Hill Geographer Vol .

XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 a

 Hill Geographer
XXXV:1 (2019), ISSN 0970-5023
Editor : D. K. Nayak

CONTENTS
Author/s Title of the article Page No.
Research paper/s
Subinita Kamle and Women’s representation in Indian political system: a study in electoral
Sudeepta Adhikari geography............................................................................................1-21
Ambika Roy Bardhan and Gender differentials in the trends and patterns of ageing population
Lakshmi Sivaramakrishnan in India...............................................................................................23-31
Amit Sardar and Livelihood (in) security among the Lodhas in Rarh and Terai regions
Debendra Kumar Nayak of West Bengal: a comparative analysis .......................................33-47
Tapas Ranjan Patra and Implications of morphometry in the drought-prone Khairabandhan
Ashis Chandra Pathy drainage basin...................................................................................49-61
Nitin Kumar Mishra and Spatial analysis of rural settlements in Saharsa district, Bihar: a
M. B. Singh geographical appraisal......................................................................63-72
Report
Uday Chatterjee and Atanu Sen Women empowerment and livelihood patterns among Kumbhakar
community: a case study of Panchmura village of Bankura District,
West Bengal.......................................................................................73-82
Luna Moni Das Socio-economic impact of annual floods in Jiya Dhol river basin
.............................................................................................................83-92
P Robinson Singh and Intra-state regional disparities in Manipur..................................93-104
Ripudaman Singh
PK Ryngnga Trends and patterns of urbanization in Meghalaya, India.... 105-111
Durgesh Nandini Biswal, Changing rural landuse in Kendrapara district, Odisha........ 113-119
Sujata Mishra, Saudamini Ray

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 d

 Hill Geographer
XXXV:1 (2019), 83-92
ISSN 0970-5023

Report
Socio-economic impact of annual floods in Jiya Dhol river basin
Luna Moni Das
Department of Geography, Vasanta College for Women, Varanasi
Email: lunamonidas87@gmail.com

Abstract
The Jiya Dhol River is a small tributary of the Brahmaputra in Assam valley of
India. It causes devastating floods almost every year during monsoon season.
This paper explores the traditional strategies adopted to withstand flood in
the study area. The socio-economic conditions of people living in different
flood intensity areas within the basin are compared to understand the impact
of annual floods on the socio-economic condition. The severely flood-affected
villages have experienced occupational shift from cultivators to wage labourers
and higher out-migration of people as compared to other areas. The study also
concludes the traditional wisdom of flood management still plays a significant
role in the management of flood in Jiya Dhol River basin.
Keywords: Socio-economic impact, floods, traditional wisdom, flood management.
Introduction
Floods leave a distinct imprint on the landscape of the affected area and also on the socio-
economic conditions of the communities affected by it. These are natural and regular phenomena
in floodplains but are hazardous for communities living in floodplain across all river valleys
of the world. Historical records and time series can be used to understand the flood history
of the area along with the historical environmental and social condition (Chen et. al, 2016).
Many scholars have studied the social impact of floods in different areas across the world using
variables like population density, gender, age, income, employment loss, occupation, education,
etc to study the social impact of floods (Chen et al, 2014; Hummell et al, 2016; Frigerio et
al, 2018). Consequences of flood or implication of floods are often estimated with the help
of questionnaire-based survey, its classification, tabulation and statistical analysis (Khan, 1991;
Agbola, et al. 2012). The most sustainable flood risk management strategy is to adapt to the
situation by learning from the existing and past situation (Green, 2010). Thus, the traditional

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 83

measures of flood adaptation are most important in understanding the implication of floods on
man.
Brahmaputra river system is one of the most flooded river systems of the world. The
natural processes alone are adequate to cause devastating floods annually in the Brahmaputra
River as the average annual flood of 47,608 cumecs has a recurrence interval of 2.56 years,
(Bhattachariyya and Bora, 1997). The Jiya Dhol is a tributary of Brahmaputra and is notorious in
Assam for causing devastating floods almost every year during monsoon season.
This paper aims to explore the impact of annual floods on the life of people dwelling in the
basin and also to study the prevailing traditional strategies for flood adaptation, management and
mitigation in the study area. The basin of the Jiya Dhol River extends from 27˚15′ N to 27˚45′ N
latitudes and 94˚15′ E to 94˚40′ E longitudes, covering an area of 1191.62 km2, of which 38 per
cent (446.6 km2) lies in Arunachal Pradesh and 62 per cent (746.6 km2) in Assam (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Jiya Dhol river basin

