Suspension Design: Types of Suspensions

This article will provide a basic overview of just about all of the different
types of front suspensions that have been used on production and racing
vehicles since the inception of the automobile. While some of the older
styles are obsolete it is still important to learn about them because it
provides valuable insight into why the cutting edge suspensions of today
perform so much better.

Going in chronological order, the first

mass produced front suspension design
was the ​solid beam axle​. Just as it
sounds, in the beam axle setup both of
the front wheels are connected to each
other by a solid axle. This style was
carried over to the first automobiles
from the horse drawn carriages of the
past and worked well enough so that
initially no other suspension even
needed to be considered. In fact the
beam axle can still be found today.
New developments in springs, roll
bars, and shocks have kept the solid
axle practical for some applications.
Have you ever taken a look at the front
end of a semi or heavy duty truck? If
you have, you would’ve noticed that
both of the front wheels are connect by
a solid axle. We’ll make a quick list
of the advantages versus the
disadvantages for the beam axle front Typical beam axle design, showing the wheels connected by the axle and the whole
assembly connected to the chassis by the springs and shocks
suspension to help understand why it
can be used on heavy trucks but is far
from desirable on a performance or
passenger car.
After designers had come to realize the
severe drawbacks of the solid axle front
suspension, they moved on to early
attempts at an independent style of front
suspension. One of these attempts came to
be known as a ​swing axle​ suspension. It
is, as the name suggests, set up so that the
axles pivot about a location somewhere near
the center of the car and allow the wheels to
travel up and down through their respective
arcs. This system was eventually adapted
for rear suspensions as can be found on the
old beetles. I’ll use a simple chart to help
identify the advantages the swing axle has
over the solid axle and highlight some of the
shortcomings of this suspension design as Illustration showing a swing axle suspension at different
well. positions. Notice the huge degree of positive camber when the
axles jack up (top) this is what causes the distinct loss in
cornering power.
 Another early form of front
independent suspension is called the
trailing link suspension​. This
suspension design uses a set of arms
located ahead of the wheels to support
the unsprung mass. In essence the
wheel “trails” the suspension links.
Hence the name. Since independent
front suspensions were pioneered in
production cars to improve the ride
characteristics of vehicles as well as
minimize the space needed for the
suspension itself, early designs like the
trailing link suspension attempted to
excel in those areas of improvement.
Trailing link systems like the one in the
front of the old beetle were a success
from the manufacturer standpoint as
they did improve ride and reduce the
This image shows a single link trailing link rear suspension. While this is
not exactly the same as the double link front (due to the differential) the packaging size of the suspension.
concept is the same. However, there were some
considerable drawbacks to the trailing
link system when applied to vehicles
that generate high cornering loads.
In the 70’s the ​MacPherson​ front suspension assembly became a very popular
design on front wheel drive cars. This strut based system, where the spring/shock
directly connects the steering knuckle to the chassis and acts as a link in the
suspension, offers a simple and compact suspension package. This is perfect for
small front wheel drive cars where space is tight and even allows room for the drive
shaft to pass through the knuckle. Today most small cars will use this type of
suspension because it is cheap, has good ride qualities, and has the compact
dimensions necessary for front wheel drive cars. As with the trailing link style
independent suspension, while the MacPherson assembly works very well for
production road going cars, on performance cars it is less than ideal. The chart
The illustration shows what a
below illustrates this point. typical MacPherson
assembly looks like. With the
strut acting as the upper
suspension link.
The next evolution in suspension design was to move towards the ​equal
length A-arm setup. This is commonly referred to as a “double
wishbone” suspension as the A shaped control arms resemble a
wishbone. In this design the suspension is supported by a triangulated
A-arm at the top and bottom of the knuckle. The earliest designs of the
A-arm suspension included equal length upper and lower arms mounted
parallel to the ground. This design has many advantages over any of
the previous independent front suspensions. The chart below covers
these and details the shortcomings of the first generation of double
A-arm designs.

After designing, implementing, and experimenting with the equal length

double A-arm suspension it was vary apparent that all that was needed
to make the double A-arm front suspension satisfactory for high
performance use was to determine a way for the suspension to gain
negative camber as it was compressed. (I.e. during chassis roll) The
problem was solved by implementing upper and lower A-arms of
different length. The resulting ​unequal length double A-arm
suspension was born.

The image shows a typical unequal length double A-arm setup. Note
the difference in length between the upper and lower arms. This is
what gives this suspension its ability to generate negative camber in
bump.
By using an upper control arm that is shorter than the lower one, as the
wheel travels up it tips in, gaining negative camber. This is because the
upper arm swings through a shorter arc than the lower and pulls in the
top of the tire as the wheel travels upwards. The advantage in this
negative camber gain is that as the chassis rolls against the wheels, the
increasing negative camber on the outside wheel helps keep the wheel
upright against the road surface and allows the tire to generate the
maximum possible cornering force. By adjusting the length of the arms
and their respective angles to the ground, there are infinite possibilities
in the design of a vehicles roll center height and swing arm length. This
flexibility gives suspension designers unlimited options on how to best
setup the suspension. There is no right answer or best geometry, that
is why a Honda will have different geometry than a Corvette. It
ultimately comes down to what design will get the vehicle around a
corner the fastest. However, in production cars the manufacturers have
many other things to consider. Depending on the target market and
type of car, there are a host of variables that must be considered and
result in a less than optimum suspension design for most vehicles.
Lastly, when comparing the unequal length double A-arm setup to all
the previous iterations of the independent front suspension from a
performance standpoint, it has real no disadvantages and is currently
the most advanced suspension design used. Simply look at what
suspension the most advanced race cars use if you have any doubts.
The only cars that do not feature this design are vehicles where price
and space are of more concern than performance.

