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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">Statistical unit</h1>
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<p>In <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, a <b>unit</b>
is one member of a set of entities being studied. It is the main source for the
mathematical abstraction of a "<a href="/wiki/Random_variable" title="Random
variable">random variable</a>". Common examples of a unit would be a single person,
animal, plant, manufactured item, or country that belongs to a larger collection of
such entities being studied.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input
type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox"
style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-
heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel"
for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a
href="#Experimental_and_sampling_units"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span
class="toctext">Experimental and sampling units</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Implementation"><span
class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Implementation</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a
href="#Units_of_collection_and_analysis"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span
class="toctext">Units of collection and analysis</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#See_also"><span
class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Bibliography"><span
class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Design_of_experiments"><span
class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Design of
experiments</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Sampling"><span
class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sampling</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Experimental_and_sampling_units">Experimental and

sampling units</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Statistical_unit&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section:
Experimental and sampling units">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Units are often referred to as being either <b>experimental units</b>,
<b>sampling units</b> or <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_observation" title="Unit of
observation">units of observation</a>:
</p>
<ul><li>An "experimental unit" is typically thought of as one member of a set of
objects that are initially equal, with each object then subjected to one of several
experimental treatments. Put simply, it is the smallest entity to which a treatment
is applied.</li>
<li>A "sampling unit" is typically thought of as an object that has been sampled
from a <a href="/wiki/Statistical_population" title="Statistical
population">statistical population</a>. This term is commonly used in <a
href="/wiki/Opinion_polling" class="mw-redirect" title="Opinion polling">opinion
polling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Survey_sampling" title="Survey sampling">survey
sampling</a>.</li></ul>
<p>For example, in an experiment on educational methods, methods may be applied to
classrooms of students. This would make the classroom as the experimental unit.
Measurements of progress may be obtained from individual students, as observational
units. But the treatment (teaching method) being applied to the class would not be
applied independently to the individual students. Hence the student could not be
regarded as the experimental unit. The class, or the teacher by method combination
if the teacher had multiple classes, would be the appropriate experimental unit.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Implementation">Implementation</span><span
class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a
href="/w/index.php?title=Statistical_unit&action=edit&section=2"
title="Edit section: Implementation">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
<p>In most statistical studies, the goal is to generalize from the observed units
to a larger set consisting of all comparable units that exist but are not directly
observed. For example, if we randomly sample 100 people and ask them which
candidate they intend to vote for in an election, our main interest is in the
voting behavior of all eligible voters, not exclusively on the 100 observed units.
</p><p>In some cases, the observed units may not form a sample from any meaningful
population, but rather constitute a <a href="/wiki/Accidental_sampling" class="mw-
redirect" title="Accidental sampling">convenience sample</a>, or may represent the
entire population of interest. In this situation, we may study the units <a
href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive
statistics">descriptively</a>, or we may study their <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_model"
class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic model">dynamics</a> over time. But it typically
does not make sense to talk about generalizing to a larger population of such
units. Studies involving <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">countries</a> or
<a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business firms</a> are often of this
type. <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>
also typically use convenience samples, however the aim is often to make inferences
about the effectiveness of treatments in other patients, and given the inclusion
and exclusion criteria for some clinical trials, the sample may not be
representative of the majority of patients with the condition or disease.
</p><p>In simple <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> sets, the units are in
one-to-one correspondence with the data values. In more complex data sets,
multiple measurements are made for each unit. For example, if blood pressure
measurements are made daily for a week on each subject in a study, there would be
seven data values for each statistical unit. Multiple measurements taken on an
individual are not <a
href="/wiki/Independent_and_identically_distributed_random_variables"
title="Independent and identically distributed random variables">independent</a>
(they will be more alike compared to measurements taken on different individuals).
Ignoring these dependencies during the analysis can lead to an inflated sample size
or <a href="/wiki/Pseudoreplication"
title="Pseudoreplication">pseudoreplication</a>.
</p><p>While a <i>unit</i> is often the lowest level at which observations are
made, in some cases, a <i>unit</i> can be further decomposed as a <a
href="/wiki/Statistical_assembly" title="Statistical assembly">statistical
assembly</a>.
</p><p>Many statistical analyses use quantitative <a href="/wiki/Data"
title="Data">data</a> that have <a href="/wiki/Units_of_measurement" class="mw-
redirect" title="Units of measurement">units of measurement</a>. This is a
distinct and non-overlapping use of the term "unit."
