UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH

ASIAN STUDIES

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Exam No. Matric No: B011743

S1112276

Course (for which this essay is due): Classical Japanese Fiction 4

Essay Title: Identify and discuss the treatment of two major themes in The Tale of
Genji. To what extent has their treatment in the Tale shaped Japanese aesthetic
views on these themes?

Word Count: 2593

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 Identify and discuss the treatment of two major themes in The Tale of Genji. To what extent
has their treatment in the Tale shaped Japanese aesthetic views on these themes?

Introduction

From mono no aware to mujō, from Buddhist propriety to Confucian piety, the Tale of
Genji has been a source of literary and philosophical debate for centuries in Japan. In this
fictionalized depiction of Heian court society, women were central figures, and the tale goes to
great lengths to analyse their feelings and dissect their psychological states. In this context, this
essay investigates the Tale of Genji through the prism of Buddhism and gender, focusing
particularly on the circumstances surrounding court women in Heian Japan. By doing so an
attempt will be made to trace the origin of specific readings of the Genji that have proliferated
throughout centuries of literary analysis, thus shaping and canonizing the literary views and
aesthetic perceptions of the tale. In the beginning of the essay there will be a short description
of the general socio-cultural and historical context in which the Genji was written and read,
paying particular attention to the prevalent Buddhist ideas that permeated the court. By
highlighting the implications of gender in Heian Buddhist perspective, an attempt will be made
to identify the dynamics of the relationship between the two, and the effect that they had on the
way the Genji was interpreted and imagined. Parallelly, a more concrete analysis of the relevant
characters and themes shall be undertaken in order to illustrate with examples the implications
of the chosen themes on the general reading of the tale. Essentially I argue all throughout the
text that the most relevant feature of the Genji vis-à-vis women is the aesthetics of suffering, a
phenomenon that permeated the lives of the women depicted in the tale, thus influencing
significantly its female readership.

The implications of Buddhist thought in Heian Japan

Pure Land Buddhism (known also as Amidism) was first introduced in Japan during the
Nara period. Genshin, an influential Tendai scholar during the 10th/11th century, propagated a
doctrine of devotion to Amidha Buddha, an enlightened being residing in Pure Land. According
to Genshin, Japan had entered a stage of mappō, ‘the latter age of the Buddhist law or the age
of the degenerate law, when enlightenment by one’s own power no longer is possible’ (Shirane,
1987: 218). This theory, along with detailed descriptions of heaven and hell and of the ways to
be reborn in paradise (Pure Land), was documented by Genshin in the Ōjōyōshū (The Essentials
of Salvation) in 985. This theory influenced also a prominent regent of that time, namely
Fujiwara no Michinaga, who supported the proliferation of the religion’s ideas and practices.
The advent of Pure Land Buddhism introduced also the notion that anyone could attain
salvation solely by practicing the nenbutsu (repeatedly reciting Amidha Buddha’s name).
Shirane (1987) stresses that the Buddhist ideas that can be found in the Genji were also
influenced by Tendai Buddhism, which focused on self-reliance (jiriki), obtaining salvation by
one’s own merits. What is important about Genshin’s guide on salvation is that, even women
can be saved by practicing the nenbutsu. In the Genji there is a distinction between doushin (a
heart that follows the Buddhist path), and shukke (taking holy vows), both necessary for
improving one’s sukuse, i.e. karmic destiny (Shirane, 1987: 196). What is important about these
events is that the path to Buddhist salvation was also open for women.

As Shirane (2002) suggest, in the larger Buddhist context of that time, family bonds
and attachments, and even emotions of love were considered to be an obstacle to attaining
salvation. In chapter four of the Ōjōyōshū (Hell of Assembly), we can find an elaborate
description of what happens to those who succumb to the evils of passion:

Sometimes the hell wardens seize the victims and put them into a forest of
sword blades. As they look up to the top branches of the trees in this forest they see
beautiful and well-dressed women, indeed the faces of those whom once they
loved. This fills them with joy and so they try to climb up the trees, but
when they do so the branches and leaves all turn into swords which lacerate the flesh
and pierce and pierce the bones. Though they are terrorized by this their evil Karma
still drives them on in their desire, and defying the swords they climb on.