In summary, we have seen how the evolution of the front suspension has progressed
over the past 100 years from the solid beam axle taken from horse buggies through to
the unequal length double A-arm design currently employed by the top performance
cars of today. While most people have heard that a double A-arm setup is good they
don’t know why it is better than a different style of suspension. This article is intended
to provide an introduction to the most common types of front suspensions and cover
their strengths and weaknesses. After reading through the information presented here
you should have a decent understanding of each of the suspension designs discussed
and how they affect ride quality and handling performance on roads.​
 SUSPENSION
How Car Suspensions Work
When people think of automobile performance, they normally think of ​horsepower​, torque and zero-to-60
acceleration. But all of the power generated by a ​piston engine is useless if the driver can't control the car.
That's why automobile engineers turned their attention to the suspension system almost as soon as they had
mastered the four-stroke internal combustion engine.
Car Suspension Image Gallery

Photo courtesy Honda Motor Co., Ltd.

Double-wishbone suspension on Honda Accord 2005 Coupe. See more ​car suspension pictures​.

The job of a car suspension is to maximize the friction between the ​tires and the road surface, to provide
steering stability with good handling and to ensure the comfort of the passengers. In this article, we'll explore
how car suspensions work, how they've evolved over the years and where the design of suspensions is
headed in the future.

If a road were perfectly flat, with no irregularities, suspensions wouldn't be necessary. But roads are far from
flat. Even freshly paved highways have subtle imperfections that can interact with the wheels of a car. It's
these imperfections that apply forces to the wheels. According to Newton's laws of motion, all forces have both
magnitude and ​direction​. A bump in the road causes the wheel to move up and down perpendicular to the
road surface. The magnitude, of course, depends on whether the wheel is striking a giant bump or a tiny
speck. Either way, the car wheel experiences a ​vertical acceleration​ as it passes over an imperfection.
 Without an intervening structure, all of wheel's vertical energy is transferred to the frame, which moves in the
same direction. In such a situation, the wheels can lose contact with the road completely. Then, under the
downward force of ​gravity​, the wheels can slam back into the road surface. What you need is a system that will
absorb the energy of the vertically accelerated wheel, allowing the frame and body to ride undisturbed while
the wheels follow bumps in the road.
The study of the forces at work on a moving car is called ​vehicle dynamics​, and you need to understand
some of these concepts in order to appreciate why a suspension is necessary in the first place. Most
automobile engineers consider the dynamics of a moving car from two perspectives:

● Ride​ - a car's ability to smooth out a bumpy road

● Handling​ - a car's ability to safely accelerate, brake and corner
These two characteristics can be further described in three important principles - ​road isolation​, ​road holding
and ​cornering​. The table below describes these principles and how engineers attempt to solve the challenges
unique to each.
Principle Definition Goal Solution

Absorb energy
from road
Allow the vehicle
bumps and
The vehicle's ability to absorb or body to ride
Road dissipate it
isolate road shock from the undisturbed while
Isolation without causing
passenger compartment traveling over rough
roads. undue
oscillation in the
vehicle.

The degree to which a car

maintains contact with the road
surface in various types of
Keep the tires in Minimize the
directional changes and in a
contact with the transfer of
straight line (Example: The
ground, because it vehicle weight
weight of a car will shift from the
is the friction from side to
rear tires to the front tires during
Road between the tires side and front to
braking. Because the nose of
Holding and the road that back, as this
the car dips toward the road,
affects a vehicle's transfer of
this type of motion is known as
ability to steer, weight reduces
"dive." The opposite effect --
brake and the tire's grip on
"squat" -- occurs during
accelerate. the road.
acceleration, which shifts the
weight of the car from the front
tires to the back.)

Minimize body roll,

which occurs as
centrifugal force Transfer the
pushes outward on weight of the
a car's center of car during
The ability of a vehicle to travel
Cornering gravity while cornering from
a curved path
cornering, raising the high side of
one side of the the vehicle to
vehicle and the low side.
lowering the
opposite side.
 A car's suspension, with its various components, provides all of the solutions described.
Let's look at the parts of a typical suspension, working from the bigger picture of the chassis down to the
individual components that make up the suspension proper.

Car Suspension Parts

The suspension of a car is actually part of the chassis, which comprises all of the important systems located
beneath the car's body (Chassis).

These systems include:

● The ​frame - structural, load-carrying component that supports the car's engine and body, which are in turn
supported by the suspension
● The ​suspension system - setup that supports weight, absorbs and dampens shock and helps maintain tire
contact
● The ​steering system​ - mechanism that enables the driver to guide and direct the vehicle
● The ​tires and wheels - components that make vehicle motion possible by way of grip and/or friction with the
road
So the suspension is just one of the major systems in any vehicle.
With this big-picture overview in mind, it's time to look at the three fundamental components of any
suspension: springs, dampers and anti-sway bars.
 Springs
Today's springing systems are based on one of four basic designs:
● Coil springs - This is the most common type of spring and is, in essence, a heavy-duty torsion bar coiled
around an axis. Coil springs compress and expand to absorb the motion of the wheels.

Photo courtesy ​Car Domain

Coil springs

● Leaf springs - This type of spring consists of several layers of metal (called "leaves") bound together to act as
a single unit. ​Leaf springs were first used on horse-drawn carriages and were found on most American
automobiles until 1985. They are still used today on most trucks and heavy-duty vehicles.

Photo courtesy ​HowStuffWorks Shopper

Leaf spring
 Torsion bars - Torsion bars use the twisting properties of a steel bar to provide coil-spring-like
performance. This is how they work: One end of a bar is anchored to the vehicle frame. The other end is
attached to a wishbone, which acts like a lever that moves perpendicular to the torsion bar. When the
wheel hits a bump, vertical motion is transferred to the wishbone and then, through the levering action, to
the torsion bar. The torsion bar then twists along its axis to provide the spring force. European carmakers
used this system extensively, as did Packard and Chrysler in the United States, through the 1950s and
1960s.

