandem cold mills was
developed by Kobe Steel, Japan [17]. This system includes two
conventional feedforward control systems (Fig. 24.14) that are applied for
stands 1 and 2. Each of these systems measures the strip thickness in
front of the rolling stand. An optimum roll gap is then calculated and an
appropriate reference is applied to the roll gap control system.
In addition to these conventional feedforward control systems, the so-

called flow stress feedforward control system (FS-FF-AGC) has been
utilized for stand 2. The fluctuation in the resistance to deformation of the
rolled material is calculated based on the stand 1 entry strip
Page 591
thickness and roll force. This fluctuation is used for calculating the
optimum roll gap for stand 2, taking into account the time delay in the
control system and the strip transfer time from stand 1 to stand 2.
Fig. 24.14 Flow-stress feedforward AGC for tandem cold mills developed
by Kobe Steel. Adapted from Nakada, et al [17].
24.14 Non-Interactive AGC for Tandem Cold Mills

In non-interactive AGC, the tension and gauge control systems are
independent. A non-interactive AGC system has been implemented by
Sumitomo Metal Industries, Japan [18] in application to a 5-stand tandem
cold mill.
The roll gap setup errors and variations in thickness and hardness of the
incoming strip are corrected by an automatic gauge control system (Fig.
24.15a) that incorporates three feedback control loops. Feedback for
each loop is provided by thickness gages that are installed after stands 2,
4, and 5. The first control loop adjusts the roll gaps of stands 1 and 2
while the second loop controls the roll gaps of stands 3 and 4. The third
loop controls the gauge by adjusting the speed of stand 5 and, thus,
affecting the exit strip tension. The interstand strip tension is maintained
constant by a roll speed controller. Stand 3 is selected to be the pivot
stand (key stand), as shown in Fig. 24.15b. A computer simulation of the
non-interactive AGC was conducted by Hitachi, Japan [19], who
determined that application of this control system can improve the
thickness accuracy from ±0.8% to ±0.4%.
24.15 Automatic Tension and Gauge Control Systems

The objective of an automatic tension and gauge control system is to
control the gauge during the entire rolling process from head end to tail
end of the rolled strip. The automatic tension and gauge control system
that was developed by Hitachi, Japan [20] incorporates the following
three subsystems:
Page 592
Mass flow gauge calculating system

Gauge and tension control system
Dynamic change control system.
Fig. 24.15 Non-interactive AGC for tandem cold mills developed by

Sumitomo Metal Industries. Adapted from Okamoto, et al [18].
Fig. 24.16 Mass flow gauge calculating system for tandem cold mills
developed by Hitachi. Adapted from Eto, et al [20].
Page 593
Mass flow gauge calculating system - This system as shown in Fig. 24.16
calculates the mass flow gauge of the i-th stand by the following
equation:
where
Hi
=
mass flow entry gauge
hi
=
mass flow exit gauge
fi forward slip.
=
The steady-state forward slip is calculated from the expression:

where
ri
=
reduction
μi
=
coefficient of friction
R′i
=
deformed work roll radius
tfi
=
forward tension
tbi
=
backward tension
Ki
=
mean resistance to deformation
Φ modification coefficient.
=
Gauge and tension control system - The gauge and tension control
system uses either a low-speed or high-speed mode of operation. At low
rolling speeds, the control continuously maintains the desired interstand
tension and quickly minimizes the gauge error at each stand by
regulating the roll gaps and tension references. The interstand tension is
adjusted by changing the roll speeds. The required changes in the roll
gap and tension references are calculated by utilizing a multivariable
optimum control concept. This concept is based on minimizing the
integration of the square sum of the thickness deviation.
At high rolling speeds, the roll speeds of the mill stands are regulated by
utilizing the following control loops:
Feedforward control for entry gauge deviation

Feedback control for delivery gauge deviation
Gauge monitor or gauge integration control.
The gauge and tension control compensates for the lack of front tension
during threading by an
Page 594
appropriate adjustment of the roll gaps. Motor droop rate compensation is

also provided to avoid roll slippage during threading.
Dynamic gauge control system - By using a dynamic gauge control

system, the strip is rolled to one gauge until the desired length of the
rolled product is obtained. The gauge may then be quickly changed to
another scheduled value. The transition is made by a smooth regulation
of the roll gap and roll speed of each stand to a secondary setup value
while the mill is running.
24.16 High/Low Frequency AGC

According to a study conducted by Nippon Steel, Japan [21], when
hydraulic screwdowns operate at low frequencies of 1.5 Hz or less, the
exit gauge barely changes, but tension fluctuation occurs leading to
difficulties in threading. To overcome this problem, Nippon Steel
proposed to divide the gauge fluctuation into high frequency and low
frequency components.
The high frequency component is controlled by a screwdown feedforward

AGC while the low frequency component is controlled by a mass flow
AGC that also regulates the roll speeds in all stands. As illustrated
schematically in Fig. 24.17, high speed hydraulic screwdown units are
installed on all stands. There are also X-ray thickness gages along with
strip speed laser sensors that utilize the Doppler effect installed between
the stands.
Fig. 24.17 High/low frequency AGC for tandem cold mills developed by
Nippon Steel. Adapted from Hattori, et al [21].
Page 595
24.17 Effect of Roll Speed Control Response on AGC Performance

The effect of response of a roll speed control system on AGC accuracy
was investigated by Nippon Steel, Japan [21]. A computer simulation was
conducted for a 5-stand tandem cold mill with a conventional AGC
system having gaugemeter AGC on the first stand, mass flow AGC on all
stands, and gauge monitor AGC on the last stand.
The accuracy of the AGC system can be determined when the response
of the roll speed control system is changed in equal amounts on all
stands. The AGC accuracy can be evaluated in relative terms by
employing the AGC error ratio Ar that is expressed as:
where
δi AGC error corresponding to roll speed control system response ωi

=
δ7.5 AGC error corresponding to roll speed control system response ω = 7.5
=rad/s.
Figure 24.18 shows that the AGC error ratio reduces and hence the AGC
performance improves with an increase in the response of the roll speed
control system.
Fig. 24.18 Effect of mill motor response on AGC accuracy. Adapted from
Hattori, et al [21].
24.18 Feedforward AGC for Hot Tandem Mills

In hot strip mills, the basic cause of gauge variation is the fluctuation of
the strip temperature along the length of the strip [22]. The following two
patterns of strip temperature variation are usually recognized:
Overall temperature rundown (occasionally runup) from the head

end to the tail end of the strip
Page 596
Local cold spots on the strip known as skid marks that are
generated in the slab reheat furnace as the surface of the slab
contacts the furnace skids.
The feedforward AGC, that was developed by the Bethlehem Steel [23],
is designed to reduce the effect of temperature variation on both the strip
gauge and strip flatness performance. Figure 24.19 shows the
feedforward AGC block diagram for hot strip mills. Since the first mill
stand is the sampling stand, no roll gap adjustment is made on this stand
during rolling. The roll gap control of the next three stands is designed to
overcorrect (negativity control) in-bar thickness variation that is caused
by overall and local temperature variations along the strip. The roll gap
control of the last three stands allows the overcorrected or negative
gauge to grow back, so that a constant roll force is maintained at these
stands.
Fig. 24.19 Control block diagram of feedforward AGC for hot strip mills.
Adapted from Wagner, et al [23].
Fig. 24.20 Block diagram of fast adaptive threading (FAT) control
implemented at Dofasco 68 in. hot strip mill. Adapted from Vandenberg,
et al [10].
Page 597
The temperature readings from a sensor that is installed after stand 1 are
sampled 10 times per second and used to predict the strip temperature at
the roll bite of each downstream stand. The growback predictor and
negativity determinator, using these temperature data along with other
strip characteristics, develop the gauge references for each sample of
steel, so that the necessary negativity and growback criteria are met. In a
modified control system that is known as force feedforward (FFF) AGC
[24, 25], the signal from the temperature sensor is replaced with the roll
separating force signal that is measured at the F1 stand (see dashed
lines in Fig. 24.19).
A somewhat similar concept was used at the Dofasco 68 in. hot strip mill
to control strip threading [10]. The control function, known as feedforward
adaptive threading (FAT), scans the head end force on the F2 stand and
uses the force error to adjust the force prediction and roll gap references
at the downstream mill stands (Fig. 24.20). The control is complemented
with the force feedback signals that improve the accuracy and
consistency of the gauge performance during threading.
24.19 Feedforward Head-End Gauge Control System

In hot strip finishing mills, the X-ray gage is usually located at the exit of
the last stand. In the feedforward head-end gauge control system that
was developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries, Japan [26], an
intermediate X-ray gage is installed at the exit of the F4 stand of a 7-
stand finishing mill.
A block diagram of the feedforward head-end gauge control system is

shown in Fig. 24.21. When the head end of the strip exits the F4 stand,
the intermediate X-ray gage measures the deviation of strip thickness
Δh4 from the target thickness h4 at the exit of the F4 stand. A computer
utilizes the measured value Δh4 to calculate the required gauge
corrections Δhi for the downstream stands F5, F6, and F7 according to
the following equation:
The calculated gauge corrections Δhi are then converted into the roll gap
adjustments by taking into account the mill stiffness and material plastic
properties. Simultaneously, the mill speeds of the F5 and F6 stands are
adjusted to compensate for the change in mass flow that is caused by the
roll gap corrections. The mill speed adjustments ΔVi are derived from the
following equation:
where
ki, ki+1 coefficients.

=
The adaptive mill setup control system utilizes actual measurements by

the intermediate
Page 598
X-ray gage to calculate the next mill setup values for stands F1 through
F4 while the actual measurements by the exit X-ray gage are used to
calculate the next mill setup values for stands F5 through F7.
Fig. 24.21 Feedforward head-end gauge control system with interstand

thickness gage developed by Sumitomo Metals Industries. Adapted from
Haraki, et al [26].
24.20 Features of Advanced Gauge Control Systems

An advanced AGC system usually incorporates control functions that
compensate for the gauge disturbances that are introduced by
imperfections of the rolling mill equipment. Among these functions, the
most critical ones are:
Compensation for variation of oil film thickness in oil film type

backup roll bearings
Compensation for friction between moving parts of AGC actuators
and between roll chocks and housing posts
Compensation for roll eccentricity.
Compensation for variation of the oil film thickness in oil film type backup
roll bearings is usually based on utilization of the experimental curves
that represent the relationship between the roll force and roll speed.
Compensation for friction between moving parts of AGC actuators and

between the roll chocks and housing posts can be achieved by
introducing small low-amplitude oscillations into the system. Some
measures must be taken to reduce the effect of these oscillations on the
thickness of the rolled material. Some methods of compensation for roll
eccentricity are described below.
Further improvements of the gauge control systems are achieved by

implementing the following technologies:
Fuzzy logic technology [27, 28]

Learning theory and pattern recognition technology [29].
Page 599
24.21 Roll Eccentricity Control Methods

A number of methods for compensating the effect of roll eccentricity on
the thickness of the rolled product have been proposed. These methods
can be divided into the following three main types:
Passive roll eccentricity control methods - These methods are not

designed to compensate for the effects of roll eccentricity on the
thickness of the rolled material. The principal purpose of these methods
is to make the roll gap control system insensitive to the disturbances
caused by roll eccentricity. This method does not require roll gap
corrections as a function of roll eccentricity, thus excluding the possibility
of accentuating the gauge variations.
Active roll eccentricity control methods - This type of method usually

involves the detection of a roll eccentricity component and the
subsequent derivation of a correction signal which is applied to a roll gap
control regulator to compensate for the roll eccentricity. The roll
eccentricity component is detected from the signals that represent the
major rolling parameters such as roll force, roll gap, rolled material exit
thickness, strip tension, etc. Depending on how the detected signal is
treated, these methods may be classified as follows:
Analyzing methods
Synthesizing methods.
In the analyzing methods, the roll eccentricity component is extracted

from the measured signals by applying mathematical analysis such as
Fourier analysis. In the synthesizing methods, the roll eccentricity
component is produced by replicating the roll eccentricity component.
The replication of the signal is made by either mechanical or electrical
means.
Preventive roll eccentricity control methods - These methods are

designed to create conditions prior to rolling so that the effect of roll
eccentricity on the thickness of the rolled product is reduced, without
taking any corrective action during rolling.
24.22 Dead Band Method
The dead band method is a typical example of a passive roll eccentricity
control method. This method is commonly used to eliminate a periodic
component in a control signal. The periodic component is usually present
in the output signals of the transducers that measure the roll force, roll
gap, strip thickness, and strip tension.
Figure 24.22 illustrates the principle of operation of a control circuit

utilizing the dead band method. The input signal in a dead band circuit
contains a periodic component (Fig. 24.22a). The dead band is usually
set to be slightly greater than a peak-to-peak amplitude of the periodic
component. Both upper and lower dead band limits float up and down
with variations of the input signal, while maintaining the dead band
constant. This is known as the floating dead band method.
When a maximum instantaneous value of the input signal exceeds the

last level of the upper dead band limit, the dead band moves up until its
upper limit reaches the maximum value of the input signal. Contrarily,
when a minimum instantaneous value of the input signal becomes lower
than the last level of the lower dead band limit the dead band moves
down until its lower
Page 600
limit reaches the minimum value of the input signal. The value of the
output signal of the dead band circuit is equal to the average value
between the upper and lower dead band limits (Fig. 24.22b).
Fig. 24.22 Principle of operation of floating dead band control circuit.
Fig. 24.23 Block diagram of roll gap control system utilizing floating dead
band control method of roll eccentricity compensation.
Figure 24.23 shows an application of the dead band method to a gauge
control system based on the gaugemeter principle. The signal P + ΔPe
from a load cell contains a periodic component ΔPe corresponding to roll
eccentricity. The dead band circuit transforms this input signal into a
Page 601
signal P′ free of the periodic component ΔPe. After dividing the value of
this signal by the value of the mill structural stiffness KS of the
corresponding side of the mill, the mill stretch value P′/KS is calculated.
The calculated value of the exit gauge ha is equal to:
where
co no-load roll gap.

=
Since the value for P′ may differ from the actual roll force value P by as
much as one half of the dead band b, the error dha in calculating the exit
gauge is equal to:
Equation (24-11) allows one to evaluate the applicability of the dead band
method depending on the desired accuracy of the gauge control system.
For example, if the dead band for each side of the mill is equal to 15 tons
(33,070 lb) and the mill structural stiffness of each side of the mill is equal
to 268 tons/mm (15×106 lb/in.), the gauge error may be as large as 0.028
mm (0.0011 in.).
24.23 Roll Force Method

The roll force method utilizes an active form of roll eccentricity control
[30]. According to this method, the roll force is maintained constant as
soon as the rolled product enters the roll bite.
As shown in Fig. 24.24, this is provided by a roll gap controller that

compares the roll force reference signal Pr with the actual roll force signal
Pa detected by a load cell installed at the same side of the mill. The error
signal developed by the roll gap controller is used to drive a servovalve
that controls the oil flow in and out of the hydraulic roll gap actuator. By
holding the roll force constant, the imprint of the roll eccentricity on the
exit gauge will be eliminated. However, in the presence of other
disturbance factors affecting roll force, such as variations in thickness
and hardness of the incoming rolled product, the roll gap will improperly
be adjusted. To compensate for this, an additional gauge correction is
usually provided. The most common corrective action is made by
converting the exit gauge error signal Δha into an additional roll force
reference signal ΔP.
24.24 Fourier Analyzer of Roll Eccentricity (FARE) Method
Fourier Analyzer of Roll Eccentricity (FARE) method was proposed by
Shiozaki and Takahashi [31] and developed by IHI, Japan [32]. This
method utilizes the following relationship between
Page 602
the roll eccentricity e and the variation of rolling load ΔPe:

where
ΔPe rolling load variation due to roll eccentricity

=
e amplitude of roll gap variation due to roll eccentricity

=
KM
=
rolled material stiffness
KS
=
mill structural stiffness
ω
=
angular speed of backup roll
t time.
=
Fig. 24.24 Block diagram of roll gap control system utilizing roll force
control method of roll eccentricity compensation.
Constants A and B can be obtained by measuring the variation of rolling

load P during one rotation of the backup roll. The measured rolling load P
is sampled at the predetermined time intervals of T/n (Fig. 24.25), where
T is the cycle time required for the backup roll to make one revolution and
n is the number of samples taken during the cycle time.
Figure 24.26 shows the block diagram of the IHI roll eccentricity
compensation control employing the FARE method. The gauge control is
based on the gaugemeter principle. The input signals to the FARE control
are signals from a load cell and a pulse generator connected to the
backup roll end. The eccentricity signal detected by means of FARE,
passes through the pressure control loop and adjusts the roll gap so as to
increase or decrease the eccentricity correcting load. The signal
producing the eccentricity correcting load continues to accumulate until
the roll eccentricity load component vanishes in the rolling load signal.
The output of FARE will then be stored in the core memory when no
further eccentricity load component can be detected. In the case when
several pieces are rolled, it is continuously stored in the memory
Page 603
and the correction calculations are continued.
Fig. 24.25 Scanning of roll force variation.

Fig. 24.26 Block diagram of roll gap control system employing FARE
method of roll eccentricity compensation [31].
Figure 24.27 shows an example of the test results on roll eccentricity

eliminating control during ‘‘kiss rolling” on a hydraulic cold mill. Both sides
of the charts show the variations of roll
Page 604
force when the roll eccentricity eliminating control was not activated and
the middle part shows the load variation when this control was operating.
It is evident from this figure that the roll force variation was reduced four
times after the roll eccentricity eliminating control was activated. The
main deficiency of the FARE method is that it does not provide for
compensation of the second and higher harmonics of the roll eccentricity.
Imai and Shiozaki [33] have applied a similar method to compensate roll
eccentricity in a plate mill. The Fourier analysis technique has also been
utilized in the roll eccentricity compensation methods proposed by King
and Stewart [34], Puda [35], Oliver and Stewart [36], and Stewart and
Oliver [37] all of Aluminum Company of America, and also by Anbe, et al
[38] of Kabushiki Kaisha Toshiba, Japan.
Fig. 24.27 Reducing roll eccentricity effect with FARE control during “kiss
rolling” on cold mill. Adapted from Imai and Sizuki [32].
Fig. 24.28 Strip gauge variation during flying gauge change with: a)
decrease in finished gauge and b) with increase in finished gauge.
Adapted from Hikino, et al [39].
Page 605
24.25 Flying Gauge Change

Flying gauge change is a technique that is commonly utilized in
continuous tandem cold mills and facilitates rapid gauge changes while
maintaining stable rolling.
Fig. 24.29 Deviation of finished gauge during flying gauge change at

weld. Adapted from Hikino, et al [39].
Fig. 24.30 Off-gauge length produced during flying gauge change as a

function of finished gauge. Adapted from Hikino, et al [39].
Figure 24.28 illustrates two cases that were studied by Hikino, et al [39].
Figure 24.28a shows the case when the finished gauge decreases and
Fig. 24.28b shows the case when the finished gauge increases. In both
cases, the strip length with transient gauge does not exceed 10 meters.
An example of the gauge variation during flying gauge change at a weld

is shown in Fig. 24.29. The strip length with transient gauge is less than
12 meters.
The off-gauge length that is produced by the flying gauge change

technique is greatly dependent on the finished thickness of rolled strip as
shown in Fig. 24.30. The off-gauge length asymptotically decreases with
an increase in the finished thickness and levels off for the gauges
Page 606
exceeding 0.8 mm. Incidentally, this is true for both conventional and
flying gauge change methods. With the flying gauge change method,
however, the off-gauge length is approximately 2.5 times shorter than
that obtained by a conventional gauge change method.
References
1. Dendle, D.W., “Hydraulic Position-Controlled Mill and Automatic Gauge
Control,” Flat Rolling: A Comparison of Rolling Mill Types, Metals Society,
Cardiff, Wales, 1978, pp. 103-111.
2. “Dictionary of Instrumentation Terminology,’’ Machine Design, Nov. 23,

1967.
3. Hayama, Y., et al, “Development of a High Response Type Hydraulic

Roll Gap Control System,” Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Technical Review,
Vol. 19 No. 2, July 1983, pp. 1-7.
4. Saotome, S. and Yamazawa, K., “IHI New Position Sensing Type

Hydraulic Mill,” IHI Engineering Review, Vol. 7 No. 3, Sept. 1974, pp. 87-
95.
5. Ginzburg, V.B., “Dynamic Characteristics of Automatic Gauge Control

System with Hydraulic Actuators,” AISE Year Book, 1984, pp. 75-83.
6. Ginzburg, V.B., and Snitkin, S.R., U.S. Patent No. 4,513,594, Apr. 30,
1985.
7. Hishikawa, S., et al, “New Control Techniques for Cold Rolling Mills -
Applications to Aluminum Rolling,” Hitachi Review, Vol. 39 No. 4, 1990,
pp. 221-230.
8. Imai, S., et al, “IHI New Type Hydraulic Looper,” IHI Engineering
Review, Vol. 11 No. 1, Jan. 1978, pp. 29-37.
9. Nagai, T., et al, “Adoption of the Hydraulically Driven Push-up Device

and Loopers in the Hot Strip Mill,” Proceedings of the International
Conference on Steel Rolling: Science and Technology of Flat Rolled
Products, Vol. 1, Sept. 29 - Oct. 4, 1980, Tokyo, pp. 485-496.
10. Vandenberg, G.P., et al, “Thickness Control at Dofasco’s No. 2 Hot

Strip Mill,” Iron and Steel Engineer, Nov. 1990, pp. 17-24.
11. Bass, G.V. and Hartmann, R., “Minimum Tension Control in Finishing
Train of Hot Strip Mills,” Iron and Steel Engineer, Nov. 1987, pp. 48-53.
12. Drexler, W., et al, “Loopless Tension Controlled Rolling of Austenitic

and Ferritic Stainless Grades in a Hot Strip Finishing Train,” Proceedings
of the 4th International Steel Rolling Conference: The Science and
Technology of Flat Rolling, Vol. 1, Deauville, France, June 1-3, 1987, pp.
A.33.1 - A.33.9.
13. Akamatsu, J., et al, “Looper-less Tension Control of a Hot Strip Mill
Finisher,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Steel Rolling:
Science and Technology of Flat Rolled Products, Vol. 1, Sept. 29 - Oct. 4,
1980, Tokyo, pp. 410-417.
14. Oishi, A., et al, “New Tension Control System in Finishing Stands of a
Hot Strip Mill,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Steel
Rolling: Science and Technology of Flat Rolled Products, Vol. 1, Sept. 29
- Oct. 4, 1980, Tokyo, pp. 418-427.
15. Tanimoto, S., et al, “New Tension Measurement and Control System
in Hot Strip Finishing Mill,” Statistical Process Control in the Steel
Industry, Iron and Steel Society, Warrendale, Pa., 1985.
16. Tajima, S., et al, “Development of a New Type AGC System for a
Tandem Cold Mill,” AISE Year Book, 1981, pp. 240-245.
Page 607
17. Nakada, T., et al, “Feedforward AGC System for Cold Rolling Tandem
Mills,” Proceedings of the 3rd Process Technology Conference:
Application of Mathematical and Physical Models in the Iron and Steel
Industry, Vol. 3, March 28-31, 1982, Warrendale, Pa., pp. 117-121.
18. Okamoto, T., et al, “Advanced Gauge and Tension Control of Tandem
Cold Mill with Hydraulic Screwdown System,” Transactions of the Iron
and Steel Institute of Japan, Vol. 16, 1976, pp. 614-622.
19. Saito, Y., et al, ‘‘Application of Blocked Non-Interacting Optimal

Control to Rolling Mill,” Hitachi Review, Vol. 37 No. 4, 1988, pp. 221-228.
20. Eto, T., et al, “The Automatic Tension and Gauge Control of Tandem
Cold Mill,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Steel Rolling:
Science and Technology of Flat Rolled Products, Vol. 1, Tokyo, Sept. 29 -
Oct. 4, 1980, pp. 439-450.
21. Hattori, M., et al, “Latest Control System for Cold Strip Mill,” Nippon
Steel Technical Report, No. 49, April 1991, pp. 51-58.
22. Jenkins, W.G., et al, “Sparrows Point 56 in. Hot Strip Mill Gauge
Control System,” AISE ear Book, 1969, pp. 339-348.
23. Wagner, F., et al, “Feedforward Control System for a Hot Strip Mill,”
Iron and Steel Engineer, Oct. 1984, pp. 44-48.
24. Readal, G.J., and Wagner, F., “Force Feedforward (FFF) Automatic
Gauge Control Installed on USS Fairfield Works 68 in. Hot Strip Mill,”
Paper presented at the 1989 AISE Annual Convention, Association of
Iron and Steel Engineers, Pittsburgh, Pa., Sept. 18-21, 1989.
25. Yamashita, A., et al, “Development of Feedforward AGC for 70 in. Hot
Strip Mill at Kashima Steel Works,” Sumitomo Search, No. 16, Nov. 1976,
pp. 34-39.
26. Haraki, H., et al, “Hot Strip Mill Gauge Control Using Interstand
Thickness Meter,” Iron and Steel Engineer, Aug. 1992, pp. 54-59.
27. Sharma, U. and Parfitt, G.I., “The Application of Fuzzy Logic
Technology to Tandem Mill Transitional Gage Variation,” Proceedings of
the 1997 AISE Annual Convention, Vol. 2 Cleveland, Ohio, Sept. 23 -
Oct. 2, 1997, pp. 679-690.
28. Oda, T., et al, “Adaptive Technology for Thickness Control of Finisher
Set-up on Hot Strip Mill,” ISIJ International, Vol. 35 (1995), No.l, pp. 42-
49.
29. Desrochers, A. A., and Saridis, G. N., “Control Methods for Hot Steel
Rolling Mill: An Application of Learning Theory and Pattern Recognition,”
Transaction of the ASME, vol. 102, May 1980, pp. 118-122.
30. D.J. Fapiano and D.E. Steeper, “Control of Strip Thickness in Hot
Rolling,” AISE Year Book, 1985, pp. 487-496.
31. Shiozaki, H., and Takahashi, N., U.S. Patent No. 3,709,009, Jan. 9,
1973.
32. Imai, I., and Suzuki, T., “FARE (Fourier Analyzer of Roll Eccentricity)
Detector and Control System for Elimination of Roll Eccentricity,” IHI
Publication, Sept. 1973, pp. 1-12.
33. Imai, I., and Shiozaki, H., U.S. Patent No. 3,920,968, Nov. 18, 1975.
34. King, E.O. and Stewart, D.F., U.S. Patent No. 4,222,254, Sept. 16,
1980.
35. Puda, M.E., U.S. Patent No. 4,531,392, July 30, 1985.
36. Oliver, D.T., and Stewart, D.F., U.S. Patent No. 4,648,257, March 10,
1987.
37. Stewart, D.F., and Oliver, D.T., U.S. Patent No. 4,656,854, April 14,
1987.
Page 608
38. Anbe, Y., et al, U.S. Patent No. 4,763,273, Aug. 9, 1988.
39. Hikino, K., et al, “Operation of Fully Continuous Tandem Cold Mill at
Fukuyama,” AISE Year Book, 1977, pp. 81-85.
Page 609
Part VII
WIDTH CONTROL
Page 610

Page 611
Chapter 25
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WIDTH CHANGE
25.1 Lateral Spread of Initially Flat Workpiece

When an initially flat workpiece is rolled between two horizontal rolls, its
reduction in thickness is accompanied with an elongation in both
longitudinal and transverse directions.
Fig. 25.1 Slab edge cross-sectional profiles: a) convex-concave or

double-barreled, b) square, and c) convex.
The elongation in the transverse direction produces an increase in the

width of the workpiece and is commonly referred to as lateral spread.
This lateral spread Δws may be expressed mathematically by the
following equation:
Page 612
where
w1, w2 mean cross-sectional width of workpiece before and after flat rolling.
=
Equation (25-1) takes into account the fact that the edges of the rolled flat
products are not necessarily straight. Figure 25.1 illustrates the three
most common edge cross-sectional profiles as follows:
Convex-concave or double-barreled profile

Square profile
Convex profile.
Lateral spread is often expressed in relative terms by the width spread

coefficient Sw which is equal to the following:
where
h1, h2 workpiece thickness before and after thickness reduction respectively.

=
25.2 Main Factors Affecting Lateral Spread

Table 25.1 summarizes the various equations that are used for
determining the width spread coefficient. Analysis of these equations
shows that the lateral spread coefficient is a function of the following
relative geometrical factors [1-8]:
Ratio of initial width to roll contact length w1/L

Ratio of initial width to initial thickness w1/h1
Ratio of initial thickness to work roll radius h1/R
Relative reduction in thickness r.
The relationship between the absolute value of lateral spread Δws and
the width spread coefficient Sw can be readily derived from Eq. (25-2) as
follows:
Page 613
Thus, the absolute value of lateral spread is a function of not only the
width spread coefficient Sw, but also the initial width w1 and the relative
thickness parameter h1/h2.
Table 25.1 Width spread coefficient described by various equations.

Effect of Slab Initial Thickness on Lateral Spread - As shown in Fig. 25.2,
the width spread coefficient generally increases with an increase in the
initial slab thickness. The exception to this trend is the formula derived by
Helmi and Alexander, which predicts the maximum spread at a certain
initial slab thickness. There is a substantial difference between the
absolute values of the width spread coefficient predicted by Helmi and
Alexander, Beese, and Shibahara, et al when the initial slab thickness is
less than 200 mm (8.0 in.). This difference
Page 614
substantially reduces when the initial slab thickness is between 200 and
250 mm (8.0 and 10 in.).
Fig. 25.2 Effect of slab initial thickness on width spread coefficient.

Fig. 25.3 Effect of slab initial width on width spread coefficient.
Page 615
Effect of Slab Initial Width on Lateral Spread - There is a steep decrease

of the width spread coefficient with an increase in the slab initial width as
shown in Fig. 25.3. This shows that the ratio of the transverse elongation
to longitudinal elongation becomes smaller when the initial slab width
increases.
Fig. 25.4 Effect of horizontal mill work roll diameter on width spread
coefficient.
Fig. 25.5 Effect of thickness draft on width spread coefficient.
Page 616
Effect of Roll Diameter on Lateral Spread - An increase in the work roll

diameter of a horizontal mill produces a longer contact zone between the
roll and the slab. This would increase resistance to the longitudinal
elongation thus causing an increase in the metal flow in the lateral
direction. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 25.4. The rate of change
in the width spread coefficient predicted by Shibahara, et al is less than
the rate predicted by Beese, as well as by Helmi and Alexander.
Effect of Thickness Draft on Lateral Spread - Similar to an increase in the

work roll diameter an increase of the thickness draft also produces a
longer contact zone between the roll and the slab. Therefore, the
resistance to elongation in the longitudinal direction will be increased and
the metal will be forced to spread more effectively in the lateral direction,
as shown in Fig. 25.5.
According to Shibahara, et al, the rate of change of the width spread

coefficient is maximum for smaller drafts and is greatly reduced with an
increase in draft. Beese, as well as Helmi and Alexander, predict a more
or less constant rate of change of the width spread coefficient with the
thickness draft.
25.3 Effect of Friction on Lateral Spread

The effect of friction in rolling direction between the workpiece and the
work roll is taken into account by the formula for lateral spread derived by
Ekelund [9]:
where
µ coefficient of friction in rolling direction

=
ha
=
average workpiece thickness
Δ draft.
=
According to Eq. (25-4), lateral spread increases with an increase in

coefficient of friction. For steel rolls, the coefficient of friction µ is given
by:
where
t rolling temperature, deg.C.

=
Below is another formula for spread as a function of the coefficient of

friction that was proposed by Bakhtinov [10]:
Page 617
The last equation also indicates that the lateral spread also increases
with the increase in the coefficient of friction in rolling direction.
25.4 Edging with Flat Rolls

During width reduction, the metal flow is explicitly nonhomogeneous.
There is just a portion of the width reduction that is transferred into
elongation of the workpiece whereas a substantial part produces an
increase in the thickness of the rolled material. This increase of the
thickness is greater near the edges of the workpiece where the distinct
bulges are usually formed.
This nonuniform increase in the thickness of the workpiece significantly

impairs the efficiency of the edging process and also creates difficulties in
achieving tight width tolerances and high yield. A thickening of the
workpiece near its edges that is produced by edging is usually referred to
as bulging and the resulting shape of the workpiece is known as dog
bone shape.
Fig. 25.6 Slab cross-sectional profile before (dashed line) and after
edging. Adapted from Shibahara, et al [8].
Figure 25.6 schematically illustrates this phenomenon. In this figure, a

slab with an initial thickness ho and an initial width wo takes on a dog
bone shape after edging. The slab width after edging is denoted as we,
the slab thickness at the center after edging is denoted as hc, and the
maximum slab thickness at the bulges is denoted as hb.
25.5 Main Parameters of Dog Bone Shape

Although the dog bone shape is very complicated, its geometry can be
described with sufficient accuracy by using the following principal
parameters (Fig. 25.7):
Slab thickness at peak bulging, hb.

Maximum height of dog bone, B.
Increase in roll contact, hr - ho.
Peak position of dog bone, A.
Sphere of influence of dog bone, C.
The maximum height of the dog bone B is usually expressed as follows:

Page 618
where
ho thickness of workpiece prior to edging.

=
Fig. 25.7 Simplified presentation of dog bone shape.
Fig. 25.8 Effect of initial slab thickness and width draft on relative
thickness at peak bulging.
Table 25.2 summarizes the equations used for determining the relative
slab thickness at peak bulging. Figures 25.8 and 25.9 illustrate the plots
of the equation derived by Tazoe, et al and modified by. Ginzburg based
on the experimental data obtained by Shibahara, et al. These plots
indicate that the relative thickness at peak bulging hb/ho increases with
an increase in width draft de and decreases with an increase in the initial
slab thickness ho as shown in Fig. 25.8.
The relative slab thickness at peak bulging hb/ho is also affected by the
edger roll diameter De = 2Re and initial slab width wo. An increase in
edger roll diameter reduces the relative thickness at peak bulging
whereas an increase in the initial slab width produces the opposite effect
as
Page 619
illustrated in Fig. 25.9.
Fig. 25.9 Effect of the edger roll diameter and initial slab width on relative
thickness at peak bulging.
Table 25.2 Relative slab thickness at peak bulging as

described by various equations.
Author
Reference
Equation
Okado, et
[12]
al
Tazoe, et
[11]
al
Tazoe, et
al,
modified [11]
by
Ginzburg
25.6 Edging Followed by Reduction in Thickness

When edging is followed by a reduction in thickness, the bar width after
the thickness reduction
Page 620
wf may be divided into the following three components (Fig. 25.10):

where
we
=
bar width after
edging
Δws bar width spread after reduction in thickness excluding width

=increase caused by spread of bulges
Δwb bar width spread after reduction in thickness due to bulging.