Genshin, Ōjōyōshū, p. 19, Chapter 4, Hell of Assembly

For example Genji is indeed revered for his sense of doushin, and through compassion and
piety his behavior often exemplifies the Law. We notice Genji’s observance of the Buddhist
Law in several occasions: when Aoi is at her deathbed, Genji does everything in his power to
ensure that all the necessary actions are taken for her salvation, both physical and spiritual; at
that time Genji becomes aware that lady Rokujō’s spirit is the one possessing and ultimately
killing Aoi, but forgives her nonetheless. Genji’s continuous struggle between his spiritual
quest and strong passion is ubiquitous throughout the tale and deserves attention on its own.
One of the most serious transgressions that undermine Genji’s doushin is his relationship with
Fujitsubo and their illegitimate son that was born out of it. Displaying immoral, undutiful and
impious behavior proved dangerous not only to Genji, but essentially to the political and social
order of Heian Japan (Miner, 1969: 11).

The circumstances of women in Heian period and in the Genji

Living in a time when religious messages were contradicting social observances and
customs, Heian noblemen and noblewomen faced several dilemmas regarding relationships
with the other sex. If we were to follow the thematic convention of the Genji, then we would
have the following storyline opening: a magnificent noble discovers a heroine from a declined
or lower rank family and falls in love (Shirane, 1987: 43). The par excellence embodiment of
this trope is the relationship between Genji’s father (the Emperor) and Kiritsubo, as well as the
union between Genji and Murasaki. Shirane, however, invites caution regarding this issue:
inter-rank marriage was indeed a well-known convention in Heian literature, as well as an
epitome of romantic love. However, in reality, unions and relationships such as the ones
illustrated in the Genji would have been unheard of in Murasaki’s time (Shirane, 1987: 48).
Social mobility was not a common phenomenon in Heian period, and that is one of the reasons
why many of the women that were involved with Genji, such as Suetsumuhana, Yūgao and
Murasaki, did not have the means nor the appropriate dwelling to welcome officially a man of
Genji’s status. Ultimately, the only one that succeeds in this endeavor is Murasaki.

Genji’s advances on women of lower rank often take the form of sexual coercion. Vis-
à-vis this issue, Childs (2010) argues that coerced physical intimacy was viewed as acceptable
behavior, and in this context Genji's high status affords him immunity from interference in his
relations with women of lesser rank. From the story we understand that women of lower rank
accepted the sexual advances of men of higher social status without the hope of getting married,
but it also appears that men saw sexual access to the bodies of women of low status as their
prerogative. In some cases, ‘when powerful men desired women of lower status, it was some-
times in the woman's best interest to comply; a relationship with a man of higher status could
be a strategic career move (Childs, 2010:137). But what happened if a woman wanted to end a
certain relationship, or not even start one at all? In this context we witness the birth of the
spiritual quest as a tool for refusing courtship or marriage proposals. In a polygamous Heian
society sustaining a marriage was a considerably difficult task for women; status and the ability
to bear children functioned as ‘insurance’ in a way, but eventually the husband would find a
younger wife and marry her. For widows, abandoned or compromised wives, and older women
in general, taking the tonsure was a socially accepted form of retirement and provided
protection for those ostracized by Heian society (Shirane, 1987: 196). Meeks (2010) suggests
that taking the tonsure was closely linked to widow-hood, preparing for one’s own death,
protecting one’s family etc., although she prefers the term lay renunciation for several reasons.
Firstly, in Heian period there were no official sponsored platforms for the ordination of women;
secondly, they focused on private devotions in order to secure their own and their loved ones’
salvation; thirdly, because they were not trained religious professionals they could not perform
rituals in the majority of cases. (Meeks, 2010:4).

Often, noblewomen would decide to end the marriage even before their husband’s death,
and that is the case of Onna San no Mya in the Kashiwagi Chapter. After experiencing a
difficult childbirth, she claims to Genji (who is not the actual father) that because of her illness
she needs to take the tonsure. It remains clear, however, that it is precisely her difficult
relationship with Genji that is the reason for her decision. There are other similar cases to this:
Ukifune who took the tonsure in order to escape from a strenuous love triangle; Lady Rokujō
is identified as one of the characters enduring grave suffering on Genji’s account, and in a
similar fashion to the others, after being hurt and compromised by Genji’s negligence, she
expresses the wish to ‘leave this world’ and join her daughter in Ise. Lady Rokujō is also the
embodiment of jealousy in the tale, and her angry spirit is responsible for taking the life of Aoi,
as well as seriously endangering Murasaki’s.