Photo courtesy ​HowStuffWorks Shopper

Torsion bar

● Air springs - Air springs, which consist of a cylindrical chamber of air positioned between the wheel and the
car's body, use the compressive qualities of air to absorb wheel vibrations. The concept is actually more than a
century old and could be found on horse-drawn buggies. Air springs from this era were made from air-filled,
leather diaphragms, much like a bellows; they were replaced with molded-rubber air springs in the 1930s.

Photo courtesy ​HSW Shopper

Air springs

Based on where springs are located on a car -- i.e., between the wheels and the frame -- engineers often find it
convenient to talk about the ​sprung mass​ and the ​unsprung mass​.
Springs: Sprung and Unsprung Mass
The ​sprung mass is the mass of the vehicle supported on the springs, while the ​unsprung mass is loosely
defined as the mass between the road and the suspension springs. The stiffness of the springs affects how the
sprung mass responds while the car is being driven. Loosely sprung cars, such as luxury cars (think ​Lincoln
Town Car​), can swallow bumps and provide a super-smooth ride; however, such a car is prone to dive and
squat during braking and acceleration and tends to experience body sway or roll during cornering. Tightly
sprung cars, such as sports cars (think ​Mazda Miata​), are less forgiving on bumpy roads, but they minimize
body motion well, which means they can be driven aggressively, even around corners.
So, while springs by themselves seem like simple devices, designing and implementing them on a car to
balance passenger comfort with handling is a complex task. And to make matters more complex, springs alone
can't provide a perfectly smooth ride. Why? Because springs are great at absorbing energy, but not so good at
dissipating​ it. Other structures, known as ​dampers​, are required to do this.

Dampers: Shock Absorbers

Unless a ​dampening structure is present, a car spring will extend and release the energy it absorbs from a
bump at an uncontrolled rate. The spring will continue to bounce at its natural frequency until all of the energy
originally put into it is used up. A suspension built on springs alone would make for an extremely bouncy ride
and, depending on the terrain, an uncontrollable car.
Enter the ​shock absorber​, or snubber, a device that controls unwanted spring motion through a process
known as ​dampening​. Shock absorbers slow down and reduce the magnitude of vibratory motions by turning
the kinetic energy of suspension movement into heat energy that can be dissipated through hydraulic fluid. To
understand how this works, it's best to look inside a shock absorber to see its structure and function.

A shock absorber is basically an ​oil pump placed between the frame of the car and the wheels. The upper
mount of the shock connects to the frame (i.e., the sprung weight), while the lower mount connects to the axle,
near the wheel (i.e., the unsprung weight). In a ​twin-tube design​, one of the most common types of shock
absorbers, the upper mount is connected to a piston rod, which in turn is connected to a piston, which in turn
sits in a tube filled with hydraulic fluid. The inner tube is known as the pressure tube, and the outer tube is
known as the reserve tube. The reserve tube stores excess hydraulic fluid.
When the car wheel encounters a bump in the road and causes the spring to coil and uncoil, the energy of the
spring is transferred to the shock absorber through the upper mount, down through the piston rod and into the
piston. Orifices perforate the piston and allow fluid to leak through as the piston moves up and down in the
pressure tube. Because the orifices are relatively tiny, only a small amount of fluid, under great pressure,
passes through. This slows down the piston, which in turn slows down the spring.
Shock absorbers work in two cycles -- the ​compression cycle and the ​extension cycle​. The compression
cycle occurs as the piston moves downward, compressing the hydraulic fluid in the chamber below the piston.
The extension cycle occurs as the piston moves toward the top of the pressure tube, compressing the fluid in
the chamber above the piston. A typical car or light truck will have more resistance during its extension cycle
than its compression cycle. With that in mind, the compression cycle controls the motion of the vehicle's
unsprung weight, while extension controls the heavier, sprung weight.
All modern shock absorbers are ​velocity-sensitive -- the faster the suspension moves, the more resistance
the shock absorber provides. This enables shocks to adjust to road conditions and to control all of the
unwanted motions that can occur in a moving vehicle, including bounce, sway, brake dive and acceleration
squat.

Dampers: Struts and Anti-sway Bars

Another common dampening structure is the ​strut -- basically a shock absorber mounted inside a coil spring.
Struts perform two jobs: They provide a ​dampening function like shock absorbers, and they provide ​structural
support for the vehicle suspension. That means struts deliver a bit more than shock absorbers, which don't
support vehicle weight -- they only control the speed at which weight is transferred in a car, not the weight
itself.

Common strut design

Because shocks and struts have so much to do with the handling of a car, they can be considered critical
safety features. Worn shocks and struts can allow excessive vehicle-weight transfer from side to side and front
to back. This reduces the ​tire's​ ability to grip the road, as well as handling and ​braking​ performance.
Anti-sway Bars
Anti-sway bars (also known as anti-roll bars) are used along with shock absorbers or struts to give a moving
automobile additional stability. An anti-sway bar is a metal rod that spans the entire axle and effectively joins
each side of the suspension together.

Photo courtesy ​HSW Shopper

Anti-sway bars

When the suspension at one wheel moves up and down, the anti-sway bar transfers movement to the other
wheel. This creates a more level ride and ​reduces vehicle sway​. In particular, it combats the roll of a car on
its suspension as it corners. For this reason, almost all cars today are fitted with anti-sway bars as standard
equipment, although if they're not, kits make it easy to install the bars at any time.

