Nordic Journal of Music Therapy

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The Psychological Functions of Music in

Adolescence

Suvi Laiho

To cite this article: Suvi Laiho (2004) The Psychological Functions of Music in Adolescence,
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 13:1, 47-63, DOI: 10.1080/08098130409478097

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/08098130409478097

Published online: 10 Jul 2009.

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 RESEARCH ARTICLES
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 13(1) 2004, pp. 47-63.

The Psychological Functions of

Music in Adolescence
Suvi Laiho

Abstract
The article presents a theoretical model of the psychological functions of music in adolescence.
The model is a categorization of the psychological goals that direct and give meaning to musical
activities in everyday life. It is based on the developmental tasks of adolescence and finds support
from a wide range of studies from several disciplines. It consists of four categories: interpersonal
relationships, identity, agency, and emotional field, which represent different areas of
psychological functions that can be supported by engaging in music. Through promoting the
satisfaction of these psychological aims music contributes substantially to adolescent
development and mental health.

Keywords: music, adolescence, health, interpersonal relationships, identity, agency, emotions.

Introduction processes that underlie h a p p i n e s s , and the

This article presents a theoretical categorization
of the psychological functions of music. It is part
of my P h D r e s e a r c h , which c o n c e r n s the
emotional and psychological meanings of music
in the everyday life of adolescents. The purpose
of the model is to provide a psychological
framework for studying the reasons for musical
behavior in a d o l e s c e n c e and to i n c r e a s e
understanding of the role of music as a health
promoting factor. The model is intended to serve
as a theoretical basis for more elaborate empirical
investigations and to promote interdisciplinary
theory building in music therapy and related
disciplines interested in youth, music, and health.
There has been an overall trend towards
emphasizing health promotion in everyday life,
examples of which include the subjective well-
being ( S W B ) research which studies the
quality of life which constitutes a broad, whole-
life framework for examining adolescent health
(Diener, Suh, Lucas & Smith, 1999; Raphael,
Rukholm, Brown, Hill-Bailey & Donato, 1996).
Stress research has also taken an interest in health
p r o m o t i n g factors instead of stressors
( A n t o n o v s k y , 1987). M u s i c therapy has
b r o a d e n e d its s c o p e t o w a r d s cultural
perspectives which link music therapy more
SUVI LAIHO
Master of Arts (Music education), Doctoral student,
Department of Music, University of Jyvaskyla. Suvi
Laiho has studied music education, psychology, and
education. At the moment she is a doctoral student
at the Pythagoras graduate school for music and sound
research. Her research concerns the emotional and
psychological functions of music in adolescence.
Address: Hauenkalliontie 2b43, 02170 Espoo,
Finland. Phone: +358 50 5361900
E-mail:suvila@cc.jyu.fi

Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)