Fig. 1: Jiya Dhol river basin

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 84

Database and methodology
A list of the village with different intensity of flood is collected from the Disaster Management
Cell, Dhemaji
Database District of Assam (Table 1). The cell provided an unpublished list of high,
and methodology
moderateAand listleast
of thefloodvillage with different
vulnerable villagesintensity
within ofJiyaflood
Dhol is River
collected frombased
basin, the Disaster
on past records
Management Cell, Dhemaji District of Assam (Table 1). The cell provided an unpublished
of variables
list of high, moderate and least flood vulnerable villages within Jiya Dhol River basin, based during
like depth and period of inundation, frequency and loss of life and property
past floods.
on Thirty villages
past records in eachlike
of variables category of period
depth and flood ofaffected areas-
inundation, severely
frequency andflooded, moderately
loss of life
flooded and least flooded area- have been selected for the present study and their location is
and property during past floods. Thirty villages in each category of flood affected areas-
shown inseverely
fig. 2. As flooded,
manymoderately flooded and
as 10 households areleast flooded selected
randomly area- havefrom been each
selected
of for
thethe
90 villages.
present study and their location is shown in fig. 2. As many as 10 households are randomly
To compare the socio-economic condition of the people living in different
selected from each of the 90 villages. To compare the socio-economic condition of the people flood-affected areas
within theliving
basin, differentflood-affected
in different variables are selected.
areas Thirty
within the basin,villages
differentin variables
every three categories have
are selected.
been surveyed
Thirty using
villagesstructured
in every threeschedule. Variables
categories have been likesurveyed
population usingdensity
structuredandschedule.
composition of
population Variables
based like on sex,population
social density and composition
categories, of population and
religious, occupation, basededucation
on sex, social
were used to
categories, religious, occupation, and education were used to assess the effect of flood on
assess thepopulation
effect of and flood on population and society. The annual income of
society. The annual income of the family along with the size of land holding, the family along with
the size ofhouse
landtype,
holding,
livestock and other assets are used as indicators of economic condition. Theeconomic
house type, livestock and other assets are used as indicators of
condition. The availability
availability of basic of basic infrastructure
infrastructure such
such as schools, as schools,
hospitals, market, hospitals,
high raised market, high raised
platforms
for use during floods, availability of services were also considered
platforms for use during floods, availability of services were also considered in understanding in understanding the the
socio-economic impact of the flood in Jiya Dhol River Basin.
socio-economic impact of the flood in Jiya Dhol River Basin.

Fig. 2: Location of surveyed villages in the Jiya Dhol River Basin

Fig. 2: Location of surveyed villages in the Jiya Dhol River Basin

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 85

 Some unpublished secondary data on loss associated with flood are also collected from the
Agricultural department of Dhemaji District, Dhemaji Revenue circle office and Water Resource
Department of Dhemaji and Lakhimpur District. These data are presented in the section dealing
with the losses associated with flood. In the last section of the paper the traditional techniques
of flood management used in the basin are discussed in brief as the study area has the unique
traditional of adapting to recurrent flooding.
Population characteristics
The population statistics of each of the 30 villages in each of the three flood vulnerability
zones have been collected from both primary and secondary sources. As expected, density of
population is inversely related with intensity of flood. Population density of the severely flood-
affected village is low compared to the moderately and less flood-prone areas (Table 2). Flood
free village of the plains has the highest density of population among the three zones.
Ethnic composition of the population (Table 2) reveals interesting social profiling as one
finds greater concentration of socio-economically deprived section of the population in severely
flood affected areas and an increase in the proportion of people belonging to other segments
as the flood intensity decreases. A majority (65%) of people in the severely affected villages
is inhabited by the depressed community of the scheduled tribes mostly comprising Misings
and Miri Tribes. The highest concentration (20%) of the scheduled caste population-another
socio-economically deprived segment is also found in severely flood affected village and they
are mostly consist of Kaibartta sub caste (a fishing community). There is a positive relationship
between intensity of flood and concentration of the tribal and scheduled caste population. The
relationship is reverse with regard to the presence of OBC/MOBC and Others.
Table 2 Population of different flood vulnerable villages in Jiya Dhol River Basin
Categories Severely Flooded Moderately Flooded Least Flooded
Density (Persons per km2) 10 35 44
ST (%) 65 43 35
OBC/MOBC (%) 15 36 37
SC (%) 20 16 15
Others (%) 0 5 13
Source: Field survey, 2014
Table 3 Seasonal out migration in Jiya Dhol River Basin
Migration Severely Flooded Moderately Flooded Least Flooded
Village Village Village
Seasonal Out Migration per 10 3 1
100 persons
Source: Field survey, 2014
Migration rate is found to be the highest in the village located in the severely flood-
affected village (Table 3). The rate of seasonal out-migration from severely flood affected,
moderately flood affected and less flood-affected villages in the Jiya Dhol River basin are in the