Suspension Types: Front

So far, our discussions have focused on how springs and dampers function on any given wheel. But
the four wheels of a car work together in two independent systems -- the two wheels connected by
the front axle and the two wheels connected by the rear axle. That means that a car can and usually
does have a different type of suspension on the front and back. Much is determined by whether a
rigid axle binds the wheels or if the wheels are permitted to move independently. The former
arrangement is known as a ​dependent system​, while the latter arrangement is known as an
independent system​. In the following sections, we'll look at some of the common types of front and
back suspensions typically used on mainstream cars.
Dependent Front Suspensions
Dependent front suspensions have a rigid front axle that connects the front wheels. Basically, this
looks like a solid bar under the front of the car, kept in place by ​leaf springs and shock absorbers.
Common on trucks, dependent front suspensions haven't been used in mainstream cars for years.
Independent Front Suspensions
In this setup, the front wheels are allowed to move independently. The ​MacPherson strut​, developed
by Earle S. MacPherson of General Motors in 1947, is the most widely used front suspension system,
especially in cars of European origin.
The MacPherson strut combines a shock absorber and a coil spring into a single unit. This provides a
more compact and lighter suspension system that can be used for front-wheel drive vehicles.
The ​double-wishbone suspension​, also known as an A-arm suspension, is another common type
of front independent suspension.

Photo courtesy Honda Motor Co., Ltd.

Double-wishbone suspension on Honda Accord 2005 Coupe

While there are several different possible configurations, this design typically uses two
wishbone-shaped arms to locate the wheel. Each wishbone, which has two mounting positions to the
frame and one at the wheel, bears a shock absorber and a coil spring to absorb vibrations.
Double-wishbone suspensions allow for more control over the camber angle of the wheel, which
describes the degree to which the wheels tilt in and out. They also help minimize roll or sway and
provide for a more consistent steering feel. Because of these characteristics, the double-wishbone
suspension is common on the front wheels of larger cars.
Now let's look at some common rear suspensions.

Suspension Types: Rear

Photo courtesy ​HowStuffWorks Shopper

Leaf spring

Dependent Rear Suspensions

If a solid axle connects the rear wheels of a car, then the suspension is usually quite simple -- based
either on a ​leaf spring or a coil spring. In the former design, the ​leaf springs clamp directly to the drive
axle. The ends of the ​leaf springs attach directly to the frame, and the shock absorber is attached at
the clamp that holds the spring to the axle. For many years, American car manufacturers preferred
this design because of its simplicity.
The same basic design can be achieved with coil springs replacing the leaves. In this case, the spring
and shock absorber can be mounted as a single unit or as separate components. When they're
separate, the springs can be much smaller, which reduces the amount of space the suspension takes
up.

Independent Rear Suspensions

If both the front and back suspensions are independent, then all of the wheels are mounted and
sprung individually, resulting in what car advertisements tout as "four-wheel independent
suspension." Any suspension that can be used on the front of the car can be used on the rear, and
versions of the front independent systems described in the previous section can be found on the rear
axles. Of course, in the rear of the car, the ​steering rack -- the assembly that includes the pinion gear
wheel and enables the wheels to turn from side to side -- is absent. This means that rear independent
suspensions can be simplified versions of front ones, although the basic principles remain the same.
 Power Steering
There are a couple of key components in ​power steering in addition to the rack-and-pinion or
recirculating-ball mechanism.

Pump
The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by a ​rotary-vane pump (see diagram below). This
pump is driven by the car's engine via a belt and pulley. It contains a set of retractable vanes that
spin inside an oval chamber.
As the vanes spin, they pull hydraulic fluid from the return line at low pressure and force it into the
outlet at high pressure. The amount of flow provided by the pump depends on the car's engine
speed. The pump must be designed to provide adequate flow when the engine is idling. As a result,
the pump moves much more fluid than necessary when the engine is running at faster speeds.
The pump contains a pressure-relief valve to make sure that the pressure does not get too high,
especially at high engine speeds when so much fluid is being pumped.

Rotary Valve

A power-steering system should assist the driver only when he is exerting force on the steering
wheel (such as when starting a turn). When the driver is not exerting force (such as when driving in
a straight line), the system shouldn't provide any assist. The device that senses the force on the
steering wheel is called the ​rotary valve​.
The key to the rotary valve is a ​torsion bar​. The torsion bar is a thin rod of metal that twists when
torque is applied to it. The top of the bar is connected to the steering wheel, and the bottom of the
bar is connected to the pinion or worm gear (which turns the wheels), so the amount of torque in the
torsion bar is equal to the amount of torque the driver is using to turn the wheels. The more torque
the driver uses to turn the wheels, the more the bar twists.

The input from the steering shaft forms the inner part of a ​spool-valve assembly​. It also connects to
the top end of the ​torsion bar​. The bottom of the torsion bar connects to the outer part of the spool
valve. The torsion bar also turns the output of the steering gear, connecting to either the pinion gear
or the worm gear depending on which type of steering the car has.
As the bar twists, it rotates the inside of the spool valve relative to the outside. Since the inner part
of the spool valve is also connected to the steering shaft (and therefore to the steering wheel), the
amount of rotation between the inner and outer parts of the spool valve depends on how much
torque the driver applies to the steering wheel.
 Picture showing what happens inside the rotary valve when you first start to turn the steering wheel

When the steering wheel is not being turned, both hydraulic lines provide the same amount of
pressure to the steering gear. But if the spool valve is turned one way or the other, ports open up to
provide high-pressure fluid to the appropriate line.
It turns out that this type of power-steering system is pretty inefficient. Let's take a look at some
advances we'll see in coming years that will help improve efficiency.

