Charge-Particle Interactions of Radiation With Matter PDF

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
Charge-Particle Interactions of Radiation
with Matter 2. Interactions of photons with matter
Objective:
To familiarize students with the physics of events that occur when 3. Photon attenuation coefficients
photons and electrons interact with matter
4. Interactions of electrons with matter
5. Data sources
Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students

www.its.ac.id INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia www.its.ac.id – chapter 2, 2 INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia
1. INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the physics of events that occur The interaction of photons and electrons, as they
when photons and electrons interact with matter. These traverse matter, are stochastic and obey the laws of
are the radiations that are important for diagnostic chance, although, with very different behaviour:
radiology, and only those interactions which result in • Photons in general have none, one or a few
their attenuation, absorption and scattering are dealt with interactions and are exponentially attenuated
Photon interactions are expressed in terms of
The energy range used for diagnostic radiology is
cross-sections for individual interactions and
generally on the boundary between classical and
attenuation coefficients for passage through bulk media
quantum physics and following the “Complementarity
Principle”, the numerical details of the interactions will
• Electrons experience large numbers of interactions
be treated by classical reasoning where that is and in general gradually lose energy until they are
appropriate and by quantum mechanical considerations
stopped. This is expressed in terms of electron range
where that gives superior results
and material stopping powers
www.its.ac.id INSTITUT
Diagnostic Radiology Physics:TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH
a Handbook for Teachers and NOPEMBER,
Students – chapterSurabaya
2, 3 - Indonesia www.its.ac.id – chapter 2, 4 INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia
INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
The probability of a single photon incident on a

slab of material of area A, that contains one Changing now the targets to: atoms, their
target of cross-sectional area σ, interacting with cross-section would be an atomic cross-section
the target will be the ratio of the two areas: σ/A
This wouldn’t be an actual area of the atom, but
If there are Φ photons randomly directed at area A, that would be an effective area – effective for an
contains n targets, each with area σ, the expected interaction between the photon and the atom that is
number of interactions ΔΦ between photons and being considered
targets will be DF = F n (s A)
Cross-sections are frequently represented by

Another way of saying this is that the probability of a
the symbol σ and conventionally expressed in
projectile making a hit is n (σ/A), which is just the
fraction of the area that is blocked off by the targets
a unit of area called the barn (b)
1 barn = 10-28 m2
Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students
www.its.ac.id – chapter 2, 5 INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia www.its.ac.id – chapter 2, 6 INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia
INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER 1. Photoelectric Effect
There are four fundamental X-ray interactions that we need to In the photoelectric effect the incident photon interacts
consider; each can be associated with a specific cross-section
with an atom and disappears. A photoelectron is ejected
Interaction Cross-section The photoelectric effect can only take place if the photon energy
hn > Es (binding energy)
photoelectric effect 
The most probable electron shell to lose an electron is the one that
coherent scattering σcoh satisfies this constraint and has the highest binding energy
incoherent scattering σincoh before collision after collision
pair and triplet production κ
The first three of these interactions are important in the
diagnostic energy range up to 150 keV K K
L L
hn
Pair and triplet production are only important at much higher photoelectron
energies and are only treated here for completeness M M T = hn - Es
N
N
– chapter 2, 7 www.its.ac.id – chapter 2, 8 INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia
www.its.ac.id INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia
INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
1. Photoelectric Effect INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER
1. Photoelectric Effect
Calculation of the probability of the interaction is very complicated The sharp discontinuities correspond to the positions of the
and quantum mechanics is required absorption edges for the different materials, which increase in
energy with increasing atomic number and shell binding energy
In the diagnostic energy range up to 150 keV, the photoelectric
10 8
effect cross-section per atom,  , is approximately given by: W
For tungsten, the discontinuity seen at
69.5 keV represents the effect of the K
(b/atom)
10 6 Mo
 barns/atom
k is a constant shell. At an energy just less than this,
Cu
n Z is the atomic number the cross section is 6.4 x 102 b/atom,
 (hn , Z )= k Z
10 4 W K-edge while just above this energy, the
n is an exponent in the range 3.6-5.3, being largest
(hv )m

coefficient is 3.3 x 103 b/atom. This
for low atomic numbers 10 2
represents a sudden increase in
m is an exponent in the range 5-3.5, again being cross-section of about a factor of five
10 0
largest for low atomic numbers 1 10 100 when the photon energy increases
Photon Energy (keV)
above that of the K shell (K-edge)
A typical dependence of  in the diagnostic photon energy range is: Atomic photoelectric cross sections for
Thus the major contribution to the
4 copper, molybdenum and tungsten
cross-section above the K-edge
 Z 3
(hv ) comes from interactions with the two
K-shell electrons