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Units_of_collection_and_analysis">Units of
collection and analysis</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-
editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Statistical_unit&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Units of
collection and analysis">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-
<p>Statistical units are divided into two. They are :
</p>
<ul><li>Unit of collection: Units in which figures relating to a particular problem
are either enumerated or estimated. The units of collection may be simple or
composite. A simple unit is one which represent a single condition without any
qualification. A composite unit is one which is formed by adding a qualification
word or phrase to a simple unit. Example: labour-hours and passenger-
kilometer</li></ul>
<ul><li>Unit of analysis and interpretation: Units in term of which statistical
data are analysed and interpreted. Example: ratios, percentage, co-efficient
etc.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-
editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Statistical_unit&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See
also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_tract" title="Census tract">Census tract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Research_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Research
subject">Research subject</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_specimen" title="Laboratory
specimen">Specimen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sample_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample point">Sample
point</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">Statistical
model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_analysis" title="Unit of analysis">Unit of
analysis</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Bibliography">Bibliography</span><span class="mw-
Bibliography">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Design_of_experiments">Design of
experiments</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-
bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?
title=Statistical_unit&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Design
of experiments">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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.cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-
selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFBailey,_R._A]2008"
class="citation book cs1">Bailey, R. A] (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="http://www.maths.qmul.ac.uk/~rab/DOEbook/"><i>Design of Comparative
Experiments</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68357-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-
0-521-68357-9"><bdi>978-0-521-68357-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Design+of+Comparative+Experiments&rft
.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68357-
9&rft.au=Bailey%2C+R.+A%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maths.qmul.ac.uk%2F~rab
%2FDOEbook%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatistical+unit"
class="Z3988"></span> Pre-publication chapters are available on-line.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHinkelmannKempthorne2008"
class="citation book cs1">Hinkelmann, Klaus; <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Kempthorne"
title="Oscar Kempthorne">Kempthorne, Oscar</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?
id=T3wWj2kVYZgC&printsec=frontcover"><i>Design and Analysis of Experiments,
Volume I: Introduction to Experimental Design</i></a> (Second ed.). Wiley. <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN
(identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-72756-9"
title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-72756-9"><bdi>978-0-471-72756-
9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Design+and+Analysis+of+Experiments
%2C+Volume+I
%3A+Introduction+to+Experimental+Design&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Wiley&am
p;rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-471-72756-
9&rft.aulast=Hinkelmann&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft.au=Kempthorne
%2C+Oscar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DT3wWj2kVYZgC
%26printsec%3Dfrontcover&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%3AStatistical+unit" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sampling">Sampling</span><span class="mw-
Sampling">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFCochran,_William_G.1977"
class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Gemmell_Cochran" title="William
Gemmell Cochran">Cochran, William G.</a> (1977). <i>Sampling Techniques</i>
(Third ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-
16240-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-16240-X"><bdi>0-471-16240-
X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sampling+Techniques&rft.edition=Third
&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-471-16240-X&rft.au=Cochran
%2C+William+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatistical+unit"
class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFSärndal,_Carl-
Erik,_and_Swensson,_Bengt,_and_Wretman,_Jan1992" class="citation book cs1">Särndal,
Carl-Erik, and Swensson, Bengt, and Wretman, Jan (1992). <i>Model Assisted Survey
Sampling</i>. Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-
redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-40620-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-
40620-4"><bdi>0-387-40620-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Model+Assisted+Survey+Sampling&rft.pu
b=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-387-40620-4&rft.au=S
%C3%A4rndal%2C+Carl-Erik%2C+and+Swensson%2C+Bengt%2C+and+Wretman
%2C+Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStatistical+unit"
class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: multiple
names: authors list (<a
href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1
maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li></ul>
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(statistics)">Contrast</a></li>
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(statistics)">Interaction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">Confounding</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orthogonality#Statistics,_econometrics,_and_economics"
title="Orthogonality">Orthogonality</a></li>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_regression" title="Linear regression">Linear
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least squares</a></li>
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model">Bayesian</a></li></ul>
<ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of
variance">Analysis of variance (Anova)</a></b></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cochran%27s_theorem" title="Cochran's theorem">Cochran's
theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_analysis_of_variance" title="Multivariate analysis
of variance"><b>Manova</b> (<i>multivariate</i>)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_covariance" title="Analysis of
covariance"><b>Ancova</b> (<i>covariance</i>)</a></li></ul>
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means">Compare means</a></li>
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comparison">Multiple comparison</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">Designs</a> <br />
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methodology">Response surface methodology</a></b></li>
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rational function modeling">Polynomial and rational modeling</a></li>
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Behnken</a></li>
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design">Central composite</a></li></ul>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_randomized_block_design" title="Generalized