=
A diligent analysis of the width spread components Δws and Δwb was
made by Shibahara, et al. According to their analysis, the bar width
spread due to thickness reduction Δws may be presented in the following
form:
where
ho, hf bar thickness prior to edging and after reduction in thickness respectively
=
a geometrical parameter.
=
Fig. 25.10 Main parameters of width spread. Adapted from Shibahara, et

al [8].
The additional bar width spread caused by bulging Δwb can be

expressed by the formula:
where
b geometrical parameter.
=
Page 621
A typical variation of the rolled product width after several edging and
thickness reductions in a roughing train of a continuous hot strip mill is
Fig. 25.11 Width change in roughing stands of a continuous hot strip mill.
Adapted from Shibahara, et al [8].
25.7 Effective Width Reduction and Edging Efficiency

Two parameters are commonly used to evaluate the efficiency edging
process:
effective width reduction

edging efficiency.
Effective width reduction deff is defined as the difference between the

workpiece width prior to edging wo and the width wf that is produced after
flattening the slab by a horizontal rolling mill, i.e.:
Figure 25.12 shows the results of rolling experiments that were
conducted by Huismann [13] using plasticine on a laboratory mill.
According to these tests, the effective width draft increases with an
increase in both width draft and interstand tension between the edger
and the horizontal stand.
Edging efficiency η is given by the following equation:

Page 622
Fig. 25.12 Effective width reduction as a function of interstand tension

between edger and horizontal mill. Adapted from Huismann [13].
Fig. 25.13 Effect of groove shape of edging rolls on maximum bit angle.
Adapted from Takeuchi, et al [14].
25.8 Edging with Grooved Rolls

The application of grooved or caliber rolls allows one to achieve the
following three goals:
Page 623
Improvement in stability of the edging process

Increase in reduction per one pass
Increase in effective width reduction.
Figure 25.13 illustrates the results of a model experiment, conducted by

Takeuchi, et al [14] using lead as a material for the rolled specimens. The
maximum bite angle was found to increase approximately five degrees
with the application of grooved rolls, having a flat surface between the
groove collars, in comparison with the maximum bite angle achieved with
the use of flat rolls.
Further sophistication of the groove shape may add an additional ten

degrees to the maximum bite angle. Another important conclusion of this
model experiment was that the maximum bite angle can be increased
approximately five degrees by pushing the workpiece into an edger. The
increase in effective width reduction with grooved rolls is mainly due to
the fact that these rolls shift the peak of the dog bone closer to the center
of the slab. Therefore, when the dog bone is flattened by horizontal rolls,
the amount of spread due to the dog bone is minimized. This was
confirmed by actual rolling data.
Fig. 25.14 Position of dog bone peak as a function of width reduction
with grooved rolls. Adapted from Takeuchi, et al [14].
Figures 25.14 and 25.15 depict the results of an edge rolling test with
grooved rolls conducted by Takeuchi, et al. This test shows that the
position of the dog bone peak A increases with an increase in both the
width reduction and the initial slab width (Fig. 25.14). The amount of
material spread (wf - we) after flattening of the dog bone also increases
with an increase in both width reduction and initial slab width (Fig. 25.15).
Page 624
Fig. 25.15 Amount of material spread after flattening dog bone formed
during edging with grooved rolls. Adapted from Takeuchi, et al [14].
Fig. 25.16 Edging efficiency with grooved rolls. Adapted from Vathaire, et
al [15].
Figures 25.16 and 25.17 illustrate the results of another edge rolling test
with grooved rolls conducted by de Vathaire, et al [15]. This test indicated
that the edging efficiency for both
Page 625
grooved and flat rolls generally increases with an increase in the width
draft. This increase is minimal when the width draft is less than 50 mm
(2.0 in.) and becomes very pronounced when the width draft exceeds 50
mm. The test also shows that the edging efficiency is greater for narrow
slabs (Fig. 25.16). The application of grooved rolls may almost double the
edging efficiency for narrow slabs in comparison with the edging
efficiency obtained with the use of flat rolls (Fig. 25.17).
Fig. 25.17 Comparison of edging efficiency with grooved and flat rolls.
Adapted from Vathaire, et al [15].
Huismann has found that the spread after a horizontal pass can be
decreased by making the groove height hg smaller in respect to the initial
slab thickness ho as illustrated in Fig 25.18. By reducing the ratio hg/ho
from 1.0 to 0.8, the spread after a horizontal pass can be cut in half.
25.9 Distortion of Workpiece Plan View

During edging by rolling, there are two unsteady periods that occur at the
beginning and the end of the rolling pass.
Pawelski and Piber [16] have considered the metal deformation behavior
when the head end of a slab with an initial width wo enters the roll bite of
an edger with the rolls having a radius Re as shown in Fig. 25.19.
Ten intermediate edging phases of the head end are shown in this figure.
It is clear, that beginning from edging phase 4, the head end of the slab
loses contact with the roll surface even before the roll gap exit is reached.
It is only when a sufficient length of the rolled product has passed
through the roll gap that complete contact of the rolled product with the
roll surface is made.
Page 626
Fig. 25.18 Influence of groove height hg on spreading after horizontal

pass. Adapted from Huismann [13].
Fig. 25.19 Deformation of head end of rolled stock during start of edging.
Adapted from Pawelski and Piber [16].
This metal deformation behavior can be explained by the fact that the
slab head end is generally stress-free. Thus, there are no reverse
moments to hold the material in contact with the rolls. Only when a
sufficiently long piece has been rolled and the head end has emerged
from the plastic deformation zone, does the reverse-acting shear
stresses form internally to force the material to fill the narrowed part of
the roll gap. A similar explanation can be given for unsteady rolling
conditions when the tail end of the slab passes through the roll bite.
Page 627
25.10 Shape of Workpiece Ends

Nonuniform deformation of the head and tail ends of a workpiece during
edging leads to the formation of end shapes that are known as fish tail
and tongue.
Fig. 25.20 Formation of ends of rolled stock. Adapted from Pawelski and
Piber [16].
Fig. 25.21 Width necking of head end of the rolled bar after one edging
pass. Adapted from Fau, et al [17].
According to a study conducted by Pawelski and Piber, the shape of the

workpiece ends depends on the ratio of edge draft (wo - we) to thickness
draft (h1 - h2). If this ratio is less than 0.5 to 0.6, a tongue is formed as
shown in Fig. 25.20. When this ratio is approximately equal to 0.5 to 0.6,
the end shape is square. When this ratio is greater than 0.5 to 0.6, a fish
tail is produced.
The three principal parameters that are used to adequately describe the
workpiece end shapes are as follows [16]:
Page 628
Width change at workpiece ends

Length of nonuniform zone
Length of fish tail.
The length of the nonuniform zone at the head and tail ends of the slab is
known as crop length.
Based on rolling tests conducted by Fau, et al at the Sollac hot strip mill
in France [17], width necking of a slab head end after one edging pass
greatly varies with the slab width as shown in Fig. 25.21. These tests
showed that as the initial slab width wo increases, the width necking will
also increase.
25.11 Buckling
A loss of the slab stability in the transverse direction is known as
buckling. Okada, et al conducted a thorough investigation of the buckling
phenomenon by carrying out model experiments with samples made of
lead. The experimental data were compared with the data observed in an
actual rolling mill and are found to be in good agreement with each other.
Fig. 25.22 Limits of buckling. Adapted from Okado, et al [12].
As was observed by Okado, et al, the buckling conditions change with an

increase in the width reduction. In the first stage, curving conditions occur
on one side of the end of the slab. This stage is called ‘‘build-up in slab”.
In Fig. 24.22, curve A identifies the maximum width reductions that are
possible without buckling. The width reductions corresponding to partial
buckling (build-up in slab) are defined by the area between the curves A
and B. As the width draft increases, curving conditions appear on both
ends of the slab. Complete buckling occurs when the width exceeds the
values that are determined by the curve B.
Page 629
25.12 Edge Cross-Sectional Shape

There are two major factors that affect the cross-sectional shape of slab
edges. One of these factors is friction in the roll bite zone that occurs
during horizontal flat rolling as was shown by Schey [18].
Fig. 25.23 Edge cross-sectional shape. Adapted from Pawelski and

Piber. [16].
Fig. 25.24 Edge cross-sectional shape produced by: a) flat edging rolls,
b) tapered edging rolls, and c) grooved edging rolls.
The geometry of the roll bite is the other major factor that affects the slab
cross-sectional shape. According to an investigation conducted by
Pawelski and Piber, the drawn in or overlap edge appears when the ratio
of the roll contact length to the initial slab thickness is less than 0.68.
When this ratio is greater than 0.68, the edge is bulged. Thus, by
selecting an appropriate draft, a square edge shape can be obtained.
Page 630
Under sticking conditions in the roll bite, a folding over of the side
surfaces (Fig. 25.23) may take place resulting in drawn in shape. When
the deformation is homogeneous, the edge cross-sectional shape is
square. Under combined sticking and slipping frictional conditions in the
roll bite, a convex or bulged edge shape is produced.
These relationships must be adjusted when the initial slab cross-sectional

shape is not rectangular. The occurrence of a drawn in shape will be
increased if the initial edge shape is also drawn in. The same is true with
respect to the bulged edge shape.
Irregularities in the edge cross-sectional shape can also be induced by
the instability of the roll stock during edging. When edging with cylindrical
rolls, one side of the slab has a tendency to rise as shown in Fig. 25.24a,
thus resulting in a non-square edge cross-sectional shape. Another
cause for producing a non-square edge cross-sectional shape is the
shape of the edging rolls such as those shown in Figs. 25.24b and
25.24c.
References
1. Ginzburg, V.B., Steel-Rolling Technology: Theory and Practice, Marcel
2. Helmi, A. and Alexander, J.M., “Geometric Factors Affecting Spread in

Hot Flat Rolling of Steel,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, No. 206,
Nov. 1968, pp. 1110-1117.
3. McCrum, A.W., “Progress Report on the Experimental Investigation of

Spread, Load, and Torque in Hot Flat Rolling”, BISRA Report MW/AL,
10/56.
4. Wusatowski, Z., “Hot Rolling: A Study of Draught, Spread and

Elongation,” Iron and Steel, Vol. 28, Feb. and March 1955, pp. 49-54, 89-
94.
5. El-Kalay, A.K.E.H.A. and Sparling, L.G.M., “Factors Affecting Friction

and Their Effect Upon Load, Torque, and Spread in Hot Flat Rolling,”
Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, No. 206, Feb. 1968, pp. 152-163.
6. Beese, J.G., ‘‘Nomograms for Predicting the Spread of Hot Rolled

Slabs,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1972, pp. 251-252.
7. Beese, J.G., “Some Problem Areas in the Rolling of Hot Steel Slabs,”
8. Shibahara, T., et al, “Edger Set-Up Model at Roughing Train in Hot

Strip Mill,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Vol. 67 No. 15,
1981, pp. 2509-2515.
9. Sparling, L.G.M., “Formula for Spread in Hot Flat Rolling,” Proceedings

of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 175 No. 11, 1961, pp.
604-611.

1969, pp. 69-202.
11. Tazoe, N., et al, “New Forms of Hot Strip Mill Width Rolling
Installations,” Paper Presented at 1984 AISE Spring Conference,
Dearborn, Mich., April 30 - May 2, 1984.
12. Okado, M., et al, “New Light on Behavior of Width of Edge of Head
and Tail of Slabs in Hot Strip Rolling Mills,” Journal of the Iron and Steel
Institute of Japan, Vol. 67 No. 15, 1981, pp. 2516-2525.
13. Huismann, R.L., “Large Width Reductions in Hot Strip Mill,”

Commission of the European Communities Report, 1983.
14. Takeuchi, M., et al, “Heavy Width Reduction in Rolling of Slabs,”

Nippon Steel Technical
Page 631
Report, No. 21, June 1983, pp. 235-246.
15. de Vathaire, M., et al, “Automatic Operation of Sollac Reversing

Roughing Mill,” Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling
Conference: The Science and Technology of Flat Rolling, Vol. 1,
Deauville, France, June 1-3, 1987, pp. A.9.1 - A.9.7.
16. Pawelski, O., and Piber, V., “Possibilities and Limits of Deformation in
Width Direction in Hot Flat Rolling, ” Stahl und Eisen, Vol. 100 No. 17,
Aug. 25, 1980, pp. 937-949.
17. Fau, F., et al, “Optimization of the Shape of Slab Ends on the
Reversing Roughing Mill of Sollac Hot Strip Mill,” Proceedings of the 4th
International Steel Rolling Conference: The Science and Technology of
Flat Rolling, Vol. 1, Deauville, France, June 1-3, 1987, pp. A.8.1 - A.8.5.
18. Schey, J.A., Tribology in Metalworking: Friction, Lubrication, and

Wear, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983, p. 266.
Page 632
Chapter 26
WIDTH CHANGE BY ROLLING AND PRESSING
26.1 Methods of Width Change by Rolling

Width reduction can be accomplished by the rolling mills having two
types of roll arrangements:
horizontal roll arrangement

vertical roll arrangement.
When a slab is rolled from an ingot, the desired width is usually obtained
by rolling the slab on its edge in a slabbing mill having horizontal rolls [1].
Fig. 26.1 Main arrangements of vertical and horizontal mills: a) open mill
stand, b) VH, c) HVH, and d) VHV. From Ginzburg [1].
The majority of slabs are presently reduced in width by rolling mills

having vertical rolls. The vertical mill stands that are used for this
reduction of width of a workpiece are conventionally called
Page 633
vertical edgers. The vertical edgers that are immediately installed after
the reheating furnaces are known as vertical scalebreakers because of
their ability to enhance the breaking of scale during the squeezing of a
slab.
The edging process conducted on vertical mill stands is usually combined

with a flat rolling process that is implemented in horizontal mill stands.
The following main arrangements of vertical (V) and horizontal (H) mill
stands are known:
Open mill stand arrangement which allows for a free bar to be

rolled by the edger (Fig. 26.1a).
VH arrangement, in which a vertical edger is close-coupled with a
horizontal mill stand (Fig. 26.1b).
HVH arrangement, in which a vertical edger is installed between
two close-coupled horizontal mill stands (Fig. 26.1c).
VHV arrangement, in which a horizontal mill stand is installed
between two close-coupled vertical edgers (Figs. 26.1d and
26.1b).
Fig. 26.2 Edging capability of various mill arrangements. Adapted from

Chaboud, et al [2].
The VHV arrangements, which incorporate two vertical edgers close-

coupled with one or more horizontal mills are also known as slab sizing
mills. The edging capabilities of various mill arrangements are shown in
Fig. 26.2 [2].
26.2 Vertical Edgers

Vertical edgers can be divided into the following groups depending on
their main drive arrangement:
Bottom-driven vertical edgers

Page 634
Top-driven vertical edgers.
The bottom-driven vertical edgers take a minimum amount of space

above the mill pass line, providing a convenient method for roll changing.
However, the maintenance of the main drive system, which is located
below the pass line, presents a significant problem.
Fig. 26.3 Vertical edger with top horizontal main drive motors. Adapted
from Holterhoff [3].
Top-driven vertical edgers can be of the following designs:
With a horizontal main drive motor (Fig. 26.3) [3]

With two vertical main drive motors (Fig. 26.4) [4].
Fig. 26.4 Vertical edger with top vertical main drive motors. Adapted from
[4].
Page 635
The arrangement having a horizontal main drive motor has a lower height
in comparison with the edger arrangement having two vertical main drive
motors. There is, however, an advantage in using the vertical main drive
motors since more reliable cylindrical gears can be used rather than the
less reliable bevel gears that are used in the edgers with horizontal main
drive motors.
The four principal shapes of edging rolls that are used in vertical edgers
are:
Flat rolls (Fig. 26.5a)

Tapered rolls (Fig. 26.5b)
Grooved rolls with flat or convex inner surface (Fig. 26.5c)
Grooved rolls with tapered inner surface (Fig. 26.5d).
Fig. 26.5 Four types of edging rolls: a) flat, b) tapered, c) grooved with
flat or convex inner surface, and d) grooved with tapered inner surface.
Flat rolls require a minimum amount of energy for edging. However, the
edging efficiency with flat rolls is low, and also one side of the slab has a
tendency to rise when edging. With tapered rolls, the probability for this
type of instability of the edging process is significantly reduced. Edging
with grooved rolls increases the edging efficiency by pushing the peak of
the dog bone closer to the centerline of the slab. Grooved rolls, however,
are only effective when the slab thickness is compatible with the groove
height. To provide stability of the slab when the slab thickness is less
than the groove height, these rolls can be designed with a tapered inner
surface.
26.3 Examples of Edging Practice

Figure 26.6 illustrates an example of the application of vertical edgers in
a typical continuous hot strip mill. A stand-alone vertical scalebreaker,
VSB is located downstream from the reheat furnaces. This scalebreaker
is usually the most powerful edging stand in the mill, producing a major
reduction in width. The subsequent edgers, E1 through E4 are in a close-
coupled arrangement with the downstream roughing mill stands R2
through R5. Their purpose is to maintain the width or to produce a
relatively small additional width reduction.
Page 636
The width change range of the roughing train is defined as the difference
between the width produced without edging and the width produced by
taking the maximum possible width reduction at each edging stand. In the
example shown in Fig. 26.6, the width change range is equal to 72 mm
for a slab with an initial width of 1270 mm.
Fig. 26.6 Width change produced at roughing train of continuous hot

strip mill.
Another example of a rolling practice is shown in Fig. 26.7 in application

to a reversing roughing mill with a close-coupled vertical edger located at
the entry side of the roughing mill stand. By using a powerful vertical
edger, with grooved rolls, the overall reduction in width of 370 mm is
obtained for a slab with an initial width of 1100 mm [5].
26.4 Slab Sizing Mills
The main purpose of slab sizing mills is to reduce the number of required
slab widths produced by a continuous caster. Width change using slab
sizing mills is usually performed at the following three principal locations:
On-line location after the continuous caster

On-line location in a hot rolling mill
Off-line location.
Page 637
The VHV arrangement (Fig. 26.1d) is used in the Nippon Steel Oita
Works, Japan [6]. This slab sizing mill, which was developed by IHI,
Japan, is an off-line reversing mill that provides reduction in both
thickness and width and also utilizes grooved rolls in the edger. The
principal specifications of this slab sizing mill are:
Number of cast slab

widths 1
Continuously cast slab

sizes:
thickness 280 mm (11 in.)
width 1900 mm (74.8 in.)
length 6 - 29 m (19.7 - 95.1 ft)
Slab sizes after sizing

mill:
thickness 160 - 280 mm (6.3 - 11 in.)
width 750 - 1900 mm (29.5 - 74.8

in.)
Average production rate 840 tons/hour

Fig. 26.7 Width reduction during rolling in reversing roughing mill. Data
from de Vathaire, et al [5].
26.5 Effect of Edging Practice on Workpiece End Shape

The effect of the edging practice on the transfer bar end shape was
investigated by Pera, et al [7] at the SSAB semi-continuous hot strip mill
in Sweden. This investigation was performed for the following three
different edging practices:
Page 638
Edging work is mostly done during the early passes.

Edging work is mostly done during the late passes.
Maximum possible edging is done during all passes.
For all these tests, the same thickness reductions were taken as
illustrated in Table 26.1. Figure 26.8 shows the pass schedules for the
vertical edger when edging was done during the early passes which is
designated as Schedule A, and during the late passes (Schedule B).
These investigations have shown that when the edging work is done
early in the schedule, a strong fish tail is created in the slab ends.
Table 26.1 Roughing mill pass schedule of

SSAB semicontinuous hot strip mill. Data from
Pera, etal [7].
Parameters Pass Exit Workpiece

number thickness temperature,
Flat pass 1 1210°C

schedule 189.1
mm
2 1205°C
155.9
mm
3 1195°C
123.1
mm
4 1180°C
90.2
mm
5 1165°C
60.4
mm
6 1145°C
39.7
mm
7 1120°C
26.4
mm
Roll horizontal mill: 815 mm

diameters;
vertical mill: 960 mm
Slab 220 × 1305 × 5500 mm

dimensions
Fig. 26.8 Pass schedules for edger with early edging (schedule A) and
late edging (schedule B). Adapted from Pera, et al [7].
Page 639
Figure 26.9 shows that the length of the fish tail increases with the
increasing reduction and increasing slab width. Edging late in the
schedule is always advantageous with regard to the amount of end
scrap. On the other hand, such a procedure may lead to buckling of the
slab. Late edging tends to give a more inhomogeneous deformation,
concentrated along the side of the slab resulting in increased spread
when the dog bone is rolled out in the next flat pass. As the height of the
dog bone decreases in the slab ends, the width shortage in the ends is
accentuated.
Fig. 26.9 Fish tail length and maximum width shortage for early edging
(schedule A) and late edging (schedule B). Adapted from Pera, et al, [7].
Figure 26.9 shows the maximum width shortage at the strip ends. This
width shortage increases with an increasing reduction and decreased
slab width. During these trials, a maximum width reduction of 150 mm
was achieved for wide slabs and nearly 100 mm for narrow slabs. The
width shortage was as much as 55 mm and the nonuniform length at the
bar ends was as long as 20 meters, resulting in crop losses of up to 10%.
26.6 Effect of Edging Practice on Workpiece Metallographic

Properties
The influence of heavy width reduction rolling of continuously cast slabs
on the metallographic structure and mechanical properties at the slab
edge was studied by Kokado, et al [8]. The results of this study can be
summarized as follows:
By repeating vertical and horizontal rolling alternatively, the

columnar structure at the slab edge, produced in the slab width
direction in the casting process, is destroyed and the
Page 640
For the same reduction rate, the smaller the width reduction ratio
and the greater the number of rolling passes, the more refined
deformation can be obtained at the slab edge. Therefore, the
mechanical properties of the rolled material are superior to the
ones obtained with a large reduction and fewer passes. However,
if the width reduction is small, the slab center is less deformed and
therefore the thickness at the center is reduced. This causes an
increase in the crop losses at the head and tail ends of the slab,
and would be even further increased if an inner crack existed in
the center section of the slab.
If horizontal rolling only is performed, without vertical rolling, the
direction of the columnar structure at the slab edge does not
change, and therefore the mechanical properties do not improve.
Generally, the yield stress and tensile strength of the material
rolled by a horizontal mill alone are greater than in the material
that is rolled by both horizontal and vertical mills. However, this
difference is minimal and the overall properties of the hot rolled
steel slabs processed from continuously cast slabs by heavy
width-reduction rolling are superior to those processed by
horizontal rolling only.
26.7 Edging in Finishing Mills

Experiments with edging the strip between the finishing mill stands have
been performed by numerous researchers [9-11].
After conducting experiments with white plasticine as a test specimen

with the scale from 1/5 to 1/10 and using grooved rolls, Matoba, et al [9]
concluded the following:
Increasing the roll diameter and decreasing the groove angle

decreases the width restoration of the strip (Fig. 26.10).
Application of strip tension raises the limit of buckling stress and
thereby increases the width reduction 2 to 3 times of that obtained
without tension.
To prevent buckling of the strip ends that are rolled without
tension, the strip should be restrained with a pressure roll.
The limit of buckling stress increases with decreasing edger roll
diameters and increasing strip thickness. Based on the theory of
buckling [12], the maximum width reduction without buckling deb
can be calculated from the equation:
where
h
=
strip thickness
km
=
flow stress
σx
=
strip tension
Re edging roll radius.

=
Page 641
Fig. 26.10 Width restoration after edging and flat rolling in finishing mill.
Adapted from Matoba, et al [9].
Kawamura, et al [11] have found that during edging between the

downstream finishing stands, the vertical movement of a looper roll
forces the strip out of the edging rolls. To prevent this, a method of tilting
the edging rolls was devised and was found that a proper inclination of
the edging rolls helps to stabilize the strip path.
26.8 Methods of Width Enlargement by Rolling

During the thickness reduction with flat horizontal rolls, most of the
reduction is transferred into elongation of a workpiece while only a small
part of this reduction is transferred into width spread.
Knowing this fact, the width enlargement methods may be clearly divided
into two groups. The first group utilizes the fact that the thickness
reduction during rolling is mostly translated into an elongation in the
longitudinal direction. A typical example of this method is the broadside
rolling method. According to this method (Fig. 26.11), width enlargement
is achieved by changing the rolled slab orientation in respect to a
horizontal rolling mill by 90 degrees so that the thickness reduction is
made in the width direction until a required slab width wb is obtained.
Page 642
The second group of width enlargement methods utilizes various

techniques to restrain the elongation in the longitudinal direction of a
workpiece and, thereby, enhance its spreading. This is accomplished
without changing the orientation of the workpiece in respect to the rolling
direction during the thickness reduction by horizontal rolling mills.
Fig. 26.11 Principle of broadside rolling.
This second group includes the following width enlargement methods:
Width enlargement with scalloped rolls [13]

Width enlargement with rolls having staggered annular projections
[14]
Width enlargement with rolls having concurred annular projections
[15, 16]
Width enlargement with rolls having variable annular projections
[17]
Width enlargement with high-crown rolls [18]
Width enlargement with tapered rolls [19, 20].
26.9 Width Enlargement with Tapered Rolls

The application of tapered rolls for a roughing mill was first proposed by
Hiramatsu of Sumitomo, Japan [19] for the purpose of improving the slab
plan view control. This idea was later expanded by United Engineering
and International Rolling Mills Consultants [20] for enhancing the slab
spreading by producing a dog bone shape of the slab cross-section with
tapered rolls followed by flattening the slab with a horizontal mill.
This method can be implemented in the three ways:
Utilizing two bi-directional shifting rolls with the tapers made at

opposite sides of the rolls as shown in Fig. 26.12a. The axial
positions of the rolls are adjusted for each particular slab size.
Utilizing two rolls with the tapers made at the same sides
(Fig.26.12b). In this case, either both rolls or the slab are shifted in
the same direction to produce a dog bone shape at one edge of
the slab. The same procedure is then performed in the
downstream mill stand with the opposite slab edge.
Utilizing one tapered roll in conjunction with a regular flat roll.
Page 643
Fig. 26.12 Width enlargement by producing dog bone shaped slab: a) by

shifting tapered rolls with respect to slab and b) by shifting slab with
respect to tapered rolls. Adapted from Ginzburg [20].
All of these methods will produce the same result and should be selected
based on each particular application.
26.10 Classification of Sizing Presses

Width reduction by pressing is performed by squeezing or sizing presses
and is generally accomplished by reciprocated movements of the press
tools in the plane that is parallel to the workpiece plane.
The process of width reduction by pressing is to a certain degree

dependent on the relationship between the length of the sizing press tool
and that of the slab being subjected to a reduction in width. From this
viewpoint, sizing presses can be divided into the following two principal
groups [1]:
Long-tool sizing presses with the tool length Lt being greater than
the initial slab length as shown in Fig. 26.13a.
Short-tool sizing presses with the tool length Lt being less than the
initial slab length as shown in Figs. 26.13b and 26.13c.
Only one stroke of the press tools is usually required for sizing a
workpiece with a long-tool sizing press. Width reduction with a short-tool
sizing press employs a series of reciprocated movements of the press
tools with the workpiece being advanced either between or
simultaneously with the tool squeezing strokes. These short-tool sizing
presses can be classified in the following manner.
Start-stop type sizing presses - In the start-stop type sizing press, the
workpiece is maintained in a stationary position during squeezing. After
the completion of each squeezing
Page 644
stroke, the press tools are retracted and the workpiece is advanced to the
next working position by a separate mechanism, such as pinch rolls. In
this type of sizing press, the shape of the press tool contact zone can be
either rectangular (Figs. 26.13a and 26.13b) or have a tapered portion
(Fig. 26.13c).
This difference in design significantly affects the press tool stroke that is
needed to produce a certain width reduction. Indeed, when the press tool
shape is rectangular, the minimum total stroke required to be made by
both press tools is equal to the slab width draft. When the press tools
have tapered portions, the width reduction can be produced with a tool
stroke that is substantially less than the width draft.
Fig. 26.13 Various types of slab sizing presses: a) long-tool, b) short-tool
with flat press tools, and c) short-tool with tapered press tools. Adapted
from Nikaido, et al [24].
Flying type sizing presses - Flying type sizing presses are designed to
produce a squeezing of the workpiece along with its simultaneous
advancement, which is usually accomplished by devising a sophisticated
motion of the press tools. This action reportedly improves the workpiece
edge surface quality. In this type of sizing press, the press tool contact
zone has a specific shape that is needed to produce the desired contact
pattern between the press tools and the workpiece. The tool cross-
sectional shape can be either flat or grooved. Similar to edging with
rolling mills, the use of grooved press tools in sizing presses moves the
peak of the bulge closer to the center of the slab which results in better
edging efficiency.
Rocking type sizing presses - In rocking type sizing presses, the slab is
squeezed in a similar manner as in a start-stop type sizing press. In
addition, a rocking motion of the press tools is employed. This design
combines the simplicity of the start-stop type sizing presses with the
Page 645
functional advantage of flying type sizing presses with regard to edge

surface quality.
In most sizing presses, the workpiece is sized by press tools that

reciprocate in the horizontal plane as shown in Fig. 26.13. In some
designs of sizing presses, however, the workpiece prior to squeezing is
positioned vertically by a special tilting mechanism and is then reduced in
width with at least one press tool reciprocating in the vertical plane [21].
26.11 Design of Short-Tool Start-Stop Sizing Presses

The press tools of the contemporary short-tool start-stop sizing press
have two distinct surfaces, straight and tapered. The principle of
operation of this type of press is shown in Fig. 26.14. Prior to squeezing
the slab with an initial width wo, the press tools are separated and the
slab is advanced forward, so that the head end of the slab is located
within the area between the straight surfaces of the press tools. The
press tools then squeeze the slab until the desired width we of the head
end is obtained (Fig. 26.14a). Squeezing of the remaining portion of the
slab is provided by an oscillating movement of the press tools.
Fig. 26.14 Principle of operation of start-stop sizing press.
During each oscillating cycle the press tools retract to provide a gap m
between the straight portions of the press tools and the slab (Fig.
26.14b). This allows the slab to be advanced a distance s that is equal to
the following (Fig. 26.14c):

Page 646
where
φo slope angle of tapered portion of press tool.

=
The average slab feed speed Vs can be given by:

where
n frequency of oscillation.
=
The contact length Ls between the slab and the press tools (Fig. 26.14c)
is equal to:
where
Lm contact length corresponding to maximum width draft dem

=
de width draft.
=
Fig. 26.15 Schematic presentation of hydraulic start-stop sizing press

developed by Hitachi. Adapted from Kimura [22].
The reciprocated motion of the press tools is usually provided by either

hydraulic cylinders or crankshaft mechanisms. Figure 26.15 illustrates the
main parts and principle of operation of the start-stop type sizing presses
that were developed by Hitachi and Kawasaki Steel, both of Japan [22-
27]. The press tools are reciprocatively driven by hydraulic cylinders.
Slab squeezing is provided by the press tools that have both parallel and
tapered portions. Prior to squeezing of a
Page 647
new slab, the press tools are separated and the slab is advanced forward
with the entry pinch rolls so that the head end of the slab is located within
the area between the parallel portions of the press tools. The press tools
then squeeze the slab of initial width wo with a screw-nut mechanism
until the desired width we of the head end is obtained. Squeezing of the
remaining portion of the slab is provided by oscillating the hydraulic
cylinders which is accompanied by an appropriate advancement of the
slab. As soon as the tail end of the slab leaves the entry pinch roll area,
the slab continues to be fed into the press with the exit pinch roll.
26.12 Performance of Short-Tool Start-Stop Sizing Presses

The performance characteristics of the short-tool start-stop sizing press
installed at the Kawasaki Steel Mizushima Works hot strip mill, were
investigated by Hira, et al [25] and Nikaido, et al [26]. These
investigations have shown that the slab cross-sectional profile after
edging is greatly affected by the press tool slope angle φo. When the
press tool slope angle φo increases, the dog bone shape of the slab
becomes more explicit.
Fig. 26.16 Effect of press tool angle and slab width on edging efficiency
of sizing press. Adapted from Nikaido, et al [26].
Consequently, the edging efficiency decreases as shown in Fig. 26.16.

According to Eqs. (26-1) and (26-2), the press tool slope angle also
affects the slab advancement length between cycles s and the average
slab feed speed V. The optimum value for this angle was found to be
equal to 13°.
Figure 26.17 summarizes the test results obtained by Hira, et al

regarding the effect of width reduction by pressing on the main
parameters of the slab cross-sectional profile. The slab thickness at the
peak bulging hb and the slab centerline thickness hc increase with an
increase in width reduction, while the press tool contact thickness hr
slightly decreases. The distance between the dog bone peaks wb also
decreases with an increase in the width reduction, nearly at the same
rate for all initial slab widths. The main advantage of width reduction by
pressing is that the distortions of the slab end plan view are significantly
reduced in comparison with those
Page 648
that develop during edging by rolling.
As in edging by rolling, an increase in the width reduction by pressing

results in greater crop length losses (Fig. 26.18), although the absolute
value of these losses is significantly smaller than those obtained during
the same width reduction by rolling. The edging efficiency of the short-
tool sizing press depends on various factors. The edging efficiency
increases with an increase in the width reduction and with a decrease in
slab width as shown in Fig. 26.19.
Fig. 26.17 Effect of width reduction by pressing on main parameters of
slab cross-sectional profile. Data from Hira, et al, [25].
The technical specifications of the Kawasaki Steel Mizushima Works

sizing press are as follows [26]:
Maximum width 300 mm

reduction
Anvil angle 13°
Crank radius 50 mm
Crank frequency
1.43 Hz
Maximum load 2500 t
Main drive 3300 kW, ac, 600

rpm
Slab width range 1000 - 2200 mm.

Page 649
Fig. 26.18 Crop length of head and tail end of rolled stock when edging
with sizing press. Adapted from Nikaido, et al [26].
Fig. 26.19 Effect of width reduction and slab width on edging efficiency
of sizing press. Adapted from Nikaido, et al [26].
The squeezing load developed in the sizing press was found to be almost
linearly proportional to the width draft. It was also established that for the
same initial slab thickness ho
Page 650
and width draft, the effect of the initial slab width wo on the squeezing
load was small (Fig. 26.20).
The slab feeding speed varies with the width draft. When the draft is
equal to 300 mm (11.8 in.), the average slab feeding speed is equal to
174 mm/s (6.86 in./s).
Fig. 26.20 Squeezing load developed by the sizing press. Adapted from
Nikaido, et al [26].
26.13 Flying Type Sizing Presses

Figure 26.21 depicts schematically the design of the flying type sizing
press that was developed by Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries (IHI),
Japan and installed at the Sumitomo Metal Industries (SMI), Kashima
Works hot strip mill, also of Japan [28,29].
Two major motions of the press tools, transverse and longitudinal, are
provided by two separate drives. The transverse motion produces
squeezing of the slab and is activated by a transverse drive motor
through two transverse crankshaft mechanisms, each connected to a
press tool. The slab feeding is achieved with synchronous longitudinal
motions of the press tools that are generated by two independent
longitudinal drive motors through their respective crankshaft
mechanisms.
The coordinated motions of the press tools in both the longitudinal and
transverse directions produce elliptical shape locuses of the tools as
shown in Fig. 26.21. This action reportedly eliminates surface defects
which may appear during sizing by the start-stop type sizing presses. The
sizing press is installed upstream of the vertical scalebreaker and
reduces the slab width as the slab moves in direction of the rolling. The
main parameters of the SMI Kashima Works sizing press are as follows
[28]:
Maximum width draft per

pass 350 mm
Maximum pressing force

2700 t
Cycle frequencies 35 to 50
strokes/min.
Slab feeding speed 20 m/min.

Page 651
Fig. 26.21 Schematic presentation of IHI flying type sizing press installed
at SMI Kashima Works hot strip mill. Adapted from [28].
One of the main features of this flying type sizing press is that the slab
feeding speed is constant and independent of the width draft. The press
first sizes the head end of the slab (Fig. 26.22a), then, for a light
reduction, works its way along the complete slab length (Fig. 26.22b). For
heavy reductions, before completing the sizing cycle, the press first sizes
the tail end of the slab (Fig. 26.22c) and then the rest of the slab length
(Fig. 26.22d) so that better shape of both head and tail ends of the slab
can be obtained.
Fig. 26.22 Slab width reduction sequence with IHI flying type sizing
press installed at SMI Kashima Works hot strip mill. Adapted from [28].
Page 652
The flying type sizing press at the SMI Kashima Works is designed to
reduce the number of standard slab widths that are produced by the
caster and increase the average slab width. This in turn helps to increase
the caster output and hot direct charging ratio along with reducing the
reheating fuel consumption and increasing the yield at the hot strip mill.
26.14 Rocking Type Sizing Presses

A plan view of the rocking type sizing press that was developed jointly by
United Engineering and International Rolling Mill Consultants [30] is
shown in Fig. 26.23. This sizing press is of modular construction,
permitting easy in-field assembly. Four cylinders are restrained by four
housings that are connected in pairs by tie bolts and separators. The tie
bolts resist the separating forces of the hydraulic cylinders, while the
separators resist the reacting forces. The separators’ sliding surfaces
carry and guide the tool holders.
A pair of idling slab support rolls are mounted on a cylinder supported

frame between the separators on the roller table centerline. This press is
equipped with entry and delivery pinch rolls to advance and control the
slab position throughout the entire squeezing process. Pinch rolls
advance the slab between the press squeezing strokes, hold the slab
during the squeezing strokes, and reverse the slab for tail end squeezing.
Fig. 26.23 Plan view of rocking type sizing press. Adapted from Ginzburg
[30].
Page 653
The rocking type sizing press utilizes press tools that have parallel and
tapered portions. In order to provide a variable slope angle and be able to
reverse the direction of the taper with respect to the direction of slab
movement, each press tool is driven by a pair of hydraulic cylinders.
Fig. 26.24 Principle of operation of rocking type sizing press. Adapted

from Ginzburg [30].
One of the modes of operation is illustrated in Fig. 26.24 and described

as follows:
StepPrior to sizing a new slab, the press tools are separated and their mutual
1 - orientation is adjusted by the hydraulic cylinders so that the head portions of
the tools are parallel and the tail portions form an angle φo with the slab.
StepThe slab is then advanced forward so that the head end of the slab is located
2 - within the area between the head portions of the press tools. The slab is then
squeezed by an appropriate extension of the hydraulic cylinders. As shown
in Fig. 26.24a, Lc is the distance between two adjacent cylinders.
StepThe press tools are then rotated in the horizontal plane so that their tail
3 - portions will additionally squeeze the slab until full contact of the tail
portions of the press tools with the slab is achieved (Fig. 26.24b). At the
same time, the head portions of the press tools rotate away from the slab.
StepThe press tools are then moved a distance m away from the slab by the
4 - retraction of all hydraulic cylinders (Fig. 26.24c).
StepThe slab is then advanced a distance s (Fig. 26.24d). This would complete
5 - the first
Page 654
cycle and all subsequent cycles will be identical.
When a reversing pass is required, the angular positions and movements

of the head and tail portions of the press tools are reversed. The
positions of the hydraulic cylinders are controlled through servovalves
with feedback signals that are provided by cylinder position transducers.
26.15 Design Optimization of Sizing Presses

In the process of designing a sizing press, the following goals are
pursued [28]:
Prevention of slab buckling

Accurate positioning of the slab
Suppression of vibration and shocks
Stable support of press load.
Some of the design features that have been proposed to achieve these
goals are described as follows.
Prevention of slab buckling-When squeezing the head end of a slab,

buckling tends to occur between the parallel surfaces of the press tools
(Fig. 26.25a), whereas the tail end of the slab tends to buckle between
the tapered surfaces of the press tools (Fig. 26.25b). To prevent this
buckling, powerful pinch rolls are used to provide a hold-down action at
both the head and tail ends of the slab.
Fig. 26.25 Prevention of slab buckling in start-stop type sizing press for:
a) head end and b) tail end. Adapted from Nikaido, et al [28].
Accurate positioning of slab - The problem of accurately positioning the

slab is pertinent to all types of sizing presses. By the nature of the start-
stop type sizing press, there is a functional division between slab
squeezing and slab transfer, that is the slab is squeezed while it is
stopped. In this way, not only can the slab be positioned accurately with
regards to the press tools, but also implementation of the pinch rolls
becomes an efficient way for preventing slab buckling and twisting.
In flying type sizing presses, the actions of slab squeezing and transfer
are combined, thus
Page 655
producing difficulties in accurately positioning the slab during squeezing.

This problem, however, can be alleviated by utilizing grooved press tools
which, in addition to providing accurate slab positioning, push the peak of
bulging closer to the slab centerline, thus increasing slab edging
efficiency.
Suppression of vibration and shocks - Vibration is a serious problem

relevant to any machine that produces a reciprocated movement of large
masses and is especially critical for sizing presses that have eccentric
crankshafts. The inertia of the crank system and the speed of collision of
its mass, including the press tools against the slab, are two factors that
are most closely related to vibration and noise. To suppress this vibration
and noise, the crank radius should be designed as small as possible and
the angular crank speed should be as low as possible within the limits
allowed by both the width reduction range and the productivity
requirements. An increase in equipment life can be achieved by isolating
the major components of the sizing press on the foundation so that the
vibration does not propagate from the crank system to the peripheral
equipment.
Stable support of press load - In a sizing press, the location of the center-
of-load varies with the amount of reduction, the head and tail pre-forming
lengths, and other factors. To avoid vibration and assure stable slab
deformation, the location of the center-of-load must be kept within an
acceptable range. In the sizing presses with mechanical screwdown
mechanisms [31], this can be achieved by an appropriate positioning of
the screws that support the press tools. In the hydraulically driven sizing
presses [30], this positioning can be provided at a much faster rate.
References
1. Ginzburg, V.B., Steel Rolling Technology: Theory and Practice, Marcel
2. Chaboud, M., et al, ‘‘Large Width Reductions of Slabs,” Revue de

Metallurgie - CIT, Nov. 1984, pp. 867-875.
3. Holterhoff, P., “The New Roughing Train in the 2-m Hot Strip Mill at
Sollac,” Metallurgical Plant and Technology, Vol. 9 No. 2, 1986, pp. 12-
18.
4. “Hydraulic AWC Edger for Hot Rolling,” Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy

Industries Co., Ltd. Publication, No. 8403-1000, Tokyo, 1984.
5. de Vathaire, M., et al, “Automatic Operation of Sollac Reversing

Roughing Mill,” Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling
6. Takeuchi, M., et al, “Heavy Width Reduction in Rolling of Slabs,”

Nippon Steel Technical Report, No. 21, June 1983, pp. 235-246.
7. Pera, J.O., et al, “Optimal Width Reductions in Hot Strip Mills,”

Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Vol. 26, 1986, pp.
206-211.
8. Kokado, J.I., et al, “Influence of Heavy Width-Reduction Rolling of

Continuously Cast Slabs on Metallographic Structure and Mechanical
Properties at Slab Edge,” Journal of Japan Society for Technology of
Plasticity, Vol. 25 No. 277, 1984, pp. 123-128.
9. Matoba, et al, T., “Feasibility Study on Edger in Finishing Mills, Study

on Strip Edging # I,” Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan,
Vol. 24, 1984, p. B-149.
Page 656
10. Tazoe, N., et al, “Characteristics of Metal Deformation by Strip

Edging, Study on Strip Edging # II,” Transactions of the Iron and Steel
Institute of Japan, Vol. 24, 1984, p. B-150.
11. Kawamura, K., et al, “Study of Application for Actual Edger in

Finishing Mills, Study on Strip Edging # III,” Transactions of the Iron and
Steel Institute of Japan, Vol. 24, 1984, p. B-151.
12. Timoshenko, S., Theory of Buckling, Corona Publishing Co., 1952.
13. Greenfield, E.T., U.S. Patent No. 1,217,750, Feb. 27, 1917.
14. Gersman, H.M., U.S. Patent No. 1,814,593, July 14, 1931.
15. Okado, M., et al, U.S. Patent No. 4,294,094, Oct. 13, 1981.
16. Hope, T., et al, “Hi-Spred: A New Hot Rolling Process Which Can
Affect Major Changes of Slab Width,’’ Proceedings of 4th International
Steel Rolling Conference: The Science and Technology of Flat Rolling,
Vol. 1, Deauville, France, June 1-3, 1987, pp. A.13.1 - A.13.5.
17. Ginzburg, V.B., U.S. Patent No. 4,793,169, Dec. 27, 1988.
18. Ginzburg, V.B., U.S. Patent No. 4,735,116, April 5, 1988.
19. Hiramatsu, T., Japan Patent No. 57-52504, March 29, 1982.
20. Ginzburg, V.B., U.S. Patent No. 4,730,475, March 15, 1988.
21. “Vertical Slab Sizer Undergoing Trials,” 33 Metal Producing, Feb.