SU VI LAIHO
closely to everyday life. Community music therapy
aims to work in the everyday life contexts of
individuals to improve well-being (Ansdell, 2002).
Ruud (1997b) argues that music therapy should
be more concerned with health in general in
society and stresses that music therapy is an
important starting point when reasoning about
how cultural activities may contribute to the
quality of life.
Although the focus of this article is on the
everyday functioning of a healthy adolescent, the
model wishes to contribute also to music therapy
theory building. According to Ansdell (2002) the
underlying assumption behind community music
therapy is that music therapy should work in the
ways in which music itself commonly works in
individual and social life. Understanding of the
psychological meanings and functions of music
in everyday life may provide music therapists with
fruitful socio-psychological perspectives to the
lives and needs of individuals. Collaboration and
dialogue between sociology, media research,
developmental psychology, music psychology,
musicology, and music therapy is needed for the
development of more comprehensive theories and
practices in all disciplines interested in music and
the needs of people.
The Psychological Perspective on the
Functions of Music
The perspective of this article is typically
psychological in the sense that the reasons for
exercising music are considered to be internal.
The underlying assumption is that engagement
in music is a goal-oriented activity of the psyche.
Individuals can, and often do, employ music as a
means for psychological outcomes in everyday
life (Ahonen-Eerikainen, 1996; DeNora, 2001;
Laiho, 2002; Lehtonen, 1984,1985; Ruud, 1997b;
Sloboda & O'Neill, 2001; Åkerblad, 2001). The
perspective is comparable to the uses and
gratifications approach used in media research,
which studies participation in music as a
purposeful activity of the individual. This
approach considers individuals as active agents
who use music for their personal needs, and music
as a device or a means for satisfying these needs
(Arnett, 1995a, 1995b; DeNora, 2001; Lull, 1987).
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
Whether or not individuals are consciously aware
of it, music serves important psychological
functions in their lives. The model presented in
this article does not focus on the health-promoting
properties and structures of music itself. Rather,
it aims to reveal its possible psychological
functions, the personal psychological goals and
motives that direct, give meaning to, and are
influenced by musical activities in the lives of
individuals.
Although research based upon uses and
gratifications has widely discussed reasons for
music consumption, it has rarely been combined
with psychological theories. As a sociological
approach it concentrates more on the social and
cultural causalities than on the mental processes
of an individual. Sloboda and O'Neill (2001) argue
that therapeutic effects of music do exist in
everyday life, but the mechanisms by which they
are mediated are poorly theorized. Developmental
psychology and music therapy are research fields
that can provide means to understand the
psychological reasons for musical behavior in
adolescence. This article aims to provide studies
of music consumption with a psychological
perspective focusing on the personal needs of
an individual.
Psychological Functions of Music are Related
to the Developmental Tasks of Adolescence
Music appears to have its strongest relevance in
adolescence. The amount of music consumption
by adolescents is enormous, and so is the
devotion that adolescents have for the music they
consume (Christenson, DeBenedittis & Lindlof,
1985; Christenson & Roberts, 1998; North,
Hargreaves & O'Neill, 2000; Roe, 1985; Zillmann
& Gan, 1997). Christenson and Roberts (1998)
argue that maybe the clearest marker of
adolescence is a passion for popular music. The
meaning and importance of music to young people
seems to be tied to their psychosocial
development (Laiho, 2002; Larson, 1995).
Therefore, the categorization is based on the
developmental tasks of adolescence.
Adolescence is a time for changes and
challenges. Adolescents need to separate from
their parents, learn self-regulation, and gain
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF MUSIC IN ADOLESCENCE
emotional autonomy and control over their own
life. Their social environment broadens as they
form new social contacts, peer groups, and sexual
relationships. Adolescents have to face
substantial changes in their object relations and
learn to balance the conflicting needs for
closeness and isolation. One of the major tasks in
adolescence is the reconstruction of the
conception of self and establishment of adult
identity. Puzzling over different aspects of
changes in self such as body image, sexuality,
future occupation, values, and ideologies is typical
for this period of life. Adolescent self-esteem is
challenged by all these changes. Adolescents
need to find balance between their personal and
environmental demands and resources. Facing
the developmental tasks of adolescence and
preparing for the roles and responsibilities of
adulthood is a big task which lays foundations
for later life (Aaltonen, Ojanen, Vihunen & Vilén,
1999; Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984; Jarasto &
Sinervo, 1999; Larson, 1995; Shaffer, 1996;
Vuorinen, 1990,1998).
In general, adolescents cope very well with
the changes of their difficult transition period.
However, it is a stressful period with increased
demands for effective coping (Chapman & Mullis,
1999; Seiffge-Krenke, 2000). Possible resources
to manage challenges are of great importance.
Good coping styles, social support, self-esteem,
high levels of perceived control over stressors,
positive mood, and opportunities for growth-
enhancing leisure activities are factors that
contribute to the mental health of adolescents
(Pinto, Kreipe, & McCoy, 1997; Placherel &
Bolognini, 1995; Raphael, 1996).
Music is an important resource for improving
adolescent coping and mental health due to its
unique characteristics. One of the primary
qualities is the ability to influence moods. This is
especially meaningful for adolescents, because
their everyday experience is often emotionally
intense and restless. Sounds and words of music
mirror the emotional turbulence of adolescent life
(Lull, 1987; Wells & Hakanen, 1991). Another
important character in music is that it speaks to
adolescent concerns. Popular music includes
themes like sexuality, autonomy, individuality,
romantic love, family values, dancing, identity,
drugs, religion, social change, and drinking
(Christensonetal., 1985; Wells & Hakanen, 1991).
Music is also an easily available and portable
medium, which can be carried along almost
anywhere (Christenson & Roberts, 1998, pp. 45-
46; Hargreaves & North, 1999). Music is able to
influence psychological functioning profoundly.
Erkkila (1996) argues that music is capable of
reaching different levels of human experience. It
can operate at a very primary level of
physiological, nonverbal, and amodal
experiences, reach symbolic and referential
meanings of the psychodynamic level, and
influence the cognitive processing of abstract
structures.
Categorization of the Psychological
Functions of Music
The model is a theoretical categorization, based
on previous research from different fields of music
psychology, sociology, media research, and music
therapy. Several empirical studies have been done
to investigate the functions and meanings of
music. These studies have been reviewed by,
among others, North, Hargreaves, and 0,Neill
(2000), Wells and Hakanen (1991), and Zillmann
and Gan (1997). To formulate the categorization, a
wide range of previous studies was reviewed. The
focus of the review was on studies concerning
adolescents and the meanings of music in
everyday life. Some of the previous divisions of
the meanings of music are theoretical
formulations; while others are based on specific
empirical studies. Many studies are compilations
of all possible reasons for engaging in music, and
not viewed from the perspective of psychological
functioning. However, a review of these studies
reveals that some psychologically important
themes are recurrently emphasized in the results.
Many of these themes seem central to musical
experiences regardless of gender, the style of
music, or the ways of consuming and creating it.
The model is created by searching these
psychological themes from the literature and
grouping them into categories. It is sort of a
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
SUVILAIHO