The Future of Power Steering

Since the power-steering pump on most cars today runs constantly, pumping fluid all the time, it
wastes ​horsepower​. This wasted power translates into wasted fuel.
You can expect to see several innovations that will improve fuel economy. One of the coolest ideas
on the drawing board is the "steer-by-wire" or "drive-by-wire" system. These systems would
completely eliminate the mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the steering,
replacing it with a purely electronic control system. Essentially, the steering wheel would work like
the one you can buy for your home computer to play games. It would contain sensors that tell the
car what the driver is doing with the wheel, and have some motors in it to provide the driver with
feedback on what the car is doing. The output of these sensors would be used to control a motorized
steering system. This would free up space in the engine compartment by eliminating the steering
shaft. It would also reduce vibration inside the car.
General Motors has introduced a concept car, the ​Hy-wire​, that features this type of driving system.
One of the most exciting things about the drive-by-wire system in the GM Hy-wire is that you can
fine-tune vehicle handling without changing anything in the car's mechanical components -- all it
takes to adjust the steering is some new computer software. In future drive-by-wire vehicles, you
will most likely be able to configure the controls exactly to your liking by pressing a few buttons,
just like you might adjust the seat position in a car today. It would also be possible in this sort of
system to store distinct control preferences for each driver in the family.
In the past fifty years, car steering systems haven't changed much. But in the next decade, we'll see
advances in car steering that will result in more efficient cars and a more comfortable ride.

Steering

Part of car steering mechanism: tie rod, steering arm, king pin axis (using ball joints).

Steering is the term applied to the collection of components, linkages, etc. which will allow a ​vessel
(​ship​, ​boat​) or ​vehicle (​car​, ​motorcycle​, ​bicycle​) to follow the desired course. An exception is the
case of ​rail transport by which ​rail tracks combined together with ​railroad switches (and also known
as 'points' in British English) provide the steering function.

Introduction
The most conventional steering arrangement is to turn the front ​wheels using a hand–operated
steering wheel which is positioned in front of the driver, via the ​steering column​, which may
contain ​universal joints (which may also be part of the collapsible steering column design), to allow
it to deviate somewhat from a straight line. Other arrangements are sometimes found on different
types of vehicles, for example, a ​tiller or rear–wheel steering. ​Tracked vehicles such as ​bulldozers
and ​tanks usually employ ​differential steering — that is, the tracks are made to move at different
speeds or even in opposite directions, using ​clutches and ​brakes​, to bring about a change of course
or direction.

Wheeled vehicle steering

Basic geometry
Ackermann steering geometry

Caster angle θ indicates ​kingpin pivot line and gray area indicates vehicle's tire with the wheel
moving from right to left. A positive caster angle aids in ​directional stability​, as the wheel tends to
trail, but a large angle makes steering more difficult.

Curves described by the rear wheels of a conventional automobile. While the vehicle moves with a
constant speed its inner and outer rear wheels do not.
The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired directions. This is
typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. One of the fundamental concepts
is that of ​caster angle​ – each wheel is steered with a pivot point ahead of the wheel; this makes the
steering tend to be self-centering towards the direction of travel.
T​he steering linkages connecting the steering box and the wheels usually conforms to a variation of
Ackermann steering geometry​, to account for the fact that in a turn, the inner wheel is actually
travelling a path of smaller radius than the outer wheel, so that the degree of ​toe​ suitable for driving
in a straight path is not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels make with the vertical plane also
influences steering dynamics (see ​camber angle​) as do the ​tires​.

Rack and pinion, recirculating ball, worm and sector

Rack and pinion steering mechanism: 1 Steering wheel; 2 Steering column; 3 Rack and pinion; 4
Tie rod; 5 Kingpin

Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an ​Ariel Atom sports car chassis. For most high
volume production, this is usually mounted on the other side of this panel

Many modern cars use ​rack and pinion steering mechanisms, where the steering wheel turns the
pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a linear gear that meshes with the pinion,
converting circular motion into linear motion along the transverse axis of the car (side to side
motion). This motion applies steering ​torque to the swivel pin ball joints that replaced previously
used ​kingpins of the stub axle of the steered wheels via ​tie rods and a short ​lever arm called the
steering arm.

The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of feedback and direct steering
"feel". A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop ​lash​, the
only cure is replacement.

Older designs often use the ​recirculating ball mechanism, which is still found on trucks and utility
vehicles. This is a variation on the older ​worm and sector design; the steering column turns a large
screw (the "​worm gear​") which meshes with a sector of a gear, causing it to rotate about its axis as
the worm gear is turned; an arm attached to the axis of the sector moves the ​Pitman arm​, which is
connected to the ​steering linkage and thus steers the wheels. The recirculating ball version of this
apparatus reduces the considerable friction by placing large ball bearings between the teeth of the
worm and those of the screw; at either end of the apparatus the balls exit from between the two
pieces into a channel internal to the box which connects them with the other end of the apparatus,
thus they are "recirculated".
The recirculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater ​mechanical advantage​, so
that it was found on larger, heavier vehicles while the rack and pinion was originally limited to
smaller and lighter ones; due to the almost universal adoption of ​power steering​, however, this is no
longer an important advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack and pinion on newer cars. The
recirculating ball design also has a perceptible lash, or "dead spot" on center, where a minute turn of
the steering wheel in either direction does not move the steering apparatus; this is easily adjustable
via a screw on the end of the ​steering box to account for wear, but it cannot be entirely eliminated
because it will create excessive internal forces at other positions and the mechanism will wear very
rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and
direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage.

The worm and sector was an older design, used for example in Willys and Chrysler vehicles, and
the Ford Falcon (1960s).

Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Children's toys and ​go-karts
often use a very direct linkage in the form of a ​bellcrank (also commonly known as a ​Pitman arm​)
attached directly between the steering column and the steering arms, and the use of cable-operated
steering linkages (e.g. the ​Capstan and Bowstring mechanism) is also found on some home-built
vehicles such as ​soapbox cars​ and ​recumbent tricycles​.