1991, p. 37..
22. Kimura, T., U.S. Patent No. 4,578, 983, April 1, 1986.
23. Naoi, T., et al, “Development of a Slab Sizing Press,” Hitachi Review,
Vol. 37 No. 4, 1988, pp. 189-194.
24. Nikaido, H., et al, U.S. Patent No. 4,760,728, Aug. 2, 1988.
25. Hira, T., et al, “Deformation of Slab under Heavy Reduction of Width
by Sizing Press,” Kawasaki Steel Technical Report, No. 22, May 1990,
pp. 32-40.
26. Nikaido, H., et al, “Development of Slab Sizing Press for Heavy Width
Reduction in Hot Strip Mills,” Iron and Steel Engineer, Sept. 1990, pp. 21-
26.
27. “Sumitomo Metal Starts Up Slab Sizing Press,” 33 Metal Producing,

Jan. 1989, pp. 41-42.
28. Nikaido, H., et al, “Hitachi’s Highly Reliable Slab Sizing Press,”
Hitachi Review, Vol. 39 No. 4, 1990, pp. 183-188.
29. Imai, Y., et al, “Development and Engineering of a Slab Sizing Press
Applied to a Full Continuous Hot Strip Mill,” The Sumitomo Search, No.
46, April 1991, pp.1-10.
30. Ginzburg, V.B., et al, U.S. Patent No. 5,046,344, Sept. 10, 1991.
Page 657
Chapter 27
OPTIMIZATION AND CONTROL OF WIDTH CHANGE
PROCESS
27.1 Methods of Reducing Crop Losses

Crop losses after edging can be reduced by preventing the formation of
non-rectangular shapes of the slab ends known as fish tail or tongue.
Some of the methods that have been proposed and successfully
implemented to solve this problem are as follows [1-8]: Utilization of
convex crown slabs - According to this method, the convex crown slabs
are produced with a continuous caster. When these slabs are rolled with
horizontal flat rolls, the effect of slab center elongation is achieved thus
reducing the fish tail.
Rolling with lubrication - In this method, lubrication is provided during

edging with grooved rolls. Since the roll lubrication decreases the
coefficient of friction in the roll bite, the growth of the dog bone becomes
smaller.
Back-pressure slab rolling - In this method, edging is produced by

pushing the slab into a vertical edger from the back. The pushing can be
accomplished either by a pushing device or by a horizontal mill.
Convex crown rolling - According to this method, prior to edging, a

convex cross-sectional profile of the slab is made by rolling between
horizontal concave rolls. The effect of convex crown rolling on crop
losses was investigated by Chong, et al [2]. The convex crown on the
slabs was obtained by rolling between horizontal rolls that have a
concave crown.
To quantify the influence of the roll concave crown on end crop losses,
experimental trials were completed using flat rolls and rolls with a
concave crown of 0.1 and 0.15 mm over a 200 mm roll face length.
During these tests, plasticine slabs of the same initial dimensions were
rolled to a final thickness of approximately 2.5 mm. After 10 passes of
rolling, the thickness had been reduced from a nominal 23 mm to 4.5
mm. It was shown that the rolled slab crown had a major influence on the
plan view. As shown in Fig. 27.1, by using a roll crown of 0.15 mm, the
end crop losses were reduced by 50% in comparison with the case when
flat rolls were used.
Page 658
Fig. 27.1 Effect of crown of horizontal rolls on the length of end crop.
Adapted from Chong, et al [2].
Utilization of variable groove size rolls - Edging efficiency can be

substantially improved with the use of grooved rolls. The application of
this method, however, is limited to the cases when the slab thickness is
compatible with the groove size. Indeed, once the slab thickness
becomes thinner than the groove height, the bulge formation will no
longer be restrained by the collars of the edging rolls and the resulting
slab cross-section will be similar to that obtained with flat edging rolls.
This problem can be solved by the use of edging rolls with a variable
groove size.
Fig. 27.2 Plan view of plate produced by: a) conventional rolling, and b)
pre-forming slab ends by pressing. From Ginzburg [4].
Pre-forming slab ends - This method squeezes the slab end corners prior
to edging by rolling. Pre-forming of the slab ends can be accomplished
with the following methods [5]:
Flame cutting.
Roll edging.
Pressing.
Page 659
Pre-forming of the slab ends by flame cutting results in substantial yield

losses. Roll edging of the slab ends was found to be effective only for
pre-forming of the tail end of the slab whereas pre-forming by pressing
was found to be effective for both head and tail ends of the slab.
27.2 Pre-forming Slab Ends by Pressing

Figure 27.2 illustrates schematically the effect of pre-forming the slab
ends using an edging press that was developed by IHI, Japan [6]. This
edging press squeezes the slab head and tail comers prior to edge
rolling. The slab yield improvement produced by this method is claimed to
be as much as 30% in comparison with conventional edge rolling.
Fig. 27.3 Schematic presentation of Hitachi slab pre-forming press.

Adapted from Awazuhara, et al [7].
Fig. 27.4 Relationship between slab pre-forming length and crop area
ratio. Adapted from Miyake, et al [5].
A simplified drawing of the pre-forming press developed by Hitachi,

Japan [7] is shown in Fig.
Page 660
27.3. This press comprises a pair of press tools 2. The center portion of
the tool is flat and parallel to the slab edge while its end portions are
tapered. The press tools 2 move reciprocatively in the widthwise direction
with their movement being guided by the guiding rods 5 and guiding
plates 7. This movement is provided by the hydraulic cylinders 3 with the
piston rods 4. The slab 1 is transferred toward the press by the table rolls
6 and is positioned between the press tools 2. The press tools have
grooves to prevent slab buckling and to move the peak of bulging toward
the slab center.
The efficiency of pre-forming the slab ends by pressing can be improved

by selecting the optimum values for the pre-forming length L and the
press tool taper angle φo. An investigation conducted by Miyake, et al [5]
with a plasticine model (scale 1/15), shows that the crop losses decrease
exponentially with an increase in the pre-forming length L as depicted in
Fig. 27.4.
27.3 Methods of Preventing Out-of-Square Slab Cross-Section

Several methods were proposed to reduce distortion of the slab cross-
sectional profile.
Preventing out-of-square slab cross-section - The main cause of an out-

of-square slab cross-section is the ascension of one side of the slab. This
is generally prevented by using either grooved rolls or tapered rolls with a
bottom collar.
Fig. 27.5 Simplified presentation of tilted edging roll arrangement.
Adapted from Kokubo, et al [9].
Another method was recently proposed by Kokubo, et al [9] and is

illustrated schematically in Fig. 27.5. When the axes of both edging rolls
are perpendicular to the advancing direction of the slab, the slab tends to
ascend on one side becoming tilted. To prevent this ascension, the
edging roll at this side is tilted at the angle θ toward the same direction as
the advancing direction of the slab. For a reversing pass, the edging roll
is tilted at the angle θo. This action creates a component of the roll
tangential force that pushes the slab down against the table rolls.
Page 661
Preventing Slab Buckling - Excessive width reduction may lead to

buckling of the slab which can usually be avoided by limiting the
maximum allowable value of the edge draft. This value, however, can be
increased with the use of support rolls and skids. The three buckling
prevention systems shown in Fig. 25.6 are:
Center support.
Both ends support.
Three points support.
Fig. 27.6 Slab buckling preventing systems with: a) center support, b)

both ends support, and c) three points support. Adapted from Inoue, et al
[10].
Fig. 27.7 Prevention of edge overlap with V roll. Adapted from Inoue, et
al [10].
The three points support system was developed by Kawasaki Steel and
IHI, both of Japan [10] in application to plate rolling. In this system, the
support rolls at the end are also capable of
Page 662
suppressing the formation of a dog bone.
Preventing Slab Edge Overlap - Slab edge overlap can be prevented by

the application of V rolls as proposed by Kawasaki Steel and IHI, both of
Japan [10]. Each V roll (Fig. 27.7) has a flat portion and a grooved
portion that can be selected by a simultaneous vertical shifting of both V
rolls according to the rolling condition. The grooved portion of these rolls
can be used for chamfer rolling, thereby preventing edge overlap.
27.4 Selection of Optimum Width Change Technology

To determine the optimum width change technology for a hot strip mill,
the technology must provide the following features:
Desired width change capability at an adequate production rate.

Minimum yield losses.
Minimum capital investment.
Minimum operating and maintenance cost.
Fig. 27.8 Selection of optimum width change technology. From Ginzburg,

et al [11]. Reproduced through the courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
The desired width change range in a hot strip mill is usually determined in
relation to the production rate and width change capability of a
continuous caster. Therefore, the production rates of both systems are
closely balanced. As the overall production rate becomes greater, it is
usually preferred to have a lesser number of width changes made by the
continuous caster, thereby, leaving the major burden of width changes to
be made at the hot strip mill.
Once the desired width change range in a hot strip mill is selected, a
comparative analysis should be performed in order to select the optimum
width change technology (Fig. 27.8) [11]. As an example, Figure 27.9
illustrates schematically ten various mill arrangements and pass
schedules that were used in the width change technology comparative
analysis for a 56 in. semi-continuous hot strip
Page 663
mill. The main purpose of this analysis, which was sponsored by Warren
Consolidated Industries (WCI Steel), was to define the optimum
modernization program for the existing roughing train so that it could
achieve a width reduction capability of up to 6 inches.
Fig. 27.9 Mill arrangements and pass schedules used in width change
technology analysis for semi-continuous hot strip mill. From Ginzburg, et
al [11]. Reproduced through the courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
Fig. 27.10 Maximum width change range of existing semi-continuous hot
strip mill prior to modernization. From Ginzburg, et al [11]. Reproduced
through the courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
Arrangement 1 in Fig. 27.9 illustrates the existing roughing train that

contains the following equipment:
Page 664
Nonreversing vertical mill with flat rolls VN

Back-pass 2-high horizontal mill HB
Attached reversing vertical mill VR
Reversing 4-high horizontal mill HR.
Figure 27.10 shows the maximum width change range of existing semi-
continuous hot strip mill prior to modernization. The mill configurations
that were investigated for the optimization study incorporate the following
main features:
Replacement of the nonreversing vertical mill with flat rolls VN with

a reversing vertical mill with grooved rolls VR (Arrangements 2 -
7).
Replacement of the back-pass horizontal mill HB with a reversing
horizontal mill HR (Arrangements 4, 5, 7, and 8).
Addition of a reversing vertical mill VR either after the back-pass
horizontal mill HB (Arrangement 6) or before a reversing horizontal
mill HR (Arrangements 7 and 8).
Installation of a sizing press SP either instead of the existing
nonreversing edger VN (Arrangement 9) or after the existing back-
pass horizontal mill HB (Arrangement 10).
27.5 Width Measuring Systems

Width measuring systems can be divided into the following two principal
groups:
Noncontact
Contact.
Noncontact width measuring systems usually incorporate an optical

device that senses the width of the rolled product by scanning either its
plan view with vertical optical beams or its edges with horizontal optical
beams. The device that uses vertical beams, operates on the principle
that the position of the slab edge may be optically located by virtue of the
light contrast that occurs between the slab and its background. During
measurement, the slab image is detected by a light sensitive transducer
which transmits information to the measuring electronics.
Contact width measuring systems are based on the application of

physical contact between the measured workpiece and a transducer
which converts the measured width into another physical parameter that
is usually an electrical signal.
The optical dimensional measurements can be accomplished by the

following methods [12]:
Comparison method.
Survey method.
Combined method.
Comparison Method of Width Measurement - A width measuring system

based on the comparison method evaluates the image of an object that is
projected by an optical system of known magnification onto a graduated
standard. With a known focal length of the camera lens and distance
Page 665
between the object and camera, the dimensions of the image can be
related to the real size of the object.
The comparison method is used in the slab width and thickness

measuring system that was developed by Broken Hill Proprietary Co.
(BHP), Australia. Figure 27.11 illustrates the geometry of the slab width
and thickness measurement that was utilized in this two camera system.
The measured slab width w and thickness h can be given by the following
equations [13]:
where
XT, YT horizontal and vertical focal point distances respectively

=
X1, Y1 halves of slab width and thickness respectively

=
m1x, m2x image lengths corresponding to slab width

=
m1y, m2y image lengths corresponding to slab thickness.

=
Fig. 27.11 Comparison method of width and thickness measurement

utilized in BHP system. From Kenyon [13]. Reproduced through the
Survey Method of Width Measurement - The survey method of width

measurement is based on the measurement of the angle subtended by
an object’s boundaries and the calculation of the object’s dimensions by
triangulation. This method is employed in the UPL-Scanex system [14],
which incorporates a flying image technique. In this system as shown in
Fig. 27.12, the image of the
Page 666
product to be measured is scanned across a detector that produces a

scan signal which is a variation of voltage with time. After further
processing, the scan signal is converted into a square pulse that is
proportional to the product dimension. To reduce distance errors, two
cameras are used to set the nominal width of the material, one for each
edge of the material being measured. The deviations of the material
width from the set nominal width are detected with the scanning cameras.
Fig. 27.12 UPL-Scanex system utilizing survey method of width

measurement. Adapted from van Moll and Meier-Engelen [14].
Combined Method of Width Measurement - The main disadvantage of

both the comparison and survey methods of width measurement is that
with a tilted workpiece, the optical system sees only its projection onto a
plane that is normal to the optical axis. Therefore, that projection no
longer indicates the correct workpiece width. Thus, errors are caused
because the optical system is unable to discover the position of the
object in space.
Fig. 27.13 Combined method of width measurement utilized in Accuband
width gage developed by George Kelk, Ltd.
Page 667
To make the width measurement independent of the workpiece position,

the combined method of width measurement utilizes the stereoscopic
principle of measurement. This principle is employed in the Accuband
width gage that was developed by George Kelk, Ltd., Canada [12,15]. As
shown in Fig. 27.13, the positions of A and B of each edge of the slab are
detected with two cameras. Since the distance d between the cameras is
fixed, the distance between the points A and B can be calculated by the
triangulation method with the use of the measured values of the angles α
′, α″, β′, and β″. At the height of the scanner unit, approximately 4.5
meters (14.8 ft) above the mill roller table, the accuracy of the Accuband
gage in measuring the 2000 mm wide strip is reportedly ±1 mm.
Width Gage with Horizontal Optical Beams - Figure 27.14 depicts a laser
type width gage that was developed by Kawasaki Steel, Japan [16]. In
this gage, the optical beams are transmitted in a horizontal plane. A ray
of helium-neon laser beam is cast onto the surface to be measured at an
angle of incidence of approximately 2.5°. Light is reflected from this
surface and is dispersed mainly in the direction of the angle of reflection
equal to the angle of incidence.
Fig. 27.14 Laser type width gage developed by Kawasaki Steel. Adapted
from Tomiya, et al [16].
Part of the reflected and dispersed light is received with a lens that
projects an image of a bright spot generated on this surface onto a photo
detector. If the surface to be measured shows a displacement, the image
on the photo detector also moves and the output of the photo detector
changes. As a result, an analog output that is proportional to this
displacement is obtained from an arithmetic unit circuit.
This width gage consists of two displacement gages called laser 1 and
laser 2. The position of these displacement gages is controlled with
position sensors (Magnescales) that are based on the specified slab
width so that the edges of the slab on the roller table are kept within the
measuring range of the displacement gages. The slab width is
determined from the displacement gage and position sensor output.
Accuracy of ±1 mm was reportedly obtained with this width gage.
27.6 Camber Measuring Systems

Measurement of the workpiece width and camber can be accomplished
by measuring the workpiece
Page 668
lengths along both edges as proposed by Ichihara [17]. The relationship

between the average camber radius of the plate centerline Rc and the
plate lengths along its edges can be given by:
where
w
=
plate width
Li
=
plate length along inner edge
Lo plate length along outer edge.

=
In the proposed measuring device, the plate lengths are measured with
two pulse counters that are connected with the axes of two measuring
rolls. These rolls are pivotally mounted on movable blocks to
accommodate different plate widths. The measuring rolls are pressed
against the plate edges with two independent pressure cylinders and the
plate width is measured with the position transducers that are attached to
the pistons of the pressure cylinders. Once the plate width w and the
plate lengths Lo and Li are measured, the average camber radius of the
plate centerline Rc can be calculated by an on-line computer according to
Eq. (27-3).
Fig. 27.15 Noncontact method of camber measurement developed by

Kawasaki Steel. Adapted from Tanaka, et al [18].
A noncontact method of camber measurement has been developed by

Kawasaki Steel, Japan [18] in application to plate rolling. According to
this method, camber detection is made with three sensors that measure
the plate position in the width direction. These sensors are called ‘‘off-
center meters” and are installed in the length direction of the rolling line
after a plate mill.
As shown in Fig. 27.15, three off-center meters are located at positions

A, B, and C. The corresponding locations of the centers of the plate that
are detected by these meters are indicated by the letters a, b, and c. This
camber measuring system continuously monitors the distance m between
the points c and d. The point d is a crossing point of the centerline of the
meter C and the straight line
Page 669
that passes through the points a and b. To produce the computation of

the plate camber, the plate camber profile is approximated by the n-th
order polynomial. In this case, by monitoring the distance m, it is possible
to produce an accurate measurement of the plate camber that is free
from the influence of side-slipping.
27.7 Width Control Actuators

The two types of width control actuators that are commonly used in
vertical edgers are screwdown mechanisms and hydraulic cylinders.
Screwdown mechanisms can provide control of a wide range of slab
widths, however, the response time of width control systems that utilize
screwdown mechanisms is often found to be too long for adequate
corrections of width variations.
The application of hydraulic cylinders solves this problem of response

time. Optimum system performance is obtained when short-stroke
cylinders are employed. This leads to the use of a combined actuator that
incorporates both a screwdown mechanism and a short-stroke hydraulic
cylinder. Figure 27.16 presents the design of a hydraulic width control
actuator that was developed by Kobe Steel, Japan in application to the
existing vertical edger (E4) of the Kakogawa Works continuous hot strip
mill [19]. Short-stroke hydraulic cylinders are mounted in the cylinder
blocks that are connected to the yokes of each edging roll. A rough roll
gap setting is provided with the screwdown mechanisms.
Fig. 27.16 Width control actuator for vertical edger developed by Kobe
Steel. Adapted from [19].
A similar actuator is used in the edger (E4) with hydraulic automatic width
control (AWC) that has been installed at the Kawasaki Steel, Chiba
Works No. 2 hot strip mill. This edger, which was
Page 670
developed by IHI, Japan, has the following main specifications [20]:
Type Overhead driven

nonreversing
Maximum slab thickness

100 mm
Maximum width reduction

40 mm
Maximum AWC cylinder 2 × 40 mm

stroke
Maximum edging load

140 t
Main drive motor:
Power 2 × 560 kW dc
Speed 360/720 rpm
Frequency response 6/12 s-1.
27.8 Purpose of Width Control During Edging

The purpose of width control during edging is to reduce the amount of
fish tail, as well as the width variation due to skid marks [21].
Fig. 27.17 Formation of fish tail: a) without automatic width control and b)
with automatic width control. Adapted from [24].
Width control for fish tails - As previously mentioned, conventional edging

results in the formation of fish tails (Fig. 27.17a). To reduce fish tails, the
gap between the edging rolls gradually opens to produce a wider slab at
its head and tail ends as shown in Fig. 27.17b. This slab widening offsets
the narrowing of the slab caused by the formation of fish tails during
edging and the subsequent horizontal passes.
Width control for skid marks - In conventional edging, when skid marks
are present in a slab, the dog bone at the skid marks becomes thicker.
This dog bone will produce additional spread
Page 671
during the following horizontal pass (Fig. 27.18a). To compensate for this
spread, the width control system provides an additional squeezing of the
slab near the skid marks during edging as shown in Fig. 27.18b.
Fig. 27.18 Effect of skid marks on plate plan view: a) without automatic
width control and b) with automatic width control. Adapted from [21].
27.9 Automatic Width Control Systems for Vertical Edgers

Automatic width control systems for single-stand vertical edgers are
usually employed by installing a hydraulic closed-loop control system.
Figure 27.19 shows a hydraulic closed-loop control system developed by
IHI, Japan [21]. The width variations are detected by an optical type width
meter and compared with the width setup reference that is provided by
an on-line computer. The width error control signal is then used to drive a
hydraulic servo-mechanism that adjusts the gap between the edging
rolls.
Fig. 27.19 Schematic diagram of IHI automatic width control system.
Adapted from [21].
Page 672
A typical automatic width control system for a single-stand vertical edger

utilizes the following four principal modes of operation:
Roll gap position control mode - When the system operates in this mode,
the signal representing the roll gap reference is compared with the signal
representing the actual roll gap. The error signal is used to drive a
servovalve so that the desired roll gap is maintained. This mode requires
the use of a roll gap position transducer, which is usually installed inside
a hydraulic cylinder.
Width meter mode - This mode is similar to the gaugemeter mode that
was previously developed for controlling the workpiece thickness. This
control system maintains the roll gap δ as given by the equation:
where
Go no-load roll gap setting

=
Pe
=
roll force during edging
Me edger spring.
=
Thus, the width meter mode requires the application of both a position
transducer that measures the roll gap Go and either a load cell or
pressure transducer that measures the roll force Pe.
Feedback control or width monitor mode - The feedback control mode is

usually employed as a supplement to either the position or width meter
modes. In this mode, an additional roll gap correction signal is provided
by a width measuring device that is installed downstream from the edger.
Because of an inherent time delay, this mode of operation is only useful
for providing long-term corrections.
Feedforward control mode - Application of the feedforward control mode

presumes the use of a width measuring device that is installed upstream
of the controlled edger. The following section describes a system that
utilizes the feedforward control mode.
27.10 Feedforward Control Mode

The feedforward control mode is employed in the width control system
that was developed by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan [22] and
A width measuring device is installed at the entry side of the vertical

edger and measures the width distribution wo(x) of the plate entry width
as a function of the distance x from the head end of the plate. The width
deviation distribution Δwo(x) is then calculated as the difference between
the width distribution wo(x) and the target width wo. This difference is
stored in the width deviation memory and then supplied to a computer
through a time delay device to take into account for the time required for
the plate to transfer from the width measuring device to the vertical
edger.
Prior to rolling, a higher level computer determines and supplies to a

lower level computer the following data:
Page 673
Target value wo of the plate width at the entry side of the vertical
edger.
Edging opening setting value w1.
Plate width w2 that is based on the supposition that only dog
bones produced in the edging rolling process are horizontally
rolled.
Plate width w3 after horizontal rolling.
Target width deviation distribution Δw3(x) required at the exit of the
horizontal mill.
The lower level computer calculates the desired distribution of the edger
roll gap opening Δw1(x) striving to obtain the target width variation
distribution after horizontal rolling Δw3(x). The calculation of Δw1(x) is
made by taking into account the edger efficiency η(x). The obtained
values of Δw1(x) are then supplied to the edger roll gap setting unit of the
feedforward control system.
Fig. 27.20 Schematic diagram of automatic feedforward width control

system developed by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. Adapted from
Tsukamoto [22].
27.11 Combined Feedforward and Feedback Control Mode

The most precise width control can be achieved by a simultaneous
application of both the feedforward and feedback control modes of
operation. The former mode is generally used for short-term corrections
of width, whereas the latter provides long-term width corrections.
Figure 27.21 depicts the automatic width control system that was
developed by Hoesch Stahl, Germany in application to a 3-stand
roughing mill [23]. The slab is generally reduced in thickness in five
passes, with one pass taken by the first and the last mill stands, and
three reversing passes taken by the second mill stand.
The actual width measurements wo produced by the width gage A are

fed forward into a process computer that generates the references to
adjust the width settings Δw1 and Δw2 for the edgers V1 and V2,
respectively. At the same time, the actual width measurements w2, that
are produced by the width gage B are fed back into the process computer
which then refines the roll gap settings Δw1 and
Page 674
Δw2 of the upstream edgers V1 and V2. The signals w2 and w3 from the
width gages B and C are also utilized in the same feedforward-feedback
manner with respect to the roll gap control of the edger V3.
Fig. 27.21 Schematic diagram of automatic feedforward width control

system developed by Hoesch Stahl. Adapted from Fabian, et al [23].
27.12 Integrated Width Control Systems for Hot Strip Mills

Contemporary automatic width control systems in hot strip mills provide
continuous monitoring and an appropriate correction of the product width
in both the roughing and finishing mills [21,24-27]. The automatic width
control system that was developed by Nippon Steel, Japan [28] is shown
in Fig. 27.22 and includes the following subsystems:
Edger setup (ESU)

Rougher automatic width control (RAWC)
Finisher automatic width control (FAWC).
Fig. 27.22 Schematic diagram of automatic width control system
developed by Nippon Steel. Adapted from Sasada, et al [28].
Page 675
Edger setup (ESU) control sets the edger roll gaps that are based on the
predicted values for both slab width and target width. Rougher automatic
width control (RAWC) is accomplished by a variable control of the gap
between the edging rolls. The RAWC system provides control of average
width (bar-to-bar control) and also reduces the width variations in each
bar (in-bar control).
Finisher automatic width control (FAWC) is achieved by a variable control

of tension between the finishing mill stands. Based on the width that is
measured by the final width gage on the roughing mill, the feedforward
control signals are provided to modify the interstand tension references.
Feedback width control signals are supplied by width meters that are
installed after the last finishing mill stand and near the downcoiler.
27.13 Principle of Plan View Control

The process of rolling short plates can be roughly divided into the
following three principal stages as shown in Fig. 27.23:
Sizing rolling - In this stage, the slab is rolled in the longitudinal direction
to produce the required intermediate thickness.
Broadside rolling - To obtain the required plate width, the slab is turned
around 90° and rolled in the transverse direction.
Finishing rolling-The slab is turned around 90° again and rolled to the
final thickness.
Fig. 27.23 Evolution of plate plan view during rolling: 1 - initial slab, 2 -
after sizing rolling, 3 - before broadsiding, 4 - after broadside rolling, 5 -
before finishing rolling, 6 - after finishing rolling. Adapted from Tsubota
[30].
When plate rolling is performed by maintaining a constant plate thickness

during each rolling pass, a distinct distortion of the plate plan view from a
true rectangular shape takes place [29,30]. The finishing plate plan view
shape is affected by the slab thickness, longitudinal elongation, and
broadside elongation. In the case of less broadside elongation and
greater longitudinal elongation, the crops B of both plate ends in the
longitudinal direction take a convex shape and the side crops A take a
spool shape as shown in Fig. 27.24a. Conversely, in the case of greater
broadside elongation and less longitudinal elongation, the end crops D
become concave and the side crops C become barrel shaped (Fig.
27.24b).
The term plan view control is customarily applied to the technique that is
designed to produce a true rectangular shape of the rolled plate. A
number of plan view control methods have been
Page 676
developed and are known by the following names:
MAS rolling process - Mizushima automatic plan view pattern control

system developed by Kawasaki Steel, Japan [29].
DBR process - Dog bone rolling process developed by NKK, Japan [31].
DAT process - Draft alteration before turn process developed by Nippon

Steel, Japan [32].
EGO process - Optimum plate sizing process developed by Usinor and

Clecim, France [33]. Although each one of these plan view control
processes has its own special features, all of them are based on the
same principle that employs rolling a plate of variable thickness during
the intermediate passes.
Fig. 27.24 Plate view after rolling with: a) less broadside elongation and
greater longitudinal elongation and b) greater broadside elongation and
less longitudinal elongation. Adapted from Tsubota [30].
27.14 MAS Rolling Process

The MAS rolling process is comprised of two types that are known as
sizing MAS and broadside MAS. Both methods involve the calculation of
the predicted plan view pattern [29].
In the sizing MAS method, the amount of inferior patterns is converted to

the plate thickness difference at the final pass in sizing rolling. Depending
on the relationship between the broadside and longitudinal elongations, a
tapered thickness profile (Fig. 27.25) or a dog bone (Fig. 27.26) will be
produced during the sizing rolling. The amount of plate thickness
modification at distance x from the tail or head end of the slab in the
longitudinal direction Δh(x) can be obtained from the following equation:
where
T(X) side crops at distance X in longitudinal direction after completion of

=rolling
h
=
final plate thickness
w final plate width.

=
Page 677
Fig. 27.25 Sequence of sizing MAS method utilized for less broadside
elongation. Adapted from Yanazawa, et al [29].
Fig. 27.26 Sequence of sizing MAS method utilized for greater broadside
elongation. Adapted from Yanazawa, et al [29].
27.15 Automatic Plan View Control Systems
Typically, an automatic plan view control system is employed as an
addition to the well-known automatic gauge control systems. Figure
27.27 illustrates a block diagram in which an automatic plan view control
system is implemented as part of a hydraulic automatic gauge control
system that is based on the gauge-meter principle. The output signal P
from the load cell that measures the roll separating force, is divided by
the value KS which represents the mill spring. The resulting signal P/KS
is equal to the mill stretch and is input into the roll gap regulator along
with the output signal co from the roll gap sensor, the gauge reference hr,
and the plan view gauge correction signal Δhe.
The roll gap regulator operates to maintain the roll gap reference hr
according to the following equation:
Page 678
The plan view gauge correction signal Δhe is equal to Δh(x) calculated by
Eqs. (27-5). The coordinate X, used in Eq. (27-5), is measured by an
angular position sensor that is connected to either the work roll or backup
roll as shown in Fig. 27.27.
Fig. 27.27 Schematic diagram of automatic plan view control system.
The dog bone rolling (DBR) process developed by NKK, Japan [31]
reportedly provides adequate control for the following extreme conditions:
Maximum dog bone length

500 mm
Maximum dog bone height 20 mm

Maximum rolling speed 1 m/s.
This is accomplished by employing a hydraulic cylinder with 50 mm/s of

maximum speed and 50 mm of maximum stroke.. The main contribution
of the automatic plan view control systems is an increase in the yield
which is between 1.5 and 2%.
27.16 Automatic Camber Control Systems

There are two principal methods that are applied for automatic camber
control during the rolling of flat products. The first method employs the
detection of camber by sensing the difference in roll force between the
drive and operator sides of the horizontal rolling mill. In the second
method, the camber is detected by a strip lateral displacement sensor.
Figure 27.28 illustrates a practical application of the roll force sensing

method that was developed by Nippon Steel, Japan [32]. Its principle of
operation is based on the assumption that when camber occurs, the
rolled plate wags its tail at the mill entry side as it is drawn into the roll
Page 679
bite. Consequently, the plate shifts off the mill center in the roll bite,
causing a difference in roll separating force. The automatic camber
control (ACC) system performs a feedback control that closes the roll gap
of the mill side at which the roll separating force has increased. This
increases the elongation at the concave side, thus straightening the
plate.
The main deficiency of this method is that the differential roll separating
force is not only a function of plate camber, but also depends on other
factors, such as variation of plate temperature in the transverse direction
and the difference in roll eccentricity between the two sides of the mill.
The performance of this system is also negatively affected by the delayed
responses of the hydraulic cylinders. To reduce the effect of roll
eccentricity, the differential components of the first and second orders
were incorporated along with a digital filter.
Fig. 27.28 Automatic camber control (ACC) system developed by Nippon

Steel. Adapted Wakatsuki, et al [32].
Figure 27.29 depicts schematically a method and apparatus that was
developed by IHI, Japan [34] for controlling the lateral unstable
movement and camber of the strip 1 being rolled between horizontal rolls
2 and 3 that are supported by backup rolls 5 and 14. This system utilizes
the method in which the strip camber is detected by strip displacement
sensors 15 and 23 that are installed at both the upstream and
downstream sides of the rolling mill.
The output signal from the strip displacement sensor 15 that is installed
at the upstream side is compared in an operational amplifier 17 with the
reference signal generated by the reference circuit 16. The output signal
from the amplifier is then processed by a lateral displacement regulator
18, which generates two equal in amplitude and opposite in sign
reference signals for the regulators 19 and 20. These regulators control
the oil flow through the servo-valves 21 and 22, and thus, adjust the
extension of the hydraulic cylinders 8 and 9 that are installed under the
chocks 6 and 7 of the bottom backup roll 5. The extension of the
cylinders is measured by the position transducers 4. The output signal
from the strip displacement sensor 23 that is installed at the downstream
side of
Page 680
the mill is compared in an operational amplifier 24 with the reference

signal. The output signal from the amplifier is then processed by a
camber regulator 25 which generates two equal in amplitude and
opposite in sign reference signals for the regulators 26 and 27. These
regulators control the oil flow through the hydraulic cylinders 12 and 13,
and thus, adjust the lateral position of the vertical rolls 11 and 12. As a
result of the coordinated control actions of the regulators, the lateral
unstable movement of the strip is controlled by skewing the roll gap of the
horizontal mill while the camber of the strip is corrected by changing the
path line through the vertical rolling mill.
Fig. 27.29 Automatic system for controlling lateral unstable movement

and camber of rolled strip. Adapted from Kuwano [34].
References
1. Tazoe, N., ‘‘Prevention of Fish Tail During Intensive Edging in Hot
Roughing Mill Line,” IHI Engineering Review, Vol. 14 No. 3, July 1981,
pp. 42-47.
2. Chong, C.J., et al, “Plan View Plate Prediction Model for Plate Rolling,”
Paper presented at the 1989 AISE Spring Conference, Cincinnati, Ohio,
April 1989.
3. Stone, M.D. and Talbot, H.H., U.S. Patent No. 3,580,032, May 25,
1971.
4. Ginzburg, V.B., Steel-Rolling Technology - Theory and Practice, Marcel

5. Miyake, Y., et al, “Investigation on Reducing Crop Loss in Hot Strip

Mill,” Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Vol. 20, 1980,
p. B-446.
6. Tazoe, N., “New Forms of Hot Strip Mill Width Rolling Installations,”
Paper presented at the 1984 AISE Spring Conference, Dearborn, Mich.,
April 1984.
7. Awazuhara, H., et al, U.S. Patent No. 4,387,586, June 14, 1983.
8. Matoba, T., et al, “Reduction of Crop Loss in Slab Edge Rolling - 1,”
Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Vol. 22, 1982, p. B-
272.
9. Kokubo, I., et al, U.S. Patent No. 4,712,414, Dec. 15, 1987.
Page 681
10. Inoue, M., et al, “Development of a Process for Manufacturing

Trimming Free Plates,” Transactions of The Iron and Steel Institute of
Japan, Vol. 28, 1988, pp. 448-455.
11. Ginzburg, V.B., et al, “Width Control in Hot Strip Mills,” Iron and Steel
Engineer, June 1991, pp. 25-39.
12. Munch, G.W., ‘‘Accuband: A Sensor for Automatic Width Control

Systems,” Iron and Steel Engineer, Sept. 1989, pp. 46-51.
13. Kenyon, M., “Australian Developments in Steel Product Measurement

and Inspection,” Iron and Steel Engineer, July 1985, pp. 32-37.
14. van Moll, H.F. and Meier-Engelen, E., “Improved Optical Scanning
System for Gauging and Control,” Wire World International, Vol. 16,
May/June 1974, pp. 156-159.
15. Münch, G., “Width Gaging, Automatic Width Control and Crop
Optimization in Hot Strip Mills,” Metallurgical Plant and Technology
International, No.4, 1992, pp. 122-127.
16. Tomiya, et al, T., “On-Line Slab Width Gage with Laser Displacement
Gages,” Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Vol. 22,
1982, p. B-350.
17. Ichahara, J., U.S Patent No. 4,528,756, July 16, 1985.
18. Tanaka, Y., et al, “Camber Control Techniques in Plate Rolling,”

Kawasaki Steel Technical Report, No. 16, June 1987, pp. 12-20.
19. “A New Roll Force AWC System for Roughing Train in Hot Strip Mill,”
Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Vol. 27, 1987, p.
993.
20. “Automatic Width Control Equipment for No. 2 Hot Strip Mill,” IHI
Engineering Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, Jan. 1986, p. 47.
21. “IHI Hydraulic AWC Edger for Hot Rolling,” Ishikawajima-Harima
Heavy Industries Co. Publication, Tokyo, 1984.
22. Tsukamoto, H., et al, U.S. Patent No. 4,672,830, June 16, 1987.
23. Fabian, W., et al, “Controlled Slab Rolling in a Roughing Train of a

Hot Strip Mill,” Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling
24. “RAWC Edger for Hot Strip Mill,” Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.
Publication, Tokyo.
25. Nagai, T., et al, “Improving Strip Width, Profile and Shape Control in
Sumitomo Hot Strip Mill,” Restructuring Steelplants for the Nineties,
Institute of Metals, London, 1986, pp. 238-255.
26. Shaw, D., et al, “LTV Steel Indiana Harbor Works’ 84-in. Hot Strip Mill
Automatic Width Control Using Hydraulic Edger,” Iron and Steel
Engineer, August, 1994, pp. 43-51.
27. Giles, W. and Tiley, J. B., “Automatic Width Control at Dofasco’s No.
2 Hot Strip Mill,” Iron and Steel Engineer, January, 1994, pp. 35-40.
28. Sasada, T., et al, “Modernization Technology of Conventional Hot

Strip Mills,” Nippon Steel Technical Report, No. 18, Dec. 1981, pp. 1-21.
29. Yanazawa, T., et al, “Development of the New Plan View Pattern
Control System in Plate Rolling,” Kawasaki Steel Corp. Publication,
Japan, April 1984.
30. Tsubota, K., U.S. Patent No. 4,238,946, Dec. 16, 1980.
31. Haga, Y., et al, “Development of New Plan View Control Technique in
Plate Rolling (NKK-DBR),” Nippon Kokan Technical Report, No. 39,
1983, pp. 21-30.
32. Wakatsuki, K., et al, “Development of Plate Rolling Technology at

NSC Oita Works,”
Page 682

1-3, 1987, pp. C.3.1 - C.3.11.
33. Morel, M., et al, “Quality Control and Production Optimization in Plate
Mills Using the HYDROPLATE System,” AISE Year Book, 1984, pp. 221-
226.
34. Kuwano, H., U.S. Patent No. 4,570,472, Feb. 18, 1986.
Page 683
Part VIII
PROFILE AND FLATNESS CONTROL
Page 684

Page 685
Chapter 28
STRIP PROFILE AND FLATNESS ANALYSIS
28.1 Principles of Strip Profile and Flatness Analysis