EMOTIONAL FIELD INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS
Entertainment, coping, high sensation (1)
Self-regulation, emotional work (2) Youth culture identification (1)
Diversion (mood, entertainment) (4) Social utility, withdrawal (4)
Mood (5) Interpersonal relationships (5)
Joy (6) Unity and isolation (7)
Self-regulation, emotional resource (7) Renegotiating relationship with parents (8)
Dealing with stress (8) Background for courting, autonomy,
Coping, pumping up (9) importance of peers, discussion topic (9)
Hedonic motive (12) Develop relationships (10)
Mood management (11) Social motive (12)
Affective awareness (13) Belonging (13)

IDENTITY AGENCY

Identity formation (1) Feeling of mastery (6)

Construction of self-identity (2) Self-determination (7)
Personal identity (4) Resist authority (10)
Self-identity (5) Achievement motives (12)
Conception of self (7) Agency (13)
To cultivate private self (8)
Assert personality (10)
Identity formation (11)

1. Arnett (1995): The uses of music in adolescent socialization

2. DeNora (1999): The functions of music
3. Christenson, DeBenedittis & Lindlof (1985): Things that children get from listening
4. Christenson & Roberts (1998): Uses and gratifications of media
5. Hargreaves & North (1999): The social functions of music
6. Kosonen (2001): Meanings of playing the piano
7. Laiho (2002): Psychological functions of music in adolescence
8. Larson (1995): The uses of music for adolescents
9. Larson, Kubey & Colletti (1989): The goals that music serves in adolescence
10. Lull (1987): Adolescent use music to
11. North, Hargreaves & O'Neill (2000): Why adolescents engage in music
12. Persson (2001): Performance motives
13. Ruud (1997b): How music contributes to the quality of life

Table 1: The four most common psychological themes in theories and divisions of the functions of
music.

Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)