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 86

ratio 10:3:1. This reveals a very high rate of seasonal out-migration in severely flood-affected
villages as compared to the moderately and less flood-prone villages. Most of the migrants
consist of young males. Although permanent migration is less but displacement of 12 people
from two families in the severely flood-affected areas have also been reported in the year 2014 by
the village heads as well as the Office of the Revenue Circle, Dhemaji.
Education
The educational infrastructure however is unrelated irrespective of the flood proneness of
the area. Primary schools, Anganwadi centers, adult education centers are availableat regular
intervals. In the severely flood-affected village, availability of infrastructure does not affect the
educational infrastructure of the village. In fact, the school buildings are used for providing
shelter to the flood-affected people as relief camps. However, severely flood-affected villages
have high dropouts in the primary level of school education. The proportion of the population
with higher level of education is inversely related with the levels of flood intensity (Table 4).
Table 4 Educational level (in %) in villages of different flood intensity
Educational qualification Severely Flooded Moderately Flooded Less Flooded
Illiterate 1.6 1.4 1.5
Class V 33 31 30
High School 27 25 22
Higher Secondary 31 33 35
Graduate 5.7 7.8 9.7
Post Graduate/others 1.7 1.8 1.8
Source: Field survey, 2014
Occupation
The occupational structure seems to have been most influenced by the extent of flood affecting
the basin (Table 5). Very few in the most severely flooded zone practice agriculture and rely more
on agricultural wage earning as a means of livelihood. The reverse is true of the least affected
zone. Moderately affected villages represent a transitional case.
Table 5 Occupational structure of flooded villages (in %)
Occupation Severely Flooded Moderate Flooded Less Flooded
Agriculture 7.5 26.7 58.4
Animal Husbandry 16.4 16.6 12.6
Business 14.6 16.2 10.5
Wage labour 59.5 32.1 7.2
Service 2 8.4 11.3
Source: Field survey, 2014
Further enquiry with families engaged as wage labourers revealed that 75 per cent of them
were formerly engaged in agriculture as cultivators but with recurring floods, had to shift to wage

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 87

labour due to loss of cultivable land they once possessed. The loss of land is caused either due
to siltation of cultivable land during floods or due to bank erosion. The farmers cultivating areas
near flood-prone areas also have a high risk of standing crop damage due to the current of flood
water flow or logging of the flood water.
Flood loss
The damage caused by the annual floods of Jiya Dhol River has hit the people of the Dhemaji
District hard. The consistency in the losses related to flood has jeopardized the economy of the
region. Fig 3 represents the total annual loss in crores (one crore =10 million) caused by annual
floods in Jiya Dhol River floods from 1994 to 2015. Almost every year more than 1000 people
suffered from flood furry.