Taking the tonsure was considered to be a great source of healing and suffering at the
same time (Barnes, 1989: 108). The act was viewed with mixed feelings, and it was certainly
seen as a reason for grieving. Considered to be an irreversible act, it implied the severing of
ties with family members, as well as a drastic change in everyday lifestyle. In this context, the
aesthetics of suffering becomes even more relevant, and it is perhaps the most important
aesthetic feature of the Genji regarding women. This decision had also serious implications on
one’s identity, particularly on female identity:

Becoming a nun was clearly linked with both the removal of outward marks of female
identity and retirement from sexual life. In styling themselves as shukke, women moved toward
a desexualized identity that allowed them to detach themselves from the duties and obligations
 of householder women and signaled their withdrawal from the realms of courtship and
marriage.

(Meeks, 2010:19)

Different interpretations of the Genji

The Tale of Genji, being a rich source of themes, tropes, as well as complex characters,
has been the subject of literary scrutiny and analysis for centuries after it was written. That
literary debate has produced several readings of the story that have influenced the way it was
read and interpreted by the general audience. The most influential literary analysis of the tale
is the one made by Motoori Norinaga in the 18th century. Norinaga argued that mono no aware
(the pathos of things) is the main prism through which the Genji should be read and appreciated.
Closely related to the idea of impermanence and transience in Buddhist belief, mono no aware
expresses the ability to be moved by nature and all the things that surround us. Through this
deeper understanding of the law of life, one is supposed to experience deep aesthetic
appreciation.

Standing in opposition to this view was the perception of the Tale of Genji as a Buddhist
and Confucian didactic text, a view highly criticized by Norinaga. This view was particularly
popular in the Edo period, when the Genji was read as a text for educating women and young
girls. Several female scholar-poets had emerged after the Genji was written, one of which was
the Nun Abutsu. Known to have written niwa no oshie (domestic teachings-commentary on
teachings), Nun Abutsu left this work as a memento to her daughter in roder to educate her in
manners and propriety. Another anonymous text called menoto no soushi (The Tale of a wet
nurse, 14th century) contained information about the appropriate manners, dress codes of
female attendants, rituals, while referring to female characters in the Tale of Genji as a way of
giving moral instruction to women (Li, 2008: 166). This particular work also praises
Murasaki’s patience and refrain from resentfulness towards Genji as the perfect female conduct,
and exemplifies her as a model wife. Edo scholar Sanjounishi Kin’eda greatly influenced the
reception of Genji in Edo period, defining the tale as a ‘work of moral teaching and admonitions’
(Li, 2008: 167).

As Shirane (1987) points out, a common notion in Heian Japan heavily influenced by
Buddhism was that for women to write monogatari (fiction) was considered a sin. Fiction was
considered frivolous and even sinful, and following the Chinese literary tradition, if a certain
work did not have a poetic, didactic or historiographical value, it was not highly regarded.
Subsequently many people thought that Murasaki’s soul was lingering in hell, so in order to
support the salvation of her spirit, aristocratic women would do offerings (kuyō) and prayers
(Shirane, 1987: 18). As we can see from the previous interpretations and readings, whatever
the main focus of the reading, women remained central figures in the discourse.

Conclusion

In order to truly appreciate the Genji, Prusinski (2012) argues that the reader needs to
be familiar with mono no aware; only then the long descriptions of apparently mundane scenes
will be understood and decoded appropriately. This particular aesthetic feature is important
indeed, but it does not offer a comprehensive understanding of the complexity of themes and
characters in the tale. In order to achieve this understanding, one has to take into account the
context in which Murasaki Shikibu wrote and lived. Written by a noblewoman for the
noblewomen in Heian, the central figure of the tale is the woman. A myriad of different female
characters whose lives were revolving around Genji were touched by his existence in one way
or another. As a character Genji acted as a mirror of all the different types of noblewomen,
from different ranks and with different life circumstances. Thus, The Tale of Genji might be
read as a saga of women’s lives, focusing on the difficulties they faced just by being women.
It can be argued that the key reading of this text is women’s suffering, and in this context Genji’s
character stands as a representative of the phallocentric Heian society. One way to escape the
relationship with a man was to take the tonsure and ‘leave the world’, and act that brought
additional suffering to women and their families. For these reasons, the Genji’s readership has
consisted mainly of women, due to its cathartic value. Whilst male readership has focused on
its poetic value and interpretation theory, the consumers of the Genji were mainly women. By
reading the tale they that had the opportunity to learn about proper manners, about the canon
of femininity, about the Buddhist law, and about the suffering of women and the strategies to
deal with it. The Genji for them was, in a sense, a manual for life, and this was true not only
for the Heian period, but also for the Muromachi and Edo period. In this context, gender and
Buddhism have had an enormous influence on the way the Genji was read, with the aesthetics
of suffering taking a central position in the story.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY:

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Accessed on the 20th of November, 16.45