 THEPSYCHOLOGICALFUNCTIONS OFMUSIC IN ADOLESCENCE
Figure 1: The categorization of the psychological functions of music in adolescence.
theoretical synthesis of literature from multiple
disciplines. The four main psychological themes
that were found in this process are emotional field,
interpersonal relationships, identity, and agency.
Examples of the issues that have been grouped
under each category are shown in Table 1.
The most common theme is emotion. Sloboda
and O'Neill (2001) asked informants to write in an
open-ended fashion about their reasons for
engaging in music. Practically all functions were
related to emotions. The centrality of emotion in
musical experiences is shown in a great number
of empirical studies (Christenson & Roberts, 1998,
pp. 47-49; DeNora, 1999; Laiho, 2002; Roe, 1985;
Wells & Hakanen, 1991). Another significant
reason for musical activities seems to be identity.
Many authors have emphasized music's role in
the construction of identity and conception of
self (Christenson & Roberts, 1998; Christenson
et al, 1985; Kurkela, 1996; Laiho, 2002; Larson,
1995; Lull, 1985; Ruud, 1997a, 1997b; Small, 1998)
and some empirical studies have reported identity
formation and mood regulation to be the principal
reasons for music consumption (DeNora, 1999;
North et al. 2000). Some researchers suggest that
music's functions should be divided into three
categories: mood, identity, and relationships
(Hargreaves & North, 1999;Arnett, 1995; Larson,
1995) and several authors emphasize the
importance of music in peer group identification
(Christenson & Roberts, 1998; Christenson et al.,
1985; Larson, Kubey, & Colletti, 1989; North et
al., 2000). The fourth repeatedly occurring theme
is agency (Kosonen, 2001; Laiho, 2002; Persson,
2001; Ruud, 1997a).
These recurrently occurring psychological
themes, interpersonal relationships, identity,
agency, and emotional field, form the four
categories of the model (Figure 1). The categories
are considered from the perspective of the
developmental tasks of adolescence. They
represent different areas of psychological goals
or functions that are central to adolescent
development and mental health and can be
supported by musical activity. The first category,
interpersonal relationships, includes experiences
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
SUVILAIHO
of belonging and privacy. The category of identity
deals with the possibilities of music to promote
the reformulation and strengthening of identity
and conception of self. Agency is related to
control, competency, achievement, and self-
esteem. The last category, emotional field,
considers the diverse mood- and emotion-related
functions of music. The psychological
functioning of an individual is a highly complex
phenomenon in which several processes are
interlinked. The four psychological functions
presented in the model are most likely to be
interconnected. Indeed, the structure of the model
is a triangle in which all the functions could be
linked with each other. The emotional functions
are situated in the center because they have been
shown in several studies to be the most important
reasons for engaging in musical activities
(Christenson & Roberts, 1998, pp. 47-49; DeNora,
1999; Laiho, 2002; Roe, 1985; Sloboda & O'Neill,
2001; Wells and Hakanen, 1991). However, the
main purpose of this model is only to categorize
these functions, not to study how they are related
to or depending on each other.
Interpersonal Relationships: Music as
a Means for Belonging and Privacy
One of the great challenges in adolescence is to
separate from one's parents and to readjust
important object relationships, the involvements
that are meaningful for one's attitudes,
personality, and behavior. Very often these
objects are close people. The modification and
enrichment of social connections is essential for
the separation-individuation process and the
reconstruction of identity. Friends, idols, and
ideologies are used as transitional objects to
support the separation from parents (Aaltonen et
al., 1999; Ruud, 1997a; Vuorinen, 1998).
According to Ruud (1997a) music symbolizes
our value attachments. It communicates
belonging and connections but also boundaries
between us and others. Laiho (2002) argues that
music promotes the balancing of conflicting
needs for closeness and isolation in adolescence.
Music enhances feelings of connection with both
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
parents and friends, and also provides
opportunities for privacy and separation from
others. Music can simultaneously give
gratifications of belonging and withdrawal
(Lehtonen, 1985;Zillmann & Gan, 1997).
Connecting
Music has the ability to evoke feelings of unity
and belonging. It enhances atmosphere creation
in social settings like concerts, parties, family
dinners, or visiting friends. Listening together
with a friend, playing in a band, singing in a group,
or joining a rock concert is a possibility for shared
feelings and experiences. Through these
collective emotional experiences one can feel deep
involvement and connection to others. (Jokinen,
1998; Laiho, 2002; Larson, 1995; Lull, 1987;
Partanen, 1996.) Csikszentmihalyi and Larson
(1984, pp. 245-247) argue that as shared music
transcends the individuality of a teenager, he or
she can forget how small and fragile the self is.
Several researchers have stated that music
enhances social communication and peer group
identification in adolescence. It can help to
establish and strengthen personal ties and social
networks. Music is a framework for forming
impressions of others, creating positions and
acceptance within peer groups, and reinforcing
group cohesion. It lessens inhibitions in social
situations, facilitates getting attention and
approval, provides topics for conversations, fills
silence, and serves as a mood-modifying
background for romantic moments and courting
behaviors like dances, parties, or dating. It may
also provide information about social world and
ways to function in collective action. (DeNora,
2001; Christenson & Roberts, 1998; Guezkow,
2002; Hargreaves & North, 1999; Larson et al.,
1989; Lewis, 1987; Lull, 1987; Ruud, 1997b.)
Music can also be a substitute for
relationships. It is often felt to be an understanding
and valued friend rather than a sounding object.
(Laiho, 2002, p. 71; Sloboda, 1992; Small, 1998, p.
202; Åkerblad, 2001). Music can create
psychological connections to peers, idols,
idealized and imaginary partners, and loved ones.
It reduces loneliness, enables adolescents to relive
the unifying experiences of rock concerts, and
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OFMUSICIN ADOLESCENCE