Thomson Scattering Thomson Scattering
J.J. Thomson gave the first treatment of the scattering Thomson’s derivation of the scattering of a photon by a
of photons by electrons in the very early years of the single free electron at rest is based on classical physics
20th century and results in a description that is only meaningful at the
The probability that the photon
low energy limit of this interaction
Scattered photon d will interact and be scattered
into solid angle dΩ is d s Thomson showed that the differential
proportional to: d cross section, at scattering angle , is
d
given by : ds Th r0
2 2
ke =
d
= 2
(1+ cos  ) r0 =
m0 c 2
2.8179410 m
-15
Incident photon  ds 2
is the differential cross section
dV
d
r0 is “classical radius of the electron”
A photon incident on a small volume k is a proportionality constant from Coulomb’s law
The total cross section is
element dV is scattered through angle e is the charge on the electron
obtained by integrating over all
θ into the solid angle element dΩ m0 is the rest mass of the electron
solid angles: s = d s
 d  d c is the speed of light
Thomson Scattering 3. Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering
This equation predicts that the same In deriving the expression for Thomson scattering it was
Differential cross-section amount of energy will be scattered assumed that the electron was free, alone and at rest
forward as backward, and also that the
ds Th r02
= (1 + cos 2  ) energy scattered at right angles will be In reality the photon is scattered collectively by the
d 2 half this amount. Except at low energies, atomic electrons which are not free, and their proximity
to one another is not very different from the wavelength
this result does not agree with
of the radiation
observation or with the predictions made
by quantum mechanics In coherent scattering essentially no energy is lost by the
Total cross-section photon as it transfers momentum to the atom and is
8r
0 2 (1 + cos  )sin d
2 2
r  scattered through angle θ
s Th = 0 2
= = 66 .52 x10 -30 m 2
0
2 3 The scattering by the different electrons is in phase and
sTh is constant, predicting that the classical scattering the resultant angular distribution is determined by an
probability is independent of electromagnetic radiation energy interference pattern which is characteristic of the atom
This, of course, is not correct
www.its.ac.id – chapter 2, 13 INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia – chapter 2, 14

3. Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering
3. Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering
Normalized form factor (F/Z)

ds coh ds Th 2 For scattering in the forward
1.00
The differential cross section is then given by: = F (x, Z ) C direction all the atomic electrons
d d 0.75 Fe
act together, and F is equal to the
ds Th is the Thomson differential scattering coefficient and Pt
atomic number and the differential
d F is known as the coherent form factor 0.50
cross section depends upon Z2
It may be calculated using quantum mechanical 0.25
As the scattering angle increases,
models
0.00 F decreases because it becomes
0.01 0.1 1 10
increasingly difficult for all the
x (Å-1 )
electrons to scatter in phase
sin ( 2) λ is the wavelength of the incident photon. The Variation of the normalized form factor without any energy transfer
x= F/Z for coherent scattering with the
l parameter x is proportional to the transfer of momentum transfer parameter x However, for a given value of the
momentum between the initial and scattered photon Data from Hubbell and Øverbø, J Phys Chem Ref Data
directions 8, 69-106 (1979)
scattering angle, the normalized
coherent form factor F/Z, increases
with increasing atomic number
4. Compton scattering by free electrons 4. Compton scattering by free electrons
Using conservation of energy and momentum