Strip profile and flatness analysis involves the investigation of the effects
of various parameters on strip profile. In performing this analysis, it is
desirable to determine the effect of only one parameter at a time while
maintaining the others constant. This requirement is impossible to
achieve during actual rolling conditions, even in special laboratory mills,
but can be readily met by mathematical analysis of the strip profile using
computer modeling.
To determine the effect of each parameter on strip crown, calculations

are first made for a so-called base case in which the strip crown is
affected by natural deformation of the roll stack and strip under rolling
load alone. In other words, all rolls are assumed to be flat and the roll
bending forces that are generated by the roll bending mechanisms are
equal to zero. The strip crown that is obtained under these conditions is
identified as base strip center crown.
When investigating the effect of one variable parameter such as strip

width, roll force, roll diameter, etc., on the strip crown, the values of all
remaining parameters related to the base case are kept the same. A
change in value of the selected variable parameter will produce a new
value for the strip crown that is called derivative strip center crown.
By knowing the difference between the derivative and base strip center
crowns Δc, that corresponds to the change in value of the selected
variable parameter ΔS, it is possible to establish an analytical relationship
between these two parameters which in general form, can be expressed
by the following function:
A strip profile and flatness analysis was performed with the ROLLFLEX™
three-dimensional finite element analysis model that has been developed
jointly by United Engineering and International Rolling Mill Consultants
[1]. The results of this analysis are described in the subsequent sections
of this chapter.
Page 686
28.2 Main Parameters Affecting Strip Profile and Flatness

The main parameters that affect the strip profile and flatness can be
divided into the following three groups:
Geometrical parameters.
Material parameters.
Force parameters.
Geometrical parameters - Geometrical parameters describe the basic

geometry of the rolls and the strip as shown in Fig. 28.1. The principal roll
geometrical parameters that are considered in the model are as follows:
Backup roll barrel diameter, Db

Backup roll barrel length, Lb
Backup roll neck diameter, D
Work roll barrel diameter, Dw
Work roll barrel length, Lw
Work roll neck diameter, d
Contact length between backup roll and work roll, Lc
Distance between backup roll bearings, Lbb
Distance between work roll bearings, Lwb
Backup roll crown, Cb
Work roll crown, Cw.
Fig. 28.1 Main parameters affecting strip profile and flatness in a 4-high
mill stand.
The strip geometrical parameters include the following:

Page 687
Strip entry thickness, hi

Strip exit thickness, ho
Strip width, w
Strip entry crown, ci
Strip exit crown, co
Strip profile.
Strip flatness parameters.
The strip center crown chI is selected as a major parameter that

represents the strip profile as shown in Fig. 28.2 and can be defined by
the following equation [2]:
where
hc center gauge
=
feather thickness or strip thickness at distance I from strip edge.

hI =
For this analysis, feather thickness was calculated at the distance I = 25

mm (1 in.) from the strip edge.
Fig. 28.2 Principal parameters of strip cross-sectional profile.
Material parameters - Material parameters describe the elastic properties

of the rolls, strip, and interface elements between the backup and work
rolls as well as between the work rolls and strip. The elastic properties of
the strip can be mathematically expressed by the strip modulus M which
is defined by the equation:
where

P =
w strip width
=
Page 688
Δ draft.
=
Force parameters - The force parameters that affect the strip profile and
flatness are:
Roll separating force, P

Positive (crown-in) roll bending force, Fp
Negative (crown-out) roll bending force, Fn.
The pass schedule used in this analysis along with the unit roll separating
forces P/w and strip modulus M are shown in Table 28.1.
Table 28.1 Rolling parameters used in

3-D finite element analysis.
Stand Exit strip Roll Strip modulus

number thickness force kg/mm2
mm per unit
width
t/mm
- 33.000 - -
F1 75
18.160 1.107
F2 137
10.540 1.045
F3 244
6.350 1.023
F4 420
4.060 0.962
F5 695
2.845 0.845
F6 1038
2.286 0.580
F7 1343
2.000 0.384
Fig. 28.3 Variation of strip center crown with strip width for 1676 mm (66
in.) wide hot strip mill.
Page 689
28.3 Base Strip Center Crown

Base strip center crown is calculated by using a three-dimensional finite
element analysis model under the assumption that no external
adjustments of the strip crown are employed, i.e., for the case when the
rolls are flat and the roll bending force is equal to zero.
To provide sufficient accuracy of interpolation with respect to the strip

width, it is necessary to have data for the base strip center crowns and
respective rolling parameters for at least four various strip widths. Figure
28.3 depicts computer simulations of the relationship between the base
strip center crown and strip width for various stands of a 1676 mm wide
hot strip mill. The calculations of the base strip center crowns are made
by using the following geometrical parameters: Maximum backup roll
barrel diameter, Dbmax = 1562 mm
Backup roll barrel length, Lb = 1676 mm
Backup roll neck diameter, D = 940 mm
Maximum work roll barrel diameter, Dwmax = 724 mm
Work roll barrel length, Lw = 1676 mm
Work roll neck diameter, d = 483 mm
Contact length between backup roll and work roll, Lc = 1600 mm
Distance between backup roll bearings, Lbb = 2794 mm
Distance between work roll bearings, Lwb = 2515 mm.
28.4 Derivative Strip Center Crown

Let us assume that the base strip center crown co corresponds to the
strip width wo, strip modulus Mo, backup roll diameter Dbo, and work roll
diameter Dwo, the backup and work roll crowns as well as positive and
negative roll bending forces are equal to zero. One of the main tasks of a
strip profile model is to use the values that are related to the base strip
center crown co to determine the derivative strip center crown c that
corresponds to the strip width w, strip modulus M, backup roll diameter
Db, work roll crown Cw, positive roll bending force Fww, and negative roll
bending force Fbw.
This task can be accomplished by employing the following parameters

that describe the effects of various factors on strip crown:
Strip width effect rate, kw.
Roll force effect rate, kp
Work roll diameter effect rate, kdw
Backup roll diameter effect rate, kdb
Work roll crown effect rate, kcw
Backup roll crown effect rate, kcb
Roll contact effect rate, krc
Work roll bending effect rate, kbw
Backup roll bending effect rate, kbb.
Once these parameters are determined, the derivative strip center crown
c can be readily calculated from the following general formula:
Page 690
where
k disturbance factor effect rate on strip crown

=
Xo, disturbance parameters for the base and derivative strip center crown
X=respectively.
28.5 Effect of Strip Width on Strip Crown

It is a well-known fact that strip crown is greatly dependent on strip width.
Indeed, the strip body transmits the rolling load between the work rolls
which are generally greater in length than the strip width.
Simple beam deformation theory [3] predicts that roll deflection, and
therefore strip crown, increases with an increase in roll force. Since roll
force is proportional to strip width, it can be expected to have a greater
strip crown for wider rolled products. Finite element analysis shows that
this relationship is only valid up to a certain strip width. As shown in Fig.
28.3, a more complex dependence exists between strip crown and strip
width.
The following observations can be made from these figures:
Base strip center crown substantially changes with strip width. For
narrow widths, the strip center crown increases with an increase in
strip width, whereas for wider widths, strip center crown decreases
with an increase in strip width reaching its maximum value at a
strip width of approximately 70 to 80% of the roll barrel length.
Base strip center crown is generally greater for wider mills.
As the strip modulus increases, the base strip center crown
decreases.
The effect of strip width on strip center crown can be shown by the strip
width effect parameter kw that can be defined by the equation:
where
Δc
=
change in strip
crown
Δw change in strip width that produces strip crown change Δc

=
c, co strip crowns corresponding to strip widths w and wo

=respectively.
28.6 Effect of Roll Force on Strip Crown

Roll force is one of the principal factors that affects strip crown. An
increase in roll force will always increase the backup roll deflection,
regardless of the backup roll’s diameter, resulting in a greater strip crown
being produced.
Page 691
Because of the linear character of the relationship between roll deflection

and roll force, the strip crown is generally proportional to roll force.
Obviously, for softer rolled products which require lesser values of unit
roll force P/w, the effect of roll force on strip crown is greater. The effect
of roll force on strip center crown can be shown by the roll force effect
parameter kp that is expressed by the equation:
where
Δ(P/w) = change in roll force per unit of strip width that produces strip
crown change Δc.
Figures 28.4 depicts the results of computer simulations of the

relationship between the roll force effect rate kp and the strip width w for
various stands of a 1676 mm wide hot strip mill.
Fig. 28.4 Variation of roll force effect rate with strip width for 1676 mm
(66 in.) wide hot strip mill.
28.7 Effect of Work Roll Diameter on Strip Crown

As was stated earlier, strip profile is affected by the rigidity of the roll
stack. As the diameter of the work rolls is increased, the greater is the
resistance of the roll stack to deflection under a rolling load, resulting in a
smaller strip crown.
The effect of the work roll diameter on strip center crown can be shown
by the work roll diameter effect rate kdw that is expressed by the
equation:
Page 692
where
ΔDw change in diameter of work rolls (top and bottom) that produces strip
=crown change Δc
c, co strip crowns corresponding to work roll diameters Dw and Dwo

=respectively.
Figure 28.5 depicts the results of computer simulations of the relationship

between the work roll diameter effect rate kdw and the strip width w for
Fig. 28.5 Variation of work roll diameter effect rate with strip width for
1676 mm (66 in.) wide hot strip mill.
28.8 Effect of Backup Roll Diameter on Strip Crown

The diameters of the backup rolls are usually 1.5 to 2.5 times greater
than that of the work rolls. Since the rigidity of the rolls, with respect to
their deflection, is proportional to the roll diameter to the fourth power, it
becomes obvious that the strip profile is more sensitive to a change in the
backup roll diameter than to the same change in the work roll diameter.
The effect of the backup roll diameter on strip center crown can be shown
by the backup roll diameter effect rate kdb that is given by the equation:
Page 693
where
ΔDb change in diameter of both top and bottom backup rolls that produces strip
=crown change Δc
c, strip crowns corresponding to backup roll diameters Db and Dbo

co=respectively.

between the backup roll diameter effect rate kdb and strip width w for
various stands of a 1676 mm wide hot strip mill. Unlike the relationship
between the work roll diameter effect rate kdw and strip width w as
shown in Fig. 28.5, the backup roll diameter effect rate kdb continuously
increases with an increase in the strip width w. This relationship can be
conveniently curve-fitted with a parabolic equation.
Fig. 28.6 Variation of backup roll diameter effect rate with strip width for
28.9 Effect of Work Roll Crown on Strip Crown

One of the most common methods used for correcting strip profile is the
implementation of a work roll crown. The corrective action of the work roll
crown is a result of the following two factors. First, a work roll crown
effectively changes the no-load roll gap profile and second it modifies the
roll contact conditions between the work rolls and backup rolls. Both of
these factors affect the changes in strip crown in the same direction.
One can easily visualize that when a convex work roll crown is used, the
roll gap profile will be greater at the strip edges resulting in reduced strip
crown. For example, if the strip profile was flat using flat work rolls, then
the application of convex-crowned rolls would lead to a concave strip
profile.
The effect of the work roll crown on strip crown can be shown by the work
roll crown effect rate kcw that is given by the equation:
Page 694
where
ΔCw change in work roll crown that produces strip crown change Δc
=
c, co strip crowns corresponding to work roll crowns Cw and Cwo respectively.

=
The work roll crowns Cw and Cwo are defined as the differences in the
roll diameters Dwm and Dwe at the middle of the roll barrel and at its
edge respectively with a parabolic or similar shape of the roll barrel, i.e.:
Fig. 28.7 Variation of work roll crown effect rate with strip width for 1676
mm (66 in.) wide hot strip mill.

between the work roll crown effect rate kcw and the strip width w for
various stands of a 1676 mm wide hot strip mill. Similar to the
relationship between the backup roll diameter effect rate kdb and strip
width w as shown in Fig. 28.6, the work roll crown effect rate kcw
continuously increases with an increase in the strip width w.
28.10 Effect of Backup Roll Crown on Strip Crown

The use of a backup roll crown is much less common than the use of a
work roll crown. Since a
Page 695
backup roll crown modifies only the interface conditions between the
backup rolls and work rolls, it yields no effect on the no-load roll gap.
Therefore, a given value of backup roll crown produces a substantially
smaller change in the strip crown when compared to the strip crown that
is produced by a work roll crown of the same value.
The effect of the backup roll crown on the strip crown can be shown by
the backup roll crown effect rate kcb that is expressed by the equation:
where
ΔCb change in backup roll crown that produces strip crown change Δc
=
c, strip crowns corresponding to backup roll crowns Cb and Cbo

co=respectively.
The backup roll crowns Cb and Cbo are defined as the differences in the
roll diameters Dbm and Dbe at the middle of the roll barrel and at its edge
respectively with a parabolic or similar shape of the roll barrel, i.e.:
Fig. 28.8 Variation of backup roll crown effect rate with strip width for

between the backup roll crown effect rate kcb and the strip width w for
Page 696
Similar to the relationship between the work roll crown effect rate kcw
and strip width w as shown in Fig. 28.7, the backup roll crown effect rate
kcb continuously increases with an increase in the strip width w.
28.11 Effect of Roll Contact Length on Strip Crown

In application to a 4-high mill, the roll contact length Lc is defined as the
length of the work roll barrel that experiences full contact with the
adjacent backup roll under a rolling load. When both work rolls and
backup rolls are either flat or slightly crowned, it is believed that the rolls
are in full contact with each other when a rolling load is applied. In this
case, the roll contact length Lc will be equal to the shorter barrel length of
the two rolls in contact.
The roll contact length Lc is commonly adjusted by grinding taper zones

at the roll ends. The selection of the taper angle in these zones is based
on the condition that no contact is made between the work rolls and
backup rolls in these zones under rolling conditions.
Fig. 28.9 Variation of roll contact length effect rate with strip width for
The effect of the roll contact length Lc between the backup roll and work
roll on the strip crown can be shown by the roll contact length effect rate
krc that is defined by the equation:
where
Page 697
ΔLc change in roll contact length that produces strip crown change Δc
=
c, co strip crowns corresponding to roll contact lengths Lc and Lco respectively.

=
Figures 28.9 depicts the results of computer simulations of the

relationship between the roll contact length effect rate krc and the strip
width w for various stands of a 1676 mm wide hot strip mill. Similar to the
relationship between the backup roll crown effect rate kcb and strip width
w as shown in Fig. 28.8 the roll contact length effect rate krc continuously
increases with an increase in the strip width w.
28.12 Effect of Work Roll Bending on Strip Crown

Roll bending is one of the most common methods used for continuous
strip crown and flatness control during rolling. In most conventional 4-
high mills, the work roll bending forces are applied to the work roll chocks
that are located at the roll ends.
When roll bending forces are applied in the direction of opening the roll
gap, this bending is known as positive or crown-in roll bending. Inversely,
when the roll bending forces are applied in the direction of closing the roll
gap, this type of bending is known as negative or crown-out roll bending.
Positive roll bending causes the strip profile to be concave whereas
negative roll bending causes the strip profile to be convex.
Fig. 28.10 Variation of work roll bending effect rate with strip width for
The effect of work roll bending on the strip crown can be shown by the
work roll bending effect rate kbw that is expressed by the equation:
Page 698
where
change in work roll bending force that produces strip crown change Δc
ΔF=
c, strip crowns corresponding to work roll bending forces F and Fo

co=respectively.
The work roll bending forces are defined as the total forces Fp + Fn that
are applied in the vertical direction to each work roll chock as shown in
Fig. 28.1.
Figure 28.10 presents the results of computer simulations of the

relationship between the work roll bending effect rate kbw and the strip
width w for various stands of a 1676 mm wide hot strip mill. These
simulations indicate that the work roll bending effect rate kbw increases
almost linearly with an increase in the strip width w.
28.13 Effect of Strip Crown on Strip Flatness

Buckles or waves in the rolled strip are caused by a differential
elongation of the strip across its width. This elongation is directly related
to the strip crown change during the pass reduction and is given by:
where
δ per-unit strip crown change

=
c1, c2 entry and exit strip crowns respectively

=
h1, h2 = entry and exit strip thicknesses respectively.
When δ < 0, the strip will tend to develop edge waves. Conversely, when
δ > 0, the strip will tend to develop center buckles. However, due to
internal stresses, the deterioration of strip flatness does not occur as long
as the values for the change in relative strip crown δ are within a certain
range that is known as flatness dead band.
In the strip flatness model that was developed by Shohet and Townsend
[4] and further studied by Somers, et al [5], the flatness dead band in hot
rolling can be given by (Fig. 28.11):
According to Shohet and Townsend, for low carbon steel, a = b = 2, while

Somers, et al had shown
Page 699
that a = b = 1.86.
Fig. 28.11 Strip flatness dead band.
As an example, Fig. 28.12 shows per-unit strip crown change as a

function of strip width-to-thickness ratio in application to the strip rolled at
6-stand finishing mill of 1676 mm hot strip mill.
Fig. 28.12 Per-unit strip crown change as a function of strip width-to-
thickness ratio in application to the strip rolled at 6-stand finishing mill of
1676 mm hot strip mill.
It shows that the strip after stands F1, F2 and F3 is within flatness
tolerances, while the strip after stands F4 and F6 has full center and after
stand F5 has edge waves.
Other methods of calculation of the dead band were proposed by Guo

and Schunk [6], Ishikawa,
Page 700
et al [7], and Takashima, et al [8].
The per-unit strip crown change δ that is described by Eq. (28-15) is

closely related to the well-known strip flatness parameters used in the
following relationship:
where
strip wavelength
L=
difference between strip wavelength at middle and edge of strip.

ΔL =
Thus, the established formula for strip flatness can be expressed in the
following forms [9]:
I-unit (I) can be expressed as:
Percent steepness (S) can be given by:
References
1. Ginzburg, V.B., et al, ‘‘Application of the ROLLFLEX™ Computer
Model for Analysis of the Strip Profile and Flatness in Rolling Mills,”
Paper presented at the 1987 AISE Annual Convention, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
Sept. 21-24, 1987.
1990.
3. Larke, E.C., The Rolling of Sheet, Strip and Plate, Science Paperbacks
and Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, 1967, pp. 71-126.
4. Shohet, K.N. and Townsend, N.A., “Flatness Control in Plate Rolling,”

Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Oct. 1971, pp. 769-775.
5. Somers, R.R., et al, “Verification and Applications of a Model for

Predicting Hot Strip Profile, Crown and Flatness,” AISE Year Book, 1984,
pp. 441-450.
6. Guo, R.-M. and Schunk, J.H., “Determination of Optimum Work Roll

Crown for a Hot Strip Mill,” AISE Year Book, 1989, pp. 276-284.
7. Ishikawa, T., et al, “Analytical Approach to Occurrence and

Suppression of Flatness Defect in Strip Rolling,” Proceedings of the 4th
International Steel Rolling Conference: The Science
Page 701
and Technology of Flat Rolling, Vol. 2, Deauville, France, June 1-3, 1987,
pp. E.7.1 - E.7.10.
8. Takashima, Y., et al, “Studies on the Strip Crown Control for Hot Strip
Rolling - Double Chock Work Roll Bending System (DC-WRB),” IHI
Engineering Review, Vol. 12 No. 3, Oct. 1979, pp. 28-34.

1990.
Page 702
Chapter 29
ROLL THERMAL EXPANSION AND WEAR
29.1 Roll Thermal Expansion and Contraction

Roll thermal contour is a result of thermal expansion during rolling which
is a complex heat transfer problem that must take into account the
following factors [1,2]:
Heat content of strip prior to rolling.

Heat generated in the strip in arc of contact due to work of
deformation and friction.
Heat conducted into the roll in arc of contact.
Heat removed from the roll surface by coolant.
Heat transferred to the roll bearings.
Roll temperature is a function of the roll angle. This function consists of

basic and periodic components. The basic component is equal to the
average roll temperature while the periodic component has a cycle time
equal to the time required for one revolution of the work roll. Since the
periodic component is localized at the roll surface (Fig. 29.1), the roll
thermal crown is usually determined taking into account the basic
component only.
Both two-dimensional and three-dimensional roll thermal contour models

have been developed [3-7, 11-13]. These models allow one to calculate
roll thermal expansion and contraction during rolling process. Fig. 29.2
shows the roll temperature build-up during hot rolling that proceeds
exponentially with time as derived by Cerni, et al [1]. Although the
absolute values of the roll temperature seem to be much higher than
expected in hot rolling, nevertheless this study gives a good idea about a
difference in the roll temperature build-up inside the roll. As expected, the
rate of roll temperature change is maximum at the roll surface and
decreases at the roll layers that are located closer to the roll center.
For the calculation of roll thermal expansion and contraction however, it is

conventional to utilize the average values of the roll expansion or
contraction rates corresponding to each roll radial cross-section. Sibakin,
et al [8], have stated that since heat transfer within the rolls takes place
by conduction, and from the roll surface to the surrounding air largely by
convection, they believed that
Page 703
the rolls would obey Newton’s law of cooling. This law states that the rate
of cooling a body under given conditions is proportional to the
temperature difference between the body and its surroundings; this
means, when specifically applied to roll cooling, that the rate of change of
expansion is proportional to the amount of expansion at any given time.
Fig. 29.1 Variation of roll temperature during first working revolution.

From Parke and Baker [26]. Reproduced through courtesy of Iron and
Steel Engineer.
Fig. 29.2 Roll temperature build-up during hot rolling. Adapted from
Cerni, et al [1].
This law can be stated mathematically as follows:

Page 704
where
E roll expansion at time t

=
k constant
=
t cooling time, min.

=
Upon integrating both sides of Eq. (29-1), between Eo and E, we obtain:
where
Eo = roll expansion at t = 0.
Fig. 29.3 Cooling curves for cast iron work rolls cooling in air from initial
expansion of 0.010, 0.020, and 0.030 in. Adapted from Sibakin, et al [8].
Table 29.1 Typical composition of work rolls and

backup rolls. Data from Sibakin, et al [8].
Elements C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo
Work roll
3.410.470.0940.0740.844.451.78 0.26
Backup roll
0.871.050.0350.0370.370.121.04 0.38
Sibakin, et al [8] performed a statistical analysis of the roll diameter

measurements of 175 rolls that were used on a 58 in. hot finishing mill.
The typical chemical composition of the work rolls and backup rolls are
shown in Table 29.1. The value for k was derived to be approximately
0.01 which remained the same for any point along the roll length. The roll
cooling curves that were calculated
Page 705
by using Eq. (29-2) and k = 0.01 are shown in Fig. 29.3.
If the roll temperature T is measured at time t after the rolling process has
been stopped, the initial roll temperature To at t = 0 can be determined
from the following:
where
Ta ambient temperature.
=
The following two major components of the variation of the roll middle
temperature (Fig. 29.4) must be considered in application to strip profile
and flatness control [9]:
Changes in roll temperature from coil to coil.

Roll temperature build-up during rolling time and temperature
rundown during idle time related to each coil.
Fig. 29.4 Roll middle temperature build-up during rolling schedule in hot
strip mill. Adapted from Van Steden and Tellman [9].
29.2 Changes in Roll Thermal Contour from Coil to Coil

Based on the statistical analysis of the data obtained during rolling at a
58 in. hot strip mill, Sibakin, et al [8] have come to the following
conclusions:
Magnitude of the thermal expansion at the center of the work roll is

determined almost entirely by the roll contact time during the thirty
minutes immediately preceding the measurement of roll
expansion, i.e., by the rate of rolling during this period. Total rolling
time has very little influence on roll expansion. The mill warm-up
period, therefore, is approximately one-half hour, and certainly not
more than one hour. Backup rolls remain nearly at ambient
temperature.
Page 706
Thermal expansion of the roll center during the first 30 minutes is

linearly proportional to the contact time (Fig. 29.5) and is greater
for the initial stands of the finishing train. Experimental changes in
the cooling system involving an increase in the magnitude of water
pressure, the number of sprays, and the types of nozzles did not
result in a decrease in the amount of roll thermal expansion.
Distribution of expansion along the roll length, which is
approximately proportional to the temperature distribution, has
been established. The average width rolled during the preceding
half-hour period has an influence on this distribution, while the
magnitude of the center expansion has very little influence.
Comparing this distribution to a parabolic distribution, its
temperature gradient is smaller near the roll ends and larger in the
vicinity of the strip edge.
Fig. 29.5 Influence of roll contact time on center expansion of top and
bottom work rolls. Adapted from Sibakin, et al [8].
Fig. 29.6 Variation of roll thermal crown in respect to mill pacing factor
and time.
A theoretical and experimental investigation of thermal contour was

conducted by Wilmotte and
Page 707
Mignon [10] in application to a hot strip mill. Two types of roll thermal
crown were determined:
Partial roll crown cp - It is defined as the difference between the roll

diameters at the center and at the edge of the strip.
Total roll crown ct - It is defined as the difference between the roll

diameters at the center and at the edge of the roll barrel.
Based on their investigation, Wilmotte and Mignon concluded:
Variations of both partial and total roll thermal crown follow an

exponential law (Fig. 29.6). The asymptotic value is reached after
approximately two hours, irrespective of the rolling cycle time or
the gap time between rolling of coils.
Roll thermal crown is proportional to the rolling rate.
The curve that defines the variation of roll thermal crown can be
related to the mill pacing factor K that can be expressed by the
equation:
where
trol
=
rolling time
tidl idle time between rolling two consecutive coils.

=
On-line measurement of roll thermal contour during rolling presents a

formidable task. During hot rolling, these measurements were made by
Knox and Moore [14]. Farnworth and Hewitt [15] conducted these
measurements during cold rolling.
29.3 Effect of Roll Thermal Expansion on Strip Crown

The effect of roll thermal expansion on the strip crown that was produced
in a 84 in. hot strip mill was investigated by Somers [16]. The results of
this investigation for various rolling cycles is shown in Fig. 29.7 and can
be summarized as follows:
Strip center crown decreased rapidly for the first 20 to 30 coils

rolled in a hot strip mill rolling cycle with newly redressed work
rolls in the finishing stands. The initial loss of strip crown occurred
regardless of the strip width or the “as-ground” contour that was
provided on the work rolls.
Strip center crown decreased by 2.5 to 5 mils (0.06 to 0.12 mm)
for the first 20 to 30 coils that were rolled. When rolling tinplate
products with a strip width range of 30 to 40 in. (762 to 1016 mm),
it took nearly 37 minutes (or about 20 coils) before the full
decrease in strip center crown was realized. For sheet products,
having a strip width up to 76 in. (1930 mm), it took approximately
one hour (30 to 40 coils) before the full decrease in strip crown
was realized.
After the large initial loss of strip center crown was observed,
smaller but more rapidly varying changes in strip center crown
occurred. These changes were attributed to a variety of causes
Page 708
Increases in strip center crown of up to 3.5 mils (0.09 mm) were

caused by mill delays.
The “as-ground” contour provided on the work rolls affected the
strip center crown magnitude during the initial phase of rolling (30
to 60 minutes), but seemed to have little discernible influence on
the strip center crown thereafter.
Work roll thermal effects were a major reason for the large
changes in the strip center crown that was observed during the
rolling of a hot strip mill cycle.
Fig. 29.7 Variation of strip center crown during hot rolling of tinplate
product. Adapted from Somers [16].
29.4 Classification of Wear

Wear is defined in the context of a progressive loss of tool material during
deformation [17]. The wear process is a very complex phenomenon that
usually involves numerous types of wear that are mechanically acting at
the same time making the classification of wear very difficult. The
classification of wear that was proposed by Burwell [18] is based on the
assumption that, at least under certain conditions, a single kind of wear
mechanism prevails.
Adhesive wear - Adhesive wear can occur when asperities of a

workpiece and tool plow through the interface film. Adhesion may lead to
cold (solid-phase) welding. Further relative sliding will eventually destroy
the cold-welded junction. Depending on the relative strengths of the tool
material, workpiece, and junction, the junction will separate from either
the workpiece or the tool.
Abrasive wear - Abrasive wear is the removal of material by a hard

asperity (two-body
Page 709
wear) or by a particle located between two surfaces (three-body wear).

Resistance to abrasive wear is a function of hardness meaning that as
the hardness increases, so does the wear resistance.
Fatigue wear - Fatigue wear occurs during cyclical loading. This process
involves the generation of shear stress below a compressed tool surface.
Repeated loading produces microcracks, usually below the surface,
which propagate on subsequent loading and unloading. After a
microcrack reaches a critical size, it changes direction and emerges at
the surface resulting in detachment of a flat sheet-like particle
(delamination wear). When this detached particle is very large, the
process is called spalling. Small-scale surface fatigue is known as
micropitting. A very destructive thermal fatigue process known as crazing
or firecracking can arise during hot rolling, producing a mosaic network of
cracks.
Chemical wear - Chemical wear is defined as a material loss due to

tribochemical reactions between the lubricant, tool and workpiece
materials, and the environment.
29.5 Causes of Roll Wear in Hot Rolling

In hot rolling, the work rolls are subjected to periodic loading that is
accompanied with abrasion by hard oxide and fluctuations in temperature
[19].
Fig. 29.8 Qualitative presentation of effects of rolling parameters in hot
rolling on roll fatigue and abrasion.
The four major causes of roll wear are closely related to the following
conditions [20,21]:
Page 710
Abrasion of roll surface due to contact with the rolled material and
backup rolls
Mechanical fatigue of roll surface layer as a result of cyclical
loading of the rolls
Thermal fatigue of roll surface layers as they are periodically
heated by the rolled material and cooled by water sprays.
Corrosion.
A general trend in the amplitude of roll abrasion and fatigue from stand to
stand in a hot strip mill can qualitatively be related to the values of the
rolling parameters at these stands as shown in Fig. 29.8. Since both
workpiece temperature and roll contact time are greater in the initial
rolling passes, it is natural to expect that roll thermal fatigue will also be
greater at the upstream mill stands of a hot strip mill. On the other hand,
since both roll speed and material hardness increase from pass to pass,
the rolls at the downstream mill stands will experience greater roll
mechanical fatigue and abrasion.
29.6 Mechanism of Thermal Fatigue

Figure 29.9 illustrates the generation of thermal stresses during hot
rolling [22]. Several points have been marked around the roll
circumference with the letters A through E. Also shown on the hysteresis
diagram are the stress-strain levels at the small elements of the roll that
are located at the roll surface.
Fig. 29.9 Development of stress-strain hysteresis loop for roll surface at
beginning of rolling. Adapted from Harper [22].
As the roll segment enters the roll bite at point A, it heats up and would
normally expand. However, the surrounding metal has not undergone this
rapid heating and therefore constrains the small surface element thus
producing compressive stresses. The magnitude of these stresses
increases until the roll segment exits the roll bite at point B where the roll
material is still behaving elastically.
The elastic strain εB at point B and corresponding stress τB can be

calculated from the following equations [21]:
Page 711
where
ν′ Poisson’s ratio for elastic strain

=
α
=
coefficient of thermal
expansion
(ΔT)B temperature difference between roll surface and roll

=body at point B.
The roll barrel material would normally behave elastically to very high
stress levels until the yield stress is exceeded. As the temperature
increases, however, the yield stress will drop. As surface temperatures in
excess of 600°C (1100°F) are experienced, a point is reached when the
yield stress is exceeded. When this happens, plastic deformation occurs
between points B and C.
The element comes out of the roll bite at point C and is cooled by the
water cooling system. The element is then put under a reverse stress
system and moves into an elastic tensile stress system between points C
and D. It is inevitable that the element will be cooled below the average
roll temperature, which causes the development of additional tensile
plastic strain ∈D that can be given by [21]:
where
ν″ Poisson’s ratio for plastic strain

=
(ΔT)D temperature difference between roll surface and roll body at point D.
=
During the remainder of the cycle the element returns to the neutral
stress condition as it regains thermal equilibrium with the rest of the roll.
The area covered by the hysteresis loop is a measure of the thermal
fatigue damage that will occur.
29.7 Work Roll Firecracking and Banding

Roll surface deterioration by firecracking and banding is specifically
evident at the initial stands of a hot strip finishing mill. Based on
numerous studies [21-32], the firecracking and banding mechanism can
be summarized as consistent of the following main steps [23].
Formation of thermal fatigue cracks - Thermal fatigue cracks begin to

form in the roll surface after only a few revolutions of grain iron rolls (Fig.
29.10). These cracks grow primarily perpendicular to the roll surface and
penetrate the surface to a depth governed by the large temperature
gradients caused by alternate heating and cooling during rolling. In a mill
with a heavy thermal load and good water cooling, this depth is
approximately 0.010 in. [25-27]. These
Page 712
cracks form various size cells on the roll surface. For example, near the
roll surface where the temperature gradients are very high, a very fine
crack network exists with cells having 0.001 to 0.002 in. (25 to 50 µm)
sides. The deeper cracks appear to define larger cells with 0.010 to 0.020
in. (250 to 500 µm) sides.
Formation of subsurface cracks - Subsurface cracking occurs

simultaneously with surface cracking. Subsurface cracks occur in large
eutectic carbides at depths up to 0.010 in. beneath the roll surface and
are oriented parallel to the roll surface. The stresses causing these
cracks may have thermal origins or, more likely, could be mechanical that
are caused by work roll/backup roll contact stresses or by rolling stresses
[28-30]. The number of horizontal cracks in carbides will decrease at
increased depths below the surface.
Oxidation of crack surfaces - Both surface and subsurface cracks are

exposed to highly corrosive gaseous and liquid media such as steam and
cooling water, and quickly form oxides on their surfaces.
Fig. 29.10 Propagation of roll firecracks. Adapted from Harper [22].
Growth of defective areas - The oxides formed inside of the

perpendicular and parallel firecracks cause additional stresses on surface
microconstituents because they grow and thicken as rolling proceeds and
thus produce a wedging action similar to that observed in stress
corrosion studies [32].
Removal of roll cells - In advanced stages of surface deterioration, pieces
of the roll surface become completely surrounded by oxidized cracks and
are either removed from the roll surface by mechanical forces or are
wedged from the surface by corrosion products. These particles may be
rolled back into the roll surface, showing up as the observed heavily cold
worked wear particles, or may be rolled into the strip surface [32]. The
plastic flow of the roll material close to the roll surface (within 0.001 in.)
indicates that very high shear stresses occur at the roll surface. These
stresses would dislodge any surface elements that are loosely attached.
The process described above would result in comet tails on the roll
surface.
Banding - The banding process produces a further deterioration of the roll

surface that involves the removal of many close or side-by-side cells. The
bands would appear to propagate circumferentially because the surface
shear stress due to rolling is circumferential and because the loss of
neighboring cells in the surface would reduce attachment forces and
facilitate removal
Page 713
at the edge of the band.
29.8 Examples of Work Roll Wear in Hot Strip Mills

The two forms of roll wear that are generally recognized are overall and
local. Overall work roll wear is defined as the roll wear along the entire
length of the roll barrel that is engaged in contact with the rolled product.
This wear is caused by abrasion in combination with thermal and
mechanical fatigue, with corrosive wear playing a subordinate role [17].
Figure 29.11 shows typical patterns and magnitudes of the overall work
roll wear that was observed in stands F1 through F6 of a 56 in. wide hot
strip finishing train [30]. In these figures, the original roll ground contours
at room temperature are depicted with dashed lines. The roll data for this
mill are given in Table 29.2.
Fig. 29.11 Work roll wear contours of finishing mill stands of 56 in. hot
strip mill. Adapted from Tong and Chakko [30].
The overall work roll wear is influenced by the tonnage rolled at various
strip widths. The
Page 714
cumulative ton-width distribution curve that was plotted from the rolling
schedules is similar in shape to the work roll wear pattern in stands F3 to
F6. This relationship shows up even more explicitly in Fig. 29.12 which
presents the ton-width distribution curve and the work roll wear observed
in stand F5 of a 96 in. wide hot strip finishing train. As can be seen from
Figs. 29.11 and 29.12, the overall work roll wear is generally nonuniform.
Table 29.2 Roll data of the finishing train of 56 in. hot

strip mill. Data from [30].
Roll data
Stand
number Material Hardness Diameter Crown Rolled
Shore in. in. tonnage
F1 Double- 79-81 1415

poured cast 20.9 0.007
iron concave
F2 Double- 75-77 1415

iron concave
F3 Double- 79-80 1415

iron concave
F4 Double- 77-78 4475

iron concave
F5 Double- 80-82 4475

iron concave
F6 Double- 75-76 22.7 0 4475
poured cast
iron
Fig. 29.12 Work roll wear contours of stand F5 of 96 in. hot strip mill after
rolling 2500 tons of steel. Adapted from Tong and Chakko [30].
According to studies conducted by Sibakin, et al [8], differential overall

roll wear, i.e. the difference in radius between the roll center and the two
ends due to wear, is linearly proportional to the tonnage rolled in a hot
strip finishing train. Therefore, for comparative purposes, roll wear
Page 715
can be expressed quantitatively in terms of the following unit wear

values:
Roll wear per unit of tonnage rolled, Wt

Roll wear per unit of length rolled, WL.
The unit roll wear parameters Wt and WL are relatively small in the work
rolls of stand F1 as shown in Fig. 29.13. These parameters begin to
increase at stand F2. The unit roll wear parameter Wt reaches its
maximum value at stand F4, whereas, the unit roll wear parameter WL is
maximum at stand F3.
Fig. 29.13 Differential wear of top and bottom work rolls for different
stands of 58-in. hot strip mill. Adapted from Sibakin, et al [8].
According to Oike, et al [33], the work roll wear on diameter Cm can be

calculated from the following equation:
where
c 1 when 0 < z ≤ wi/2

=
c 0 when z > wi/2

=
i rolling pass number

=
n total number of rolling passes

=

P=
w strip width
=
Page 716
l roll contact length

=
r reduction
=
L exit strip length

=
D work roll diameter.

=
α, = empirical coefficients that depend on roll material, strip temperature, roll

a, b bite lubrication, roll coolant, etc.
Somers, et al [34] have found, on a simplified basis, that the work roll
wear rate varies inversely with the work roll diameter. They also state that
the wear rate for the work rolls of the first two stands of a hot strip mill
differs from the remaining stands. The average rate of radial wear for
grain iron rolls during a typical tin mill cycle can be expressed by:
where
W average rate of radial wear, mils/106 ft of strip rolled

=
D work roll diameter, in.

=
29.9 Examples of Backup Roll Wear in Hot Strip Mills

Since the contact length between the backup roll and work roll remains
constant during rolling, it is expected to obtain a rather uniform wear of
the backup roll along its entire length. This was observed during rolling
trials that were conducted by Tong and Chakko [30] where the wear was
generally greater in the middle portion of the roll.
Table 29.3 Typical composition of work rolls and

backup rolls. Data from Sibakin, et al [8].
Elements C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo
Cast steel
0.43 0.72 0.040 0.024 0.42 0.34 3.10 0.84

0.41 0.75 0.029 0.033 0.50 0.26 2.70 0.54
Forged
0.47 0.68 0.009 0.003 0.32 0.80 3.00 0.31

0.48 0.75 0.010 0.003 0.31 0.81 3.00 0.31
The rate of the backup roll wear at the center of the roll is fairly constant
for up to 8 to 12 initial operating turns but then decreases thereafter as
shown in Fig. 29.14. The amount of the backup roll wear was found to be
greatly dependent on both roll material and roll surface hardness.
According to the roll wear data collected at the Inland Steel 2032 mm (80
in.) wide hot strip mill [37], the wear of forged steel rolls is substantially
less than that of cast steel rolls. The chemical composition for both
grades of rolls is given in Table 29.3 and the roll wear profiles are shown
in Fig. 29.15.
Page 717
Fig. 29.14 Rate of backup roll wear at roll center of finishing train of 56
in. hot strip mill. Adapted from Tong and Chakko [30].
Fig. 29.15 Wear of forged steel and cast backup rolls on finishing stands
F4 and F5 of 80 in. hot strip mill. Adapted from Easter [37].
29.10 Local Work Roll Wear in Hot Strip Mills

Roll wear can be described as local roll wear when the wear length along
the roll body is substantially less than the width of the rolled stock. The
following two distinct types of local work roll wear in hot strip mills are
observed:
Local roll wear near strip edges.