Power steering

Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of its power to assist in
swiveling the steered roadwheels about their steering axes. As vehicles have become heavier and
switched to ​front wheel drive​, particularly using negative offset geometry, along with increases in
tire width and diameter, the effort needed to turn the wheels about their steering axis has increased,
often to the point where major physical exertion would be needed were it not for power assistance.
To alleviate this ​auto makers have developed ​power steering systems: or more correctly
power-assisted steering—on road going vehicles there has to be a mechanical linkage as a fail safe.
There are two types of power steering systems; hydraulic and electric/electronic. A
hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also possible.

A ​hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to
assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. ​Electric power steering (EPS) is more efficient than
the hydraulic power steering, since the electric power steering motor only needs to provide
assistance when the steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run constantly. In
EPS, the amount of assistance is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even driver
preference. An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by leakage and
disposal of hydraulic power steering fluid. In addition, electrical assistance is not lost when the
engine fails or stalls, whereas hydraulic assistance stops working if the engine stops, making the
steering doubly heavy as the driver must now turn not only the very heavy steering—without any
help—but also the power-assistance system itself. ñññññññññññññññññññññññññññññññññññññññ

Speed Sensitive Steering

An outgrowth of power steering is speed sensitive steering, where the steering is heavily assisted at
low speed and lightly assisted at high speed. The auto makers perceive that motorists might need to
make large steering inputs while maneuvering for parking, but not while traveling at high speed.
The first vehicle with this feature was the ​Citroën SM with its ​Diravi layout although rather than
altering the amount of assistance as in modern power steering systems, it altered the pressure on a
centering cam which made the steering wheel try to "spring" back to the straight-ahead position.
Modern speed-sensitive power steering systems reduce the mechanical or electrical assistance as the
vehicle speed increases, giving a more direct feel. This feature is gradually becoming more
common.

Four-wheel steering

Speed-dependent four-wheel steering.

Four-wheel steering (or all-wheel steering) is a system employed by some vehicles to improve
steering response, increase vehicle stability while maneuvering at high speed, or to decrease ​turning
radius​ at low speed.

Active four-wheel steering

In an active four-wheel steering system, all four wheels turn at the same time when the driver steers.
In most active four-wheel steering systems, the rear wheels are steered by a computer and actuators.
The rear wheels generally cannot turn as far as the front wheels. There can be controls to switch off
the rear steer and options to steer only the rear wheel independent of the front wheels. At low speed
(e.g. parking) the rear wheels turn opposite of the front wheels, reducing the turning radius by up to
twenty-five percent, sometimes critical for large ​trucks or tractors and vehicles with trailers, while
at higher speeds both front and rear wheels turn alike (electronically controlled), so that the vehicle
may change position with less ​yaw​, enhancing straight-line stability. The "Snaking effect"
experienced during ​motorway​ drives while towing a ​travel trailer​ is thus largely nullified.

Four-wheel steering found its most widespread use in ​monster trucks​, where maneuverability in
small arenas is critical, and it is also popular in large ​farm vehicles and ​trucks​. Some of the modern
European Intercity buses also utilize four-wheel steering to assist maneuverability in bus terminals,
and also to improve road stability.

Previously, ​Honda had four-wheel steering as an option in their 1987–2000 ​Prelude and Honda
Ascot Innova models (1992–1996). ​Mazda also offered four-wheel steering on the ​626 and ​MX6 in
1988. ​General Motors offered ​Delphi​'s ​Quadrasteer in their consumer ​Silverado​/​Sierra and
Suburban​/​Yukon​. However, only 16,500 vehicles have been sold with this system since its
introduction in 2002 through 2004. Due to this low demand, GM discontinued the technology at the
end of the 2005 model year. ​Nissan​/​Infiniti offer several versions of their ​HICAS system as
standard or as an option in much of their line-up. A new "Active Drive" system is introduced on the
2008 version of the ​Renault Laguna line. It was designed as one of several measures to increase
security and stability. The Active Drive should lower the effects of under steer and decrease the
chances of spinning by diverting part of the G-forces generated in a turn from the front to the rear
tires. At low speeds the turning circle can be tightened so parking and maneuvering is easier.

Crab steering

Crab steering is a special type of active four-wheel steering. It operates by steering all wheels in the
same direction and at the same angle. Crab steering is used when the vehicle needs to proceed in a
straight line but under an angle (i.e. when moving loads with a reach truck, or during filming with a
camera dolly), or when the rear wheels may not follow the front wheel tracks (i.e. to reduce soil
compaction when using rolling farm equipment).

Passive rear wheel steering

Many modern vehicles have passive rear steering. On many vehicles, when cornering, the rear
wheels tend to steer slightly to the outside of a turn, which can reduce stability. The passive steering
system uses the lateral forces generated in a turn (through suspension geometry) and the ​bushings to
correct this tendency and steer the wheels slightly to the inside of the corner. This improves the
stability of the car, through the turn. This effect is called compliance ​understeer and it, or its
opposite, is present on all suspensions. Typical methods of achieving compliance understeer are to
use a ​Watt's Link on a live rear axle, or the use of toe control bushings on a ​twist beam suspension​.
On an ​independent rear suspension it is normally achieved by changing the rates of the rubber
bushings in the suspension. Some suspensions typically have compliance ​oversteer due to geometry,
such as ​Hotchkiss live axles or a semi-trailing arm IRS, but may be mitigated by revisions to the
pivot points of the leaf spring or trailing arm.

Passive rear wheel steering is not a new concept, as it has been in use for many years, although not
always recognized as such.

Articulated steering

Front ​loader​ with articulated steering (2007).