provides companionship and remembrance of
past times and people. (Christenson & Roberts,
1998; Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984, p. 245;
Larson, 1995;Lehtonen, 1995; Lull, 1987). Ruud
(1997a) argues that first musical memories often
include feelings of being supported, seen, and
"being held" by parents. Songs are links to
feelings of being in a safe, accepting, and
trustworthy relationship. According to Kurkela
(1993, pp. 466-467) music can be a self object just
like close people, but unlike a real person, it will
never let down or get hurt. Thus, music may
promote social connections but it can also as such
work as a friend that is always available for one's
needs.
Separating
Music defines and separates social collectives.
Musical preferences can be considered as
symbols of identification with some social group
and its values (Christenson & Roberts, 1998;
Hargreaves & North, 1999; Larson, 1995; Lewis,
1987). Music is often linked with adolescent
maturation, transformation of parental guidance
to self-determination and increase in peer
orientation (Roe, 1985; Zillmann & Gan, 1997).
Larson et al. (1989) found that there is a shift from
television watching to music listening during
adolescence. They argue that this shift symbolizes
and promotes the increased autonomy and
movement away from family because music is
associated with peer group activities and values
and often not with socialization aims and values
of school and parents. Music has been seen as a
way of expressing opposition to adult culture,
rebelling against parents, and standing for
freedom from authority (Christenson & Roberts,
1998; Kurkela, 1996; Lull, 1987). However, it seems
that instead of being a deliberate vehicle of
rebellion, music is for adolescents a way of
renegotiating their relationship with parents and
seeking independence through personal musical
preferences and activities (Christenson &
Roberts, 1998; Laiho, 2002; Larson, 1995). Larson
(1995) states, that through music adolescents can
make symbolic personal space and declare: I exist,
I am me with my own tastes.
The need for privacy increases in adolescence,
and music is an important means to promote it
(Larson, 1995). The most typical listening
environment is solitude (Larson & Kubey, 1983;
North et al., 2000). More importantly, adolescents
do not necessarily need an actual physical space
to achieve privacy. They can create a private self-
chosen acoustic space with headphones, just like
shutting the door of their own room (Jarviluoma,
1996; Åkerblad, 2001, pp. 40-42). A personal
musical world can also be created anywhere by
singing, humming, and tapping (Laiho, 2002).
Music is a way for adolescents to distance
themselves enough from parental influence to be
able to decide on their own values and
conceptions (Kurkela, 1996). It is not only a way
of separating from parents, but also an
opportunity to reflect on the private self and
identity and to develop skills to function
autonomously (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984;
Larson, 1995).
Construction of Identity and
Conception of Self
Identity has several definitions. On one hand it
refers to personal characteristics, on the other
hand to the experience of being me (Ruud, 1997a).
Aaltonen et al. (1999, p. 78) argue that identity is
strongly related to the social environment
whereas conception of self represents the inner
world of an individual. Ruud (1997a) concludes
that despite different concepts and definitions
there is a shared understanding; all these
constructs refer to our own person, who we are
and how we experience ourselves. This chapter
considers the possibilities of music to enhance
the formulation, maintenance, and expression of
this personal subject or experience.
Music Can Reflect Self, Its Structures and
Relations with Environment
Music is often felt as something personal. Musical
activity is a way of experiencing something of the
self in an external object. As symbolic
communication music is capable of reflecting the
entire conceptual world of the individual.
(Christenson & Roberts, 1998; Lewis, 1987; Lull,
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
SUVI LAIHO
1987; Ruud, 1997a.) Lehtonen (1986,1991,1995)
emphasizes that musical expression is not so much
about the content of thoughts. Instead, music
serves as a meta-structure into which one can
place personal meanings. Thus, music may be
employed as a symbol for those aspects of self
one needs it to symbolize.
Music is not just a reflection of self and identity.
Rather, it is an emotional framework for the
interpretative activity of composing constructs
related to self. It gives form to self-related
thoughts and emotions (Kurkela, 1997).
According to Ruud (1998b) music is more a way
of performing than reflecting identity. Small (1998)
argues that our conceptual connections define
who we are. Musical activity helps us to
experience and understand these relations in all
their complexity. Hence, music is a means to
explore, define, and celebrate our sense of self,
and to make us feel more fully ourselves. DeNora
(2001) states that music is a "mirror" that allows
one to see one's self, but it is also a "magic mirror"
because the image of self becomes configured by
music's perceived structures.
Music is a Way of Exploring, Constructing, and
Strengthening the Concept of Self
Adolescence is associated with increased self-
reflection. The experience of private self is very
uncertain and therefore shared, if at all, only with
the closest of friends (Larson, 1995). Music offers
a private way to explore this fragile concept, and
adolescents want music to touch their personal
life (Laiho, 2002). Sloboda and O'Neill (2001) refer
to the study of Leming, in which 81 % of young
people said that music is an important part of their
life and has influenced how they think about
important issues. Through music adolescents
reflect, for example, upon their fantasies, hopes,
fears, personal shortcomings, and worries about
future. Music offers examples of possible
identities, supports the construction of gender,
and gives guidance in moral issues, religion, and
interpersonal relationships. (Christenson &
Roberts, 1998; Laiho, 2002; Larson, 1995; Ruud,
1997a) DeNora (1999) argues that music is a means
for knowing oneself better. It promotes self-
interpretation, articulation of self-image,
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
adaptation of emotional states associated with
the self, and acquisition of new aspects to self.
According to Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1984)
adolescents may experience psychic entropy if