90
80
Total Loss in Crores

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015
Years
Fig. 3: Total annual loss caused by floods in Jiya Dhol River Basin
Fig. 3: Total annual
Source: lossManagement
Disater caused by floods in Jiya Dhol
Cell, Dhemaji River Basin
District.
Source: Disater Management Cell, Dhemaji District.
Loss of cultivable land due to siltation is a major problem in the basin. Plate 1 shows
Loss of cultivable
sedimentation in Tekjuriland due after
village to siltation
Augustis2014 a major problem
flood. Accordingin theto basin.
the dataPlate 1 shows
collected
sedimentation
from Agriculture in Tekjuri village after
Department, AugustDistrict,
Dhemaji 2014 flood. According
during monsoon to the data collected
season from May- from
Agriculture Department, Dhemaji District, during monsoon season
September, 2014, 307 hectares of the area are silted by the river. The average depth of the from May-September,
2014, 307ishectares
siltation 0.75 meter of the
andarea
the are
totalsilted
volumeby the river. The cumecs.
is 22,38,030 average depth of in
Siltation thethe
siltation is 0.75
residential
meter and the total volume is 22,38,030 cumecs. Siltation in the residential
area has forced many families to abandon their house (Plate 2) and siltation of agricultural area has forced many
families to abandon their house (Plate 2) and siltation of agricultural
land makes it infertile (Plate 3). According to Dhemaji Revenue Circle, half of the 24 land makes it infertile (Plate
3). According
villages in theto Dhemaji
circle have Revenue Circle,siltation
suffered from half ofcaused
the 24 by
villages
floodinduring
the circle
2005have suffered from
-2014.
siltationConstruction
caused by flood during 2005 -2014.
of embankment and dyke is an important structural measure for flood
management in the basin. But devastating floods are caused due to breaching of Jiya Dhol
Construction of embankment and dyke is an important structural measure for flood
embankment. Breaching of right bank embankment and dyke occurred in 1983, 1985, 1988,
management in the basin. But devastating floods are caused due to breaching of Jiya Dhol
1990, 1991 and 2007 and left bank embankment in 1984, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1992, 1996,
embankment.
1997, 1998, 2007, Breaching of right
2008, 2011 andbank
2014.embankment and dykeare
Most of the breaches occurred
eventuallyin 1983,
closed1985,
with 1988,
the
1990, 1991 and 2007 and left bank embankment in 1984, 1987, 1988,
exception of left bank breaching at Dihiri in 1998, at Kekuri in 1992, till December 2007 and 1990, 1992, 1996, 1997,
1998, 2007, breach
the Tekjuri 2008, 2011 gap ofand2014
2014.
tillMost of the breaches
the present. According aretoeventually
the Waterclosed withDepartment,
Resource the exception
of
Dhemaji District, the insufficient opening in the railways and the National Highway the
left bank breaching at Dihiri in 1998, at Kekuri in 1992, till December 2007 and Tekjuri
52 (now
breach gap of 2014 till the present. According to the Water
NH 15) bridge led to breaching of the railway line in1998 and 2011 and breaching of Resource Department, Dhemaji
District,
highway the insufficient
in 2003, 2010 and opening in the railways
2011 resulted and the and
in submergence National Highway
destruction 52 km
of 2.5 (now NHof15)
length
NH 52 at Samarajan (Plate 4).

Availability of basic facilities

Hill Geographer
A majority of Vol
the .households
XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN
(83%) severely flooded villages have raised Kaccha88
0970-5023
in the
houses. These houses are made of bamboo and timber as shown in plate 1. Only eleven
households were found during the survey to have used concrete pillars to raise the house
bridge area.
led toSupply of electricity is deficit in all villages that were surveyed. Practically there is no
breaching of the railway line in1998 and 2011 and breaching of highway in 2003,
electricity in the most vulnerable village during flooding months. According to Dhakuakhana
2010 and area.
2011 Supply of electricity
resulted in is deficitand
submergence in all villages thatofwere
destruction surveyed. Practically there is no
Electrical Subdivision,
electricity in the most the supplyvillage
vulnerable of electricity
during is cut2.5
flooding
km
down
months.
length
during oftheNH
According
52
floods
to
attoSamarajan
avoid
Dhakuakhana
(Plate 4).
casualties due to electrocution. Similarly, the mobile network is also weak throughout the
Electrical Subdivision, the supply of electricity is cut down during the floods to avoid
study
area.
area.
Availability area.
Supply
Supply
of
casualties The
basic
due weekly market
ofofelectricity
electricity
facilities
to electrocution. is Similarly,
available
isisdeficit
deficit in all
in inthevillages
all villages
villages that less
that were
mobile were affected
surveyed.
surveyed.
network by flood.
Practically
Practically
is also there
thereisisnonothe
weak throughout
electricity in the most vulnerable village during flooding months. According to Dhakuakhana
electricity in the
study area. Themost vulnerable
weekly village
market is during
available floodingless
in villages months. According
affected by flood.to Dhakuakhana
A majorityElectrical Subdivision, (83%)
of theSubdivision,
Electrical households the supply
the supply ofseverely
in theof electricity is
is cut
flooded
electricity down
down during
cutvillages have the
the floods
duringraised Kaccha
floods totohouses.
avoid
avoid These
casualtiesdue
casualties duetotoelectrocution.
electrocution. Similarly,
Similarly, the
the mobile
mobile network
network isis also
also weak
weak throughout
throughout the
the found
houses are made
studyarea.
of
area.The
bamboo
Theweekly
and
weeklymarket
timber as
marketisisavailable
shown
available in
in
in villages
plate
villages less
1. Only
affected by
eleven
flood.
households were
study less affected by flood.
during the survey to have used concrete pillars to raise the house above the annual flood inundation
level. Majority (64%) of the houses in the less flood-affected villages are concrete houses.