Articulated steering is a system by which a four-wheel drive vehicle is split into front and rear
halves which are connected by a vertical hinge. The front and rear halves are connected with one or
more ​hydraulic cylinders that change the angle between the halves, including the front and rear
axles and wheels, thus steering the vehicle. This system does not use steering arms, king pins, tie
rods, etc. as does four-wheel steering. If the vertical hinge is placed equidistant between the two
axles, it also eliminates the need for a central ​differential​, as both front and rear axles will follow
the same path, and thus rotate at the same speed. Long ​road trains​, ​articulated buses​, and internal
transport trolley trains use articulated steering to achieve smaller turning circles, comparable to
those of shorter conventional vehicles. ​Articulated haulers​ have very good off-road performance.

Rear wheel steering

A few types of vehicle use only rear wheel steering, notably ​fork lift trucks​, ​camera dollies​, early
pay loaders​, ​Buckminster Fuller​'s ​Dymaxion car​, and the ​ThrustSSC​.Rear wheel steering tends to be
unstable because in turns the steering geometry changes hence decreasing the turn radius
(oversteer), rather than increase it (understeer). A rear wheel steered automobile exhibits
non-minimum phase behavior.It turns in the direction opposite of how it is initially steered. A rapid
steering input will cause two accelerations, first in the direction that the wheel is steered, and then in
the opposite direction: a "reverse response." This makes it harder to steer a rear wheel steered
vehicle at high speed than a front wheel steered vehicle.

Safety

For safety reasons all modern cars feature a collapsible steering column (energy absorbing steering
column) which will collapse in the event of a heavy frontal impact to avoid excessive injuries to the
driver. ​Airbags are also generally fitted as standard. Non-collapsible steering columns fitted to older
vehicles very often ​impaled drivers in frontal crashes, particularly when the steering box or rack
was mounted in front of the front axle line, at the front of the ​crumple zone​. This was particularly a
problem on vehicles that had a rigid separate chassis frame, with no crumple zone. Most modern
vehicle steering boxes/racks are mounted behind the front axle on the front bulkhead, at the rear of
the front crumple zone.

Collapsible steering columns were invented by ​Bela Barenyi and were introduced in the 1959
Mercedes-Benz W111 Fintail, along with crumple zones. This safety feature first appeared on cars
built by ​General Motors after an extensive and very public ​lobbying campaign enacted by ​Ralph
Nader​. ​Ford​ started to install collapsible steering columns in 1968.

Audi used a retractable steering wheel and seat belt tensioning system called ​procon-ten​, but it has
since been discontinued in favor of airbags and pyrotechnic seat belt pre-tensioners.
 Tire

Pneumatic automobile tire

A ​tire​ (or ​tyre​ in ​British English​) is a ring-shaped covering that fits around a ​wheel​ to
protect it and enable better vehicle performance by providing a flexible cushion that
absorbs shock while keeping the wheel in close contact with the ground. The word itself is
derived from the word "attire", referring to the dressing of the wheel.
The fundamental materials of modern tires are rubber and fabric along with other
compound chemicals. Their constructive make-up consists of the tread and the body. The
tread provides ​traction​ while the body ensures support. Before rubber was invented, the
first versions of tires were simply bands of metal that fit around wooden wheels in order to
prevent wear and tear. The most recent and popular type of tire is ​pneumatic​, pertaining to a
fitted rubber based ring that is used as an inflatable cushion and generally filled with
compressed air. Pneumatic tires are used on many types of ​vehicles​, such as ​bicycles​,
motorcycles​, ​cars​, ​trucks​, ​earthmovers​, and ​aircraft​.

History
The earliest tires were bands of ​iron​ (later ​steel​), placed on wooden ​wheels​, used on ​carts
and ​wagons​. The tire would be heated in a ​forge​ fire, placed over the wheel and quenched,
causing the metal to contract and fit tightly on the wheel. A skilled worker, known as a
wheelwright​, carried out this work. The outer ring served to "attire" the wheel for use,
providing a wear-resistant surface to the perimeter of the wheel. The word "tire" thus
emerged as a variant spelling to refer to the metal bands used to dress wheels.
Tire​ is an older spelling than ​tyre]​​ , but both were used in the 15th and 16th centuries for a
metal tire; ​tire​ became the settled spelling in the 17th century​]​. In the UK, ​tyre​ was revived
in the 19th century for pneumatic tires, possibly, though many continued to use ​tire​ for the
iron variety. ​The Times​ newspaper was still using ​tire​ as late as 1905.
The first practical pneumatic tire was made by the ​Scot​, ​John Boyd Dunlop​, in 1887 for his
son's ​bicycle​, in an effort to prevent the ​headaches​ his son had while riding on rough roads
(Dunlop's patent was later declared invalid because of prior art by fellow Scot ​Robert
William Thomson​). Dunlop is credited with "realizing rubber could withstand the wear and
tear of being a tire while retaining its resilience".
Pneumatic tires are made of a flexible ​elastomer​ material, such as ​rubber​, with reinforcing
materials such as fabric and wire. Tire companies were first started in the early 20th
century, and grew in tandem with the ​auto​ industry. Today, over 1 billion tires are produced
annually, in over 400 tire factories, with the three top tire makers commanding a 60%
global market share.

Tire assembly

Tread
The tread is the part of the tire which comes in contact with the road surface. The tread is a
thick rubber, or rubber/composite compound formulated to provide an appropriate level of
traction that does not wear away too quickly. The tread pattern is characterized by the
geometrical shape of the ​grooves​, ​lugs​, ​voids​ and ​sipes​. Grooves run circumferentially
around the tire, and are needed to channel away water. Lugs are that portion of the tread
design that contacts the road surface. Voids are spaces between lugs that allow the lugs to
flex. Tread patterns feature non-symmetrical (or non-uniform) lug sizes circumferentially in
order to minimize noise. Sipes are valleys cut across the tire, usually perpendicular to the
grooves, which allow the water from the grooves to escape to the sides in an effort to
prevent ​hydroplaning​.
Treads are often designed to meet specific product marketing positions. High performance
tires have small ​void ratios​ to provide more rubber in contact with the road for higher
traction, but may be compounded with softer rubber that provides better traction, but wears
quickly. Mud and snow (M&S) tires are designed with higher void ratios to channel away
rain and mud, while providing better gripping performance. Specialized tires will always
work better then general/all purpose/all weather tires when being used in the conditions the
specialized tires are designed for.