Local roll wear between strip edges.
Local roll wear near strip edges - During rolling of flat products, there is a
rapid decrease in the amount of deformation (flattening) of the work rolls
near the workpiece edges. This action produces local tensile stresses in
the transient zone of the roll body which are combined with shear
stresses also acting in the same zone. The result is more extensive roll
wear near the strip edges in comparison with the remaining roll wear.
Page 718
In the roll wear model for a hot strip mill that was developed by
Nakanishi, et al [35], an assumption is made that the absolute local roll
wear at the edge of the strip Ce is proportional to the absolute local roll
wear in the middle of the strip Cm (Fig. 29.16), i.e.:
where
k roll wear increase coefficient.

=
Fig. 29.16 Schematic presentation of roll wear. Adapted from Nakanishi,

et al [35].
It was found that when the roll wear geometry at the strip edge is defined
by: a = 10 mm and b = 50 mm, the roll wear increase coefficient k = 1.3.
The differential local roll wear Cr at the edge of the strip is equal to:
The amount of differential local roll wear in a 7-stand finishing hot strip
mill was found to be very small in the upstream stands F1 and F2, with a
maximum value of Cr = 0.5 mm reached in stand F5, as shown in Fig.
29.17.
29.11 Effect of Work Roll Wear on Profile of Hot Rolled Strip

Studies conducted by Sibakin, et al [8] in hot strip mills have shown that a
direct relationship between strip crown and roll wear could not be
established. The distribution of wear may be responsible for the absence
of such a relationship. However, later studies have shown that the wear
greatly affects strip edge profile and edge drop.
Differential local roll wear leads to the appearance of ridges and valleys
on the strip profile. When the differential local roll wear Cr exceeds 10
µm, it produces ridges in the strip profile. The imprint that the roll wear
leaves on the strip varies with the type of roll and also depends on the
stand number. The local roll wear imprinted on the strip Cs can be
expressed as [35]:
Page 719
where
kw imprinting coefficient of roll wear to strip

=
2Cr differential local roll wear per roll diameter.

=
The experimental values for Cs, kw, and Cr are shown in Fig. 29.17 for a
7-stand hot strip finishing train. The imprinting coefficient kw is nearly
zero at stands F1 and F2 and increases almost linearly at stands F3
through F7. The differential local roll wear Cr is very small at stands F1
and F2, but increases substantially, attaining its maximum value at stand
F5. The resulting local roll wear imprinted on the strip Cs is small at
stands F1 through F3 and then increases sharply, reaching its maximum
value at stand F6.
Fig. 29.17 Local work roll wear and its imprint on strip in hot strip
finishing train. Adapted from Nakanishi, et al [35].
29.12 Effect of Backup Roll Wear on Profile of Hot Rolled Strip

Sibakin, et al [8] investigated the effect of backup roll wear on strip crown
by a statistical analysis of the measurements of 367 coils that were rolled
in a 58 in. hot strip mill. The following empirical equation was derived and
plotted as shown in Fig. 29.18:
where
c strip crown, mils

=
ts strip contact time during half hour preceding measurement, min

=
w strip width, in.

=
n number of turns rolled on backup rolls.

=
Page 720
The results that were obtained from Eq. (29-13) can be summarized as
follows:
Strip crown decreases linearly with increasing center expansion,

as measured by the contact time during the half hour period
preceding measurement.
Strip crown increases linearly with increasing strip width.
Strip crown increases during the first twenty turns of rolling on the
backup rolls, after which it remains nearly constant.
Fig. 29.18 Crown of hot rolled strip as a function of strip width, roll
contact time during half hour preceding measurement, and a number of
turns rolled on backup rolls.
Table 29.4 Work roll data of 56 in. tandem cold

mill. Data from [30].
Work roll data

Stand
number Material Hardness Crown Rolled
Shore in. tonnage
1 Forged Rehardened 1131

steel 0.003
convex
2 Forged 95-98 0.003 752
steel convex
3 Forged 92-94 752

steel 0.003
convex
4 Forged 92-94 506

steel 0.003
convex
5 Forged 400
steel - 0.003
convex
29.14 Strip Profile of Cold Rolled and Tempered Strip

The strip profile of both cold rolled and tempered strip is largely
established by the profile of hot rolled strip. This concept has been
confirmed by numerous observations.
In a study conducted by Sibakin, et al [8], coils were sampled after hot

rolling, after cold rolling in a 5-stand tandem mill, and approximately half
of the previously rolled coils after temper rolling. The hot rolled samples
were cut from the middle of the coils before pickling.
Page 721
The two halves were then welded together and the 5-stand cold rolled
samples were cut about 1 to 2 ft ahead of the weld to avoid any
mechanical disturbance caused by the passage of the weld through the
rolls. The temper rolled samples were cut 25 to 50 ft from the weld to
avoid the non-temper rolled section on either side of the weld. The
thickness measurements were made by means of hand micrometers
graduated in 0.0001 in. divisions.
Fig. 29.19 Work roll wear for 56 in. tandem cold mill. Adapted from Tong
and Chakko [30].
Crown measurements of hot rolled coils were made at 0.375, 1.5, and 3.0
in. from the strip edge. The 0.375 in. measurements were not satisfactory
because they usually fell on the edge area where the strip thickness
changes rapidly, and hence a small error in the lateral placing of the
micrometers could make a large difference in the crown reading. Both
measurements at 1.5 and 3.0 in. from the strip edge were generally
beyond this sharply sloping edge area.
The measure of strip crown that was used throughout the investigation
was the average difference in thickness between the center and the two
edges of the strip measured at 1.5 in. from the edge. Since about 0.5 in.
is trimmed off both edges after pickling, the measurements after 5-stand
cold rolling and temper rolling were made at the corresponding distance
from the strip center, rather than at 1.5 in. from the edge.
Some typical strip profiles are shown after rolling in a 58 in. hot strip mill
(Fig. 29.20a), 56 in. 5-stand tandem cold mill (Fig. 29.20b), and 56 in. 4-
high temper mill (Fig. 29.20c). It could
Page 722
be expected, if there was no lateral spreading during cold rolling and

temper rolling, (i.e., no sideways displacement of material), and if the
extension was the same across the strip width, that the strip crown-to-
thickness ratio after each reduction would remain constant. Thus, the
following relationship is valid:
where
ch, cc, ct crowns of hot, cold, and temper rolled strips respectively
=
hh, hc, ht thicknesses of hot, cold, and temper rolled strips respectively.
=
Fig. 29.20 Typical strip profiles after: a) hot rolling, b) cold rolling, and c)
temper rolling. Adapted from Tong and Chakko [30].
The statistical analysis of the actual strip profile measurements that were
made on 24 coils after cold rolling on a 5-stand tandem mill (Fig. 29.21a)
and on 13 of these coils after temper rolling (Fig. 29.21b) have produced
the following relationships between the strip crowns after hot, cold, and
temper rolling:
Page 723
As can be seen from the graphical representations of Eqs. (29-14) and

(29-15) shown in Figs. 29.21a and 29.21b, these equations approximate
very closely the theoretical relationship given by Eq. (29-15).
Fig. 29.21 Relationship between crown-to-thickness ratio after hot rolling

and crown-to-thickness ratio after a) cold rolling, and b) temper rolling.
Adapted from Sibakin, et al [8].
Fig. 29.22 Hot rolled strip profile where arrows indicate ridges that
persisted through cold reduction as coil build-up. Adapted from Christoph
and Griffin [38].
Numerous irregularities of the hot rolled strip profile can affect the strip
profile of any subsequent rolling operation. The most explicit effect is
produced by ridges that are developed in the strip profile during the hot
rolling operation. This phenomenon is known in the cold and temper mill
operations as coil build-up [36,38]. There is usually a very small and
detectable irregularity in the thickness of the strip in line with the ridge
(Fig. 29.22) on the coil. It is obvious that extremely small differences in
thickness, when multiplied by the thousand or more
Page 724
wraps in a coil, can account for a substantial ridge up to 0.25 in. in height.
References
1. Cerni, S., et al, ‘‘Temperatures and Thermal Stresses in the Rolling of
Metal Strip,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1963, pp. 717-725.
2. Iwawaki, A., et al “Development of the Temperature Simulation Model

for a Rolling Mill,” IHI Engineering Review, Vol. 10 No. 4, Oct. 1977.
3. Sumi, H., et al, “A Numerical Model and Control of Plate Crown in the
Hot Strip or Plate Rolling,” Advanced Technology of Plasticity, Vol. 2,
1984, pp. 1360-1365.
4. Pallone, G.T., “Transient Temperature Distribution in Work Rolls During

Hot Rolling of Sheet and Strip,” AISE Year Book, 1983, pp. 496-501.
5. Patula, E.J., “Steady-State Temperature Distribution in a Rotating Roll

Subject to Surface Heat Fluxes and Convective Cooling,” ASME Journal
of Heat Transfer, Feb. 1981, p. 36.
6. Carslaw, H.S. and Jaeger, J.C., Conduction of Heat in Solids, Oxford

University Press, 1959.
7. Arpaci, V.S., Conduction Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley Publishing

Co., 1966.
8. Sibakin, J.G., et al, “Factors Affecting Strip Profile in Cold and Hot
Strip Mill,” Flat Rolled Products: Rolling and Treatment, Metallurgical
Society of AIME Conferences, Vol. 1, 1959, pp. 3-45.
9. van Steden, G. and Tellman, J.G.M., “A New Method of Designing a

Work Roll Cooling System for Improved Productivity and Strip Quality,”
1-3, 1987, pp. A.29.1 - A.29.12.
10. Wilmotte, S. and Mignon, J., Thermal Variations of the Camber of the
Working Rolls During Hot Rolling,” C.R.M Report, No. 34, March 1973,
pp. 17-34.
11. Yasuda, K., et al, “Rolling of Dead Flat Strip Using UC Mill with Small
Diameter Work Rolls,” Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling
Deauville, France, June 1-3, 1987, pp. E.22.1 - E.22.12.
12. Goodman, T.R., “The Heat Balance Integral and its Application to
Problems Involving a Change of Phase,” Transactions of the ASME, Vol.
80 No. 2, Feb. 1958, p. 335.
13. Goodman, T.R., “The Heating of Slabs with Arbitrary Heat Inputs,”
Journal of Aeronautical Science, Vol. 26 No. 3, 1959, p. 187.
14. Knox, T.J., and Moore, J.M., “Improving Dimensional Control in the
Hot Mill,” Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling Conference:
June 1-3, 1987, pp. A.23.1 - A.23.13.
15. Farnworth, R.D. and Hewitt, B.J., “Technical Development in Cold

Rolling Operations at B.S.C. Shotton Works,” Proceedings of the 4th
International Steel Rolling Conference: The Science and Technology of
Flat Rolling, Vol. 2, Deauville, France, June 1-3, 1987, pp. E.17.1 -
E.17.12.
16. Somers, R.R., “Effect of Hot and Cold Rolling Operations on Strip
Crown and Feather Edge,” Proceedings of the International Conference
on Steel Rolling: Science and
Page 725
Technology of Flat Rolled Products, Vol. 1, Tokyo, Japan, Sept. 29 - Oct.

4, 1980, pp. 701-712.
17. Schey, J.A., Tribology in Metalworking: Friction, Lubrication and

Wear, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983, pp. 131-
341.
18. Burwell, J.T., Wear, Vol. 1, 1957, pp. 119-141.
19. Robinson, C.L. and Westlake, F.J., “Roll Lubrication in Hot Strip
Mills,” Proceedings of the First European Tribology Congress, London,
Sept. 25-27, 1973, pp. 389-398.
20. Wandrei, C.L., “Review of Hot Rolling Lubricant Technology for Steel,”
ASLE Special Publication SP-17, American Society of Lubrication
Engineers, Park Ridge, Ill., 1984.
21. Stevens, P.G., et al, ‘‘Increasing Work Roll Life by Improved Roll
Cooling Practice,” Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Jan. 1971, pp.
1-11.
22. Harper, P., “The Water Cooling of Rolls,” Iron & Steelmaker, Oct.
1988, pp. 34-37.
23. Judd, R.R., “Surface Deterioration of Grain Iron Work Rolls in the
First Stands of a Hot Strip Mill Finishing Train,” AISE Year Book, 1979,
pp. 65-74.
24. Betts, W.H., “Basic Concepts of Roll Surface Behavior in Stands F1,
F2, and F3,” AISE Year Book, 1977, pp. 12-18.
25. Siefer, W., “On Firecracking,” Translated from Giesseri, 1968, pp.
737-742.
26. Parke, D.M. and Baker, J.L., “Temperature Effects of Cooling Work
Rolls,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1972, pp. 675-680.
27. Peck, C.F., et al, “Temperature Stresses in Iron Work Rolls,” AISE
28. Zorowski, C.F. and Weinstein, A.S., “An Analysis of the Stresses and
Deformations in Work Rolls,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1961, pp. 392-
398.
29. Tong, K.N., et al, “Contact Pressure Distribution and Comparative

Tests for Evaluation of Resistance to Spalling of Roll Materials,” AISE
30. Tong, K.N. and Chakko, M.K., “Predictions of Roll Spalling in 4-High
Mills Based on Fatigue Strength of Roll Materials and Wear Pattern of
Rolls,” AISE Yearly Proceedings, 1964, pp. 539-569.
31. Pickering, H.W., et al, “Wedging Section of Solid Corrosion Products

During Stress Corrosion of Austenitic Stainless Steels,” Corrosion, Vol.
18, June 1962, pp. 230t-239t.
32. Soeno, K., et al, “Some Problems of Front Stand Work Rolls in Hot
Strip Finishing Mills,” Hitachi Review, Vol. 18 No. 7, pp. 262-267.
33. Oike, Y., et al, Tetsu-to-Hagane, Vol. 63 No. 4, 1977, p. S222.

Predicting Hot Strip Profile, Crown and Flatness,” AISE Year Book, 1984,
pp. 441-450.
35. Nakanishi, T., et al, “Application of Work Roll Shift Mill HCW Mill to
Hot Strip and Plate Rolling,” Hitachi Review, Vol. 34 No. 4, 1985, pp. 153-
160.
36. Gilbertson, W.F., “Hot Rolled Strip Abnormalities Leading to Ridge in

Cold Reduced Sheets and Tinplate,” Journal of the Iron and Steel
Institute, June 1965, pp. 553-561.
37. Easter, H.C., “Inland’s Application of Forged Steel Backup Rolls for
Hot and Cold Strip Mills,” Iron & Steelmaker, Oct. 1986, pp. 27-34.
Page 726
38. Christoph, G.R. and Griffin, J.F., “Influence of Hot Strip Profile on
Subsequent Operations,” Flat Rolled Products: Rolling and Treatment,
Metallurgical Society of AIME Conferences, Vol. 1, 1959, pp. 47-65.
Page 727
Chapter 30
BACKUP ROLLS WITH SPECIFIC PROFILES
30.1 Classification of Backup Rolls With Specific Profiles

Conventional rolls have outer surfaces that are either flat or slightly
crowned usually with a parabolic crown. Nonconventional rolls that have
specific profiles [1,2] can be classified into the following five groups:
Nonadjustable stepped rolls

Tapered rolls
Adjustable stepped rolls
Flexible body rolls
Flexible edge rolls.
30.2 Nonadjustable Stepped Rolls

The body of a typical nonadjustable stepped backup roll consists of three
sections. The middle section contacts an adjacent roll in a multi-high mill
stand arrangement along with two peripheral sections that do not contact
the adjacent roll. Both backup rolls and work rolls can be designed in this
manner.
The advantages of stepped backup rolls over rolls with a full roll body
contact length were investigated by Nakanishi, et al [3] and are illustrated
in Fig. 30.1 [2]. When a strip of the width w = B is rolled on a 4-high mill
with adjacent rolls having contact along the full roll body length (Fig.
30.1a), there are so-called undesirable contact zones A that transfer
additional bending forces from the backup rolls to the work rolls. This
action produces an undesirable increase in strip crown and its variation
with a variation of roll force.
Figure 30.1b shows that by using stepped backup rolls and, thus,
eliminating the undesirable contact zones A, the effectiveness of a
conventional roll bending system can be significantly improved [4].
Page 728
Fig. 30.1 Principle of operation of stepped backup rolls. From Ginzburg

[2]. Reproduced through courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
With stepped backup rolls, the change in strip crown c with the change in
rolling load ΔP becomes considerably smaller when compared to a
conventional 4-high mill (Fig. 30.2a). Simultaneously, the change in strip
crown c with the change in roll bending force ΔF substantially increases
as shown in Fig. 30.2b.
Fig. 30.2 Comparison of crown control performances of conventional mill
(LB = L) and mill equipped with stepped backup rolls (LB = B < L): a) roll
force effective rate and b) roll bending effective rate.
These improvements, however, become less pronounced with an

increase in strip width w and eventually, the gain becomes negligible
when the strip width is close to the barrel length L of a conventional
backup roll. Another drawback is the necessity to replace the backup roll
with every
Page 729
substantial change in strip width.
The concept of nonadjastable stepped backup rolls was verified by

Nippon Steel, Japan during rolling trials at Yatawa Works 80 in. hot strip
mill [5]. This 4-high mill was named BCM for backup roll cutting mill.
30.3 Crowned Tapered Backup Rolls

One of the main disadvantages of stepped backup rolls is the
concentration of stresses near the step zone of the roll which results in
crumbling and shelling of the roll barrel surface along with an increase in
the localized wear of the mating work roll. To alleviate this problem, the
stepped change in the barrel diameter is replaced by a gradual tapering
of the peripheral zones of the roll.
Fig. 30.3 Crowned roll with tapered ends. Adapted from Adachi, et al [6].
In the case when a regular convex roll crown is ground in the middle of
the roll, the end tapered zones are made as a smooth continuation of the
crown portion of the roll as shown in Fig. 30.3 [6,7]. Another solution is to
profile the backup rolls with end bevels that can be described by the
following fourth-degree polynomial [8]:
where
y convexity of barrel profile at distance x from center of roll barrel

=
yo convexity at center of roll barrel (x = 0)

=
roll barrel length

L=
α, β coefficients associated with the relation α + β = 1.

=
Kawasaki Steel, Japan employed trapezoid-cambered work rolls to

decrease edge drop [9]. Tapering of work rolls also can be used in cold
mills to prevent roll kissing that is a contact of the outer portions of the
top and bottom work rolls when rolling very thin strip [9-11].
Page 730
30.4 Adjustable Stepped Backup Rolls

Adjustable stepped backup rolls permit changes to be made in the barrel
length [2]. Figure 30.4a shows a proposed idea where a gradual grinding
of the backup rolls is performed in the mill following a change in the strip
width [12]. Another idea is to adjust the barrel length of the rolls by either
supplementing the stepped roll with narrow-width segments (Figs. 30.4b
and 30.4c) [13,14] or by adjusting the supporting length of the mandrel
that is installed inside a hollow roll (Fig. 30.4d) [15].
Fig. 30.4 Rolls with variable barrel length. From Ginzburg [2].
Reproduced through courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
Fig. 30.5 Working principle of variable barrel length (VBL) backup roll
developed by INNSE Innocenti Santeustacchio, Italy. Adapted from
Galletti, et al [16].
One of the examples of adjustable stepped backup rolls are the variable
barrel length (VBL)
Page 731
backup rolls developed by INNSE Innocenti Santeustacchio, Italy [16]. In

the VBL backup roll (Fig. 30.5), at least one pair of its outer sleeves at
each roll end can either contract to prevent contact with the work roll or to
expand up to the diameter of the middle zone of the roll. In the variable
barrel length roll developed by IHI, Japan [17], the roll barrel ends are
reduced in diameter in comparison to the middle zone and are also
tapered. The tapered sleeves are fitted onto the barrel ends and made
movable in axial direction by pressurized oil.
30.5 Flexible Body Adjustable Crown Rolls

The principle of operation of flexible body adjustable crown rolls [2] is
based on changing the roll outer contour by either hydraulic (Figs. 30.6a,
b, d) or mechanical means (Fig. 30.6c). These means are usually located
inside the rolls and generate radial pressure that is applied to the roll
outer shell [18-21].
Fig. 30.6 Flexible body adjustable crown rolls. From Ginzburg [2].
Reproduced through courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
The rolls that utilize hydraulic means can be divided into the following two
groups depending on the number of pressurized zones that are located
along their body length:
Rolls with single pressurized zone [18, 22-29, 34-39]

Rolls with multiple pressurized zones [19, 21, 30-33, 41-46].
Two examples of the backup rolls with single pressurized zone are
described below:
Inflatable crown (IC) backup roll - This roll was developed by Blaw-Knox
Foundry and Mill Machinery [34-37]; its design is schematically illustrated
in Fig. 30.7. The IC roll consists of an arbor 1 with a double-sleeve
arrangement where the outer sleeve 2 is welded to the inner sleeve 3 at
their edges forming a cylindrical cavity between them. Both welded
sleeves are shrunk onto the
Page 732
arbor. The outer sleeve is made from either a forged or double-poured

centrifugal casting and subjected to heat treatment so that between the
maximum and minimum roll diameters the material hardness level will not
vary more than five points on the Shore C scale.
Fig. 30.7 Blaw-knox inflatable crown (IC) backup roll. Adapted from Eibe
[35].
An intensifier unit 4 is built into one roll neck having a piston ratio of
approximately 5:1. This means that only 2000 psi of pressure has to be
transmitted through the rotary joint 5 to create a maximum inflation
pressure of approximately 10,000 psi. A hydraulic pressure transducer 6
is used for continuously monitoring the inflation pressure. Figure 30.8
shows typical IC roll crown variation under light rolling load (zone A),
medium rolling load (zone B), and heavy rolling load (zone C).
Fig. 30.8 Typical IC roll crown variation under various rolling loads.
Adapted from Eibe [34].
Variable Crown (VC) Backup Roll - This roll was developed by Sumitomo
Metals Industries, Japan [38-40]. The VC roll is a sleeve-type roll (Fig.
30.9) that has an oil chamber between the sleeve and arbor. The sleeve
is shrunk tightly to the arbor at both ends to hold it under pressure of the
rolling torque and, at the same time, seal the high-pressure oil in the
chamber. The high-pressure oil is supplied to the VC roll by a hydraulic
power unit through a rotary joint. Specification of the VC backup roll is
shown in Table 30.1.
Page 733
Fig. 30.9 Sumitomo Metals Industries variable crown (VC) backup roll.
Adapted from Yamada, et al [38].
Table 30.1 Specification of VC backup

roll.
Parameter Value
Hydraulic pressure 0 - 500 kg/cm2
Speed of response 100 kg/cm2/s
Accuracy of setting 0.5%

pressure
Oil type Polyol ester
Rotational speed of
rotary joint 0 - 500 rpm
Sleeve material C-Cr-Mo Forged

steel HRC = 50
Performance of the VC roll is shown in Fig. 30.10.

Fig. 30.10 Relationship between strip crown and internal pressure of VC
roll when rolling aluminum. Adapted from Yamada, et al [38].
When the VC roll is used in combination with roll bending cylinders, it

becomes possible to correct sophisticated strip flatness defects. The VC
roll system is more effective in the width center region than the work roll
bending system. By combining the VC roll system with a work roll
Page 734
bending system, it is possible to produce center buckle and edge wave at

the same time.
Dynamic Shaperoll (DSR) - The DSR roll, developed by Clecim, France

[44-46] is a typical example of the rolls with multiple pressurized zones.
As shown in Fig. 30.11, a metallic sleeve A rotates freely around a
stationary shaft B. This sleeve is pressed against the work roll by a series
of noncircular pads D, where each pad is equipped with a cylinder C that
rests on a shaft B. Contact between the pads and sleeve is obtained
through a hydrostatic and hydrodynamic oil film.
Fig. 30.11 Dynamic shape roll (DSR) developed by Clecim. From Morel
and Bosch [44]. Reproduced through the courtesy of Iron and Steel
Engineer.
Two sets of roller bearings E are mounted between the shaft B and
sleeve A at each end of the shaft/sleeve assembly to absorb axial
stresses. These roller bearings are completely free in the vertical
direction. By controlling the pressure applied to the various pads, it is
possible to adjust the roll force distribution in the roll gap or the roll gap
profile itself. By controlling the stroke of two symmetrical pads, it is
possible to adjust and control the roll gap as well as the thickness of the
rolled product. The oil pressure that is applied to each pad is controlled
by a separate closed loop control system that utilizes hydraulic
servovalves.
The DSR system is designed for application to both 4-high and 6-high
mills and for rolling both steel and aluminum. The main characteristics of
the DSR system for a single stand cold mill are:
Outer diameter:
maximum
1524 mm
minimum
1463 mm
Barrel length
2286 mm
Number of pads 7
Pad width 305 mm
Sleeve thickness:
maximum 200 mm
minimum 170 mm
Maximum force per pad 500 t
Maximum total roll force 3500 t.
Mathematical modeling was performed to simulate the strip profile that

was rolled in a hot strip
Page 735
mill with the Dynamic Shaperoll in the upper position and a regular solid
roll in the bottom position. The following mill parameters were assumed:
Work roll diameter 737

mm
Backup roll diameter

1422
mm
Barrel length
2286
mm
Maximum positive roll bending 116 t

force per side
The results of a computer simulation have shown that the DSR efficiency
in changing the strip crown is 5% greater than roll bending for 1700 mm
wide strip and 29% greater than roll bending for 1092 mm wide strip. It
was also shown that by using both DSR and a roll bending system, it is
possible to produce various changes in the strip profile including a
quarter buckle effect as shown in Fig. 30.12.
Fig. 30.12 Computer simulation of strip profiles for various pressure
repartitions in Dynamic Shape Roll (DSR). From Morel and Bosch [44].
30.6 Adjustable Roll Thermal Crown Systems

Adjustable roll thermal crown systems produce adjustments of the roll
gap profile by either cooling or heating the work rolls during rolling [47]. In
case of roll cooling, the cooling headers are commonly divided into a
number of spray zones so that the rolls can be cooled at different rates
across their length [48]. Roll heating can be accomplished by using either
an induction-heating coil that surrounds the roll [49] or the heated fluid
circulated inside the roll as proposed by Italimpianti of America [50].
The latter design (Fig. 30.13) comprises an arbor 1 with a sleeve 2 that
has been shrunk-fitted over the arbor. The grooves 3 are formed in the
external surface of the arbor and are connected to the radial channels 4
and axial channels 5 through which heating or cooling liquid is supplied
from external sources to expand or contract the sleeve and change the
roll contour. The fins 6, or material between the grooves, can have a
higher heat conductivity than the material of the arbor and sleeve
Page 736
and are designed to transmit the rolling forces without reducing roll
stiffness. A liquid supply system provides liquids of different temperatures
to selected sections of the grooves along the roll working surface to
accommodate various rolling conditions.
Fig. 30.13 Thermal crown controlled roll proposed by Italimpianti of

America. Adapted from Eibe [50].
Fig. 30.14 Flexible edge nonadjustable crown rolls. From Ginzburg [52].
30.7 Flexible Edge Nonadjustable Crown Rolls
Flexible edge nonadjustable crown rolls have a reduced rigidity near their
edges that can be provided by the following means [51-54]:
Creating a circular air cavity near the roll edges [53]

Filling the circular cavity near the roll edges with material that has
a lower modulus of elasticity than the roll material (Fig. 30.14a)
[53]
Drilling holes near the roll edges (Fig. 30.14b)
Page 737
Milling slots near the roll edges (Fig.30.14c)

Making a counterlever support of the sleeve on the arbor (Fig.
30.14d) [54].
30.8 Self-Compensating (SC) Backup Rolls

The Self-Compensating (SC) backup roll, which was jointly developed by
United Engineering and International Rolling Mill Consultants [55-58], is a
typical example of a flexible edge nonadjustable crown roll.
The basic concept of the SC roll is relatively simple. To compensate for

deflection of the backup roll under a rolling load, the SC roll is assembled
with a sleeve that is shrink-fitted to the arbor in its middle part as shown
in Fig. 30.15. Beyond the shrink-fit zone, there is a gap between the
arbor and sleeve that gradually increases toward each roll edge. Under a
rolling load, this gap partially closes so that the overall deflection of the
sleeve is approximately equal to that of the arbor. Since these deflections
are in opposite directions, the overall deflection at the interface between
the backup roll and work roll will be substantially reduced. When positive
roll bending is applied between the work roll chocks, greater deflections
of the work rolls are produced because of the flexibility of the backup roll
edges. Thus, the capability of the work roll bending system is increased.
Fig. 30.15 Self-Compensating (SC) backup roll developed by United

Engineering and International Rolling Mill Consultants.
30.9 Flexible Edge Adjustable Crown Rolls

Flexible edge adjustable crown rolls have an adjustable rigidity near the
ends of the rolls as shown in Fig. 30.16 [52].
The adjustable rigidity of the backup roll can be provided by several

means that are listed below:
Adjusting pressure in the chamber that is located between the

arbor and sleeve with non-restricted deflection of the strip edges
(Fig. 30.16a) [59].
Adjusting pressure in the enclosed chambers that are located near
the roll edges (Fig. 30.16b)
Page 738
Shifting the wedges inside the chambers that are formed between
arbor and sleeve (Fig. 30.16c) [61].
Shifting two end sleeves on the tapered ends of the arbor (Fig.
30.16d) [62].
Adjusting pressure in a number of chambers that are located near
the roll ends with either the same pressure in each chamber or
with pressure individually controlled in each chamber [63].
Fig. 30.16 Flexible edge adjustable crown rolls. From Ginzburg [52].
30.10 Taper Piston (TP) Backup Rolls

Taper piston (TP) backup rolls, which were developed by IHI, Japan [61,
64-66], are a typical example of an adjustable flexible edge backup roll.
Fig. 30.17 Taper piston (TP) backup roll developed by IHI. Adapted from
Kato and Shiozaki.
The principal parts of the TP roll are shown in Fig. 30.17. The roll arbor 1
is supported inside
Page 739
the chocks 2 and 3 by roller bearings 4 and 5 in which the displacement

is restricted by flanges 6 and 7. The sleeve 8 is shrink-fitted into the arbor
at its central portion only. The taper pistons 9 through 12 are inserted
between the sleeve and arbor at each side of the roll body.
Each pair of pistons, the inner pair 9 and 12 and outer pair 10 and 11,
can be moved individually either toward or away from the roll center. The
displacement of the pistons is provided by applying hydraulic pressure to
their front and rear ends while the piston position is monitored by
displacement sensors. The piston and sleeve are slightly tapered which
causes the ends of the sleeve to expand when the pistons are pushed
toward the barrel center resulting in a concave crown. To shift the crown
control range, the roll is ground flat when the pistons are in the closest
position to the roll center. As a result, the roll will have a convex crown
when the pistons are moved toward the ends of the sleeve. Hydraulic
fluid is supplied to the roll through a rotary joint that is located at one end
of the roll whereas, the electrical connections to the piston displacement
sensors are provided through a slip ring that is installed at the opposite
roll end.
Figure 30.18 shows a comparison of the crown control range of a 4-high

aluminum cold mill that is equipped with TP rolls and the same mill
equipped with conventional solid rolls. The main parameters of the mill
and the rolled strip are as follows [65]:
Maximum entry thickness

6.0 mm
Minimum finish thickness

0.2 mm
Maximum roll force 580 t
Work roll diameter x length 280 × 1000

mm
TP roll diameter × length 750 × 950
mm
Solid backup roll diameter 700 × 950

× length mm
Maximum rolling speed 200 m/min.
Maximum bending force ±15 t
Fig. 30.18 Comparison of strip crown control range of 4-high aluminum

cold mill with taper piston (TP) rolls and conventional solid rolls. Adapted
from Nitanda [65].
Page 740
When both top and bottom TP rolls are used, the strip crown control
range can be expected to increase by approximately three times.
References
1. Ginzburg, V.B., Steel-Rolling Technology: Theory and Practice, Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York, 1989.
2. Ginzburg, V.B., ‘‘Strip Profile Control with Flexible Edge Backup Rolls,”
3. Nakanishi, T., et al, “Application of Work Roll Shift Mill HCW Mill to Hot
Strip and Plate Rolling,” Hitachi Review, Vol. 34 No. 4, 1985, pp. 153-
160.
4. Furuya, T., et al, “High Crown Control Mill: A Newly Developed 6-High
Cold Mill to Solve Shape Problems,” Flat Rolling: A Comparison of
Rolling Mill Types, Metals Society, Cardiff, Wales, 1978, pp. 147-154.
5. Nakajima, K., et al, “Research on Crown Control for Hot Strip Mills,”
Nippon Steel Technical Report, No. 15, June 1980, pp. 110-126.
6. Adachi, A, et al, “Crown Reduction in Hot Strip Rolling by Taper Crown

Rolls,” Iron and Steel Engineer, June 1991, pp. 43-49.
7. Sasada, T., et al, “Modernization Technology of Conventional Hot Strip

Mills,” Nippon Steel Technical Report, No. 18, Dec. 1981, pp. 1-21.
8. Polukhin, V.P., et al, “Experience in Profiling of Backup Rolls without

Tapers on 2500 Hot Rolling Mill at Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel
Combine,” Steel in the USSR, Vol. 16, July 1986, pp. 331-332.
9. Yarita, I., et al, “Flatness and Profile Control in Hot and Cold Rolling of
Steel Strip,” Kawasaki Steel Technical Report, No. 1, Sept. 1980, pp. 60-
69.
10. Matsubara, S., et al, “Optimization of Work Roll Taper for Extremely
Thin Strip Rolling,” ISIJ International, Vol. 29 No. 1, 1989, pp. 58-63.
11. Matsubara, S., et al, “Studies on Foil Rolling by Work Rolls of Large
Diameter - II: Application to the Commercial Production Mill,”
Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, Vol. 27, 1987.
12. Feldmann, H., et al, U.S. Patent No. 4,479,374, Oct. 30, 1984.
13. Japan Patent No. 51-103058, Sept. 11, 1976.
14. Japan Patent No. 55-10366, Jan. 24, 1980.
15. Gronbech, R.W., U.S. Patent No. 4,407,151, Oct. 4, 1983.
16. Galletti, C., et al, “Variable Barrel Length Backup Roll: A New
Approach to Strip Shape and Flatness Control,” Proceeding of the 5th
International Rolling Conference: Dimensional Control in Rolling Mills,
London, Sept. 11-13, 1990, pp. 278-285.
17. Shiozaki, H., Japan Patent 58-196104, Nov. 15, 1983.
18. Noe, O., et al, U.S. Patent No. 3,457,617, July 29, 1969.
19. Sendzimir, T., U.S. Patent No. 3,355,924, Dec. 5, 1967.
20. Eibe, W.W., U.S. Patent No. 4,553,297, Nov. 19, 1985.
21. Lehmann, R., U.S. Patent No. 4,429,446, Feb. 7, 1984.
22. Hausman, J.M., U.S. Patent No. 2,970,339, Feb. 7, 1961.