randomized block design">Generalized randomized block design</a> (GRBD)</li>
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square">Graeco-Latin square</a></li>
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array</a></li>
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hypercube</a> <br /> <b><a href="/wiki/Repeated_measures_design" title="Repeated
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study</a></li></ul>
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analysis</a></li>
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ratio test">Sequential probability ratio test</a></li></ul>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_statistics" title="Outline of
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articles">Index</a></li></ul>
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class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th
scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a
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class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-
left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table
scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a
href="/wiki/Central_tendency" title="Central tendency">Center</a></th><td
left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mean" title="Mean">Mean</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_mean" title="Arithmetic mean">arithmetic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean" title="Geometric mean">geometric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_mean" title="Harmonic mean">harmonic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Median" title="Median">Median</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mode_(statistics)" title="Mode (statistics)">Mode</a></li></ul>
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weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_dispersion" title="Statistical
dispersion">Dispersion</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Variance#Sample_variance" title="Variance">Variance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">Standard
deviation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_variation" title="Coefficient of
variation">Coefficient of variation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Percentile" title="Percentile">Percentile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Range_(statistics)" title="Range (statistics)">Range</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interquartile_range" title="Interquartile range">Interquartile
range</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Shape_of_the_distribution" class="mw-redirect"
title="Shape of the distribution">Shape</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_limit_theorem" title="Central limit theorem">Central
limit theorem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moment_(mathematics)" title="Moment (mathematics)">Moments</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skewness" title="Skewness">Skewness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kurtosis" title="Kurtosis">Kurtosis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/L-moment" title="L-moment">L-moments</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"
class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Count_data" title="Count
data">Count data</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div
style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_dispersion" title="Index of dispersion">Index of
dispersion</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:12.5em">Summary tables</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grouped_data" title="Grouped data">Grouped data</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_distribution" title="Frequency distribution">Frequency
distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency
table</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a
href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" title="Correlation and
dependence">Dependence</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient" title="Pearson correlation
coefficient">Pearson product-moment correlation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rank_correlation" title="Rank correlation">Rank correlation</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient"
title="Spearman's rank correlation coefficient">Spearman's ρ</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kendall_rank_correlation_coefficient" title="Kendall rank
correlation coefficient">Kendall's τ</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial
correlation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Statistical_graphics" title="Statistical graphics">Graphics</a></th><td
left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bar_chart" title="Bar chart">Bar chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biplot" title="Biplot">Biplot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Box_plot" title="Box plot">Box plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Control_chart" title="Control chart">Control chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Correlogram" title="Correlogram">Correlogram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fan_chart_(statistics)" title="Fan chart (statistics)">Fan
chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Forest_plot" title="Forest plot">Forest plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Histogram" title="Histogram">Histogram</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pie_chart" title="Pie chart">Pie chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Q%E2%80%93Q_plot" title="Q–Q plot">Q–Q plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Run_chart" title="Run chart">Run chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scatter_plot" title="Scatter plot">Scatter plot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stem-and-leaf_display" title="Stem-and-leaf display">Stem-and-
leaf display</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radar_chart" title="Radar chart">Radar chart</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Violin_plot" title="Violin plot">Violin plot</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></t
d></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
id="Data_collection" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a
href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">Data
collection</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">Study
design</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_population" title="Statistical
population">Population</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Effect_size" title="Effect size">Effect size</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical
power">Statistical power</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_design" title="Optimal design">Optimal design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sample_size_determination" title="Sample size
determination">Sample size determination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Replication_(statistics)" title="Replication
(statistics)">Replication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Missing_data" title="Missing data">Missing data</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Survey_methodology" title="Survey methodology">Survey
methodology</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)" title="Sampling
(statistics)">Sampling</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratified_sampling" title="Stratified
sampling">stratified</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_sampling" title="Cluster