Compton Scattering, like Thomson scattering, Compton relations can be derived:
is the interaction between electromagnetic
hn  1
radiation and a free electron, but in this case scattered photon =
there is an energy transfer to the electron incident photon
hn’ hn 1 + a (
1- cos )
p’ = hn’/c
hn hn
p = hn /c
 α=
The energy range is such that relativity and m0 c 2
quantum mechanics must be used to derive j
 
cot j = (1+ a )tan 
expressions for the cross section recoil electron
Te 2
pe
Both the photon and the electron must be
a (1 - cos  )
considered as particles Te = hn - hn  = hv
1 + a (1 - cos  )

0.3 0.3
The cross-section for the
Scattered photon energy (keV)
In the diagnostic energy range
barns/steradian
hn scattering of a photon, with ds/d
ds/d barns/radian
α=
energy hn through a given
(b/rad)
ds/d
m0c 2 is small, and as a 0.2 0.2
(b/sr)
100 consequence the energy transfer angle  , was first derived in
to the recoil electron is also 1928 by Klein and Nishina
ds/dd
ds
ds
d
0.1 0.1
50 small, being zero in the forward using the Dirac theory of the
direction and taking its largest electron
0.0 0.0
0 50 100 150
20 value when the photon is
The expression for the differential Photon scattering
Scattering angleangle (degree)
(degrees)
backscattered
10 cross-section for scattering of Compton differential cross-sections
10 20 50 100 for scattering of 70 keV photons
Incident photon energy (keV)
For 20 keV, 50 keV and 100 keV photons by a single free electron
incident photons, the maximum
ds KN r02
hn  ( )
is:
=
1 energy transfers to the recoil = 1 + cos 2  f KN This cross-section reduces to the Thomson
hn 1 + a (1 - cos  ) electron are: d 2 cross-section when a → 0 (that is hn ’/ hn → 1)
a (1- cos ) 1.5 keV, 8.2 keV and 28.1 keV  

2
 a 2 (1 - cos )2 
Te = hn - hn  = hv 1
1 a (1 - cos )
f KN =   1 + 
+ respectively
1 + a (1 - cos )  + a -  + 2

 [1 (1 cos )][
1 cos ] 
ss : Scattering coefficient
str : Energy transfer coefficient
The total Compton cross-section (probability of interaction per electron)
for a photon of energy hn , is obtained by integrating the differential cross sKN : Total cross section for Compton scattering
section
ds KN r02 In the incoherent free electron scattering process the initial
= (1 + cos 2  ) f KN
d 2 photon energy is divided between the scattered photon and the
over solid angle. The result is: recoiling electron. The differential energy transfer coefficient is
ds tr r02  a (1 - cos  ) 
given by: = (1+ cos 2  ) f KN  
 1 + a   2 1 + a ( ) (
ln 1 + 2 a  ln 1 + 2 a 1 + 3a ) ( ) 
d 2  1 + a (1 - cos  )
s (h n )= 2  r02     -  +

- 
str can be obtained integrating over all angles with d = 2
KN
 a
2   1 + 2a a  2a 1 + 2a ( )
2
 sin  d
The scattering coefficient is, then, by definition:
s s = s KN - s tr

5. Incoherent scattering 5. Incoherent scattering
For incoherent scattering by bound atomic electrons, the

contributions from individual electrons are added and the The total cross section for incoherent scattering
differential cross section takes the form: is obtained by numerical integration of equation:
ds incoh r02
= (1+ cos 2  ) f KN S (x, Z )
d ds incoh r02
= (1 + cos2  )f KN S (x, Z )
1.00 2
scattering function (S/Z)
Normalized incoherent
d
C
0.75 Fe S is known as the incoherent 2
Pt
scattering function, and is a universal
0.50
function of the momentum transfer
quantity x and the atomic number. S is In many situations it is very nearly equal to
0.25
zero in the forward direction and the single electron cross section multiplied
0.00 increases with increasing momentum
0.01 0.1 1 10 by the number of electrons in the atom
x (Å-1 ) transfer reaching the value of Z, the
Data from Hubbell, Veigele et al., J Phys Chem number of electrons per atom. This s incoh  Z s KN
Ref Data 4(3) (1975)
increase becomes slower as the
atomic number increases
www.its.ac.id INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia
Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students – chapter 2, 23
www.its.ac.id – chapter 2, 24 INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia
6. Pair and Triplet production 6. Pair and Triplet production
Pair When a high energy photon passes near to an atomic Triplet When a high energy photon passes near to an orbital
production nucleus, the photon may interact with the nuclear production electron, the photon may interact with the Coulomb
Coulomb field by a process called pair production
field of this electron by a process called triplet
The photon is converted into an electron-positron
pair, each with its own kinetic energy. The energy production
hn = T+ + T- + 2m0 c
balance is: 2
The target electron is itself ejected with considerable
energy. Two electrons and one positron are thus set
incident photon
Pair production cannot take place for photons into motion
hn
e-
p = hn /c with energies less than the energy threshold
T- 2 m0c2 = 1022 keV The energy threshold for Triplet production is 4 m 0c2
Tatom e+
T+ As pair production occurs in the field of Thresholds for pair and triplet production are much higher
the nucleus, the cross-section for this than the photon energies relevant to diagnostic radiology
interaction varies approximately as Z²
where Z is the nuclear charge
3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS 3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS

3.1. Linear attenuation coefficient
Photons may undergo more than one interaction as they Consider a thin uniform slab of material of thickness de fragmentos
de duas fitas deseparação
fragmentos
ADN dequebra
pass through bulk material:
duas fitas deseparação
fragmentos
duas fitas deseparação
fragmentos
dx, which is irradiated with a beam of photons incident ADN
ADN
ADN
de quebra
de quebra
duas fitas separação
quebra
An initial scatter interaction might be followed by a normally on the slab ionizante

radiação
ionizante
ionizante
radiação
ionizante
radiação
second scattering process which in turn might be followed by a radiação
third scatter, photoelectric absorption or no further interactions Individual photons may pass through the slab without
with the photon leaving the bulk material, for example interacting, or they may be absorbed or scattered dx
The probability that an individual photon will interact
To consider this macroscopic behaviour of primary photons
traversing matter
in this thin section is given by: N s dx a
• linear attenuation coefficients and r

• mass attenuation coefficients Linear attenuation coefficient: Na s = m (m-1 ) = 1000 N A s (S.I.)
Ar
are used, which are simply related to the total cross section
Na is the number of interaction centres (atoms) per unit volume
The exit beam from the bulk material will also comprise both
s is the total interaction cross section per atom
primary and scattered photons. Such effects are best estimated
For scattering by atoms, Na may be calculated from the Avogadro
using Monte Carlo techniques
constant NA, the atomic weight Ar and the density r
3. Exponential attenuation 3. Exponential attenuation
Definition of fluence F Now consider a thick slab of material. F (x) represents the
fluence of photons which have not interacted in the slab
after passage through thickness x. The expected change dF
A radiation field at a point P can be
quantified by the physical non- in this fluence after passage through a further thickness dx
stochastic quantity fluence, which is given by:
is usually expressed in units of m -2
or cm -2, and is given by: dF = - F m dx
dN Integrating: F = F 0 e - mx
Φ=
mx
da F = F 0 eis-the initial fluence
where dN is the differential of the expectation value of the number of
particles (photons, or massive particles) striking an infinitesimal This equation, known as Beer’s law,
sphere with a great-circle area da surrounding point P describes the exponential attenuation of a
photon beam

3. Exponential attenuation 3.3. Mass attenuation coefficient
Beer’s law, describes the The linear attenuation coefficient µ (m -1) is

- mx
F =F0 e exponential attenuation of a photon dependent on density which in turn is
beam dependent on the physical state of the material
As a consequence µ is not a suitable quantity

It should be noted that it describes the
for data compilations
number of photons which have not
interacted, also known as primary photons The quantity mass attenuation coefficient m  m 2 
is independent of density r  kg 
At diagnostic energies other photons may

be present at depth resulting from photon Physical state Energy of photon (keV) μ (m-1) μ /ρ (m2/kg)
scattering interactions or the emission of water 50 21.4 0.0226
fluorescent photons following a ice 50 19.6 0.0226
photoelectric interaction
3.4. Mass energy transfer coefficients and 3.4. Mass energy transfer coefficients and
mass energy absorption coefficients mass energy absorption coefficients
For dosimetric purposes it is necessary to know the energy