they are not able to structure their reflective
thoughts. As a symbolic meta-structure or "magic
mirror" music may be a profound device for
structuring the reflective activity of self-
exploration.
Certain songs, musical styles, bands, and
personal musical activities can be an important
part of identity for adolescents. Music is a way of
drawing lines, which strengthen the feeling of
being unique and distinct from others. It is a means
for asserting independence from peers and family.
Adolescents can be very strict about musical
genres they dislike, styles that do not fit their
gender identity, lifestyle orientations, or values.
(Hargreaves & North, 2000; Laiho, 2002.) On the
other hand, music is a way of strengthening the
existing conceptions of who one is, supporting
the feeling of being the same across times and
places. Music helps to integrate and organize
memories of self providing a sense of "real" self
and a feeling of continuity in life, promoting the
positive feeling of self as a coherent being over
time (DeNora, 1999; Larson, 1995; Ruud, 1997a,
1997b).
As a self-object music is a part of self.
Csikszentmihalyi and Larson (1984, p. 140) argue
that conflicts between adolescents and parents
often arise from different views about what topics
should be taken seriously. Things that seem
meaningless to adults, like going to a certain
concert or buying a certain record, may be
remarkably important to adolescents because, for
a while, they define who the adolescent is. To
take these matters lightly is to threaten the whole
psychic integrity of the adolescent. Music can
strengthen the conception of self of an adolescent
in an uncertain situation or unfamiliar
environment. By listening to their self-chosen
favorite songs from headphones, humming them,
writing their lyrics, or tapping their rhythms,
adolescents can carry a self-strengthening object
everywhere they go (Jarviluoma, 1996; Laiho,
2002).
Music is also a way of self-expression. The
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OFMUSIC IN ADOLESCENCE
most personal ways of articulating self seem to
be composing and singing (Laiho, 2002), but
individuality can be presented to others in simpler
ways as well. Erkkila (1998) argues that playing
favorite records in school is an opportunity for
adolescents to express their thoughts and values.
Due to its symbolic quality, music is a strong but
safe way of self-expression. Partanen (1996) argues
that through songs people can speak of
something they wouldn't have the courage to talk
about otherwise, because afterwards one can
always conclude safely: "It was only a song."
Agency: Control, Competency, and
Self-esteem
Agency refers to personal control and
competency. Schaffer (1996, p. 464) defines
personal agency as a recognition or
understanding that one can be the cause of
events. It is a feeling of being the agent, the one
who acts in one's own life. Vuorinen (1990, pp.
141-150) refers to similar mental functioning with
the concept of self-determination. According to
him self-determination is a need to define who
one is and to control one's own functioning and
environment. Ruud (1997b) argues that agency is
responsibility for one's life and actions, and it
includes self-management, competency,
achievement, feeling of mastery, and self-esteem.
Thus, agency is a feeling of being the
commanding, competent, and successful actor of
one's own functioning.
Agency is an important aspect of health. The
ability to feel that life is manageable contributes
to the feeling of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987).
Low levels of perceived control, self-efficacy, and
competence are shown to correlate with
depressive symptoms (Gomez, 1998; Herman-
Stahl, & Petersen, 1999; Muris, Schmidt, Lambrich,
& Meesters, 2001; Seiffge-Krenke, 2000). Threats
to self-esteem are among the most salient stressors
in adolescence (Fields & Prinz, 1997). According
to Aho (1995, p. 109) the self-esteem of high-
school students is rather strong, but its weakest
sector is achievement. Csikszentmihalyi and
Larson (1984, pp. 234-237) argue that adolescents
become easily overwhelmed by their own
expectations or environmental demands because
their conception of self is unstable and they do
not have an accurate sense of their abilities. The
lack of meaningful goals causes the opposite
problem: boredom. Underlying both problems is
a breakdown in a person's ability to control his or
her actions. The authors also note that conflicts
with adolescents are often about controlling the
contents of one's consciousness: what to do, how
to feel, where to be, what to want, and what to
pay attention to. Adolescents also seem to be
mostly intrinsically motivated in places which are
furthest from adult control.
Music as a Means for Control and Achievement
Music can have a strong contribution to
adolescents' sense of agency and self-esteem.
Music is a way of controlling the environment. It
is usually under the command of the consumer
because one can easily choose desired songs,
times, places, and volume levels (DeNora, 1999;
Lull, 1987). For adolescents, music may be one of
the few things over which they have an effective
control. Familiar music can give an experience of
being in control of an uncertain situation and
support the feeling of "being somebody", serving
as a psychological and cultural platform (Ruud,
1997b). Choosing music to accompany duties may
bring some autonomy and personalization to them
(Sloboda & O'Neill, 2001). Adolescents appreciate
hobbies that are uncompelled, self-chosen and
informal (Laiho, 2002). These activities give them
feelings of being in control of their own
functioning. Korpela (1998) argues that
opportunities for free and relaxed activity and self-
expression are ways of self-determination.
Musical activities can give experiences of
learning, mastering, and achieving which, in turn,
feed self-esteem. According to Kosonen (2001, p.
84) the feeling of mastery is one of the most
important meanings of playing and includes both
technical and emotional mastery. Lull (1987)
argues that music can be a device for qualifying
oneself as an expert on music. According to Ruud
(1997b) music can help a child to master sound
environment, and to attain cognitive, senso-motor,
social-communicative, and emotional skills.
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
SU VI LAIHO
Kurkela (1993, p. 179) argues that the satisfaction
of performing is gained from the feelings of
success and capability. Musical hobbies give
adolescents experiences of accomplishing
something meaningful, and strengthen their
beliefs in their abilities. It is also important for
adolescents that the music they listen to is
