Ionization

The process that leads to the dissociation of neutral atom or molecule into charged
particles ions,

Or

The breaking of molecular compounds into ions is called ionization

Eg

HCL

—WATER--- H+, CL-

HOW an atom become an ion

H = 1, +1 =2 , He

Proton

12 -12 =0, 12-11= +1 M+

Whenever an atom gain or loss electron it becomes an ion

By gaining the electron the atom become negative ion and by losing the electron the
atom becomes positive ion.

Ionization energy

The minimum amount of energy required to escape the electron from the valence shell
of the atom is called ionization energy.

The amount of energy required to remove the valence shell electron of an isolated,
neutral, gaseous atom to infinity. 2cm

M e- + M+
∆ h= I.E

DH- = energy release = exothermic

DH+= energy absorb = Endothermic

Unit

Ev/atom

1ev =1.6*10-19 j

1v

1e= 1.6*10-19c

1ev/atom = 96kj/mole
Factors on which ionization energy depends

1. Atomic size = I.E is inversely proportional to size

2. Nuclear charge (z atomic no, no of protons) = IE is directly proportional to NC
3. Electronic configuration = stable : stable state are discussed in two states 1) half
filled, 2) full filled sub-shell

Ionization by collision

The type of ionization in which electron is a best ionizer

Electron contribute to ionization process by virtue of moving towards

anode and in the process collide with many neutral atoms and thus
act as a best ionizer by producing more and more electrons.

Collision process:

Types of collision
 1. Elastic collision: no any change of internal particle
2. Inelastic collision: internal changes take place

 In the process of ionization by collision a free electron collide
with neutral gas molecule and give rise to a new electron
and positive ion.
 Any electron starting at the cathode will be accelerated more
and more between the collision with the other gas molecules
during this travel process finally electron reached to the
anode .
 If the energy gains during this process toward the anode will
be excessd the ionization potential Vi. Which is the energy
required to remove the electron from their shell.
 This process can be represented as

e- +A ------------ e- + A+ +e-
here

A= atom

A+ = +ve ion

e- = electron

 Due to external energy few electrons are produced at cathode,

Excitation ionization

Whenever a stationary atom is strike by an electron whose KE is less than that of the IE
of the stationary atom then the electron of the atom excited instead of escaping the atom
but electron of the lower energy band get energy and jump to the higher energy band of
the same atom.
As the higher band of the can not accommodate more electrons hence that electron
release their gained energy in the form of photon (which is so called light) and come
back to their original/ normal state.

Photo Ionization

When a photon having KE higher than the IE of the atom, strike the atom the atom get
energized and becomes ionized.

This process is endothermic (every ionization process is endothermic in this process the
atom or molecules absorb energy) here the electron ion pairs are formed, the electrons
and ions both are moving with different speed and direction.

BRECK DOWN PHENOMENON

If the voltage across dialectic martial become too great that is the electrostatic field
becomes too intense the material will suddenly begin to conduct current. This
phenomenon is called dialectic breakdown.

IONIZATION

It is the physical process of converting an atom or molecule into an ion by adding or

removing charge particles such as electrons.

IONIZATION POTENTIAL

The amount of energy required to remove an electron from outermost shell of atom or
convert a molecule into ion is called ionization potential.
IONIZATION BY ELECTRON COLLISION

In this process a very fast moving electron is bombarded on an atom this fast moving
electron of the atom and increases its energy to ionization potential. The hatted electron
will in turn hit mere electrons and hence and avalanche are produced.

Ionization by electron impact is probably the most important process in the breakdown
of gases. This process becomes only significant when densities of electrons are high.

PHOTO IONIZATION

When an electron of lower energy than the ionization potential (Vi) hits an atom it
excites the atom into higher energy states with the release of some energy. This energy
in turn ionize another atom whose ionization potential equal to or less them photon
energy. This process is known as photo ionization. The reaction may be represented
symbolically as

A + e + KE ------------→ A* + e

The energy which produced called photon energy will excited another atom as shown

A + hv ---------------→ A* + e

Where A represent a neutral molecule in the gas and hv is the photon energy and A* is
converted into ion and e is the free remove electron.