d(hn )tr F hn mtr dx m  K (Kerma): energy
transferred to secondary electrons as a result of the initial interaction K= = = F hn  tr  transferred from uncharged
dm dm  r  particles to matter
d(hn )tr = F hn mtr dx energy d(hν)tr transferred by interactions to
kinetic energy of electrons when photons of dm = ρ dx
energy hν traverse a distance dx in a material
Some of the energy transferred to the secondary charged particles is
T <T> is the expectation value of the energy converted to lost to radiative processes in the material, mainly Bremsstrahlung
m tr = m secondary electrons
hn
hn is the energy of photon This is taken account by  m en   m tr 
m the mass energy   =   (1- g )
 r   r 
linear attenuation coeficcient
m tr linear transfer coefficient absorption coefficient:
mtr /r mass energy transfer coefficient g gives the energy fraction lost to radiative processes. For the
men /r mass energy absorption coefficient energies used in diagnostic radiology, g may be taken as zero
K = d (hn )tr/dm Kerma

3.5. Contribution of individual interactions to the 3.5. Contribution of individual interactions to the
total mass attenuation coefficient total mass attenuation coefficient
The four distinctly different mechanisms by which The photoelectric interaction
mass attenuation coefficient

mass attenuation coefficient 10 4 10 4
(cm2/g)
coherent
makes the dominant contribution
photons may interact with matter compete, according 10 3 10 3
coherent
incoherent incoherent
to the total interaction cross
to their individual probabilities. The total mass 10 2
coefficient
10 2 photoelectric photoelectric
section at the lowest energies. The
attenuation coefficient is therefore the sum of all the
cm2/g
/g
10 1 10 1 total total
steep decrease at the lower photon
Mass attenuationcm 2
individual mass attenuation coefficients: 10 0 10 0 energies is characteristic for the
10 - 1
10 - 1 photoelectric effect and ends when
m     m coh   m inc  k 
  = ( + s coh + s inc + k ) A 1000
N
  =   +   +   + 10 - 2
10 - 2 incoherent (Compton) scattering
r r  r   r  r
  Ar 10 - 3
1 10
10 - 3 100 becomes dominant and remains so
1
Photon energy (keV) 10 100 for the rest of the diagnostic
Photon energy (keV)
The size of each attenuation coefficient will depend energy range. The cross-over
position for these two interactions
on the photon energy and the atomic number of the Mass attenuation coefficients for water for
photon energies from 1 keV to 300 keV depends on the atomic number
material For water is about 30 keV
3.5. Contribution of individual interactions to the 3.6. Coefficients for compounds and mixtures
total mass attenuation coefficient
10 4
10 4 Mass attenuation coefficients and mass energy-transfer

(cm2/g)
adipose In the energy range up to

iodine coefficients for compounds and intimate mixtures can be
10 2 100adipose
keV and for the high Z
coefficient
obtained by a weighted summation of the coefficients of the

cm2/g
10 2 gadox iodine
materials, the discontinuities
/g
lead gadoxfrom the differences in

arising constituents:
2
Mass attenuationcm
10 0 lead
photoelectric absorption at K,
10 0 L and M edges are evident m m wi are the normalized weight fractions of
  =    wi
  i  r i
r the elements i (or mixture components i)
10 - 2
1 10 100 present in the absorber
10 - 2 The differences in absorption  mtr   mtr 
 r  =   r  wi
Photon 1 Energy (keV)10 100
Photon Energy (keV) that this creates are important
Total mass interaction coefficients for for the design of filters used to   i  i
The mass energy-absorption coefficient for
materials relevant to diagnostic shape X-ray spectra  men  m 
(particularly in mammography   =   en  wi an element accounts for the radiative
radiology (adipose tissue, iodine,
and for imaging using iodinated  r  i  r i losses of the secondary electrons
gadolinium oxysulphide (gadox) and
contrast agents)
lead
4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER 4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER
Energy loss by electrons Energy lost by charged Stopping power