somehow familiar, controllable, and
understandable. In a way, the control over music
gives them a feeling of self-control (Laiho, 2002).
Ahonen (1993, pp. 266-267) argues that music
is a means for training to control inner impulses
because it serves as a platform for retaining and
releasing tensions. Feelings of control and
competency are not related only to actions and
achievements, but also to self- and emotion
regulation. Dominance over one's own moods is
central to the feeling of self-determination. Thus,
using music to regulate moods is one form of
gaining experiences of self-control and agency.
Moods also have an effect on self-esteem. Indeed,
mood ratings tend to correlate with self-esteem
scales, and mood induction is shown to affect
feelings of self-competency and judgments about
one's impact on situations. (Keltikangas-Jarvinen,
1994; Salovey & Rodin, 1985; Vuorinen, 1990, p.
148.)
Emotional Field
Emotions bring color and meaning to life. Music's
capability to evoke emotional experiences is
probably for many people the most important
reason for creating and consuming music. As
mentioned before, there are a number of studies
that have shown emotion-related functions to be
the primary reasons to engage in musical activity.
In addition, they may be especially meaningful
for adolescents because youth is a period of
increased emotional unrest and overall
emotionality. Emotions of adolescents are more
short-lived but substantially stronger than
emotions of adults. Thus, adolescents go through
intense mood swings, and they need resources
for emotion regulation. They also tend to be
higher in sensation seeking than adults, so they
look for strong emotional experiences. (Arnett,
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
1995; Csikszenmihalyi & Larson, 1984, pp. 120-
124; Larson, 1995.)
Moods, emotions, feelings, or affective
experiences have several different definitions.
These concepts have been discussed by Erkkila
(1996) among others. Here, I shall not distinguish
these constructs. Rather, I will take a broad
approach to the whole field of different emotion-
related functions of music. The diversity of
empirical results and theories of the emotional
functions of music reflects the complexity of
emotional experience. Music can provide
enjoyment or a way of dealing with stress and
negative emotions. It can either change emotional
experience or help to deal with already existing
emotions. It is an endless resource for identifying,
understanding, intensifying, changing,
communicating, enjoying, releasing, and
regulating different emotional states. (Behne, 1997;
Christenson& Roberts, 1998,2003; DeNora, 1999;
Hargreaves & North, 1999; Larson, 1995; Sloboda,
1992.)
Music can Evoke Desired Emotional States
Probably the most salient reason for music
consumption is to somehow influence current
feeling state. According to Feldman-Barrett and
Gross (2001), emotion regulation refers to different
attempts to influence what emotions to have, how
to experience them, and how to express them.
Hochschild (1979) proposed that people work on
feelings to render them appropriate to a situation.
The mood management theory of Zillmann (1988a,
1988b) is based on a hedonistic proposition, that
individuals arrange stimulus conditions to
minimize bad moods and maximize good moods.
However, some researchers argue that people also
strive for negative emotional states (Feldman-
Barrett & Gross, 2001; Mayer and Stevens, 1994).
The gratifications of maintaining a negative mood
may be related to gaining better understanding
over current situation and feelings. Music is well-
suited to the task of emotion regulation because
it has the ability to affect subjective cognitive,
bodily, and self-conceptual stages, create a
wanted atmosphere, and put a person in a right
mood for almost any activity or situation (DeNora,
2001; Laiho, 2002; Lull, 1987). Emotion
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF MUSIC IN ADOLESCENCE
management may or may not be conscious, but
DeNora (1999) argues that people have awareness
about what kind of music they need in certain
times and situations.
Music does not have an affect only on moods
but also on arousal. Arousal levels do not always
correlate with emotional intensity (Madsen, 1997),
and, for example, heavy metal music affects
arousal but not necessarily anger (Gowensmith
& Bloom, 1997). However, arousal is part of a
feeling state. Music helps to regulate levels of
bodily energy (DeNora, 1999). It can either
stimulate or sedate the physiological processes
in the body (Hodges, 1980). According to Zillmann
(1988b) the preference for arousal levels of the
stimulus serves excitatory homeostasis: under-
stimulated people prefer arousing, and over-
stimulated people prefer calming stimuli. North
and Hargreaves (2000) found that people attempt
to optimize arousal levels to suit the situation.
Christenson and Roberts (1998, p. 51) suggest
that music is more likely to perform an energizing
than a de-energizing function. Energetic mood is
preferred especially when going out or preparing
for a social event (DeNora, 1999; Laiho, 2002).
Music as a Resource for Enjoyment and Coping
People frequently engage in musical activities
simply for pleasure, and favorite music is often
associated with positive emotions (Lull, 1987;
Wells & Hakanen, 1991). Enjoyment is an
important part of well-being. Enjoyment music
enhances general positive mood, refreshes and
revitalizes, helps to fight boredom, and gives
energy to face the challenges of everyday life
(Laiho, 2002). Favorite songs and pleasures of
musical experiences can serve as organizers of
self, and produce a sense of well-being, stability,
wholeness, and purpose in life, which makes it
easier to feel good about oneself and current
situation (Keltikangas-Jarvinen, 2000, pp. 35-36;
Larson, 1995; Ruud, 1997b.)
Music can serve as a counterbalance for
schoolwork and daily routines. It is a means to
relax after school, and to distance thoughts from
current situation and worries (Laiho, 2002). Larson
et al. (1989) argue that pop music offers an escape
from the daily socialization pressures because it
does not tell adolescents to delay gratification
and prepare for adulthood. Distraction, using
pleasant activities to relieve moods, is an
important coping strategy for adolescents.
Several researchers have proposed that music is
a means for distraction or escape from personal
burdens (Behne, 1997; Chapman & Mullis, 1999;
Christenson et al., 1985; Christenson & Roberts,
1998, p. 203; Hargreaves & North, 1999; Lull, 1987;
Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler, & Mayer, 1999;