Page 741
23. Hausman, J.M., U.S. Patent No. 3,140,512, July 14, 1964.
24. Bretschneider, E., U.S. Patent No. 3,604,086, Sept. 14, 1971.
25. Appenzeller, V., U.S. Patent No. 2,908,964, Oct. 20, 1959.
26. Appenzeller, V., U.S. Patent No. 3,196,520, July 27, 1965.
27. Kusters, E., U.S. Patent No. 3,023,695, March 6, 1962.
28. Appenzeller, V., U.S. Patent No. 3,043,211, July 10, 1962.
29. Bryce, R.H., U.S. Patent No. 3,362,055, Jan. 9, 1968.
30. Justus, E.J., U.S. Patent No. 3,119,324, Jan. 28, 1964.
31. Wahlstrom, P.B. and Larsson, P.B., U.S. Patent No. 3,266,414, Aug.
16, 1966.
32. Hold, P., U.S. Patent No. 3,587,152, June 28, 1971.
33. Kusters, E., and Appenzeller, V., U.S. Patent No. 3,131,625, May 5,
1964.
34. Eibe, W.W., “Inflatable Crown Rolls - Characteristics, Design, and

Applications,” AISE Year Book, 1984, pp. 426-432.
35. Eibe, W.W., U.S. Patent No. 4,062,096, Dec. 13, 1977.
36. Swanson, K.R., et al, “Application of the Blaw-Knox Inflatable Crown

Roll to a 2-Stand Temper Mill,” AISE Year Book, 1985, pp. 165-170.
37. Eibe, W.W., U.S. Patent No. 4,553,296, Nov. 19, 1985.
38. Yamada, J., et al, “The Development of the Sumitomo VC (Variable

Crown) Roll System,” Iron and Steelmaker, Vol. 9, June 1982, pp. 37-42.
39. Nagai, et al, T., ‘‘Strip Shape and Profile Control with Sumitomo
Variable Crown Roll System,” AISE Year Book, 1983, pp.68-75.
40. Masui, T, et al, “Development of the Sumitomo Variable Crown Roll

System with Strip Shape and Profile Control Devices,” Sumitomo Search,
No. 31, Nov. 1985, pp. 21-30.
41. Lehmann, R., et al, “The NIPCO System for the Rolling of Metals,”
Advances in Cold Rolling Technology, Institute of Metals, London, 1985,
pp. 122-127.
42. Wiendahl, H. P., “The NIPCO Roll: From Idea to New Product,”
Escher Wyss News, 2/1978-1/1979, pp. 47-52.
43. Shutler, M.V., and Guettinger, H., “NIPCO Technology for Aluminum
Foil Rolling,” Shape Control Workshop Papers, Aluminum Association,
Louisville, Ky., Nov. 15-16, 1984, pp. 41-54.
44. Morel, M. and Bosch, M., “Shaperoll Actuator and Results of Hot and
Cold Mill Applications,” Iron and Steel Engineer, April 1992, pp. 74-77.
45. Boulot, D., and Christoffel, J.C., “The Shaperoll: An Actuator for
Shape and Profile Control in Hot and Cold Aluminum Rolling Mills,”
Rolling Mill Gauge, Shape/Profile Seminar, Aluminum Association,
Atlanta, Ga., June 8-9, 1988, pp. 295-350.
46. Quehen, A. and Boulot, D., “The Shaperoll: A New Actuator for Shape
and Profile Control,” Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling
47. Ginzburg, V.B., “Technology for Strip Profile and Flatness Control in
Rolling Mills,” World Steel Review, Vol. 1 No. 1, Spring 1991, pp. 162-
172.
48. Luling, L. and Hollmann, F.W., “Thermal Flatness Control During Cold
Rolling,” Proceedings of the 4th International Steel Rolling Conference:
June 1-3, 1987, pp. E.16.1 - E.16.5.
Page 742
49. Sparthmann, R. and Pawelski, O., “Thermal Shape Control in Cold

Strip Rolling by Controlled Inductive Roll Heating,” Proceedings of the
International Conference on Steel Rolling: Science and Technology of
Flat Rolled Products, Vol. 2, Tokyo, Japan, Sept. 29 - Oct. 4, 1980, pp.
796-806.
50. Eibe, W.W., U.S. Patent No. 4,793,172, Dec. 27, 1988.
51. Schurmann, W.R., U.S. Patent No. 242,058, May 24, 1881.
52. Ginzburg, V.B., “Strip Profile Control with Flexible Edge Backup
Rolls,” AISE Year Book, 1987, pp. 277-288.
53. Sendzimir, T., U.S. Patent No. 2,187,250, Jan. 16, 1940.
54. Justus, E.J., U.S. Patent No. 3,097,590, July 16, 1963.
55. Ginzburg, V.B., and Guo, R.-M., U.S. Patent No. 4,722,212, Feb. 2,
1988.
57. Ginzburg, V. B., U.S. Patent No. 5,347,837, Sept. 20, 1994.
59. Imai, I., Japan Patent No. 57-68206, April 26, 1982.
60. Honjiyou, H., Japan Patent No. 59-54401, March 29, 1984.
61. Kato., H. and Shiozaki, U.S. Patent No. 4,599,770, July 15, 1986.
62. Shiozaki, H., Japan Patent No. 58-196104, Nov. 15, 1983.
63. Ginzburg, V.B. and Kaplan, N.M., U.S. Patent No. 4,683,744, Aug. 4,
1987.
64. Kato, H., et al, ‘‘Development of the Automatic Flatness Control

(AFC) System of Strip Shape,” IHI Engineering Report, Vol. 20 No. 3,
July 1987, pp. 110-114.
65. Nitanda, M., “High Crown Control Mill with Taper Piston Rolls,” Rolling
Mill Gauge, Shape/Profile Seminar, Aluminum Assoc., Atlanta, Ga., June
8-9, 1988, pp. 353-374.
66. Mori, T., et al, U.S. Patent No. 4,837,906, June 13, 1989.
Page 743
Chapter 31
ROLL DEFORMATION AND DISPLACEMENT SYSTEMS
31.1 Classification of Roll Bending Systems

Roll bending systems are usually divided into the following two principal
classes [1,2]:
Work roll bending systems

Backup roll bending systems.
Further classification of roll bending systems can be made based on the

plane, direction, and application site of the roll bending forces.
Acting plane of roll bending forces - Depending on the plane in which the
roll bending forces are acting, a roll bending system may belong to one of
the following two groups:
Vertical plane (VP) roll bending systems

Horizontal plane (HP) roll bending systems.
Direction of roll bending forces - Depending on the direction of the roll

bending forces, the vertical plane roll bending systems are commonly
known as:
Positive or crown-in roll bending systems

Negative or crown-out roll bending systems.
In the positive roll bending systems, the roll bending forces tend to open
the roll gap, whereas in the negative roll bending systems, the roll
bending forces tend to close the roll gap.
The horizontal plane roll bending systems can be described as follows:
Single-direction
Page 744
Dual-direction.
In the single-direction roll bending systems, the roll bending forces are
applied to the roll in one direction, which is parallel to the direction of
rolling, whereas in the dual-direction roll bending systems, the roll
bending forces are applied to the roll in two opposite directions.
Site of application of roll bending forces - The following three types of roll
bending systems can be identified with respect to the site of application
of the roll bending forces:
Single-chock roll bending systems

Multiple-chock roll bending systems
Chockless roll bending systems.
In single-chock roll bending systems, the roll bending forces are applied
at each end of the roll through a single chock. In multiple-chock roll
bending systems, the roll bending forces are applied at each end of the
roll through two or more chocks. In the chockless roll bending systems,
the roll bending forces are applied directly to the roll body through either
intermediate rollers or hydraulic pads. The following sections provide a
more detailed description of the various types of roll bending systems.
31.2 Vertical Plane (VP) Work Roll Bending Systems

The vertical plane (VP) work roll bending systems include the following:
Single-chock work roll bending (Figs. 31.1 and 31.2)

Double-chock work roll bending (Fig. 31.3)
Chockless work roll bending (Fig. 31.4).
The single-chock work roll bending systems [3,4] can utilize either
positive roll bending cylinders that act between the top and bottom work
roll chocks (Fig 31.1a), negative roll bending cylinders that act between
the backup rolls and work rolls (Fig. 31.1b), or a combination of both (Fig.
31.1c). Various sophisticated designs of single-chock work roll bending
systems have been proposed [5-7].
Figure 31.2a depicts a design in which both positive and negative roll
bending forces are applied to the work roll chocks by double-acting
cylinders that are located in the backup roll chocks. In the design shown
in Fig. 31.2b, positive roll bending forces, negative roll bending forces, or
roll bending torque are applied to the work roll chocks by two sets of
cylinders working in parallel. Figure 31.2c illustrates a design in which
positive roll bending forces and work roll balance forces are created by
separate sets of cylinders that are located in the work roll chocks.
The advantage of a VP single-chock work roll bending system is the

capability of providing continuous control of the strip profile during rolling
while being cost effective. However, in some applications, the provided
crown control range may be limited mainly by the maximum load that can
be withstood by the work roll chock bearings.
Page 745
Fig. 31.1 Vertical plane (VP) single-chock roll bending systems. From
Ginzburg [1].
Fig. 31.2 Vertical plane (VP) single-chock roll bending systems. From
Ginzburg [1].
Page 746
By using a double-chock roll bending arrangement [8-11], the

effectiveness of the work roll bending system can be significantly
increased. Figure 31.3a illustrates a system in which the positiveroll
bending forces are applied to the outer work roll chocks, whereas the
inner work roll chocks are pushed against stops. In the system shown in
Fig. 31.3b, positive roll bending forces are applied to the outer work roll
chocks and negative roll bending forces are applied to the top inner
chocks. In yet another design (Fig. 31.3c), positive and negative roll
bending forces are applied to both outer and inner work roll chocks. The
double-chock roll bending system offers greater flexibility in controlling
the roll gap profile. However, other factors such as higher stresses in the
roll neck, higher contact stresses between the work rolls and backup
rolls, and higher costs may limit the application of these systems.
Fig. 31.3 Vertical plane (VP) double-chock work roll bending systems.
From Ginzburg [1].
The problem of overstressing the roll necks can be alleviated by using a

chockless work roll bending system [12-14]. In one modification of this
system (Fig. 31.4a), the roll body deflection is affected by setting various
pressures in the cylinders that back up the roll supporting pads. In
another design (Fig. 31.4b), the roll body deflection is affected by setting
various pressures inside the roll supporting pads that contact the roll
body. Figure 31.4c shows a system that utilizes a sleeved work roll with a
stationary arbor. The sleeve deflection is produced by setting various
pressures inside the pads that support the sleeve.
The designs of the VP work roll bending systems differ with respect to the
following two features:
Location of the roll bending cylinders

Guiding the work roll chocks in the vertical plane.
Page 747
These features of the various designs of the VP work roll bending

systems are described in more detail in [5, 15-19].
Fig. 31.4 Vertical plane (VP) chockless roll bending systems. From
Ginzburg [1].
31.3 Horizontal Plane (HP) Work Roll Bending Systems

The following two types of horizontal plane (HP) work roll bending
systems are known:
Single-direction roll bending (Fig. 31.5)

Dual-direction roll bending (Fig. 31.6).
One of the arrangements of the single-direction roll bending systems

(Fig. 31.5a) [20] consists of a roll with chocks supported by housing
posts, which is deflected by forces applied to its body through segmented
rollers. In a similar arrangement (Fig. 31.5b) [21], the bending forces are
applied to the work rolls through an intermediate roll. In the roll bending
system shown in Fig. 31.5c [22,23], the roll that is supported by the
housing post is deflected by forces applied through a flexible segmented
roller and an intermediate roll.
In the dual-direction roll bending systems, the bending forces can be

applied either directly to the roll body (Fig. 31.6a) [14], through the
chocks only (Fig. 31.6b) [24], or through the roll ends and the middle of
the roll (Fig. 31.6c) [25].
The reader can find various designs of the horizontal plane work roll
bending systems in [22, 23, 26-30]. Figure 31.7 illustrates the
performance of the HP work roll bending system that was developed by
IHI, Japan [23] in application for a 5-high mill arrangement and known as
the flexible flatness control (FFC) mill.
Page 748
Fig. 31.5 Horizontal plane (HP) single-direction work roll bending

systems. From Ginzburg [1].
Fig. 31.6 Horizontal plane (HP) dual-direction work roll bending systems.
From Ginzburg [1].
One of the main advantages of the FFC mill is the capability to reduce
the relative edge drop or edge thinning ratio that can be quantified using
the following equation [23]:
Page 749
where
er
=
edge thinning ratio
h75 strip thickness at 75 mm from strip edge

=
h15 strip thickness at 15 mm from strip edge

=
hc strip thickness at center of strip width.

=
Fig. 31.7 Change in edge thinning effect with cold reduction in FFC mill
in comparison with conventional 4-high mill. Adapted from Fijita, et al
[23].
The change in thickness profile that occurs in a rolling pass for a

particular rolling operation (i.e. mill type) in comparison with a
conventional 4-high mill can be quantified using the following equation:
where
α
=
change in edge
thinning effect
e0 edge thinning ratio in entry strip (i.e. 0% reduction)

=
e90 edge thinning ratio in strip reduced by reference amount

=(i.e. 90% reduction).
Figure 31.7 shows the change in the edge thinning effect α as a function
of the cold reduction ratio that is produced by an FFC mill with equivalent
circumferential speed rolling, an FFC mill
Page 750
with different circumferential speed rolling, and a conventional 4-high mill.

The significant improvement in thickness profile for the FFC mills (i.e.
lower values of α) is the result of the reduction in rolling loads that are
obtained with the smaller diameter work rolls. With equivalent
circumferential speed rolling, the edge thinning effect is reduced by
approximately 50% when compared to a 4-high mill. With different
circumferential rolling speeds, the edge thinning effect is reduced by
approximately 75% which is due to both the reduced rolling load as well
as the restraint of metal flow in the strip width direction.
31.4 Backup Roll Bending Systems

In backup roll bending systems, the roll bending forces can be applied in
the following ways:
Applied directly to the backup roll body

Applied to the outer backup roll chocks
Applied to the main backup roll chocks.
In the case of direct application of roll bending forces, these forces can
be transmitted through either a single roller (Fig. 31.8a) [31] or through a
series of rollers that contact the backup roll. In the arrangement shown in
Fig. 31.8b [32], the roll bending forces are applied to the roll body by
adjusting the pressure in the segmented pads that support the backup
roll. In the design illustrated in Fig. 31.8c [33], the roll bending forces are
applied to the roll body through a flexible pad that supports the backup
roll.
Fig. 31.8 Backup roll bending systems with bending forces applied to roll
body. From Ginzburg [1].
Page 751
Fig. 31.9 Backup roll bending systems with bending forces applied to
outer chocks. From Ginzburg [1].
Fig. 31.10 Backup roll bending systems with bending forces applied to
main chocks. From Ginzburg [1].
Roll bending forces can also be applied to the outer backup chocks either
directly (Fig. 31.9a) [34], or through lever arms (Fig. 31.9b) [35] that have
adjustable lengths. In the triple-chock arrangement, the roll bending
moments are created by applying opposing forces to the two outer
Page 752
chocks located at each side of the roll (Fig. 31.9c) [36].
Application of roll bending forces to the main chocks is implemented by

the use of hydraulic cylinders that are located either inside (Fig. 31.10a)
[37] or outside (Fig. 31.10b) [38] the chocks. In the arrangement shown in
Fig. 31.10c [39], the roll bending moments are applied to the chocks that
support the arbor of a sleeved roll.
The reader can find some examples of the mill designs with the backup
roll bending systems in [31, 34, 40-43].
31.5 Purposes and Classification of Roll Shifting Systems

Roll shifting systems are commonly used in both hot and cold rolling
mills. The three distinct purposes of roll shifting systems are as follows:
Increase in strip crown control range

Reduction of edge drop in strip cross-sectional profile
Redistribution of roll wear near strip edges.
Fig. 31.11 Axially shifted cylindrical rolls. From Ginzburg [2]. Reproduced
Generally, each of these purposes is achieved by different means

although attempts have been made to accomplish at least two of these
goals by using the same technique.
Roll shifting systems can be classified into the following three groups [44-
46]:
Axially shifted cylindrical rolls.

Axially shifted noncylindrical rolls.
Axially shifted sleeved rolls.
Page 753
31.6 Axially Shifted Cylindrical Rolls

Roll shifting systems that utilize axially shifted cylindrical rolls can be
Bi-directional backup roll shifting (Fig. 31.11a) [47].

Bi-directional intermediate roll shifting (Fig. 31.1lb) [48].
Bi-directional work roll shifting (Fig. 31.11c) [49].
Unidirectional work roll shifting (Fig. 31.11d) [50].
The most commonly used systems incorporate bi-directional shifting of

the work rolls, intermediate rolls, or a combination of both.
31.7 Basic Concept of High Crown Control (HC) Mills

The high crown control (HC) mills were developed by Hitachi, Japan [51,
52] and were designed to improve strip profile and flatness control while
providing for schedule-free rolling by combining roll shifting with roll
bending.
Fig. 31.12 Distribution of roll contact stresses in 4-high mill with: a)

stepped backup rolls and b) bi-directionally shifted work rolls. Adapted
from Nakanishi, et al [52].
An analysis of roll deflection in a 4-high mill shows that undesirable

contact exists between the work roll and backup roll beyond the strip
width that leads to excessive deflection of the rolls. This deflection
depends not only on the rolling load, but also on the strip width.
Moreover, when bending forces are applied to the work rolls, the
deflection is restricted by the backup rolls at the portion beyond the strip.
For a given strip width, the ideal solution to this problem is the use of a
stepped backup roll (Fig. 31.12a) that has a contact length with the work
roll that is equal to the strip width. This solution, however, is impractical
when products of various widths are being rolled. This problem can be
solved in the HC mill by implementing bi-directional shifting rolls (Fig.
31.12b) that can accommodate each strip width to be rolled.
Page 754
Various types of HC mills that have been developed by Hitachi can be

classified as follows [53-55]:
Fig. 31.13 High crown control (HC) mill family. Adapted from Fujino, et al
[55].
HCW mill - The HCW mill is a modification of the HC mill that can be
applied to 4-high mills. As shown in Fig. 31.13a, a provision is made in
the HCW mill for bi-directional shifting of the work rolls and a positive roll
bending system. A modification of the HCW mill that was developed
jointly by Hitachi and Kawasaki Steel, Japan is known as the K-WRS mill
[51,56].
HCM mill - The HCM mill is a modification of the HC mill that can be
applied to 6-high mills. As illustrated in Fig. 31.13b, the strip profile and
flatness control functions are accomplished with the use of bi-directional
shifting of the intermediate rolls along with positive roll bending.
HCMW mill - The HCMW mill combines the main features of the HCW
and HCM mills by providing bi-directional shifting of both the work rolls
and intermediate rolls. A positive work roll bending system is also
incorporated as shown in Fig. 31.13c.
Page 755
Fig. 31.13 (cont.) High crown control (HC) mill family.

Fig. 31.13 (cont.) High crown control (HC) mill family.
UCM mill - The UCM mill is designed to further improve the strip profile
and flatness control capabilities of the HCM mill by implementing an
intermediate roll bending system (Fig. 31.13d).
Page 756
UCMW mill - The UCMW mill (Fig. 31.13e) includes an intermediate roll
bending system in addition to the strip profile and flatness functions that
are provided in the HCMW mill.
MB mill - The MB mill includes two modifications for 5-high and 6-high
mill arrangements that are called 5MB mill and 6MB mill respectively.
One of the principal features of the MB mill is the use of stationary
tapered backup rolls. In the 5MB mill (Fig. 31.13f), only one backup roll is
tapered while in the 6MB mill (Fig. 31.13g), both backup rolls are tapered.
Both of these mills also utilize work roll and intermediate roll bending
systems.
UC2 - UC4 mills - The UC2 through UC4 mills, which are versions of the
universal crown control (UC) mills, are designed for rolling thinner, wider,
and harder strips. The UC2, UC3, and UC4 mills (Figs. 31.13h and
31.13i) are modifications of the HCM mill that are equipped with small
diameter work rolls. The work rolls are offset with respect to the
intermediate rolls and supported by a set of side rolls. These mills are
also provided with an intermediate roll shifting system along with work roll
and intermediate roll bending systems.
31.8 Strip Profile Control Methods in HCW and K-WRS Mills

The strip profile control methods that are utilized by HCW mills can be
classified as follows [52]:
Strip crown control (HC) method - The strip crown control method
involves adjusting the axial contact length between conventionally
crowned work rolls and backup rolls by axial work roll shifting.
One-sided tapered roll position control method - According to this

method, strip profile control is achieved by axial shifting of work rolls that
have a one-sided tapered crown. The following two modifications of this
method have been developed [56]:
Taper adjusting (TA) method. The work rolls are shifted according
to the strip width to minimize strip crown and edge drop.
Taper oscillating (TO) method. The work rolls are oscillated in a
short stroke to reduce the strip crown and to prevent local
abnormal roll wear at the edge portion of the strip.
Cyclic shifting (CS) method - The main purpose of the cyclic shifting
method is to prevent high spots and coil build-up as well as attaining
schedule-free rolling by maintaining a uniform wear contour and thermal
profile of the work rolls. This purpose can be achieved by bi-directional
axial shifting of the work rolls.
Detailed descriptions of these methods are provided in the following

sections.
31.9 Strip Crown Control (HC) Method

In the strip crown control (HC) method, a decrease in strip crown and an
increase in the crown control range is achieved by eliminating the zones
of undesirable contact between the work roll and backup roll as shown in
Fig. 31.12b [52].
Figure 31.14 illustrates the simulation results of the strip crown control
capability of a single stand HCW mill. The distance between the roll and
strip edges is depicted as C. As the distance
Page 757
C becomes smaller, the strip crown decreases and the crown control
range of the roll bending system increases. The roll bending effect almost
doubles after shifting the edges of the work rolls very close to the strip
edges.
Fig. 31.14 Strip crown control capability of HWC mill. Adapted from
Nakanishi, et al [52].
When the strip crown becomes less dependent on the variation of roll
force, this condition can be defined as strip profile stability. In a
conventional 4-high mill, as the roll force increases, it becomes
necessary to increase the positive roll bending force to achieve the same
strip crown. However, in the HCW mill, the roll bending force that is
required to correct the same variation in roll force is substantially smaller.
Fig. 31.15 Effect of intermediate roll shift stroke C in stands F5 - F7 on
hot rolled strip crown. Adapted from Miake, et al [57].
The application of the HC method to the HCM mill produces results that
are similar to those found when this method was applied to the HCW mill.
Figure 31.15 shows the relationship between the strip crown and
intermediate roll shift stroke in a hot strip mill with the F5, F6, and
Page 758
F7 mill stands being HCM mill stands [57]. It can be seen that when the
intermediate roll shift stroke and roll bending forces are changed
simultaneously on stands F5 to F7, the strip profile can be changed over
a wide range from a conventional convex profile to nearly a flat profile.
It is apparent from Fig 31.15 that the intermediate roll shift produces
approximately 0.1 µm change in strip crown for each 1 mm change in roll
shift stroke. As the intermediate roll shift stroke increases, the effect of
roll bending becomes more evident. In the case of the strip size given in
Fig. 31.15, a strip crown control capability of about 90 µm was attained
through the combined application of intermediate roll shifting and
increased roll bending. It has been further confirmed that as the strip
width becomes wider, the strip crown control capability of the HC mill
becomes greater.
31.10 Taper Adjusting (TA) and Taper Oscillating Methods

The taper adjusting (TA) method was developed for application in HCW
and K-WRS mills to improve the strip profile through reduced strip crown
and edge drop by positioning the tapered portions of the work rolls inside
the strip edge.
Fig. 31.16 Strip crown controllability with tapered work rolls installed at
F6 mill stand. Adapted from Nakanishi, et al [52].
The optimum position for the beginning of the tapered portions of the
work rolls across the strip width is determined as a function of the strip
thickness and width. A simulation of the application of the TA method for
reducing the strip profile is shown in Fig. 31.16 [52]. The distance from
the strip edge to the roll cross-section where the taper zone begins is
depicted as E and is called effective taper length. As the effective taper
length value becomes greater, i.e. the farther inside from the strip edge
the roll taper begins, the strip crown becomes smaller.
The taper oscillating (TO) method was developed by Kawasaki Steel,

Japan [56] in application to the K-WRS mill. According to this method,
one-sided tapered work rolls are oscillated in a short stroke to reduce the
strip crown and prevent local abnormal roll wear at the edge portion of
the strip.
Figure 31.17 illustrates the change in strip crown in one rolling campaign
for silicon steel that was rolled by the taper oscillating method on a 2032
mm hot strip mill [56]. The oscillating
Page 759
stroke was selected to be very short to avoid a change in strip crown due
to the variation in effective taper length E. In spite of the roll wear, the
effect of the tapered rolls on strip profile was maintained throughout one
rolling campaign with a resulting strip crown variation of approximately
±20 µm.
31.11 Cyclic Shifting (CS) Method

The cyclic shifting (CS) method was found to be the most beneficial when
applied to HCW stands that were installed in hot strip mills. The main
purpose of the CS method is to provide schedule-free rolling along with
stabilizing the strip crown [52,54,57].
Fig. 31.17 Strip crown obtained by using taper oscillating (TO) method in
hot strip mill. Adapted from Kitahama, et al [56].
Fig. 31.18 Two types of rolling schedules: a) fixed ‘‘coffin-type’ schedule
with conventional 4-high mill and b) schedule-free rolling with HC mill.
Adapted from [58].
Page 760
Schedule-free rolling - To reduce local roll wear near the strip edges in a
conventional hot strip mill, the rolling sequence after roll changing must
be limited to the same or similar type of steel that is rolled in a certain
pattern with respect to the strip width. This sequence usually starts with
rolling narrow width coils and then the coil width is rapidly increased until
the maximum value is reached. All subsequent coils are then rolled with a
gradual decrease of the strip width. This type of rolling campaign uses a
fixed “coffin-type” schedule as illustrated in Fig. 31.18a [58].
Fig. 31.19 Effect of roll shifting on wear and thermal crown. Adapted
from Nakanishi, et al [52].
Fig. 31.20 Comparison of the work roll thermal crown obtained with
cyclic shifting (CS) and conventional rolling method for F4 stand of 56 in.
hot strip mill. Adapted from Kitahama, et al [56].
The fixed “coffin-type” schedule is designed to avoid the creation of high

spots on the strip profile which occur when wider strips are rolled after
rolling several narrow width coils. The formation of high spots is caused
by a stepped roll wear profile due to excessive roll wear at the strip edges
(Fig. 31.19a) [52]. By applying axial side shifting of the work rolls, the roll
wear becomes more evenly distributed as shown in Fig. 31.19b. This
permits rolling various strip
Page 761
widths in practically any desirable sequence and thus achieving

schedule-free rolling (Fig. 31.18b).
Stabilization of strip crown - The main reason for the variation of strip
crown between work roll changes is the variation of the work roll profile
due to roll wear and thermal crown. The redistribution in roll wear with the
use of the CS method was previously discussed. Another feature of the
CS method is the reduction and redistribution of roll thermal crown [56].
The thermal crown of a work roll that was obtained after one rolling
campaign by the CS method in a 56 in. hot strip mill is shown in Fig.
31.20 and compared with the thermal crown that was generated after a
similar rolling campaign without roll shifting. With conventional rolling
without roll shifting, the thermal crown becomes as large as 285 µm. With
cyclic roll shifting, the heat transferred from the strip to the work roll is
dispersed, causing the thermal crown in the strip path to decrease
approximately one-half of that experienced in conventional rolling without
roll shifting.
Fig. 31.21 Strip crowns obtained with cyclic shifting (CS), taper adjusting
(TA), and conventional rolling methods for 56 in. hot strip mill. Adated
from Kitahama, et al [56].
Figure 31.21 shows the change in strip crown in one rolling campaign by
three different methods including cyclic shifting, taper adjusting, and
conventional methods. With the conventional method, the strip crown
changes from 100 to 40 µm after rolling 100 coils due to the growth of
thermal crown. In the case of cyclic shifting, the average strip crown is
approximately 40 µm and the deviation is reduced to ±20 µm by
decreasing the thermal crown. With the taper adjusting method, the
average strip crown can be reduced to 20 µm by using tapered work rolls
with a deviation of ±20 μm.
31.12 Optimization of CS Method in Hot Strip Mills

Optimization of the CS method can be achieved by selecting the
appropriate side shifting pattern that can be described by the following
parameters:
Shift stroke S which is the axial displacement of each work roll

from the mill centerline.
Shift amplitude SA which is the maximum value of the shift stroke
S.
Page 762
Number of coils n rolled at the same shift stroke S.

Shift pitch ΔS which is the increment in shift stroke S after rolling n
coils.
Figure 31.22 shows the results of a CS method optimization study that

was conducted by Hitachi, Japan in application to an HCW mill [52]. The
study was made based on the assumption that the shift amplitude SA =
100 mm and the strip width w = 1000 mm. The local roll wear that would
occur after rolling 140 coils was simulated for three different patterns of
roll shifting. The local roll wear per diameter ΔW was calculated as the
difference between the roll wear amount at the strip edge and the roll
wear amount at the strip center.
Fig. 31.22 Patterns of cyclic shifting (CS) method and respective local
roll wear. Adapted from Nakanishi, et al [52].
The roll wear amount per radius at the strip center Cm can be calculated
where
wear coefficient
A =
roll force
P =
w strip width
=
total length of rolled strip

L =
ld roll bite contact length

=
roll radius.
R =
The roll wear amount per radius at the strip edge Ce can be calculated as
a linear function of
Page 763
Cm from the following formula:

where
k =1.3 wear coefficient.

=
As shown in Fig. 31.22, when roll shifting was not used, the local roll
wear amount linearly increases with the number of rolled coils and
reaches a selected allowable limit of 10 µm after rolling 10 coils. In the
roll shifting pattern A, the roll shift parameters were ΔS = 20 mm and n =
1, i.e. the rolls were shifted 20 mm after rolling one coil. In this case, the
allowable roll wear limit was reached after rolling 50 coils.
A further decrease in local roll wear was achieved by using the roll
shifting pattern B which features a greater number of coils n being rolled
between each roll shifting having lower values of the shift pitch ΔS. In this
case, as many as 140 coils can be rolled within the allowable local roll
wear limit of 10 µm.
31.13 Wear Compensating Shift (WCS) Method

The wear compensating shift (WCS) method was developed by Nippon
Steel, Japan [59] and designed to provide the compatibility of schedule-
free rolling with strip crown control in HCW mills.
Fig. 31.23 Concept of roll wear by using: a) conventional rolling method,

b) rolling with two trapezoid rolls, and c) wear compensation shift (WCS)
method. Adapted from Hongo, et al [59].
To provide optimum strip crown control, the work rolls are usually shifted
to position their end portions at the optimum distance from the strip edge.
This roll position, however, may not necessarily be optimum with respect
to roll wear.
When initially flat rolls are cyclically shifted to minimize local roll wear, the
part of the work roll in contact with the strip edge is worn less than the
middle of the roll. As a result, the work roll wear profile becomes
trapezoidal in shape as shown in Fig. 31.23a. This pattern will be more
explicit when the products of the same or nearly the same width are
rolled. The main inadequacy of this trapezoidal shape roll wear profile is
that it produces a large strip crown.
One possible solution to this problem is the use of a work roll that is
profiled like an isosceles
Page 764
trapezoid (Fig. 31.23b) to compensate for the subsequent trapezoid wear

of the work roll. This method, however, is restricted to rolling a limited
number of coils of approximately the same width.
These restrictions can be eliminated by using work rolls with a non-

isosceles trapezoid profile (Fig. 31.23c) and by applying the following roll
shift S:
where
Se roll shift required to make initial start point for roll wear pattern that
=coincides with strip edge
So
=
oscillating roll shift
Sw wear compensation roll shift.

=
The wear compensation roll shift Sw is defined by the following formula:

where
Ct
=
total roll wear
γ angle of tapered side on non-isosceles trapezoid.

=
This roll shift pattern, which is known as the wear compensating shift
(WCS) method, moves the roll wear taper start point outward, while
maintaining the roll wear profile flat at the center. As a result, the
following two principal goals can be achieved:
Reduction in strip crown

Elimination of high spots in strip profile.
31.14 Edge Drop Reduction in HCM Mills

As was mentioned earlier, the edge drop of a rolled strip is caused by
deflection and flattening of the work rolls. In the HCM mill, edge drop is
reduced by axially shifting the intermediate rolls which reduces both the
deflection and flattening of the work rolls.
The edge drop can be evaluated by the edge drop ratio α that is equal to
[60]:
where
Page 765
ha strip thickness at distance a from strip edge

=
hb strip thickness at distance b from strip edge.

=
In a study of an HCM cold mill that was conducted by Nippon Steel,

Japan with the values for a = 15 mm and b = 80 mm. The results of this
study are shown in Fig. 31.24 and reveal that an edge drop reducing
effect is observed when the roll shifting displacement C is negative.
Fig. 31.24 Relationship between intermediate roll shift stroke C and edge
drop ratio α. Adapted from Asamura [60].
31.15 Edge Drop Reduction in HCW Mills

One of the principal purposes of bi-directional axial shifting in cold mills is
to reduce the edge drop. When no special measures are taken, the edge
drop that is formed in hot rolling may be enlarged after rolling in cold mill.
Fig. 31.25 Formation of edge drop due to transverse material flow.
The edge drop in cold mills is a result of transverse material flow near the
strip edge. As follows from a study that was conducted by NKK, Japan
[61], the area of transverse material flow depends on the number of
reduction passes as well as the total reduction rate.
Figure 31.25 illustrates the formation of edge drop that is caused by

transverse material flow. The equidistant sections 1 through 6 that are
located near the strip edge (Fig. 31.25a), correspond to the non-
deformed strip. These sections (indicated as 1′ through 6′ in Fig. 31.25b)
will move
Page 766
toward the strip edge after the strip is rolled. A greater displacement will
occur for these sections that move closer to the strip edge leading to
thinning of the strip edge.
Another principal cause of the edge drop is a change of the magnitude of

the work roll flattening near the strip edge as shown in Fig. 31.26. This
phenomenon is due to the fact that there is a transitional zone A near the
strip edge where the contact stresses between the rolled strip and the
work rolls abruptly reduce to zero at the border line with the no-load zone
B. Consequently, the roll flattening reduces in the zone A producing the
edge drop
Fig. 31.26 Edge drop caused by a change in roll flattening near the strip
edge.
Fig. 31.27 Roll profile printed ratio. Adapted from Jimba, et al [61].
To remedy this problem, the ends of the work rolls that have special
tapered profiles are shifted to be located near each strip edge. The shape
of the roll end profile is selected to produce the desired recovery of strip
thinning due to edge drop. The efficiency of this recovery can be
described by the roll profile printed ratio δ(x) that can be given by:
Page 767
where
dh change in strip thickness along strip width at distance x from strip edge
=
ds change in roll gap along strip width at distance x from strip edge.
=
The change in the roll gap ds fined by the geometry of the tapered
portion of the roll end. When there is no strip profile recovery, the roll
profile printed ratio δ(x) = 0. Conversely, a full strip profile recovery
occurs when the roll profile printed ratio δ(x) = 1.
According to the data obtained from a laboratory cold mill [61], the roll
profile printed ratios are greater at the initial rolling passes (Fig. 31.27).
Therefore, it is easier to correct the edge drop problem at the upstream
stands in the case of cold reduction in a tandem cold mill. Consequently,
a long-stroke work roll shifting system was introduced by NKK in the first
three stands to correct for the excessive edge drop.
Fig. 31.28 Strip flatness capability of HC mill. Adapted from Furuya, et al

[51].
31.16 Strip Flatness Control Capability of HC Mills

The strip flatness control capability of a rolling mill can be defined as the
ratio of variation in strip flatness to a corresponding change of the mill
parameter that affects strip flatness. When the roll bending force is the
mill parameter affecting strip flatness, the flatness control capability f can
be presented by the simple formula:
where
Δλ variation in strip flatness (wave steepness) corresponding to the variation in

=roll bending force ΔF.
Page 768
Figure 31.28 shows the relationship between the wave steepness change
of the strip Δλ and the roll bending force change ΔF for an HC mill and a
conventional 4-high mill [51]. These relationships are expressed with
straight lines in which the slopes are equal to the flatness control
capability f. As follows from Fig. 31.28, the flatness control capability of
the HC mill is substantially greater than that of a conventional 4-high mill.
In the HC mill, the flatness control capability is greatly affected by the

positioning of the shifting rolls with respect to the strip edge. If the roll
edge is closer to the mill centerline than the strip edge (C < 0), then the
flatness control capability increases. Conversely, if the roll edge is farther
from the mill centerline than the strip edge (C > 0), then the flatness
control capability decreases.
Fig. 31.29 Calculated relationship between rolling force and optimum

bending force. Adapted from Furuya, et al [51].
Figure 31.29 shows the relationship between the rolling force and the
required optimum roll bending force to produce flat strip in an HC mill
[51]. This relationship is derived from test data that was obtained from a
laboratory HC mill. With the HC mill, it can be seen that the slope of the
straight lines differs in accordance with the intermediate roll position C.
When C = - 24 mm, the inclination becomes negative, meaning that the
roll bending force must be reduced as the rolling load increases, unlike
the case with a 4-high mill. Further, when C = - 20 mm, the roll bending
force does not change even though the rolling load changes. When this
condition exists, the strip flatness does not change with a change in the
width of the rolled strip and the mill has what is known as infinite width
rigidity.
31.17 Axially Shifted Noncylindrical Rolls

Roll shifting systems that utilize axially shifted noncylindrical rolls can be
classified as follows [44-46]:
Bi-directional backup roll shifting (Fig. 31.30a) [62].

Bi-directional intermediate roll shifting (Fig.31.30b) [62].
Bi-directional work roll shifting (Fig. 31.30c) [62].
Page 769
Unidirectional work roll shifting (Fig. 31.30d) [63].
Fig. 31.30 Axially shifted noncylindrical rolls. From Ginzburg [2].

Fig. 31.31 Contours of axially shifted noncylindrical work rolls. From Guo
[64]. Reproduced through the courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
Various contours of axially shifted noncylindrical rolls can be

implemented in rolling mills. Theoretically, all contours can be generated
by either polynomial or periodic functions [64] as illustrated in Fig. 31.31:
Linear function: Y = 0.02x
Quadratic function: Y = 0.002x2
Cubic function: Y = 0.0001x3
Quartic function: Y = 0.000002x4
CVC roll contour: Y = 0.0001634x3 - 0.3021x

Page 770
UPC roll Y = -0.00002374x3 + 0.00259x2 +0.05640x

contour:
K-WRS roll Y = 0.00000081x4 - 0.000034x3 - 0.000295x2

contour: + 0.015x
where
x distance from mill center.
=
31.18 Continuously Variable Crown (CVC) Technology

Continuously variable crown (CVC) technology, which was developed by
SMS Schloemann-Siemag, Germany [62, 65-67], provides for the
adjustment of the roll gap profile by bi-directional shifting of the backup
rolls, intermediate rolls, or work rolls.
Figure 31.32 illustrates the principle of CVC technology with shifting work
rolls [65]. The work rolls are mounted in their chocks and shifted in
opposite directions either with the chocks remaining stationary or
together with the chocks.
Fig. 31.32 Continuously variable crown (CVC) and conventional roll gap
contours. Adapted from Bald, et al [65].
Both the top and bottom CVC rolls have an S-shape over their full barrel
length. However, the S-shape waveforms in each of the rolls are offset
from each other by 180 degrees. This arrangement provides a
symmetrical roll gap contour with respect to the vertical line that passes
through the middle of the roll gap. Figure 31.32a illustrates the case
when the work rolls are not shifted and the roll gap height is the same
over the full roll barrel length. Although the roll gap is slightly S-shaped, it
produces no detectable effect on strip flatness because of the high width-
to-thickness ratio of flat rolled products. Thus, when CVC rolls are not
shifted, the effect on strip profile would be the same as when flat work
rolls are used (Fig. 31.32b).
By shifting the top work roll to the right and the bottom work roll by the
same amount to the left (Fig. 31.32c), the distance between the two roll
contours at the center of the rolling stock becomes smaller as compared
with the roll gap distances at the roll edges. This type of shifting would
produce the same effect on the strip profile as when work rolls having a
convex crown are
Page 771
used (Fig. 31.32d).
Fig. 31.33 Adjustment range of CVC system with work roll bending.
Adapted from Wilms, et al [67].
If the top work roll is shifted to the left and the bottom work roll by the
same amount to the right (Fig. 31.32e), the distance between the two roll
contours at the center of the rolling stock becomes greater as compared
with the roll gap distances at the roll edges. This type of shifting would
produce the same effect on the strip profile as when work rolls having a
concave crown are used (Fig. 31.32f).
The S-shape of the work rolls that are offset from each other by 180
degrees would naturally produce a difference in roll diameters over the
barrel length which is normally between 0.3 and 0.8 mm. This results in a
difference in the peripheral roll speed of 0.05 to 0.4% with the low values
corresponding to the smaller roll diameter [66]. This difference in speed,
however, is small when compared with the difference in speed between
the work roll and strip, which can be 5 to 40% in the forward slip zone
depending on the pass reduction.
Typically, the axial shifting of the CVC work rolls by ±100 mm produces
the effect that would be produced by changing conventionally ground roll
crowns from 100 to 500 µm as shown in Fig. 31.33 [65, 67].
To accomplish this function, the necessary difference in the radius of the

S-shape rolls amounts to only 273 µm which produces a maximum
difference of 0.076% between the peripheral speeds of the top and
bottom rolls. The following observations were made regarding the CVC
system that was installed on the F4 stand of a 7-stand hot strip mill:
The absolute values of wear of CVC work rolls were found to be

about the same as conventionally ground rolls. The same is true
with respect to the backup rolls. However, with CVC rolls, the wear
of the backup rolls becomes asymmetrical, with maximum roll
wear located near the undulations of the CVC work rolls.
The contact loads between the backup and work rolls for the
various roll separating forces and strip widths are shown in Fig.
31.34. Compared to a mill with conventionally crowned
Page 772
When CVC rolls are in the middle position, the maximum axial
forces that act on the rolls are equal to those produced with
conventional crowns, but these forces increase when the rolls are
shifted under load.
Fig. 31.34 Contact pressure with CVC rolls. From Bald, et al [65].
Alternative designs of the roll shifting systems with noncylindrical rolls are
described in [68-77, 91]. The following two technologies are considered
below:
Continuous Variable Crown (CVC) technology

Inverse-Symmetrical Variable Crown (IVC) technology.
31.19 Design of CVC Technology
The profile of the CVC rolls is described by a polynomial of the type up to
the fifth order (Fig. 31.35a):
where
Page 773
a1, a2, … am
=
polynomial constants
x
=
distance from the roll center
c half of the barrel length.