Ionizational or collisional losses Radiative losses or Bremsstrahlung particles in passing
through matter is dT
Principal process: Interaction with the electric field generally described using S=
collisions with other electrons of nuclei and be decelerated so a quantity called stopping dx
rapidly that some of its energy power S
Energy losses and the changes
in direction can be quite large may be radiated away Mass stopping power
The electron which leaves the dT is the loss in kinetic energy
collision with the most energy is
S 1 dT
=
of the particle as it travels a
assumed to be the original
distance dx. r is the density of
incident electron. This means the
maximum energy exchange is the material
r r dx
half of the original energy
4.1. Ionizational (Collisional) Interactions and 4.1. Ionizational (Collisional) Interactions and
Ionizational Stopping Power Ionizational Stopping Power
This process involves collisions The problem was first solved by Bethe in the early part of the 20 th
century. The Ionizational Mass Stopping Power (Sion/r ) (MeVcm 2 g-1)
between electrons travelling through was derived by Bethe-Bloch and extended by Sternheimer:
matter and electrons from atoms that
Sion m0  T 2 (T + 2m0 ) T 2 / 8 - (2T + m0 )m0 ln 2 
are part of the material, leaving the = 2 r02 N e ln + +1-  2 -  
atoms ionized r 2  2 m 0 I 2
(T + m 0 )2

r0 is the “classical radius of the electron”
Ne = NA(Z/Ar), NA is the Avogadro constant
It is rather difficult to measure the rate of energy µ0 = m 0c2 is the rest mass of the electron multiplied by the speed of light squared
lost by these interactions but is relatively easy to T is the kinetic energy
β is the ratio of the speed of the electron to that of light
calculate it. Relativity and Quantum Mechanics The density correction term  , was added later by Sternheimer. Its effect is to reduce energy
losses, but only at high energies. At 100 MeV it can be as great as 20%
must be used I is a semi-empirical quantity called the “Mean Excitation Energy” which is a property of the
material and increases as the atomic number of the material increases. Values of I for a large
number of materials are given by NIST

4.1. Ionizational (Collisional) Interactions and 4.1. Ionizational (Collisional) Interactions and
Ionizational Stopping Power Ionizational Stopping Power
Sion m0  T 2 (T + 2m0 ) T 2 / 8 - (2T + m0 )m0 ln 2  Sion m0  T 2 (T + 2m0 ) T 2 / 8 - (2T + m0 )m0 ln 2 

= 2 r02 N e ln + +1-  2 -   = 2 r02 N e ln + +1-  2 -  
r 2  2 m0 I 2
(T + m0 )2
 r 2  2 m0 I 2
(T + m0 )2

Below 100 keV or so, the term 2 r02Ne m0 / 2 is the most important
Dependence on atomic number is not strong
The factor 1/ 2 = c2/v2 makes the stopping power nearly inversely
proportional to the kinetic energy The factor in front of the square brackets contains the number of
electrons per unit mass, given by NA(Z/Ar), and remembering Z/Ar is
For energies above 100 keV  is essentially 1 and the term in front
0.5 or slightly less, for all materials except hydrogen, the mass
becomes nearly constant
stopping power decreases only slightly as atomic number increases
The terms inside the square bracket increase slowly with energy
The mean excitation energy, I, increases as atomic number
and the stopping power passes through a minimum in the
increases, which also serves to make Sion smaller for high atomic
neighborhood of 1 MeV
number materials
4. Radiative Interactions and Radiative Stopping Power 4.3. Total Stopping Power
When an electron passes close to a nucleus it will experience a The total stopping power is the sum of the
substantial Coulomb force and will be decelerated, radiating ionizational and radiative stopping powers:
Stot = Sion + Srad
energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation (Bremsstrahlung)
The quantum mechanical solution is complicated and
-1)
-1)
approximations must be made, and the most appropriate form for
gg-1-1
gg-1
22 -1
 cm222g
 cm2 g
2
10 2 10 11
water tungsten
the result depends on the energy range
MeV.cm
MeV.cm
in MeV.cm
in MeV.cm
10 11
power(MeV
power(MeV
The function B = B(hν/T) is a slowly 10 00
The approximate Radiative Mass 0
10 0
in
in
Radiative Radiative
Stopping Power (Srad/r )(MeV∙cm2 ∙g-1) varying function of T and Z with an
power
power
Stoppingpower
Stoppingpower
Ionizational Ionizational
10 -- 11
average for non-relativistic energies, Total 10 -- 11 Total
for diagnostic energies is:
T << m0c2, of B = 16 / 3
Stopping
Stopping
-2
Stopping
Stopping
10 - 2
= s 0 A Z 2 (T + m 0 ) B
S rad N -3
10 -- 22
r
10 - 3
Ar The energy loss due to this process is 10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000
Energy(keV)
Energy keV) Energy(keV)
Energy keV)
quite strongly dependent on the
 2
2
s 0 = 1  e  = 0.580 barn/nucleus atomic number, as can be seen by the Ionizational, radiative and total stopping powers for water
137  m 0 
Z2 term and tungsten for electron energies from 10 keV to 10 MeV