Plate 1: Siltation at Tekjuri Village. Plate 2: Siltation of a house

Plate 1: Siltation at Tekjuri Village. Plate 2: Siltation of a house

Plate 1: Siltation at Tekjuri Village. Plate 2: Siltation of a house

Plate 1: Siltation at Tekjuri Village. Plate 2: Siltation of a house
Plate 1: Siltation at Tekjuri Village. Plate 2: Siltation of a house

Plate
Plate3:3:Siltation
Siltationof
of Agricultural at Naroathan
Agricultural land at NaroathanVillage
Village
PlatePlate
3: Siltation ofofAgricultural
3: Siltation landatatNaroathan
Agricultural land Naroathan Village
Village
Plate 3: Siltation of Agricultural land at Naroathan Village

Plate 4: 2.5 km damaged part of NH 51 at Samarajan Plate 5: Saram Dan Camp

Plate 4:Plate
2.5
Platekm damaged
4:4:2.5
2.5km partpart
kmdamaged
damaged ofofofNH
part 51atatat
NH51
NH Samarajan
Samarajan
Samarajan Plate 5: Plate
Plate Saram 5:
5: Saram
DanSaram
Dan Dan Camp
Camp
Camp

Plate 4: 2.5 km damaged part of NH 51 at Samarajan Plate 5: Saram Dan Camp

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 89
 Basic infrastructure like Anganwadi Center and primary schools are available within a range
of 3 km in all of the villages but in severely flood-affected villages, these remain closed due to
flood for six months from April to September and also because most of these public buildings
are used as relief camps during occurrence of flood.
The basin has a well-developed network of roads starting from the national highway to
state and district level roads. The all-weather roads have been constructed in all of the villages
but severe damage to these roads take place by the annual floods. The roads need frequent repair
and do not sustain for long. Breaching of roads is a common problem in the area. Supply of
electricity is deficit in all villages that were surveyed. Practically there is no electricity in the most
vulnerable village during flooding months. According to Dhakuakhana Electrical Subdivision,
the supply of electricity is cut down during the floods to avoid casualties due to electrocution.
Similarly, the mobile network is also weak throughout the study area. The weekly market is
available in villages less affected by flood.
Traditional strategies of flood management
Jiya Dhol river basin is historically a flood-prone area. Ethnic communities dwelling in the region
have developed mechanism to adapt to flood. Construction of houses on raised platforms and
Bhoral (store room) over bamboo poles, keeping valuables in a higher place within the house,
preferably near the ceiling, owning a wooden boat, avoiding most vulnerable areas for cultivation
and settlement, are some of the common strategies adopted by the dwellers of flood-prone areas
throughout Assam. The indigenous people of the basin too practice all these methods.
The houses constructed over bamboo poles are often raised to a height above one
metre. These houses provide a higher platform during the flood season. Due to the vast flat
area, inundation over one metre is rare. The height of poles may increase based on past flood
inundation level. The valuables of the household are kept in a Bor Chang (attic) near the ceiling of
the house and this provision is universal in every household in the study area. The Changs of the
raised house and the ceiling are mostly made of bamboo. The Bhorals, the storeroom for keeping
grains are often placed higher than the dwelling house either with the help of bamboo poles or
wooden log or on poles of concrete cement. The people from flood-prone areas also use a raised
wooden grinder to grind the food grains and raised tube well to be used during the flood.
The backyard of the house has bamboo plantation which proves very effective in resisting
high velocity flood wave during flash floods, apart from serving the households need for bamboo
as an important resource for multiple uses. It also helps in diverting siltation occurring during the
flood to a safer place and reduces siltation in residential areas.
Possession of wooden boats is most important as it is the only mode of communication
during the floods. In case unavailable, instant rafts are made from the banana stem that are easily
procured from banana plantations practiced in every household. Bamboo shoots and the banana
stems provide much needed food security to these flood affected people deprived of vegetable
supply during long periods of flood.
Cultivation of Bao dhan (Brown, deep water paddy) is another traditional practice in
severely flood affected areas. This paddy culture is common in the area as it does not require the