=
The above equation describes a coke-bottle profile with a bulge at one

side of the roll and a valley at the other side. The shifting of the CVC rolls
having the fifth-order polynomial profile will create the equivalent work roll
profile ye that is described by the polynomial that contains only the
components of the second and the fourth orders:
where
b2 and b4 polynomial constants that are the functions of the roll shifting stroke.
=
Fig. 31.35 Contours of: a) CVC roll and b) IVC rolls. From Ginzburg, et
al. [91]. Reproduced through the courtesy of Iron and Steel Engineer.
31.20 Design of IVC Technology

The profile of the IVC rolls is described by two polynomial of the type up
to the fifth order, each one relating to one half of the roll barrel (Fig.
31.35b):
where
a1, a2, … a5
=
polynomial constants
x
=
distance from the roll center
c half of the barrel length.

=
The above equations describe a smooth profile with roll diameter

decreasing at one side of
Page 774
the roll and increasing at the other side. The shifting of the IVC rolls
having the fifth-order polynomial profile will create the equivalent work roll
profile ye that is described by the polynomial that contains all the
components from the second to the fourth orders:
where
b2 and b4 polynomial constants that are the functions of the roll shifting stroke.
=
Fig. 31.36 Equivalent work roll crown as a function of shifting stroke of

the IVC rolls. From Ginzburg, et al. [91]. Reproduced through the
Thus, the IVC technology is capable to produce a more sophisticated

equivalent roll profile that results in better strip crown and flatness control
range. Additionally, because the IVC roll profile does not contain neither
bulges nor valleys, it is expected that a problem with asymmetrical
backup roll wear well be alleviated.
The equivalent roll crown produced by shifting of the IVC rolls is

practically linearly proportional to the roll shifting stroke as shown in Fig.
31.36.
31.21 Axially Shifted Sleeved Rolls

The roll shifting systems that use axially shifted sleeved rolls can be
Backup roll arbor shifting (Fig. 31.37a) [78]

Backup roll sleeve shifting (Fig. 31.37b) [78]
Backup roll inner sleeve shifting (Fig. 31.37c) [79]
Backup roll tapered sleeve shifting (Fig. 31.37d) [80].
Although these types of systems are conceptually interesting, various
practical difficulties would have to be overcome in their implementation in
high production rolling mills.
Page 775
Fig. 31.37 Axially shifted sleeved rolls. From Ginzburg [2]. Reproduced
31.22 Roll Crossing Systems

The main purpose of roll crossing systems is to modify the roll gap profile
causing the roll gap to increase with an increase in distance from the roll
center. This action performs the crown control function in the same
manner as convex crowning of the work rolls.
Fig. 31.38 Roll crossing systems. Adapted from Ginzburg, et al. [91].
The known systems of crossing the roll axes [81-83] can be classified as
follows (Fig. 31.38):
Work roll (WR) cross system in which only the work rolls are
crossed [84, 85]
Backup roll (BU) cross system in which only the backup rolls are
crossed [84]
Page 776
Pair crossed (PC) system in which during crossing the work roll
axis and backup roll axis of each top and bottom roll unit are kept
parallel [86]
Dual cross (DC) system in which the work roll and backup roll of
each top and bottom roll unit are crossed in opposite directions
Intermediate roll (IR) cross for 5-hi mill stand [87]
Intermediate roll (IR) cross for 6-hi mill stand [87].
Effectiveness of the roll crossing systems can be evaluated by the

equivalent work roll crown Ceq that is the amount of the work roll crown
that produces the same effect as the roll crossing. The equivalent roll
crown Ceq is a function of the cross angle θ, roll barrel length L, work roll
diameter Dw, backup roll diameter Db, and intermediate roll diameter Di
as shown in Table 31.1.
Fig. 31.39 shows the relationship between the equivalent roll crown and
cross angle for various roll crossing systems that correspond to
equations listed in Table 31.1. The work roll cross system is the most
efficient while the backup roll cross system is the least efficient. Pair
cross system is nearly efficient as the work roll cross system, followed by
the 6-high and 5-high intermediate roll crossing systems. Par cross (PC)
system was successfully implemented in both hot and cold strip mills [81-
83, 90].
Table 31.1 Equations for equivalent work roll crowns related to various roll
crossing systems. From Ginzburg, et al. [91].
According to Mitsubushi, Japan, changing the cross angle has no
appreciable effect on the roll force, rolling torque, strip forward slip, or
work roll wear.
Page 777
Fig. 31.39 Equivalent work roll crowns corresponding to various roll

crossing systems. Ginzburg, et al. [91]. Reproduced through the courtesy
of Iron and Steel Engineer.
31.23 Features of Roll Crossing Systems

Several features are characteristic for roll crossing systems as described
below.
Fig. 31.40 Relationship between the thrust factor and reduction ratio.
From Tsukamoto and Matsumoto [81]. Reproduced through the courtesy
of Iron and Steel Engineer.
Roll axial thrust - Roll axial thrust force is created as a result of the
relative slip in the width direction between a crossed work roll and the
strip. From tests conducted by Mitsubishi along with theoretical
consideration, the following simplified equation for the roll axial thrust
force Ft can be derived [82]:
Page 778
where
µt equivalent coefficient of friction or thrust factor

=
µ true coefficient of friction

=
roll force
P=
r reduction ratio.
=
As shown in Fig. 31.40, the thrust factor exponentially decreases with an

increase in the reduction ratio and becomes greater when the cross
angle increases.
Strip walking characteristics - Strip walking is defined as the tendency of

the strip to shift with respect to the mill centerline. Strip walking can be
evaluated by the walking index E that is given by the following equation:
where
δh strip profile wedge or difference between drive side strip thickness and
=operator side strip thickness
δs strip displacement from mill centerline.

=
Figure 31.41 illustrates that the walking index increases with an increase
in the cross angle.
Fig. 31.41 Relationship between walking index and cross angle. Adapted
from Tsukamoto and Matsumoto [81] and Nakajima, et al [82].
Strip width edge characteristics - In the PC mill, because of the shearing

force in the width direction, the strip width edge surfaces are deformed to
a rhombic shape in the direction of the shearing force. This problem can
be reduced by crossing the rolls in the reverse direction between passes
so that the direction of shearing strain is reversed for each successive
pass.
Page 779
32.24 Uni-Cross Technology

The Uni-Cross Technology is a general term for a roll crossing system
that can be applied to any set or a combination of rolls in a rolling mill
stand. The Uni-Cross mill family includes 2-high, 4-high, 5-high and 6-
high mill stands.
The control philosophy of the Uni-Cross system is based on the fact that
crossing of work rolls, intermediate rolls or backup rolls produces
different effect on the strip profile. At the same time, the adverse effects
on the strip quality are also different, depending what rolls are crossed.
The crossing system which involves crossing the work rolls produces the
largest adverse effect to the quality of the strip.
Fig. 31.42 Block diagram of strip profile and flatness control system
utilizing Uni-Cross technology. From Ginzburg, et al. [91]. Reproduced
In the control system (Fig. 31.42), the strip profile and flatness controller
examines the information produced by both entry and exit sensors
measuring the strip flatness and profile. It then compares the actual and
target exit strip profile parameters and makes a decision which crossing
system shall be employed to achieve the required corrections with
minimum adverse effects to the strip quality.
31.25 Combined Pair Cross and Work Roll Shifting (PCS) Mill
The combined pair cross and work roll shifting (PCS) mill was installed at
the NKK Keihin hot strip mill, Japan in 1989 [88]. The pair cross mill
provides crown control while work roll
Page 780
shifting produces a more uniform roll wear along the roll face.
Fig. 31.43 Combined pair cross and work roll shifting (PCS) mill. From
Miyai, et al [88]. Reproduced through the courtesy of AISE.
The PCS mechanisms were installed on the last four stands (F4 to F7) of
the Keihin 7-stand finishing train. A schematic drawing of the combined
pair cross and work roll shifting mechanism is shown in Fig. 31.43. Roll
crossing is activated by vertical hydraulic motors while bi-directional work
roll shifting is provided by horizontal hydraulic cylinders.
31.26 Combined Roll Deformation and Displacement (CRDD)

System
United Engineering and International Rolling Mill Consultants have
proposed a combined roll deformation and displacement (CRDD) system
[89] to perform the following functions (Fig. 31.44):
Work roll balance (Fig. 31.44a)

Vertical plane (VP) positive work roll bending (Fig. 31.44b)
Vertical plane (VP) negative work roll bending (Fig. 31.44c)
Horizontal plane (HP) work roll bending in downstream direction
(Fig. 31.44d)
Horizontal plane (HP) work roll bending in upstream direction (Fig.
31.44e)
Work roll offsetting (Fig. 31.44f)
Work roll crossing (Fig. 31.44g).
Page 781
Fig. 31.44 Modes of operation of combined roll deformation and

displacement (CRDD) system proposed by United Engineering and
International Rolling Mill Consultants. Adapted from Ginzburg [89].
31.27 Continuous Spiral Motion System (COSMOS)

Continuous spiral motion system (COSMOS) was proposed by Danieli
United and International Rolling Mill Consultants [91-93]. The purpose of
the system is multi-fold:
enhance efficiency of rolling process

reduce roll wear
provide more even distribution of roll thermal expansion
increase efficiency of work roll bending system
substantially increase tonnage rolled between work roll changes.
This purpose was achieved by implementing the following features.
Work roll motion: spiral versus circular - In conventional rolling mills, the
work rolls are engaged in circular motion in respect to the rolled strip. In
COSMOS, the work rolls are involved in two kinds of motion, the circular
motion and transverse motion along their axes, so each point of the roll
moves along a spiral path as shown in Fig. 31.45.
Roll stock deformation: 3-dimensional versus 2-dimensional - In

conventional rolling process, the deformation in the roll bite is basically
two-dimensional, one of them is the elongation of the rolled product along
the x-axis and the other one is the compression of the rolled product
along the y-axis as shown in Fig. 31.46. Deformation along the roll axis,
however,
Page 782
is prevented due to the frictional forces acting between the work roll and
the rolled product. In COSMOS, the spiral motion of the work rolls
produces shear stresses that act along the roll axes, providing more
efficient three-dimensional deformation of the rolled product.
Fig. 31.45 Work roll motions: a) spiral and b) circular. From Ginzburg, et
al. [91]. Reproduced through the courtesy of AISE.
Work roll shifting stroke: full versus partial - In conventional rolling mills,
the work roll shifting stroke is usually much shorter the maximum strip
width rolled in the mill. This permits to redistribute roll wear mainly only
near the strip edges and to make limited redistribution of the roll thermal
expansion. In COSMOS, the work roll shifting stroke is greater than the
maximum strip width (Fig. 31.47), providing more efficient redistribution of
both the roll wear and roll thermal expansion.
Fig. 31.46 Rolled stock deformation: a) 3-dimensional (for spiral motion
rolling process) and b) 2-dimensional (for circular motion rolling process)
versus. From Ginzburg, et al. [91]. Reproduced through the courtesy of
AISE Steel Technology.
The expanded roll shifting stroke increases the lever arm for roll bending
force, the efficiency of the roll bending system is increased.
Page 783
Inline roll grinding and heat treating facilities - In conventional rolling

process, the tonnage rolled between work roll changes is limited due to
roll wear, roll marks and deterioration of the roll surface due to fire cracks
and banding. The conventional inline roll grinders are installed in a close
vicinity with the strip deformation and roll cooling zones.
Fig. 31.47 Work roll shifting stroke in COSMOS. From Ginzburg, et al.
[91]. Reproduced through the courtesy of AISE.
Fig. 31.48 General arrangement of the COSMOS mill. From Ginzburg, et

al. [91]. Reproduced through the courtesy of AISE.
Therefore, they operate in hostile environment that impairs both the
accuracy of roll grinding and maintenance of the roll grinding equipment.
In COSMOS (Fig. 31.48), the roll grinding
Page 784
equipment is installed outside of the strip deformation and roll cooling

zones, providing much better conditions for accurate roll grinding and
maintenance. In addition, the roll rehardening equipment can be installed
next to the roll grinders, further enhancing the roll performance
characteristics.
Adjustable Roll Thermal Profile Systems

Adjustable roll thermal profile systems produce a change of the roll gap
profile by either cooling or heating the work rolls during rolling [1]. Figure
31.49a shows schematically a roll cooling header having a number of
spray zones in which the flow rate can be controlled individually [94].
Figure 31.49b shows a roll heating device that is made of an induction-
heating coil surrounding the roll [95].
Fig. 31.49 Roll thermal profile control by: a) cooling and b) heating.
Adapted from Ginzburg [96].
Figure 31.50 illustrates the design of the Roll Thermal Crown (RTC)
control system that has been developed by United Engineering and
International Rolling Mill Consultants [96]. The principle of operation of
the RTC system is based on the fact that roll cooling efficiency is
dependent on the spray angle β.
As in conventional roll cooling systems, the RTC system incorporates

cooling headers that span across the full width of both top and bottom
work rolls. However, in the RTC headers, the nozzles are not placed
along a straight line parallel to the cooling header axis, but rather are
spaced along a curved arc whose apex is across the middle of the roll
face. In addition, the angular position of the RTC headers can be
adjusted by rotational motion about their axes.
When the RTC header is set at a certain angular position, the spray
angle β at the center of the roll is at one given value, while the spray
angles of the nozzles that are spaced away from the center are
progressively offset at increasing or decreasing angles. As a result, a
nonuniform cooling rate is produced along the work roll body. Figure
31.51 shows the cooling efficiency along the work body as a function of
the spray angle β.
Page 785
Fig. 31.50 Roll Thermal Crown (RTC) control system developed by

Danieli United and International Rolling Mill Consultants [96].
Fig. 31.51 Roll cooling efficiency along the work roll body obtained with
Roll Thermal Crown (RTC) control system.
30.7 On-Line Roll Grinding
Another technology that has been developed for maintaining the contour
of either conventional or nonconventional rolls is on-line roll grinding. The
principal purpose of on-line roll grinding is to smooth the wear of the work
rolls during rolling operations, thus maintaining the appropriate roll
contour at all times. When applied to hot strip mills, the on-line roll
grinding system can
Page 786
provide unrestricted rolling schedules with respect to various materials

and widths (schedule-free rolling).
The principle of operation of the on-line roll grinder (ORG) that was
developed by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Japan [97] is illustrated in Fig.
31.52. Each grinding wheel, which has a cup shape and supported by
bearings, is installed with an offset e with respect to the work roll axis to
provide rotation. The axis of rotation is inclined against the line normal to
the work roll surface by the small angle α.
When the grinding wheels are pressed against the work roll surface, the
roll and the wheels make a line contact which causes the roll velocity Vr
to produce the following components: grinding wheel velocity Vg and
wheel slip velocity Vs. The component Vg defines the peripheral
rotational velocity of the wheel while the component Vs defines the slip
between the wheel and the work roll which allows the grinding operation.
This arrangement provides for the optimum utilization of the grinding
material and reduces the probability of welding or dulling the wheel
surface.
Fig. 31.52 Principle of operation of on-line roll grinder (ORG) developed
by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. Adapted from Hayashi, et al [97].
Table 31.2 Specification of the

on-line roll grinder (ORG)
developed by Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries. Data from Hayashi,
et al [97].
Item Description
Work roll diameter

600 mm
Main drive motor

300 kW
dc
Number of grinder 6
heads
Grinding force 0-2500 N
Maximum
oscillating length 300 mm
Maximum 200 mm/s

oscillating speed
Page 787
The main parameters of the full-scale ORG test machine are shown in
Table 31.2. The grinding capability Cg was estimated as the depth of
grinding per each single rotation of the work roll and can be calculated
where
ΔR total depth of grinding of work roll, µm

=
Lo oscillating length, mm
=
Lc contact length of grinding wheel, mm

=
tg grinding time, s
=
roll rotating speed, s-1.

N=
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Page 791
Chapter 32
STRIP PROFILE AND FLATNESS CONTROL SYSTEMS
32.1 Measurement of Strip Profile

The radiation principle has been successfully applied to the development
of strip profile gages. The profile meter that was developed by Kawasaki
Steel, Japan [1] is shown in Fig. 32.1 and consists of the following main
components:
Stationary thickness gage that measures the center thickness of

the strip
Scanning gage that measures strip thickness while moving at a
right angle to the rolling direction
Profile calculator.
Fig. 32.1 Outline of Kawasaki Steel profile meter. Adapted from Tamiya,
et al [1].
The calculator computes the strip profile as the difference between the
two measured values
Page 792
that are obtained by the fixed gage and scanning gage. The scanning
gage is driven by a dc motor with a variable speed that ranges from 1.8
to 18 m/min through a rack and pinion. In alternative designs of profile
meters, an increased scanning rate can be achieved by adding a second
scanning gage that moves in the opposite direction of the first scanning
gage.
Another way of increasing the scanning rate was developed by Nippon

Steel, Japan [2] and is shown in Fig. 32.2. This method utilizes three
gages in the following manner:
One stationary gage is utilized to measure the strip thickness in

the middle of the strip
Two other gages scan the necessary distance from each edge and
measure the strip profile.
Fig. 32.2 Profile measuring method with three X-ray gages. Adapted
from Naganuma, et al [2].
Fig. 32.3 Profile thickness gage from Isotope Measuring Systems.
Adapted from [3].
It was found that a profile measurement of approximately 30% of the strip

width is sufficient to produce an accurate evaluation of the strip profile.
With this method, the strip profile can be measured at intervals of about
two seconds by scanning a distance of 300 mm from each edge. Based
on the data that is received from the gages, the strip profile is
approximated by the 4th
Page 793
degree polynomial function using the least squares method.
The profile thickness gage that was developed by Isotope Measuring

Systems (IMS), USA [3] is shown in Fig. 32.3. In this profile meter, two
Cesium 137 radioactive sources are mounted in the top yoke of a C-
frame and irradiate a total of 54 ion chambers that are mounted in two
parallel rows across the strip width. The overlapping multi-channel
simultaneous measurement of the entire strip width ensures accurate
profile measurement regardless of the strip shape or orientation. To
measure the strip thickness at 10 mm (0.394 in.) width intervals, the C-
frame oscillates at right angles to the rolling direction, allowing each
channel to cover a total strip width of 80 mm (3.150 in.) per second.
During a two second oscillation period, the strip thickness is measured
twice per 10 mm (0.394 in.) interval across the strip. The technical
specifications of the IMS profile thickness gage are as follows:
Thickness range (steel)

0 - 200
mm
Number of measuring channels 54
Measuring area per channel 20 × 50

mm
Resulting detector signal 32 × 10-6

A
Measuring time constant

40 ms
Measurement value acquisition time

10 ms
Measurement value processing time

10 ms
Digital resolution ≤ 2 μm
Reproducible accuracy ≤ ±0.10%,

not better
than ±5 µm
Linearity ≤ ±0.05%,
not better
than ±2 µm
Statistical noise due to radioactive decay ± 5.0 to ±

for thickness range from 0 to 30 mm 15.0 µm.
(measured to 2σ, integration time 8 s)
32.2 Measuring Strip Flatness with Stressometers

Various types of shapemeters were developed in application to both hot
and cold rolling mills [4-45]. One of the most commonly used
shapemeters employs stress method of measurement. It is known as
stressometer.
The stress method of flatness measurement is applicable when uniform

external tension is applied to the strip. When all parts of the strip are
under tension, the strip waviness can be expressed as:
where
ΔL difference between the longest and shortest ribbons across the strip width
=
L wave length
=
Δ σx variation in tensile stresses across strip width.

=
Es=strip modulus of elasticity.
Page 794
Fig. 32.4 Stressometer: 1 - segmented roll, 2 - sensor, 3 - support, 4 -

strip, 5 - arbor. From Kelk, et al [5]. Reproduced through the courtesy of
Iron and Steel Engineer.
Fig. 32.5 Block diagram of measuring system for ASEA-ALCAN

stressometer. From Sivilotti, et al [7]. Reproduced through the courtesy of
Shapemeters that are based on the stress method (Fig. 32.4) incorporate
segmented rolls that contact the strip and measure the tensile stress
distribution across the strip width [5,6]. The measurement process can be
described with reference to the block diagram shown in Fig. 32.5 where
the following notations are used [7]:
Fx
=
force on measuring zone
Page 795
σx local tensile stress in strip across zone x

=
Fm mean value of all forces acting on zones covered by strip.

=
σo mean value of tensile stress

=
strip tension
T=
strip width
B=
t strip thickness
=
n number of zones.
=
Figure 32.5 shows the signal processing for one measuring zone (the
blocks within the dashed line) as well as the common part for the entire
equipment. The transducer signal from zone x is rectified and filtered in
block 1. The output signal is a dc voltage that is proportional to the force
Fx. In block 4, the mean value Fm of the forces Fx from all zones that are
covered by the strip is formed. The mean tensile stress σo is calculated
in block 6 with the aid of data for the strip. The quotient σo/Fm is formed
in block 5 and multiplied by Fx in block 2. The output signal Fxσo/Fm is
equal to the local tensile stress σx in the strip. Finally, σo is subtracted in
block 3 and the difference Δσx = σx - σo constitutes the output signal and
is displayed on a separate instrument for each measuring zone.
Table 32.1 Stressometers for application in cold

mills.
Company Country Type of sensor Reference

BMI Sweden Magnetoelastic [21]
(ASEA) load cells
Germany Piezo-electric [22]

BFI load cells
Broner Air pressure [23]

Group Ltd UK sensors
Clecim France Inductive [24]

position sensor
Fig. 32.6 Shapemeter for application in hot strip mill. From Kelk, et al [5].
Stressometers using various sensors were developed by several

companies [21-24] as shown
Page 796
in Table 32.1 and were successfully implemented in cold mills. Because

of the proximity of their sensors to the rolled strip, these devices have not
been applied to hot strip mills. From this standpoint, it is more
advantageous to use shapemeters with external sensors. This concept
was confirmed by Hoesch Stahl AG, Germany [25], who developed and
successfully implemented their design in a hot strip mill. In this
shapemeter, which is shown in Fig. 32.6, the strain gages 2 are installed
on a bar that is attached to arms 3 and 6. The upper arms 3 hold the
segmented rolls 1 which contact the strip 4. The lower arms 6 are
pivotally attached to the looper shaft 7 which is held in the support 5 so
that the unit can be used as part of the looper.
32.3 Optical Flatness Meter Utilizing Shifting Images Method

For on-line measurement of hot strip flatness, IRSID, France [34]
developed a sensor that utilizes the shifting images method. This sensor
called “Lasershape” is illustrated in Fig. 32.7. Lasers are used as the
emitters with line-scan cameras and photosensitive diode arrays as the
receivers. The laser beam axis SBA and the camera axis AA′ are fixed
with respect to the roller table. The image A′ of the laser spot A on the
strip shifts to B′ when laser spot A moves to B, due to the change in strip
level from yo to y1 above the roller table. After the distance between the
images A′ and B′ is measured, the strip surface elevation can be readily
calculated by using the well known triangulation method.
Fig. 32.7 Shifting images method used in IRSID Lasershape sensor.
Adapted from Jouet, et al [34].
A similar type of sensor is also used in the flatness measuring system

that was developed by Centre de Recherches Metallurgiques (CRM),
Belgium [35] and is known as ROMETER. The operating principle of the
ROMETER system is illustrated in Fig. 32.8 and shows the longitudinal
section of the strip, i.e., the fiber whose length along the waves L must be
calculated over selected time intervals, e.g., every 3 to 6 seconds. The
strip levels above the reference plane (runout table) yo, y1, y2 … yn are
measured periodically at the moments to, t1, t2 … tn. The fiber length L
can then be obtained from the following relationship:
Page 797
where
Vi strip speed when measuring yi

=
n number of measurements during integration time.

=
Successive yi values are measured simultaneously and corresponding L

values are computed for the chosen fibers across the strip, e.g. in the
middle Lmi, on the operator side Lop, and the motor side Lmo of the strip.
The x-image position along the array is detected by cameras. The x-
signals that are delivered by the control units of the cameras are
processed by a minicomputer that calculates the L and RO indices. The
RO and RO′ indices define flatness and level respectively as follows:
Fig. 32.8 Principle of strip flatness measurement of ROMETER system

developed by CRM. From Pirlet, et al [35]. Reproduced through the
The technical specifications of the ROMETER hot strip flatness gage are
as follows [36]:
Page 798
Lasers Helium-Neon
Receivers Photodiode line scan cameras
Measuring 144 levels/s for each

speed triangulation
Measuring
range 200 mm
Resolution 0.18 mm (typical)
Strip width Standard, ≤ 2000 mm
(5 triangulations for 1000 - 2000

mm)
(3 triangulations for < 1000 mm)
Fig. 32.9 Principle of strip flatness measurement with light section

method: a) flat strip b) center buckles, and c) edge waves. Adapted from
Matsui, et al [37].
Fig. 32.10 Principle of elongation index measurement. Adapted from
Matsui, et al [37].
Page 799
An optical flatness meter that utilizes the light section method was
developed by Sumitomo Metal Industries, Japan [37] for measuring strip
flatness at the exit of a hot strip mill. Figure 32.9 shows the principle of
operation for this system. A laser beam is directed toward the rolled strip
which produces three bright lines on the strip surface. A video camera is
set above the strip and records the bright lines. When the strip is flat (Fig.
32.9a), the bright lines are also flat and appear straight on the video
monitor screen. These lines will remain straight even when a flat strip is
floated with respect to the pass line.
When the strip has center buckles (Fig. 32.9b), the bright line images
become distorted in the middle. Edge waves will distort the end portions
of these images as shown in Fig. 32.9c. The height of the strip portion
that corresponds to the i-th bright line is equal to (Fig. 32.10):
where
ΔXi displacement of i-th bright line

=
ΔYi video monitor image displacement of i-th bright line

=
θi laser illuminating angle corresponding to i-th bright line

=
k scale factor.
=
The flatness error can be calculated by using the elongation index ε that
is given by the following equation:
where
AB, BC, distances calculated based on measuring strip displacements Hi from

AC=the laser pass line OP.
32.4 Shapemeter-Looper
A shapemeter-looper has a dual purpose which is to provide a continuous
measurement of both strip shape and strip tension and at the same time
perform the functions of a conventional strip tension looper between two
stands of a finishing train. To accomplish these operations, a
shapemeter-looper must meet the following requirements:
Design must provide high reliability of operation in a hot strip mill

environment
If the shapemeter-looper is designed to replace an existing looper,
it must be compatible with the existing drive and mill configuration
Shapemeter must have adequate resolution in measuring both
strip shape and strip tension along with ample control range for the
rolled product mix
Inertia of the segmented rolls and lifting system as well as the
natural frequency of the mass-spring system must be within
justifiable limits
Shapemeter-looper must provide all appropriate signals to the
closed-loop shape control
Page 800
A cross section and plan view of the shapemeter-looper that was

proposed by United Engineering, International Rolling Mill Consultants,
and George Kelk, Ltd. [5] is illustrated in Fig. 32.11. This figure shows the
similarity of this design to traditional loopers that are used between
finishing stands of hot strip mills. The shapemeter-looper can be
designed to replace a conventional looper arm and retain the original
drive mechanism, whether it is electromechanically, pneumatically, or
hydraulically actuated. The new unit continues to perform the constant
mass flow function as well as maintain constant strip tension between the
mill stands.
To measure variations in tension across the strip width, the traditional full
length roll is replaced by a row of segmented rolls 3, each with its own
bearings and arbor. These rolls have 10 in. diameters on 6 in. centers.
For a 66 in. wide mill, 11 rolls would be used. Each roll segment
assembly 4 is attached to the cantilever beam 5 which is made of spring
steel. All of the cantilever beams are mounted on the main looper shaft 7.
A wedge assembly 6 is supplied to adjust the height of any roll on
dressing.
Fig. 32.11 Cross-section and plan view of shapemeter-looper proposed
by United Engineering, International Rolling Mill Consultants, and George
Kelk, Ltd.: 1 - coolant water header, 2 - sensor bar, 3 - segmented roll, 4 -
roll segment assembly, 5 - cantilever beam, 6 - wedge assembly, 7 -
looper shaft, 8 - apron, 9 - counter-balance weight, 10 - subframe, 11 -
adjustable stop, 12 - target, 13 - motor, 14 - gear box, 15 - angular
position transducer. From Ginzburg [5].
A subframe 10 is also fastened to the main looper shaft 7 rotating with it

and extending outward to the roll assemblies 4. This frame supports the
sensor bar 2 which houses one electromagnetic pick-up head for each
roll segment. Mounted on each roll segment arbor is a target 12, which
will be deflected to a greater or lesser degree toward the pick-up head
due to deflection of the
Page 801
beam 5 when various tensions are imposed on the roll segment.

Variations in the air gap will be sensed by the pick-up and further
processed.
32.5 Shape Actimeter

United Engineering and International Rolling Mill Consultants have
proposed a device called the Shape Actimeter [40] that not only
measures strip flatness but can also be used as an actuator to correct
flatness defects. The basic difference between a conventional
shapemeter-stressometer and the Shape Actimeter is that a shapemeter-
stressometer has roll segments that are generally aligned in the same
plane whereas the Shape Actimeter has roll segments where the
elevation can be individually adjusted. This feature can provide the
following operating advantages:
Increased range of shape control - The following two cases should be

considered:
a) Strip tension is high enough to transform manifest shape into latent

shape. In this case, it is possible to use roll segments that are aligned in
the same plane (Fig. 32.12a)
b) Strip tension is not sufficient to eliminate manifest shape completely. In

this case, to measure both latent and manifest components of strip
shape, it is more appropriate to use a shapemeter that provides
adjustable roll contour (Fig. 32.12b).
Fig. 32.12 Alignment of the segmented rolls of Shape Actimiter for rolling
the strip with a) latent shape and b) manifest shape. From Kelk, et al [5].
Improved tracking capability - Improved tracking capability can be

achieved by introducing the desired crown between the segmented roll
and the strip.
On-line shape correction - In the Shape Actimeter, each segmented roll 5

is mounted on a pivoted lever arm 6, the position of which is determined,
in part, by a hydraulic cylinder 4 (Fig. 32.13). The inner races of the
segmented rolls are attached to lever arms. The result is that the
segmented roll can both rise and fall as in a conventional looper, but can
also take any shape (convex to concave) within a certain degree of
curvature. Each hydraulic cylinder can be pivoted at its upper end. At the
lower end, a servovalve 3 and differential pressure transducer 2 are
fitted. An axial position transducer 1 is installed inside the cylinder 4.
The two basic modes of operation of the Shape Actimeter are the
position mode and tension mode. In the position mode, the elevation of
individual rolls HA is maintained based on the magnitudes of the position
reference signals HR. The strip tension signals SA are calculated by
Page 802
using data from both pressure and position transducers. In the tension
mode, strip tension is maintained by the individual rolls according to the
reference signals SR. The strip flatness is calculated based on the actual
elevations of the individual rolls.
Fig. 32.13 Schematic diagram of Shape Actimeter: 1 - position

transducer, 2 - pressure transducer, 3, 12 - servovalves, 4 - hydraulic
cylinder, 5 - segmented roll, 6 - lever arm, 7 - rolled strip, 8 - calculating
device, 9 - signal conditioner, 10 - position regulator, 11 - tension
regulator, 13 - mode of operation selector switch. Adapted from Ginzburg
[40].
Friction in the hydraulic cylinders is negated by using a dither signal,

which is a low-amplitude rapid oscillation that is sufficient to move the
piston rod on the seals. In another mode of operation, to increase
resolution of the Shape Actimeter, periodic roll position references hr or
strip tension references sr are introduced in addition to the steady-state
references HR or SR and the resulting periodic variations of the strip
tension sa or displacement ha are sensed.
32.6 Purpose and Strategy of Profile and Flatness Control
The principal purpose of strip profile and flatness control in rolling mills is
to achieve the desired strip profile without exceeding the required
flatness tolerances [46-67]. In application to hot strip mills, contemporary
strip profile and flatness control systems are commonly designed to
achieve the following targets:
Strip crown control range from approximately 0 to 75 µm (3 mils)

Strip crown tolerances of approximately ±12.5 µm (±0.5 mil)
Strip flatness of approximately 25 I-units
Reduction in edge drop.
In cold mills, the strip crown is generally defined by the crown of the hot
rolled strip. There-
Page 803
fore, the main targets to be achieved in cold mills are:
Strip flatness of approximately 10 I-units

Reduction in edge drop.
To develop a strategy for strip profile and flatness control, the following
main steps must be considered:
Selection of optimum strip profile and flatness actuators

Identifying the stages of the rolling process at which the correction
of either strip profile or flatness should be made
Determining the optimum sequencing when more than one set of
actuators is applied
Determining the optimum quantity for correction that must be
provided by each actuator.
32.7 Recognition of Strip Shape Forms

One of the fundamental tasks of a strip flatness control system is to
recognize the strip shape forms that are detected by shapemeters. The
purpose of this recognition is to split the shape form into several basic
components so that each of them can be corrected by an appropriate
strip flatness actuator.
Numerous techniques for recognizing strip shape forms have been

proposed. The following methods will be briefly described in the
subsequent sections:
Shape index method [55,56]

Shape vector method [57]
Integrated pattern method [58,59]
Curve-fitting method [60-62]
Neural network method [63].
32.8 Shape Index Method

The shape index method was developed by Centre Recherches
Metallurgiques (C.R.M.), Belgium [55] and can be applied for recognizing
strip shape forms where the wave height and wavelength are detected by
a sensor.
In this case, the shape form can be presented by the so-called shape
index ρ that is computed from the wave height H and length L by
assuming a sinusoidal form of the strip flatness defect (Fig. 32.14) and
given by the following equation:
Page 804
The positive ρ values correspond to the center buckles, whereas the

negative ρ values are generally related to the wavy edges as shown in
Fig. 32.15.
Fig. 32.14 Sinusoidal approximation of strip shape defect. Adapted from

Wilmotte, et al [55].
Fig. 32.15 Strip shape parameters. Adapted from Sivilotti, et al [56].

Fig. 32.16 Definition of shape vector. Adapted from Yasuda, et al [57].
32.9 Shape Vector Method

Yasuda, et al [57] have proposed to express the strip shape form by the
so-called shape vector S(Se, Sq, Sn). In a slightly modified form, the
shape vector is defined in Fig. 32.16 where the hori-
Page 805
zontal axis represents the normalized strip width and the vertical axis
represents the strip transverse tension difference with respect to the strip
center. The points xq and xe are fixed at 0.538 and 0.906 respectively,
while the point xn = 0.8.
Fig. 32.17 Relationship between components of shape vector and strip

shape forms. Adapted from Yasuda, et al [57].
Fig. 32.18 Block diagram of strip flatness control in 6-high cold mill.
Adapted from Yasuda, et al [57].
Page 806
The components Se, Sq, and Se of the shape vector S are defined as the
gradients of the three lines that are shown in Fig. 32.17. Various forms of
strip shape can be expressed with the shape vector S including center
buckles, edge waves, M-type quarter buckles, and W-type quarter
buckles. It is possible to recognize these shape forms by establishing a
relationship in absolute values and signs between the components Se,
Sq, and Se of the shape vector S.
Figure 32.18 illustrates a simplified block diagram of the strip shape

feedback control system that was proposed by Hitachi, Japan in
application to a 6-high cold mill (UC mill). The strip tension differences
Δσe, Δσq, and Δσn at the corresponding points across the strip are
measured with a shapemeter that is installed at the exit of the mill.
The components ΔSe, ΔSq, and ΔSe of the shape vector S are then
determined as a function of the strip tension differences Δσe, Δσq, and
Δσn. These values are then used to calculate the references for adjusting
the work roll bending force Fw, intermediate roll bending force Fi, and
intermediate roll shift ΔC. The calibration factor γ is proportional to the
exit thickness and is calculated by comparing the predicted and
measured values of the shape vector S.
32.10 Integrated Pattern Method

The strip shape pattern that is detected by a shapemeter can be
presented as the sum of several basic patterns. In the strip flatness
control system for a CR (cluster type) rolling mill that was developed by
Kawasaki Steel and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, both of Japan [58], the
integrated strip shape pattern ε(i) is expressed as the sum of four basic
quartic orthogonal functions Φ1(i) through Φ4(i) that are shown in Fig.
32.19 and can be given by the following equation:
where
j
=
basic strip shape pattern
number
i position of shapemeter sensing zone with respect to

=strip center
Aj basic strip shape pattern coefficients.

=
Fig. 32.19 Recognition of strip shape form. Adapted from Fukuhara, et al

[58].
The coefficients Aj are determined by using the results of measuring the

integrated strip shape pattern ε(i) in the following equation:
Page 807
where
n number of sensing zones in one half of shapemeter.

=
The coefficients Aj are the weighing factors for the respective basic strip
shape patterns Φj(i). Thus, for example, as the coefficients A1 and A3
increase, the asymmetrical components of the integrated strip shape
pattern will become more pronounced. A positive value of the coefficient
A2 indicates the presence of center buckles whereas a negative value
indicates wavy edges. The amount of quarter buckles in the integrated
strip shape pattern is determined by the coefficient A4.
Figure 32.20 illustrates a block diagram of a strip flatness control system

that utilizes the integrated strip shape pattern method. The A1 controller
is responsible for compensating the asymmetrical component in the strip
shape pattern and develops the appropriate position references for both
drive and operator side hydraulic cylinders. The A2 controller is
responsible for reducing symmetrical strip shape distortions such as
center buckles and wavy edges and generates the corrective references
for the intermediate roll bender (IMR). If the crown control range of the
IMR is not sufficient to fully correct the shape distortion, the A2 controller
supplies the remaining uncompensated reference to the backup roll
(BUR) crown adjusting device. The A4 controller develops the reference
for the BUR crown adjusting device to reduce quarter buckles in the strip
shape pattern.
Fig. 32.20 Block diagram of strip flatness control system for cluster roll
(CR) mill. From Fukuhara, et al [58]. Reproduced through the courtesy of
Page 808
32.11 Curve-Fitting Method

The curve-fitting shape-pattern recognition method that was developed
by Nippon Steel, Japan [60] involves curve-fitting the shape signal that is
detected by a shapemeter (Fig. 32.21a) with the following quartic function
(Fig. 32.2 lb):
where
Δσ difference in strip tension in transverse direction

=
x normalized distance from strip center (x = 1 at strip edge)

=
λ1. . λ4 curve-fitting constants.

=
The curve-fitting constants are determined by the method of least

squares. Since the physical meaning of the curve-fitting constants λ1…λ4
is ambiguous, they are substituted with the parameters Λ1…Λ4 that
describe the components of the strip elongation distribution with respect
to strip center.
The following two strip shape patterns are considered [61]:
Symmetrical strip shape pattern

Asymmetrical strip shape pattern.
Fig. 32.21 Shapemeter output signals: a) as recorded by zone sensors

and b) curve-fitted with quadratic function. Adapted from Asamura, et al
[60].
For a symmetrical strip shape pattern as shown in Fig. 32.22a, we obtain:

Page 809
where
Λ2 difference in elongation between strip edge (x = 1) and strip center (x = 0)

=
Λ4 difference in elongation between x = 1/√2 position and strip center.