4.4. Stopping power in Compounds and Mixtures 4.5. Linear Energy Transfer
The mass collision stopping power characterizes the energy loss of

The mass stopping power can be approximated for the electron due to all collisions. The secondary electrons resulting
compounds or intimate mixtures by a weighed from hard collisions (-rays) carry part of the energy some distance
addition of the mass stopping power of the elemental away from the track and may escape the volume of interest
constituents assuming independent contribution to In radiobiology, the use of the collision stopping power can result in an
stopping power: overestimation of dose. In such situations, the restricted stopping power
may be used which relates to the energy lost in the absorber by secondary
S S
  =    wi particles not exceeding an energy limit Δ (typically 10 keV), thus limiting
 r  i  r i
the volume of interest to the range of electrons with energy Δ
The restricted stopping power may be expressed as mass restricted

stopping power (S/ρ)Res or, for a description of the energy passed to the
wi are the normalized weight fractions of the elements i
medium per unit track length, it is common to use the linear energy
present in the material. The influence of chemical
transfer LΔ :
binding is neglected here r  1 dT 
Linear energy transfer LD (keV/mm): LD =  
10  r dx D
5. DATA SOURCES
Data for photon attenuation coefficients and

stopping powers can be found in many
textbooks but are conveniently obtained from
web based data sources provided by:
• NIST (Berger, Hubbell et al., 2005;
Berger, Coursey, et al, 2005)
or from the tabulations in:
• ICRU (1992)
The composition of body tissues and
phantom materials are given in:
• ICRU (1989) and
• ICRP (2003)
www.its.ac.id – chapter 2, 49 INSTITUT TEKNOLOGI SEPULUH NOPEMBER, Surabaya - Indonesia

Charge-Particle Interactions of Radiation With Matter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Charge-Particle Interactions of Radiation With Matter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Diagnostic Radiology Physics: a Handbook for Teachers and Students

The probability of a single photon incident on a

Cross-sections are frequently represented by

INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

Normalized form factor (F/Z)

Using conservation of energy and momentum

INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

In the diagnostic energy range

a (1- cos ) 1.5 keV, 8.2 keV and 28.1 keV  

INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER INTERACTIONS OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

For incoherent scattering by bound atomic electrons, the

3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS 3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS

An initial scatter interaction might be followed by a normally on the slab ionizante

• linear attenuation coefficients and r

3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS 3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS

Beer’s law, describes the The linear attenuation coefficient µ (m -1) is

As a consequence µ is not a suitable quantity

At diagnostic energies other photons may

For dosimetric purposes it is necessary to know the energy

3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS 3. PHOTON ATTENUATION COEFFICIENTS

The four distinctly different mechanisms by which The photoelectric interaction

mass attenuation coefficient

10 4 Mass attenuation coefficients and mass energy-transfer

adipose In the energy range up to

obtained by a weighted summation of the coefficients of the

lead gadoxfrom the differences in

4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER 4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER

Energy loss by electrons Energy lost by charged Stopping power

4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER 4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER

Sion m0  T 2 (T + 2m0 ) T 2 / 8 - (2T + m0 )m0 ln 2  Sion m0  T 2 (T + 2m0 ) T 2 / 8 - (2T + m0 )m0 ln 2 

4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER 4. INTERACTIONS OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER

The mass collision stopping power characterizes the energy loss of

The restricted stopping power may be expressed as mass restricted

Data for photon attenuation coefficients and

You might also like