THERMAL IONIZATION

If the gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature many of the neutral atoms will
acquir adequate energy to ionize the atom they strike. Mathematically the process can
be shown as

A + µi -----------------→ A* + e

A ----------→ A* + e - µi

Where A represent neutral atom A* a single ionized atom, e is the electron removed
from the atom and µ is the ionization energy.
IONIZATION BY INTERACTION OF METASTABLE WITH ATOMS

In certain elements (inert gases and group II elements of the periodic table) the lifetime
in same of the excited electronic states extends to seconds. These states are known as
metastable states and the atom in that state are simply referred as metastable
represented by Am. if Vm the energy of the metastable (Am) exceed Vi the ionization
energy of another atom B, then an collision ionization may according to the reaction

Am + B ---------→A + B + e

Metastable Adjective

(of physical systems) continuing in its present state of equilibrium unless sufficiently
disturbed to pass to a more stable state of equilibrium

CATHODE PROCESSES

Electrode play vary imported role in gas discharge by supplying electron initiation for
sustain and for the completion of a discharge under normal conditions electron are
presented from leaving the solid electrode by electrostatic force. To overcome this force
certain quantum energy is required. This corresponding potential is known as work
function (Φ) and is the characteristic of the given material. There are several ways in
which required energy may be supplied to release the electrons.

(a) PHOTO ELECTRIC EMISSION

Photon incident upon cathode surface whose energy exceeds the work function (hv ≥ e
Φ) may eject electrons from the surface. When the photon energy exceeds the work
function, the excess energy may be transferred to electron kinetic energy according to
the Einstein relation.

1/2 mv2e = hv – hvo

Where m is the mass of electron ve its velocity and hvo is equivalent to the critical
energy required to electron defined by the relation hvo = e Φ with Φ being the work
function and e the electronic change.
ELECTRON EMISSION BY POSITIVE ION AND EXCITED ATOM IMPACT

Electrons may be omitted from metal surface by bombardment of positive ions or

metastable atoms. To cause a secondary emission the impinging to neutralize they are
of which is utilized to neutralize the ion change. The minimum energy required for the
positive ion emission is twice the work function uk + up ≥ 2 Φ Since the ion is
neutralized by one electron and the other electron is ejected. Uk and up are the
respective kinetic and the potential energies of the incident ion.

Neutral excited (metastable) atoms or molecules incident upon the electrode surface are
also capable of ejecting electron from the surface.

THERMIONIC EMISSION

In metal high temperatures some of the conduction electrons near the surface may
possess sufficient energy to overcome the neutral potential energy that exists at the
surface and can be omitted. The potential barrier is called surface work function Φ. The
electrons receive their energy from the violent high temperatures. The metal
temperatures high required for thermionic emission may be in he region 1500-2500 k
degree. The emission current is related to the temperature T of the emitted by the
Richardson-desman relation for the there minimally emitted current density.

J = 4πmek2/h3 T2 – eΦ/kT amps/m2

Where e and m are the electronic charge and mass respectively, H plank’s constant, K
Boltzmann’s constant, tab solute temperature and flux the surface work function.

FIELD EMISSION

Electron may be drawn out of a metal surface by very high electrostatic field. The fields
require producing emission current of few micro amperes are of the order of 10 7-108
v/cm for metals of work function 4.5v. Such fields are observed at very five wires, Sharp
points and other submicroscopic irregularities. These fields are much high than the
breakdown fields even in compressed gas’s.

The expression for field emission current density is given by

J = AE2 ɛ -D/E

WORK FUNCTION

It is the minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron form a solid to a

point immediately outside the solid surface.

ELECTRIC BREAKDOWN IN GASES

THE TOWNSEND CRITERION FOR A SPARK

As the voltage applied across a spark gap increases the current increases in accordance
with the equation

i = io eαd / 1-γ (eαd-1)

Where α = Townsend’s Primary ionization coefficient

d = gap length

γ = Townsend’s secondary ionization coefficient

Loeb explained the Townsend criterion for the spark in the following way:

a) For γ eα < 1 the discharge current I is not self-maintained I.e. a removal of source
producing the primary current I it causes to flow.

b) For γ eα ≥ 1 the number of eαd of ion pair produced in the gap by the passage of
one electron avalanche is sufficiently large that the resulting positive ions, on
bombarding the cathode are able to release on secondary electron and so cause a
repetition of the avalanche process. The discharge is then self-sustaining and can
continue in the absence of the source producing io so that criterion γ eα < 1 can be said
to define the sparking threshold.

c) For eα ˃ 1 the ionization produced by successive avalanche is commutative. The

spark discharge grows more rapidly the more does γ eα exceed unity.
THE SPARKING POTENTIAL

The Townsend criterion enables the breakdown voltage of the gap to be determined by
the use of the appropriate cures relating α/p and γ with E/P and a good agreement is
found between calculated and experimentally determined breakdown voltages for short
gaps at relatively low pressure.

If the ionization coefficient α and r expressed as function of field strength and pressure
α/P ˃ F1 (E/P) and r ˃ F2 (F/P), in a uniform field gap Ed ˃ v then the threshold equation
becomes

Vs = F(Pd)

Thus the sparking potential Vs are a function of the product of the gas pressure and gap
length (Pd) alone. This relation is known as Panchen’s law.