=
The x = 1/√2 position approximately corresponds to the location where

quarter buckles occur.
Fig. 32.22 Strip shape patterns: a) symmetrical and b) asymmetrical.

Adapted from Asamura, et al [60].
The asymmetrical strip shape pattern that is shown in Fig. 32.22b is

presented by the components Λ1 and Λ3 and given by the following
equations:
where
Λ1 difference in elongation between strip edge (x = 1) and strip center (x = 0)

=
Page 810
Λ3 difference in elongation between x = 1/√3 position and strip center.

=
Once the actual symmetrical and asymmetrical shape components Λ1

through Λ4 are determined, control actions are taken by the appropriate
actuators to achieve the target shape components Λ1* through Λ4*. The
distribution of the control functions between various actuators is
performed in the following manner.
Symmetrical shape component - The adjustment of the symmetrical

shape components is produced by the work roll bending and roll coolant
control systems. As shown in Fig. 32.23a [62], work roll bending is
performed to reach the point (Λ2′, Λ4′) that is closest to the target shape
in the direction of correlation. The point (Λ2′, Λ4′) lies at the intersection
of the line that represents the path of work roll bending control and the
line drawn from the target shape point (Λ2*,Λ4*). Roll coolant control is
performed to compensate the remaining orthogonal component (Λ2*-
Λ2′,Λ4*-Λ4′).
Asymmetrical shape component - Asymmetrical strip shape is controlled

by changing the mill leveling and roll coolant. A change in mill leveling
can produce changes of the asymmetrical shape components Λ1 or Λ3
or both. The component Λ1 changes if the actual shape has edge waves
and the component Λ3 changes when the actual shape has center
buckles.
As illustrated in Fig. 32.23b, when the actual shape has a combination of
both edge waves and center buckles, the changes of the components Λ1
and Λ3 will be determined by the respective weight factors a and b. Thus,
the a(Λ1*-Λ1) and b(Λ3*-Λ3) shape components are controlled by mill
leveling while the (1 - a)(Λ1*-Λ1) and (1 - b)(Λ3*-Λ3) shape components
are compensated by roll coolant control. The manipulated variables are
determined by utilizing the fuzzy inference method which will be
described in a subsequent section.
Fig. 32.23 Method of separating strip flatness components: a)
symmetrical and b) asymmetrical. Adapted from Hasegawa and Taki [62].
32.12 Flatness Control With Variable Crown (VC) Backup Roll

In a rolling mill equipped with a variable crown (VC) backup roll, the
following control philosophy can be applied as described by Collison and
Gore [64].
This method involves correcting the strip flatness error that is shown in
Fig. 32.24 in the fol-
Page 811
lowing four steps:
StepCorrect the asymmetrical shape component by fitting a straight line to the

1: curve that is shown in Fig. 32.24a and determining the magnitude and
polarity of the mill tilt control signal that is required to produce the
symmetrical shape that is shown in Fig. 32.24b.
StepProduce the second order correction by curve-fitting the curve shown in Fig.
2: 32.24b to determine the amplitude and polarity of the correction to be
produced by the actuator such as a VC backup roll, which exhibits a
predominantly parabolic response.
StepProduce the fourth order correction. During this step, the curve depicted in
3: Fig. 32.24c is curve-fitted with the fourth (or higher) order polynomials that
are used to supply the work roll bending system.
StepControl the residual flatness errors. The residual flatness errors that are
4: determined in the curve shown in Fig. 32.24d are used to develop the
references for the roll coolant control system which produces further
corrections to achieve the target flatness (Fig. 32.24e).
Fig. 32.24 Control strategy for correction of flatness with VC backup roll.
Adapted from Collison and Gore [64].
32.13 Sigma-Ro Process Model for Hot Strip Mills

Various on-line computer models for hot strip mills have been developed
in recent years. The model that was developed by C.R.M., Belgium [55]
is known as the ‘‘Sigma-Ro” process and involves calculating the profile
index Σ and shape index ρ that can be given by the following equations:
Page 812
where
h strip thickness at center of strip

=
h40 strip thickness at distance of 40 mm from strip edge

=
strip length at center

L=
L40 strip length at distance of 40 mm from strip edge.

=
Fig. 32.25 Sigma-Ro strip flatness model for hot strip mill. Adapted from
Wilmotte, et al [55].
The Sigma-Ro model is based on the assumption that flatness defects

are partially transmitted from stand to stand. This model gives the value
of the shape index ρ on each stand and in partic-
Page 813
ular the value of the finished product. In the case of rolling on a 6-stand
mill, the ρ value of the strip exiting the last stand can be given by:
where
Σi profile index of strip emerging from i-th stand

=
m0 … m6 = constants.
Figure 32.25 illustrates schematically the procedure for performing the

calculation utilizing the “Sigma-Ro” process model. This procedure
includes the following four steps:
StepReduction in the last stand is determined in such a way that the target value
1: of profile index Σ is attained.
StepReduction at the penultimate stand is calculated so that the difference

2: between the profiles on entering and leaving the last stand is not too great.
StepRemaining power is distributed between the first four stands according to

3: the criteria that can either be the equal division of power or the choice of the
operator.
StepKnowing the values of the profile indexes Σ at all stands, it is possible to

4: calculate the value of the shape index ρ at the last stand. In the case where ρ
is beyond the limits that correspond to good flatness, the profile index of the
finished product is changed and the calculations are repeated until the target
profile and flatness are achieved.
32.14 “Pro-Flat” Process Model for Hot Strip Mills

The “Pro-Flat” computer model was proposed in application to the
finishing train of a hot strip mill by United Engineering and International
Rolling Mill Consultants [65]. It includes two independent closed-loop
control systems(Fig. 32.26):
Profile control system

Flatness control system.
The purpose of the profile control system is to achieve the required

relative strip crown before the strip enters stand F4 of a 6-stand finishing
mill or stand F5 of a 7-stand finishing mill. To monitor the actual strip
crown after the upstream mill stands, a strip profile sensor is installed
after stand F3 or F4. The actual strip crown is compared with the target
strip crown and the difference between these values is used to produce
the change in the roll bending force Adjustments of strip crown in the
upstream mill stands are made to maintain changes in the relative strip
crown within the flatness limits.
The purpose of the flatness control system is to maintain good flatness

after the downstream mill stands which automatically leads to a nearly
constant strip crown-to-thickness ratio. Shapemeter-loopers are installed
after each upstream mill stand to monitor strip flatness. The flatness
errors that are detected by the shapemeter-loopers are used to adjust the
roll bending forces of the respective mill stands. A profile meter along
with a flatness meter are installed at
Page 814
the exit of the last finishing mill stand. Their signals are used for final trim
corrections of the profile and flatness of the strip as well as adaptive
adjustments to the profile and flatness models.
Fig. 32.26 Block diagram of “Pro-Flat” process control system for hot
strip mills proposed by United Engineering and International Rolling Mill
Consultants. [65].
32.15 Enhancement of Flatness Control Systems

In conventional closed-loop control systems, the controlled parameters
are clearly identified in quantitative terms. Therefore, the control function
is very straightforward. For example, if the purpose of a control system is
to control the speed of a motor, this speed can be identified as the
number of revolutions of the rotor per unit of time. In this case, the main
control function is to compare the desired motor speed Nd with the actual
motor speed Na that is detected by a speed sensor. The control system
would then detect the error signal ΔN = Na - Nd and send it to a speed
regulator that adjusts the motor speed and reduces the error signal to an
acceptable level.
A flatness control system for a rolling mill presents a much more

complicated case. Firstly, strip flatness is not clearly identified in
quantitative terms but rather is expressed in a myriad of patterns that can
only be evaluated to a large degree in qualitative terms. This problem can
be solved by using various pattern recognition techniques such as those
that utilize neural networks. Secondly, the control function is not
straightforward. This is especially true when more than one actuator is
used to control strip flatness making it very difficult to determine the
amount of correction that must be made by each actuator. To help solve
this problem, the fuzzy inference method can be applied.
32.16 Neural Networks

A neural network simulates the behavior of the human nervous system.
The main components of a neural network are the artificial neurons that
represent human nerve cells or neurons [63]. Figure 32.27a illustrates
schematically how a human neuron works. The neuron is connected to
numerous adjacent nerve cells from which it receives a chemical
substance having levels x1, x1, … xn. When the sum of these levels
exceeds a certain value, the neuron under consideration gets excited and
sends a chemical substance to the other neurons. The ease with which
the chemical
Page 815
substance passes from one neuron to another depends on learning.
In a functional model of an artificial neuron shown in Fig. 32.27b, the

weight coefficient W1, W2, … Wn simulates the ease of passage of the
input signals x1, x1, … xn respectively. The adder obtains the sum u of
the products of the input signals and the load coefficient according to the
following equation:
The output of a neuron is obtained through the saturation function Y =

f(u).
Fig. 32.27 Neural network: a) nerve cell (neuron) model, b) functional

model, and c) configuration of network.
In the neural network diagram shown in Fig. 32.27c, the neurons are
represented by small circles that are interconnected to produce a
hierarchical arrangement that is capable of pattern recognition. This
process of pattern recognition involves learning. During each learning
cycle, the weight coefficients W1, W2, … Wn are adjusted which leads to
improved quality of pattern recognition.
32.17 Fuzzy Inference Method

The fuzzy inference method requires the development of membership
functions and inference rules and can best be understood by considering
the process of regulating an air conditioner [62,
Page 816
rules and can best be understood by considering the process of

regulating an air conditioner [62, 63].
Membership functions - Membership functions convert qualitative

perceptions into quantitative terms. In application to an air conditioner,
the following assumptions can be made (Fig. 32.28):
Temperature of 27°C or higher shall be considered as hot

Temperature of 23°C or lower shall not be considered as hot.
By utilizing these assumptions, the membership functions for a

temperature of 23°C or less returns a 0, whereas a temperature of 27°C
or higher returns a 1; a straight line joins these two extremes. The
membership functions for the cold and nice temperatures, as well as for
the damp, nice, and dry humidity conditions are developed in a similar
manner.
Fig. 32.28 Fuzzy inference control algorithm to control air temperature

and humidity using a) membership functions and b) inference rules.
Adapted from Katayama [63].
Fig. 32.29 Selection of optimum setting of air conditioner by utilizing
fuzzy inference control algorithm. Adapted from Katayama [63].
Inference rules - Inference rules are used to determine degrees of

certainties for various con-
Page 817
certainty of 0.8 with the hot membership function and 0.2 with the nice
temperature membership function. Similarly, a humidity of 86% would
produce a 0.6 degree of certainty with the damp membership function
and a 0.4 degree of certainty with nice humidity membership function.
The degree of certainty that is determined by each individual rule is

expressed as an area. The center of gravity of these areas is then
calculated as a quantitative conclusion. When conditions are hot and
damp, the air conditioner would be activated, while for cold and dry
conditions, the heater would be activated. This example would require
the air conditioner to be run at a 75% operation level.
32.18 Purpose and Strategy of Profile and Flatness Control

The principal purpose of strip profile and flatness control in rolling mills is
to achieve the desired strip profile without exceeding the required
flatness tolerances.
Fig. 32.30 Selection of strip profile and flatness actuators.
In application to hot strip mills, contemporary strip profile and flatness

control systems are commonly designed to achieve the following typical
targets:
Strip crown control range for:

hot band from 20 to 40 µm (0.8 to 1.6 mils)
cold rolled product from 50 to 70 µm (1.0 to 2.8 mils)
Strip crown tolerances ±12.5 µm (±0.5 mil)
Strip flatness from 16 to 25 I-units
High spot not greater than 10 µm (0.4 mils).
In cold mills, the strip crown is generally defined by the crown of the hot
rolled strip. Therefore, the main target to be achieved in cold mills is
related to the strip flatness that usually
Page 818
Therefore, the main target to be achieved in cold mills is related to the

strip flatness that usually should be not greater than 10 I-units. The strip
profile and flatness targets, however, may vary from one rolling mill to
another. These targets depend on the particular types of the rolled
products and their applications.
A number of various strip profile and flatness actuators have been

developed (Fig. 32.30) as was discussed in the previous sections.
Selection of optimum strip profile and flatness actuators plays an
important role in achieving the desirable targets at affordable cost. The
selection is usually assisted by employing a computerized What-If-
Analysis.
32.19 Characteristics of Profile and Flatness Actuators

The two principal characteristics that can be used for an objective
selection of the strip profile and flatness actuators for a particular
application are:
Functional characteristics
Quantitative characteristics.
The functional characteristics of strip profile and flatness actuators can

be divided into the following three groups:
Dynamic modifiers of roll gap profile - These actuators permit adjustment

of the strip profile and flatness during rolling of a coil. Examples of these
actuators are work roll and backup roll bending systems, flexible-body
adjustable crown rolls, flexible edge adjustable crown rolls, and
adjustable roll thermal crown systems.
Static modifiers of roll gap profile - These actuators allow for adjustments
of the roll gap during the gap time between the rolling of coils. Examples
of these actuators are roll crossing systems and axially shifted non-
cylindrical rolls. These actuators are used to increase the crown control
range, reduce edge drop, and limit the effect of roll wear on strip surface
quality.
Optimizers of controllability of roll gap profile - These actuators have the
dual function of reducing the adverse effect of disturbance parameters,
such as variation of rolling load and at the same time, enhance the crown
control range of the roll bending system. Examples of these actuators are
nonadjustable and adjustable stepped backup rolls, tapered rolls, axially
shifted cylindrical rolls, axially shifted sleeved rolls, and flexible edge
nonadjustable crown rolls.
32.20 Performance Characteristics of Profile and Flatness

Actuators
The principal quantitative characteristics of strip profile and flatness
actuators are:
Strip crown control range

Strip profile control range
Edge drop reduction range
High spot reduction capability.
Strip crown control range - The strip crown control range provided by an
actuator ca is
Page 819
where
cmax maximum strip crown for a particular strip provided by the actuator
=
cmin minimum strip crown for a particular strip provided by the actuator.
=
As an example, Figure 32.31 shows the strip crown control ranges

provided by the work roll bending and pair roll crossing systems.
Strip profile control range - The strip profile control range provided by a
strip profile and flatness actuator can be determined by using one of two
parameters:
Strip profile control envelope range

Strip profile control spectral range.
Fig. 32.31 The strip crown control ranges provided by the work roll
bending and pair roll crossing systems. Adapted from Nakajima, et al
[66].
32.21 Strip Profile Control Envelope Range

The strip profile can be expressed in parametric form as shown in Fig.
32.29 by using the parameters U1 and U2 as follows:
Page 820
where
hj
=
strip thickness at
center
hq′, hq″ strip thicknesses measured at distances q′ and q″

=respectively from center
hi′, hi″ strip thicknesses measured at distances i′ and i″ respectively

=from center.
Fig. 32.32 - Strip profile envelope. Adapted from Hata, et al [54].
A plot of the parameter U1 versus parameter U2 is called the strip profile

control envelope (Fig. 32.32). The strip profile envelope contains various
achievable shapes of strip profile provided by a strip profile and flatness
actuator, including both quadratic and non-quadratic. Within the
envelope, each shape is represented by a point.
32.22 Strip Profile Control Spectral Range

To determine the strip profile control spectrum range provided by a strip
profile and flatness actuator, the strip profiles are first curve-fitted by a
polynomial equation [67]. The fourth order polynomial usually provides a
very good fit:
Page 821
where
normalized distance from the strip center as given by:

X=
where
x distance from the strip center

=
w strip width
=
le excluded edge strip length, usually ranges from 25 mm to 40 mm.

=
The coefficients A1 through A4 are determined from the curve-fitting of

strip profile. When the curve-fitting is performed for the profiles
corresponding to the extreme capabilities of the actuators, the range of
change of these coefficients determines the strip profile control spectral
range.
32.23 Edge drop control capability

This is a capability of a strip profile and flatness actuators to reduce edge
drop. The actuators that provide the most effective edge drop control
usually employ either roll crossing (work roll cross mill or PC mill) or roll
shifting with tapered rolls (HC mill).
Fig. 32.33 – Relative edge drop reduction with shifted tapered work rolls.
The edge drop control capability of the strip profile and flatness can be
determined by the relative edge drop reduction that is given by:
Page 822
where
eh edge drop without application of the actuator

=
ehc edge drop with application of the actuator.

=
Figure 32.33 shows the relative edge drop reduction obtained at the 4-
stand tandem cold mill by application the shifting tapered rolls. The edge
drop reduction of 24% is obtained by using tapered rolls at the stand 1
only; 36% by using the tapered rolls at the stands 1 and 2; 42% by using
the tapered rolls at the stands 1, 2 and 3, and 45% by using the tapered
rolls at the stands 1 through 4. Thus, the maximum effect is achieved at
the upstream stands with a minimal improvements made at the last
stand.
32.24 Selection of Optimum Profile and Flatness Actuators

Selection of the optimum strip profile and flatness actuators is based on
the following criteria:
The selected actuators shall provide the required strip profile

control and flatness control capabilities
The selected actuators shall exert minimum detrimental side
effects on both the operation of the mill and strip quality.
The selected actuators shall have affordable price.
Required Strip Crown Control Range - Defining the required strip crown
control range is the first step in selecting the optimum strip profile and
flatness actuators. The required strip crown control range that is provided
by an actuator car can be presented as the sum of the following
components:
where
csr
=
required strip crown
range
cd variation of strip crown due to variation of the

=disturbance parameters.
Selection of Dynamic and Static Actuators - The process of selecting the

type of actuator begins from examining the applicability of the dynamic
modifiers of the roll gap profile and particularly, roll bending systems. In
some cases, this type of system alone can compensate for the variation
of the strip profile caused by variations in roll force, roll thermal crown,
strip width, rolled material hardness, etc. However, if the strip profile and
flatness control requirements cannot be met by employing only dynamic
actuators then two principal options can be considered:
The first option solves the problem by introducing two or more sets
of the work roll crowns, with each set to be applicable for a certain
product mix. For example, it is
Page 823
The second option will involve implementation of static actuators,

such as CVC, HC, and roll crossing technologies.
Special Functional Capabilities of Static Actuators - The special functions

provided by the strip profile and flatness actuators include:
Redistribution of work roll wear

Redistribution of roll thermal crown
Reduction of edge drop
Improvement of strip surface luster.
Figure 32.34 summarazes the capabilities of various actuators.
Fig. 32.34 - Capabilities of various strip profile and flatness actuators.
32.25 Detrimental Effects Produced by the Actuators

When selecting the actuators for the strip profile and flatness control, one
should always take into consideration the detrimental effects that they
may produce on both the longevity of the mill equipment and operation of
the mill.
Work roll bending actuators - Work roll bending force exerted by the work
roll bending actuators introduces two principal detrimental effects:
Increases stresses in the work roll neck
Page 824
Reduces the life of the work roll bearings

Axial thrust force that has to be withstood by thrust bearings.
This limits the maximum values of the work roll bending forces. To
increase the bearing life, the roll bending force is commonly applied
through the centerline of the bearing. Also, when the roll bending force is
greater than 150 tons per chock, it is recommended to supplement the
conventional radial bearings with the thrust bearings.
Work roll crossing actuators - Crossing the work rolls introduces several
possible problems:
Appearance of axial thrust force that has to be withstood by thrust

bearings
Distortion of the strip profile and strip walking in the hot strip mill
Axial thrust force that has to be withstood by thrust bearings
Difficulties with mill zeroing and mill leveling under crossing
conditions
Work roll shifting actuators - Shifting of the rolls with special profiles, such
as CVC, HC, and IVC, my lead to three principal problems:
Asymmetrical backup roll wear. In case of either CVC or IVC

profiles, this problem is alleviated by grinding both the work and
backup rolls with matching profiles.
Marking the cold rolled strip. This usually occurs when the work
roll shifting is performed in the mill stand making the finish
reduction.
Axial thrust force that has to be withstood by thrust bearings.
32.26 Optimum Location of Actuators

The optimum locations of the strip profile and flatness actuators are
different for hot and cold rolling mills.
Hot strip mill - In a finishing train of a hot strip mill, the optimum locations
of the strip profile and flatness actuators are determined by three
principal features of the hot rolling process (Fig. 32.35):
The flatness dead band diminishes sharply as the thickness of the

rolled material decreases. This leads to a necessity of producing a
required relative strip crown after stand F3 of a 6-stand mill or after
stand F4 of a 7-stand mill. Consequently, the stands F1 through
F4, and especially F2 and F3, must be equipped with the actuators
having an extended strip crown control range.
The local work roll wear transferred to the strip is negligible at the
stands F1, F2, and F3. Therefore, it is not beneficial to utilize the
roll shifting at these stands for the redistribution of the roll wear.
The roll wear imprint on the product becomes noticeable at the
stand F4 and very large the stands F5 through F7. Thus, the roll
shifting of cylindrical rolls is justifiable at the stands F5 through F7.
Page 825
Fig. 32.35 - Optimum locations of the strip profile and flatness actuators
in hot strip mills.
The effectiveness of the shifted tapered (HC) work rolls for edge
drop control increases down stream of the finishing train.
Therefore, the application of the shifted tapered (HC) work rolls is
the most effective at the downstream stands.
Cold mill - In a tandem cold mill, the optimum locations of the strip profile
and flatness actuators are determined by three principal features of the
cold rolling process (Fig. 32.36):
The flatness dead band is extremely small. Therefore, it is

imperative to maintain the constant relative strip crown after each
stand. Also, to keep the strip in the mill center during threading, it
is necessary to release pressure on the strip edges. Consequently,
in a tandem cold mills, the first three stands are commonly
equipped with static actuator to increase the crown control range
that is provided by the work roll bending system.
To prevent strip marking, the work roll shifting shall not be used
during the last pass.
Page 826
Fig. 32.36 - Optimum locations of the strip profile and flatness actuators
in cold rolling mills.
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Page 830

Page 831
INDEX
A
Aging, 153, 154
AISE-SAE designation system, 49-51
Allotropic changes, 2
Alloying elements, 28-48
effect of on:
corrosion resistance, 36
critical temperatures, 31, 32
electrical resistance, 36
eutectoid composition, 32, 33
eutectoid temperature, 32, 33
grain growth, 36
hardenability, 33, 34
hardness, 34
microstructure, 30, 31
tensile strength, 34, 35
transformation rate, 32
Alloys:
cobalt-base, 41-45
nickel-base, 41-45
Aluminum, 44
Angstrom unit, 2
Anisotropy:
crystallographic, 3, 4
sheet, 102, 103
Annealing, 143-149, 347, 348-350
API specification, 75, 76
Arc of roll contact,
ASTM grain size chart, 7, 8
ASTM specification, 66-73
Atomic planes, 3
Austempering, 144, 152
Austenite, 14
formers, 28, 29
supercooling of, 23
B
Bainite, 23
Beat phenomenon, 553-555
Bending, 141
Bite angle, 178, 622

Boron, 46
Brinell hardness test, 109, 110
Buckling, 628
Bulging, 446
C
Calibration of:
measuring systems, 533, 534
Camber:
control systems, 678-680
definition of, 448
measurement of, 667-669
Carbide formers, 30
Carbon, 37, 38
Cementite, 16
Page 832
Chatter, mill 550-553
Chromium, 40, 41
Cobalt, 43, 44
Coefficient of friction, 240-279
Coil weight, invoiced, 463
Coilbox, 307, 395-402, 429, 430
Coiler, 388
superlarge, 405
Cold rolling mills, 406-417
Columbium (Niobium), 46, 132, 133
Conductivity, thermal, 116, 117
Continuous-cooling transformation diagram, 24, 25
Control:
gaugemeter, 580-582
plan view, 675-678
strip tension, 583-588
Cooling:
accelerated, 344-347
controlled, 334
curve, 4
intensity, 350, 351
interstand, 388
rate, critical, 25
Copper, 45, 46
Corrosion resistance, 121, 122
Cracking, 141, 177
Crop length, 449
Crystal, 1-8
Crystallographic anisotropy, 3
D
Decarburization, 365, 366
Deformation:
elastic and plastic, 159-163
finite element analysis of 195, 196
microstructural analysis of, 195, 196
slab analysis of, 179-190
slip-line field analysis of 194, 195
upper-bound analysis of, 192-194
Dendrite, 5, 6
Density, 118, 119

Descaling, 388
Diagram:
constitutional, 12
continuous-cooling transformation, 24, 25
engineering stress-strain, 98, 99
equilibrium, 12
idealized stress-strain, 101, 102
isothermal transformation, 24
time-temperature transformation (TTT), 24
true stress-strain, 100, 101
Diffusivity, thermal, 119, 120
Dislocation in crystals, 134, 135, 160, 161
Dog bone shape, 446, 617-620
Drawabiility, 138-140
Ductility, 104
E
Edge:
control, 764-767
cross-sectional shape, 629
drop, 444, 445
heating, 304
Edgers, 632-641
Edging:
by pressing, 643-656, 658-660
by rolling, 617-630, 641-643, 657-682
efficiency, 621-625
practice, 621, 636-640
rolls, 617-626
with flat rolls, 617-622
with grooved rolls, 622-626
Electrical resistivity, 123
Elongation, 104, 115, 457
Emissivity, 120, 121
Energy:
in mechanical deformation, 162, 163
in rolling, 237
savings, 420
specific, 212, 213, 420
Errors:
analysis of, 536

Page 833
avoiding sampling, 539-541
propagation of, 526, 537
Eutectoid, 16-22
Expansion, thermal 121
F
Feather, 444, 445
Ferrite, 14, 15
formers, 28-30
Finishing mill, 388
Force:
compressive, 96, 97
frictional, 256-258
tensile, 96, 97
Formers:
austenite, 28, 29
carbide, 30
ferrite, 29, 30
Friction, 239-279
Furnace, reheat 283-296
Fuzzy inference method, 815-817

G
Gauge:
change, flying 605, 606
variation, 543-561
Gauge control:
actuators, 575, 576
automatic, 578-608
deviation, 582
dynamic characteristics of, 579, 580
feedback, 582
feedforward, 582, 590-591, 595-598
gaugemeter, 580-582
high/low frequency, 594
mass flow, 592, 593
monitor, 582
non-interactive,
sensors, 562-575
three-stage, 588-590
variation, 543-561
Geometry:
of rolled products, 439-460

plan view, 627, 675-677
Ghost bands, 47
Grain:
formation, 8
growth, 163-166, 319-321
recovery, 163-166
recrystallization, 163-166, 315-323
restoration process, 163-166, 312-315
shape and size, 7-9
Graphite, 14, 15
Guaranteed surface area, 463
H
Hardenability, 112, 113
Hardening, surface 153
Hardness, 109, 112
Heat:
resistance, 115, 116
transfer, 283-310
treatment, 143-155
Heating, 283-296
Hematite, 360, 361

Histograms, 503
Homogenizing, 143, 149, 150
Hot slab charging, 293, 294
Hot strip mills, 387-405
modernization of, 418-435
performance, 515-518
Hydrogen, 48
I
Impact-Transition-Temperature (ITT), 137, 138
Impurities, 36
Inclusions, 36
Inclusion shape control, 143
I-unit, 457, 458
Intermetallic compounds, 8
Iron, allotropic forms of, 1-3

Page 834
L
Lamelar tearing, 142
Ledeburite, 17
Lead, 46
Limit:
elastic, 99
proportional, 99
Loopers, 585, 586
Lubrication, 239-279
Luder lines, 348
M
Machinability, 124, 125
Magnetic properties, 123, 124
Magnetite, 360, 361
Malleability, 124, 125
Manganese, 39
Martempering, 144, 150, 151
Martensite, 23, 24
MAS rolling, 676-678
Measurand, 523
Measurement
direct comparison, 523-525
indirect comparison, 523-525

Metallic
bond, 2
dendrite, 5
Metalloids, 8, 9
Metallurgical
defects, 354-378
design, 128
factors, 127-155
Microalloying, 127-143
Microstructure:
control of, 127, 128
of iron-carbon alloy, 14-17
Modulus:
of elasticity, 100, 115
of resilience, 100
shear, 108
Molybdenum, 40
N
Necking, 106, 107
Neural networks, 814, 815
Nickel, 41, 42
Niobium (columbium), 46
Nitrogen, 47, 48, 133, 134
Normal distribution curve, 503, 504
Normalizing, 143, 148, 149

O
Out-of-square deviation, 448
P
Pearlite, 16, 17, 23
Peening effect, 225
Phase:
diagrams, 12-27
reactions, 18
shift (lag), 580
transformation hysteresis, 21, 22
Phases in metals, 8, 18-21
Phosphorus, 47
Plan view:
control, 675-678
distortion of, 625-628
geometry, 448, 449
shape, 449
Plastic deformation:
finite element analysis of, 195, 196
microstructural analysis of, 195, 196
slab analysis of, 180-190

slip-line field analysis of, 194, 195
upper-bound analysis, 193, 194
Plasticity, 159-177
Plate, 64-76
Point:
critical, 18
freezing, 5
yield, 99
Poisson’s ratio, 100, 170

Page 835
Population:
mean, 502, 503
normal, 503, 504
practical, 506, 507
Power:
rolling, 237
savings, 420
specific, 212, 213, 420
Process capability index, 81-83
Q
Quality descriptors, 77-95
Quench aging, 153, 154
Quenching, 144, 150
R
Rate
cooling, 23-27
Ratio
air-gas, 362
aspect, 106
Recovery, strip elastic 190
Reduction, 104, 115
Residual elements, 36-36
Resistance to:
abrasion, 125
corrosion, 121
deformation, 199-218
pitting, 57
rusting, 57
staining, 57
wear, 125
Ridge, 444, 445
Rippled surface in cast products,
Rise time,
Roll:
arrangement, 383
axial thrust, 777, 778

backup, with specific profiles, 727-742
banding, 712, 713
bending systems, 743-752
bearings, 548
bite lubricant, 247-279
cooling, 388
crazing, 709
crossing systems, 775-781
deformation and displacement system, 743-790
eccentricity, 552-559, 599-604
fatigue wear, 709
firecracking, 709
flat, 617
flattening, 230-233, 766
force:
formulas for, 219-238
transducers, 181
grinding, on-line, 785-787
grooved, 622-626
heating, 784
micropitting, 709
shifting systems, 752-775, 779-784
spalling, 709
thermal:
crown, 706-708
expansion and contraction, 702-709
profile control, 784, 785
torque, 219-238
wear, 255, 256, 708-720
Rollability limit, 190, 191
Rolling mills:
measured parameters in, 525-527
types, 381-417
Rolling process:
continuum, 329-334
controlled, 329-336
endless, 403-405
ferritic, 343, 344
Rolling theory:
standard terms, 178, 179

Rolls:
adjustable thermal 735, 736
continuously variable crown (CVC), 769-773
crowned tapered backup, 729

Page 836
dynamic shaperoll (DSR), 734, 735
flexible body backup, 731-735
flexible edge, 736, 737
inflatable crown (IC), 731, 732
inverse-symmetrical variable crown (IVC), 773-774
self-compensating (SC) backup, 737
stepped backup, 727, 730, 731
taper piston (TP) backup, 738, 739
variable:
barrel length (VBL), 730, 731
crown (VC), 732-734
Runout table, 388
S
Scale, 360-378
Scalebreakers, 388
Schaeffler diagram, 31, 32
Sendzimir mills, 413-415
Sensors, types of 527, 528
Shape:
Actimeter, 801, 802

dual, 450
forms of strip, 449-454
ideal, 449-453
latent, 449-453
manifest, 449-453
Shapemeters, 793-802
Shear, 387, 388
modulus, 108
strain at fracture, 108
Silicon, 45
Sizing:
mills, 636, 637
presses, 643-655
Skids in reheat furnaces, 294-296
Slab:
caster, 391-405
defects, 354-368
hot charging, 293, 294
Slip:
bands, 160, 313

forward, 266
line fields, 194, 195
Slivers, 369, 376, 377
Solid solutions:
interstitial, 10
substitutional, 10
Solidification, 5, 6, 12, 13
Solution:
interstitial solid, 10
liquid, 12, 13
substitutional solid, 10
Space lattice:
constant, 2
forms, 1
Spalling
Speed effect,
Specific heat, 117, 118
Spherodizing, 144, 148, 149
Spot-weld peeling, 142
Spread, lateral, 265
Standard deviation, 503
Standardization, principle aims of, 461-470
Standards for flat rolled products, 470-497
States of metals, 1
Statistical terms, 502-509
Steckel mills, 398-402, 430, 431
Steel products:
classification of, 64-95
physical properties of, 96-126
quality descriptors, 65-95
Steels:
AISI-SAE Designation System of, 49-52
alloy, 53
sheet, 80, 81
arctic grade, 341-343
boron, 46
eutectoid, 19, 20
carbon, 50-52
sheet, 77-79
classification of, 49-95
cold-rolled sheet, 81-95
cold-rolled strip, 81
Page 837
dual-phase, 338-341
electric sheet:
nonoriented, 62
oriented, 62
ferrite, acicular, 338
high-strength low-alloy, 45, 53-55
sheet steel, 79
hot-rolled carbon sheet, 77-79
hypereutectoid, 21, 22
hypoeutectoid, 19, 20
lamination, 468, 469
manganese, 39
peritectic, 18-20
plain carbon, 38
properties of, 127-155
shock-resisting, 43
stainless:
austenitic, 39-42, 57-59
ferritic, 40, 41, 44, 57, 60

martensitic chromium, 40, 42, 57, 60, 61
precipitation hardening, 41, 42, 44, 57, 60
tool, 56, 57
cold-work, 38-40, 43
high-speed, 38-44
hot-work steel, 38-44
tungsten-chromium, 43
Steepness, 457, 458
Steffan-Boltzmann and Kirchhoff’s law, 120
Stiffness:
mill structural, 600-602
rolled material, 602
Strain:
effective, 173, 174
engineering, 97, 98
plane, 171-174
rate, 104-106
true, 97, 98
types of, 97, 98
Strength:
creep, 116
rupture, 116
tensile, 115
ultimate tensile, 99, 112
versus hardness, 112
yield, 99, 115
Strengthening mechanisms, 128-138, 336-338
Stress, 96-103
effective, 173, 174
plane, 171-174
relieving, 143, 150
residual, 176, 177
Stress-strain diagram, 98-102
Stretch forming, 140, 141
Strip:
camber, 490-492, 667-669, 678-680
crown, 439-443
flatness:
control, 767, 768, 791-829
formulas for, 457

parameters, 454-460
profile:
and flatness actuators, 743-790, 818-826
and flatness analysis, 685-701
basic types of, 445-448
control, 791-829
main parameters of, 439-448
measurement of, 791-802
running flutter, 454
shape forms, 449-453
surface defects, 368-377
wave height, 457, 458
waviness, 457
Structure of metals, 1-11
Structural changes in steel, 311-324
Sulfide:
formation of, 47
inclusion control of, 142, 143

Page 838
Sulfur, 46, 47
Superalloys, 62-64
Supercooling of austenite, 23
T
Temperature:
critical, 18
impact-transition (ITT), 114, 137, 138
mean differential, 421

Temperature loss due to
conduction, 300, 301
convection, 299
radiation, 296-298
water cooling, 299, 300
Temperature rise due to mechanical work, 301-303
Temper rolling, 348-350
Tempering, 144, 150, 151
Tensiometers, 572, 573
Test:
combined deformation, 108, 109
compression, 106, 173
dynamic impact, 113, 114
end-quench (Jomini), 112, 113
hardness, 109-113
tension, 98-100
torsion, 107
wear, 125
Texture control, 143
Thermal conductivity, 116, 117

Thermal covers, 303-307, 431, 432
Thermal diffusivity, 119, 120
Thermal emissivity, 120, 121
Thermal expansion, 121
Thermomechanical treatment, 325-353
Threading methods, 425-427
Time rise, 579
Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT):
curves, 24-26
diagrams, 24-26
Titanium, 45, 134
Tolerances:
absolute, 510-512
analytical, 510-515
compatibility of, 537
dimensional:
relative, 510, 512
standard, 461-501
statistical, 508, 509
Torque, rolling, 219-238

Toughness, 114, 115, 137, 138
Transducers:
characteristics of, 529-536
types of, 525-527
Transfer:
table, 387
Transformation:
diagrams, 24-27
temperature, 18
Tresca yield criterion, 171
Tribology, 239
Tungsten, 43
V
Valley, 444, 445
Vanadium, 42, 133, 134
Velocimeter, Doppler, 573-575
Von Mises yield criterion, 171
W
Warping, 177
Wear resistance, 125
Weldability, 141, 142

Width:
change, 611-656
by pressing, 636-655
by rolling, 632-636
optimization of, 657-682
range, 636
technology, 662-664
control:
actuators, 669-672

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Fundamentals of Flat Rolling

FLAT ROLLING FUNDAMENTALS

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING AND MATERIALS PROCESSING

1. Computers in Manufacturing, U. Rembold, M. Seth, and J. S.

1. Metal Cutting Theory and Practice, David A. Stephenson and John

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FLAT ROLLING FUNDAMENTALS

International Rolling Mill Consultants, Inc.

Danieli Wean United

Sponsored by Iron & Steel Society, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ginzburg, Vladimir B.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Eastern Hemisphere Distribution

World Wide Web

Copyright © 2000 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

These positive developments, however, were not made without

Flat Rolling Fundamentals underlines the multidisciplinary nature of the

The authors wish to express their gratitude to David Rosburg, Peter

Part I Principal Characteristics of Steel

Chapter 1 Structure of Metals 1

Chapter 2 Metallurgical Characteristics of Steel 12

Chapter 3 Chemical Compositions of Steel 28

Chapter 4 Classification of Steel 49

Chapter 5 Physical Properties of Steel Products 96

Chapter 6 Metallurgical Factors Controlling the Properties of Steel 127

Part II Deformation of Steel

Chapter 7 Microscopic and Macroscopic Plasticity 159

Chapter 8 Analysis of Workpiece Deformation 178

Chapter 9 Resistance to Deformation in Hot Rolling 199

Chapter Roll Force and Torque in Flat Rolling 219

Chapter Friction and Lubrication in Rolling 239

Part III Metallurgical Aspects of Hot Rolling Process

Chapter Heat Transfer in Hot Rolling 283

Chapter Thermomechanical Treatment Combined with Rolling 325

Chapter Metallurgical Defects in Cast Slabs and Hot Rolled 354

Part IV Rolling Mills for Flat Products

Part V Geometry of Flat Rolled Products

Part VI Gauge Control

Part VII Width Control

Part VIII Profile and Flatness Control

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1.1 Space Lattices

All metals are crystalline in nature. The crystallization of metals occurs

Body-centered cubic (b.c.c.)

1.2 Lattice Constant

Fig. 1.2 – Lattice constant.

1.3 Metallic Bond

Fig. 1.3 – Diagrammatic representation of a metallic bond. Adapted from

Table 1.1 Allotropic forms of iron.

Allotropic Crystallographic Temperature

1.5 Atomic Planes

1.6 Crystallographic Anisotropy

Any deviation from a perfectly random orientation of the many crystals in

1.7 Cooling Curve

Fig. 1.6 – Anisotropy of physical properties in a cubic crystal: a)

1.8 Metallic Dendrite

1.9 Dendrite Growth

Fig. 1.8 – Early stages in the growth of a metallic dendrite.

1.10 Crystal Boundary

Fig. 1.10 – Diagrammatic representation of a grain boundary. Adapted

1.11 Grain Shape and Size