sampling">cluster</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Standard_error" title="Standard error">Standard error</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">Opinion poll</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Questionnaire" title="Questionnaire">Questionnaire</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Controlled experiments</a></th><td
left-style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">Scientific
control</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_experiment" title="Randomized experiment">Randomized
experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled
trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Random_assignment" title="Random assignment">Random
assignment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Blocking_(statistics)" title="Blocking
(statistics)">Blocking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interaction_(statistics)" title="Interaction
(statistics)">Interaction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Factorial_experiment" title="Factorial experiment">Factorial
experiment</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:12.5em">Adaptive Designs</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_clinical_trial" title="Adaptive clinical
trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Up-and-Down_Designs" title="Up-and-Down Designs">Up-and-Down
Designs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_approximation" title="Stochastic
approximation">Stochastic approximation</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational
Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-
sectional study</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Natural_experiment" title="Natural experiment">Natural
experiment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-experiment" title="Quasi-experiment">Quasi-
experiment</a></li></ul>
id="Statistical_inference" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a
href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Statistical
inference</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
href="/wiki/Statistical_theory" title="Statistical theory">Statistical
theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Population (statistics)">Population</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistic" title="Statistic">Statistic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Probability_distribution" title="Probability
distribution">Probability distribution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_distribution" title="Sampling distribution">Sampling
distribution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Order_statistic" title="Order statistic">Order
statistic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_distribution_function" title="Empirical distribution
function">Empirical distribution</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Density_estimation" title="Density estimation">Density
estimation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">Statistical
model</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Model_specification" class="mw-redirect" title="Model
specification">Model specification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lp_space" title="Lp space">L<sup><i>p</i></sup>
space</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_parameter" title="Statistical
parameter">Parameter</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Location_parameter" title="Location
parameter">location</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scale_parameter" title="Scale parameter">scale</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shape_parameter" title="Shape
parameter">shape</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric statistics">Parametric
family</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_function" title="Likelihood
function">Likelihood</a> <a href="/wiki/Monotone_likelihood_ratio"
title="Monotone likelihood ratio"><span style="font-
size:85%;">(monotone)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Location%E2%80%93scale_family" title="Location–scale
family">Location–scale family</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential
family</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Completeness_(statistics)" title="Completeness
(statistics)">Completeness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufficient_statistic" title="Sufficient
statistic">Sufficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in
principle">Statistical functional</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping
(statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/U-statistic" title="U-statistic">U</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/V-statistic" title="V-statistic">V</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_decision" title="Optimal decision">Optimal decision</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loss_function" title="Loss function">loss
function</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Efficiency_(statistics)" title="Efficiency
(statistics)">Efficiency</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_distance" title="Statistical distance">Statistical
distance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divergence_(statistics)" title="Divergence
(statistics)">divergence</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_theory_(statistics)" title="Asymptotic theory
(statistics)">Asymptotics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robust_statistics" title="Robust
statistics">Robustness</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Frequentist_inference" title="Frequentist inference">Frequentist
inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-
0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-
spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Point_estimation" title="Point estimation">Point
estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estimating_equations" title="Estimating
equations">Estimating equations</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_likelihood" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum
likelihood">Maximum likelihood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_moments_(statistics)" title="Method of moments
(statistics)">Method of moments</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/M-estimator" title="M-estimator">M-estimator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_distance_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimum
distance estimation">Minimum distance</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_an_estimator" title="Bias of an estimator">Unbiased
estimators</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimum-variance_unbiased_estimator" title="Minimum-variance
unbiased estimator">Mean-unbiased minimum-variance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rao%E2%80%93Blackwell_theorem" title="Rao–Blackwell
theorem">Rao–Blackwellization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lehmann%E2%80%93Scheff%C3%A9_theorem" title="Lehmann–Scheffé
theorem">Lehmann–Scheffé theorem</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Median-unbiased_estimator" class="mw-redirect" title="Median-
unbiased estimator">Median unbiased</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plug-in_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Plug-in
principle">Plug-in</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Interval_estimation" title="Interval
estimation">Interval estimation</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confidence_interval" title="Confidence interval">Confidence
interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pivotal_quantity" title="Pivotal quantity">Pivot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood_interval" class="mw-redirect" title="Likelihood
interval">Likelihood interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prediction_interval" title="Prediction interval">Prediction
interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tolerance_interval" title="Tolerance interval">Tolerance
interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Resampling_(statistics)" title="Resampling
(statistics)">Resampling</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bootstrapping_(statistics)" title="Bootstrapping
(statistics)">Bootstrap</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jackknife_resampling" title="Jackknife
resampling">Jackknife</a></li></ul></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" title="Statistical
hypothesis testing">Testing hypotheses</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-_and_two-tailed_tests" title="One- and two-tailed
tests">1- & 2-tails</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Power_(statistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power
(statistics)">Power</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniformly_most_powerful_test" title="Uniformly most powerful
test">Uniformly most powerful test</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Permutation_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Permutation
test">Permutation test</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Randomization_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomization
test">Randomization test</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_comparisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiple
comparisons">Multiple comparisons</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric
statistics">Parametric tests</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio
test">Likelihood-ratio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Score_test" title="Score test">Score/Lagrange
multiplier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wald_test" title="Wald test">Wald</a></li></ul>
class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Specific tests</th><td class="navbox-list
style:solid;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div><table
class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td
colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test <span style="font-
size:90%;">(normal)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's
<i>t</i>-test</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/F-test" title="F-test"><i>F</i>-test</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Goodness_of_fit" title="Goodness of fit">Goodness of
fit</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-
width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chi-squared_test" title="Chi-squared test">Chi-
squared</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/G-test" title="G-test"><i>G</i>-test</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kolmogorov%E2%80%93Smirnov_test" title="Kolmogorov–Smirnov
test">Kolmogorov–Smirnov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anderson%E2%80%93Darling_test" title="Anderson–Darling
test">Anderson–Darling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lilliefors_test" title="Lilliefors test">Lilliefors</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jarque%E2%80%93Bera_test" title="Jarque–Bera test">Jarque–
Bera</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shapiro%E2%80%93Wilk_test" title="Shapiro–Wilk test">Normality
<span style="font-size:90%;">(Shapiro–Wilk)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Likelihood-ratio_test" title="Likelihood-ratio test">Likelihood-
ratio test</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Model_selection" title="Model selection">Model selection</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)" title="Cross-validation
(statistics)">Cross validation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Akaike_information_criterion" title="Akaike information
criterion">AIC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_information_criterion" title="Bayesian information
criterion">BIC</a></li></ul></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rank_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Rank
statistics">Rank statistics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sign_test" title="Sign test">Sign</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sample_median" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample
median">Sample median</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilcoxon_signed-rank_test" title="Wilcoxon signed-rank
test">Signed rank <span style="font-size:90%;">(Wilcoxon)</span></a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hodges%E2%80%93Lehmann_estimator" title="Hodges–Lehmann
estimator">Hodges–Lehmann estimator</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mann%E2%80%93Whitney_U_test" title="Mann–Whitney U test">Rank
sum <span style="font-size:90%;">(Mann–Whitney)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nonparametric_statistics" title="Nonparametric
statistics">Nonparametric</a> <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis
of variance">anova</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kruskal%E2%80%93Wallis_one-way_analysis_of_variance"
title="Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance">1-way <span style="font-
size:90%;">(Kruskal–Wallis)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Friedman_test" title="Friedman test">2-way <span style="font-
size:90%;">(Friedman)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jonckheere%27s_trend_test" title="Jonckheere's trend
test">Ordered alternative <span style="font-size:90%;">(Jonckheere–
Terpstra)</span></a></li></ul></li></ul>
class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_inference"
title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a></th><td class="navbox-list
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_probability" title="Bayesian probability">Bayesian
probability</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prior_probability" title="Prior probability">prior</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_probability" title="Posterior
probability">posterior</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Credible_interval" title="Credible interval">Credible
interval</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bayes_factor" title="Bayes factor">Bayes factor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bayes_estimator" title="Bayes estimator">Bayesian estimator</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_a_posteriori_estimation" title="Maximum a posteriori
estimation">Maximum posterior estimator</a></li></ul></li></ul>
id="CorrelationRegression_analysis" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div
class="hlist hlist-separated"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence"
title="Correlation and dependence">Correlation</a></li><li><a
href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression
analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list
navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em
0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-
spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em"><a
href="/wiki/Correlation_and_dependence" title="Correlation and
dependence">Correlation</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient" class="mw-
redirect" title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">Pearson product-
moment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Partial_correlation" title="Partial correlation">Partial
<li><a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">Confounding variable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination" title="Coefficient of
determination">Coefficient of determination</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression
analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-
0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Errors_and_residuals_in_statistics" class="mw-redirect"