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 90

transplantation and hence less labour intensive. Cultivation of Ahu dhan (Shallow water peddy) is
confined to less flood-prone areas.
The Jiya Dhol River is a frequently avulsing river and the indigenous communities have
been practicing the bamboo shading or bamboo walls technique to divert the flow of the river
from residential areas. After the breaching and resulted channel avulsion of 2014, it has been
seen that the local peoples along with some support from government and NGOs went for Sarm
Dan (Volunteer Labour) Camp (Plate 5) for preparing bamboo wall to divert the flow of Jiya
Dhol away from the breaching point but this was a great failure. The Jiya Dhol is still flowing
through the breached gap, but this technique has many success stories in the past.
Conclusion
One finds an interesting social gradient as far as the zones of different flood intensities in
the basin is concerned. The more frequently flooded zones have greater proportion of tribal
population. The more advanced non-ST/SC segments usually concentrate in zones less affected
by flood. Sedimentation is serious problem in the area compared to inundation associated with
floods. The most important social implication of floods in the severely flood-affected villages
is the occupational shift of the people in recent years from cultivators to wage labourers and
accelerated out-migration. Despite provision of basic infrastructural facilities by the government,
frequent flooding limits their use, access and utility. The annual damage caused to the structures
like roads, housed, schools and Namghar(Temple) trap the severely affected villages into the
vicious cycle of poverty and unemployment.
References
Agbola, B. S., Ajayi, O., Taiwo, O. J., and Wahab, B. W., 2012. The August 2011 flood in Ibadan, Nigeria:
Anthropogenic causes and consequences, International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 3(4):
207–217.
Allan, C., Curtis, A., & Mazur, N., 2006. Understanding the social impacts of floods in southeastern
Australia, Advances in Ecological Research, 39(6).
Bhuiyan, M. A. H., Islam, S. M. D. U., & Azam, G., 2017. Exploring impacts and livelihood vulnerability
of riverbank erosion hazard among rural household along the river Padma of Bangladesh.
Environmental Systems Research, 6:25.
Askman, J., Nilsson, O., & Becker, P., 2018. Why people live in flood-prone areas in Akuressa , Sri Lanka.
International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 9(2): 143–156.
Azad, A. K., Hossain, K. M., and Nasreen, M., 2013. Flood-induced vulnerabilities and problems
encountered by women in Northern Bangladesh, International Journal of Disaster risk Science,
4(4): 190–199.
Bhattachaiyya, N. N., & Bora, A. K.,1997. Floods of the Brahmaputra river in India, Water International,
22(4): 222-229.
Chen, W., Cutter, S. L., Emrich, C. T., & Shi, P., 2014. Measuring Social Vulnerability to Natural Hazards
in the Yangtze River Delta Region, China, International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 4(4),
169–181.
Chen, Y., Syvitski, J. P. M., Gao, S., Overeem, I., Albert, J., Kettner, A. J., 2016. Socio-economic impacts on

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 91

 flooding: A 4000-year history of the Yellow River, China ,Ambio, 41(7): 682–698.
Frigerio, I., Carnelli, F., Cabinio, M., &Amicis, M. De., 2018. Spatiotemporal pattern of social vulnerability
in Italy. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 9: 249–262.
Green, C., 2010. Towards sustainable flood risk management, International Journal of Disaster Risk
Science, 1(1): 33–43.
Han, G., and Kasperson, R. E., 2011. Dilemmas and pathways to dealing with flood problems in twenty-
first century China, International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 2(3): 21–30.
Khan, L. R., 1991. Impacts of recent floods on the rural environment of Bangladesh, International journal
of Water Resources Development, 7(1): 45-52.
Hummell, B. M. D. L., Cutter, S. L., and Emrich, C. T., 2016. Social vulnerability to natural hazards in
Brazil. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 7: 111–122.
Rawat, P. K., 2012. Impacts of climate change and hydrological hazards on monsoon crop patterns in the
Lesser Himalaya: A watershed based study, International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 3(2):
98–112.
Shi, P., Yang, X., Xu, W., and Wang, J., 2016. Mapping global mortality and affected population risks for
multiple natural hazards. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 7(1): 54–62.
Sultana, P., Johnson, C., and Thompson, P., 2008. The impact of major floods on flood risk policy evolution:
Insights from Bangladesh, International Journal of River Basin Management, 6(4): 339-348.

Hill Geographer Vol . XXXV:1 (2019) / ISSN 0970-5023 92