Sloboda, 1992).
Adolescents often want to listen to music in a
high volume, feel it strongly in their bodies, and
surrender to the powerful feelings in concerts
(Laiho, 2002). In techno raves rhythm, dance, and
movement are means for acquiring feelings of
ecstasy and inner peace (Salmi, 1996). Larson and
Kubey (1983) found that music was enjoyed most
when adolescents felt "out of control," and Arnett
(1991, 1995) argues that of all age groups,
sensation seeking is most important to
adolescents. According to Vuorinen (1998, p. 216)
the fanatic feelings in big rock concerts or in
football matches help adolescents face their inner
impulses. Tervo (2001) describes musical
experience as a state of mind which unites body
and fantasies. He argues that the high volume
and steady beat of rock music create
simultaneous feelings of safety and excitement.
Thus, music is a safe way of allowing oneself to
confront and experience deep and strong inner
feelings.
Music is an effective means to confront and
identify all kinds of emotions. Ruud (1997b) argues
that music is an arena for training emotional
tolerance and forming the ability to contain
complex and difficult emotions. Empirical research
has shown that somehow music is able to reflect
feelings, concretize them, and make them an object
of knowledge, in a way, present self to self
(DeNora, 1999; Laiho, 2002). Salovey et al. (1999,
2000) argue that clarification of emotions is
important for recovering from negative moods
because it prevents rumination. They state that
ruminative people are stuck in an attempt to make
sense of their feelings. Feldman-Barrett and Gross
(2001) argue that the capability to differentiate
emotions is lowered during times of stress. Thus,
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
SUVILATHO
engaging with music to promote clarification may
be especially important in times of trouble. Like
Christenson and Roberts (1998, p. 125) state:
"Something about the sad times seems to call for
a song."
An increase in problems seems to increase the
intensity of musical experience and the time spent
on listening to music (Arnett, 1995; Behne, 1997).
Christenson and Roberts (1998, p. 25) postulate
that adolescents experience and deal with their
problems and crises intrapsychically rather than
interpersonally. Music can be an effective way of
enhancing this mental work. Several researchers
have proposed that music is a means for self-
therapy, reflecting feelings, clarifying thoughts,
dealing with stressful matters, working through
conflicts, and starting to feel better (Behne, 1997;
DeNora, 1999; Laiho, 2002; Larson, 1995;
Lehtonen, 1984, 1985; Ruud, 1997b; Sloboda,
1992,2001). Small (1998, pp. 160-171) argues that
people can identify with conflict, struggle, and
reestablishment of order in music. In this way
musical activity is able to reconcile the
contradictions and paradoxes in the self, and to
celebrate the integrity of the person. According
to Lehtonen (1986; 1993) music is a process of
"externalizing the internal," an attempt to give
form and meaning to the mental and physical, non-
lingual, unconscious experiences. Through music
it is possible to reflect and integrate mental
structures. Music can serve as a bad object
through which unmanaged elements of psyche
can be processed safely, made understandable,
and taken into control (Kurkela, 1996, 1997;
Lehtonen, 1986, 1993). Music is a framework for
reappraisal of experiences and reestablishment of
mental order.
Music is also emotional expression. Ventilating
feelings is an important coping strategy for
adolescents (Chapman & Mullis, 1999). Emotional
disclosure may organize thoughts and feelings
and assist psychological adjustment (Salovey et
al., 2000; Sloboda & O'Neill 2001). However,
ventilation has been associated with health risk
behaviors, too (McCubbin, Needle & Wilson
1985). The deciding factor is probably the nature
of ventilation: there is a great difference in
ventilating feelings through yelling, criminal
Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 2004, 13(1)
actions, or listening to angry music. As a symbolic
object music enables safe and acceptable
expression of difficult, violent or disapproved
thoughts, feelings, and impulses (Ahonen, 1993,
p. 139; DeNora, 1999;Erkkila, 1998; Laiho, 2002;
Small, 1998). Ruud (1997b) argues that expressing
oneself through music is a way of giving form to
the expression of emotion. That way musical
expression is also a sort of personal reflection
over life situation or difficulties.
Conclusions
The categorization presented in this article is
based on a theoretical synthesis of research from
different disciplines. The interdisciplinary
approach enables empirical results of music
consumption to be imbued with a psychological
perspective and theory. The model is not meant
to encompass all possible reasons for engaging
in music. Instead, it describes the most important
psychological motives and goals. The
categorization focuses on the psychological
functioning of adolescents, and the goals are
strongly related to their psychosocial
development. Applications for other age groups
are subjects for future research.
The model categorizes the psychological
functions of music into four distinct fields:
interpersonal relationships, identity, agency, and
emotional field. Each of the four categories needs
a lot of closer investigation. The model does not
reveal all processes related, for example, to
feelings of unity in concerts, construction of
gender identity, strengthening feelings of self-
control, or management of anger through music.
It is a broad framework which helps to situate
these specific processes into the wholeness of
adolescent psychological functioning,
development, and mental health. I have presented
some motives and psychological processes
included in each category, but more elaborate
investigations may lead to dividing the categories
into specific subcategories and finding
relationships between them. My work in the future
will concentrate on the emotion-related functions.
More research is also needed on the connections
 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF MUSIC IN ADOLESCENCE

and causal relationships between the main understanding of the reasons and processes
categories. related to musical activities in everyday life
The categorization describes the possible contributes to the understanding of music as a
psychological functions of music. However, it part of personal experiences, well-being, health,
does not tell which of them become emphasized and quality of life.
in certain times and places. People can choose to
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