title="Errors and residuals in statistics">Errors and residuals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regression_validation" title="Regression validation">Regression
validation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_model" title="Mixed model">Mixed effects models</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_equations_model" title="Simultaneous equations
model">Simultaneous equations models</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_adaptive_regression_splines" class="mw-redirect"
title="Multivariate adaptive regression splines">Multivariate adaptive regression
splines (MARS)</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Linear_regression" title="Linear regression">Linear
regression</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_linear_regression" title="Simple linear
regression">Simple linear regression</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_least_squares" title="Ordinary least squares">Ordinary
least squares</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/General_linear_model" title="General linear model">General
linear model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bayesian_linear_regression" title="Bayesian linear
regression">Bayesian regression</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.5em">Non-
standard predictors</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_regression" title="Nonlinear regression">Nonlinear
regression</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nonparametric_regression" title="Nonparametric
regression">Nonparametric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semiparametric_regression" title="Semiparametric
regression">Semiparametric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isotonic_regression" title="Isotonic
regression">Isotonic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robust_regression" title="Robust regression">Robust</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heteroscedasticity"
title="Heteroscedasticity">Heteroscedasticity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homoscedasticity"
title="Homoscedasticity">Homoscedasticity</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Generalized_linear_model" title="Generalized linear model">Generalized
linear model</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_family" title="Exponential family">Exponential
families</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_regression" title="Logistic regression">Logistic <span
style="font-size:90%;">(Bernoulli)</span></a> / <a
href="/wiki/Binomial_regression" title="Binomial
regression">Binomial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Poisson_regression"
title="Poisson regression">Poisson regressions</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Partition_of_sums_of_squares" title="Partition of sums of
squares">Partition of variance</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even"
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis
of variance (ANOVA, anova)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_covariance" title="Analysis of covariance">Analysis
of covariance</a></li>
of variance">Multivariate ANOVA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(statistics)" title="Degrees of freedom
(statistics)">Degrees of freedom</a></li></ul>
id="Categorical_/_Multivariate_/_Time-series_/_Survival_analysis" style="font-
size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Categorical_variable" title="Categorical
variable">Categorical</a> / <a href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics"
title="Multivariate statistics">Multivariate</a> / <a
href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time-series</a> / <a
href="/wiki/Survival_analysis" title="Survival analysis">Survival
analysis</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
href="/wiki/Categorical_variable" title="Categorical
variable">Categorical</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cohen%27s_kappa" title="Cohen's kappa">Cohen's
kappa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_table" title="Contingency table">Contingency
table</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Graphical_model" title="Graphical model">Graphical
model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poisson_regression" title="Poisson regression">Log-linear
model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/McNemar%27s_test" title="McNemar's test">McNemar's
test</a></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Multivariate_statistics" title="Multivariate
statistics">Multivariate</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_linear_model" title="General linear
model">Regression</a></li>
of variance">Manova</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Principal_component_analysis" title="Principal component
analysis">Principal components</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Canonical_correlation" title="Canonical correlation">Canonical
<li><a href="/wiki/Linear_discriminant_analysis" title="Linear discriminant
analysis">Discriminant analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_analysis" title="Cluster analysis">Cluster
analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_classification" title="Statistical
classification">Classification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structural_equation_modeling" title="Structural equation
modeling">Structural equation model</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factor_analysis" title="Factor analysis">Factor
analysis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_distribution" class="mw-redirect"
title="Multivariate distribution">Multivariate distributions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elliptical_distribution" title="Elliptical
distribution">Elliptical distributions</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multivariate_normal_distribution" title="Multivariate normal
distribution">Normal</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time-series</a></th><td class="navbox-
list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-
scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-
weight:normal;">General</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition_of_time_series" title="Decomposition of time
series">Decomposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trend_estimation" class="mw-redirect" title="Trend
estimation">Trend</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stationary_process" title="Stationary
process">Stationarity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_adjustment" title="Seasonal adjustment">Seasonal
adjustment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Exponential_smoothing" title="Exponential smoothing">Exponential
smoothing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cointegration" title="Cointegration">Cointegration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Structural_break" title="Structural break">Structural
break</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Granger_causality" title="Granger causality">Granger
causality</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;">Specific tests</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dickey%E2%80%93Fuller_test" title="Dickey–Fuller
test">Dickey–Fuller</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johansen_test" title="Johansen test">Johansen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ljung%E2%80%93Box_test" title="Ljung–Box test">Q-statistic <span
style="font-size:90%;">(Ljung–Box)</span></a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Durbin%E2%80%93Watson_statistic" title="Durbin–Watson
statistic">Durbin–Watson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Breusch%E2%80%93Godfrey_test" title="Breusch–Godfrey
test">Breusch–Godfrey</a></li></ul>
weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Time_domain" title="Time domain">Time
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