Treadwear
The treadwear grade describes how long the tire manufacturers expects the tire to last. A
Course Monitoring Tire (the standard tire that a test tire will be compared to) has a rating of
"100". If a manufacturer assigns a treadwear rating of 200 to a new tire, they are indicating
that they expect the new tire to have a useful lifespan that is 200% of the life of a Course
Monitoring Tire. In general, manufacturers tend to overstate the treadwear of their tires in
an effort to create the impression that their tires last a long time. The ability of
manufacturers to report their own numbers makes comparison of treadwear ratings between
companies useless. Ratings may still be useful within a manufacturer's own line of tires.

Tread lug
Tread lugs provide the contact surface necessary to provide traction. As the tread lug enters
the road contact area, or footprint, it is compressed. As it rotates through the footprint it is
deformed circumferentially. As it exits the footprint, it recovers to its original shape.
During the deformation and recovery cycle the tire exerts variable forces into the vehicle.
These forces are described as Force Variation.
Tread void

Tread voids provide space for the lug to flex and deform as it enters and exits the footprint.
Voids also provide channels for rainwater, mud, and snow to be channeled away from the
footprint. The void ratio is the void area of the tire divided by the entire tread area. Low
void areas have high contact area and therefore higher traction on clean, dry pavement.

Rain groove

The rain groove is a design element of the tread pattern specifically arranged to channel
water away from the footprint. Rain grooves are circumferential in most truck tires. Many
high performance passenger tires feature rain grooves that are angled from the center
toward the sides of the tire. Some tire manufacturers claim that their tread pattern is
designed to actively pump water out from under the tire by the action of the tread flexing.
This results in a smoother ride in different types of weather.

Sipe
Tread lugs often feature small narrow voids, or sipes, that improve the flexibility of the lug
to deform as it traverses the footprint area. This reduces ​shear stress​ in the lug and reduces
heat build up. Sipes also provide greater traction in wet or icy conditions.

Wear bar
Wear bars (or wear indicators) are raised features located at the bottom of the tread grooves
that indicate the tire has reached its wear limit. When the tread lugs are worn to the point
that the wear bars connect across the lugs, the tires are fully worn and should be taken out
of service.
Contact patch
The contact patch, or footprint, of the tire, is merely the area of the tread which is in contact
with the road surface. This is the area which transmits forces between the tire and the road
via friction. The length-to-width ratio of the contact patch will affect steering and cornering
behavior.

Bead
The bead is that part of the tire which contacts the ​rim​ on the wheel. The bead is reinforced
with steel wire, and compounded of high strength, low flexibility rubber. The bead seats
tightly against the two rims on the wheel to ensure that a tubeless tire holds air without
leakage. The bead fit is tight, to ensure the tire does not shift circumferentially as the wheel
rotates. The width of the rim in relationship to the tire is a factor in the handling
characteristics of an automobile, because the rim supports the tire's profile.
Sidewall

Sidewall worn down to fabric plies due to significant under-inflation

The sidewall is that part of the tire that bridges between the tread and bead. The sidewall is
reinforced with rubber and fabric plies that provide for strength and flexibility. The
sidewall transmits the torque applied by the drive axle to the tread in order to create
traction. The sidewall, in conjunction with the air inflation, also supports the load of the
vehicle. Sidewalls are molded with manufacturer-specific detail, government mandated
warning labels, and other consumer information, and sometimes decorative ornamentation,
like ​whitewalls​.

Shoulder
The shoulder is that part of the tire at the edge of the tread as it makes transition to the
sidewall.

Inner tube
Almost all bicycle tires, many motorcycle tires, and many tires for large vehicles such as
buses, heavy trucks and tractors are designed for use with inner tubes. Inner tubes are
torus​-shaped balloons made from an impermeable material, such as soft, elastic synthetic
rubber, to prevent air leakage. The inner tubes are inserted into the tire and inflated to retain
air pressure.

Wheel
Tires are mounted to ​wheels​ that bolt to the hub. The beads of the tire are held on the
wheel's ​rim​ largely by the internal tire force from the air pressure. Automotive wheels are
typically made from pressed and welded steel, or a composite of lightweight metal ​alloys​,
such as aluminum or magnesium. These ​alloy wheels​ may be either cast or forged. A
decorative ​hubcap​ and trim ring may be placed over the wheel.

Valve stem
Valve stem with its cap removed

The valve stem is a tube made of steel or rubber with a metal valve used to inflate the tire
with air. Valve stems usually protrude through the wheel for easy access for inflation. Tires
are inflated through a ​valve​, typically a ​Schrader valve​ on automobiles and most bicycle
tires, or a ​Presta valve​ on high performance bicycles. The rubber in valve stems eventually
degrades. Replacement of the valve stem at regular intervals reduces the chance of failure.

Tire construction types

Bias
Bias tire​ (or cross ply) construction utilizes body ply cords that extend diagonally from
bead to bead, usually at angles in the range of 30 to 40 degrees, with successive plies laid at
opposing angles forming a crisscross pattern to which the tread is applied. The design
allows the entire tire body to flex easily, providing the main advantage of this construction,
a smooth ride on rough surfaces. This cushioning characteristic also causes the major
disadvantages of a bias tire: increased rolling resistance and less control and traction at
higher speeds.

Belted bias
A ​belted bias tire​ starts with two or more bias-plies to which stabilizer belts are bonded
directly beneath the tread. This construction provides smoother ride that is similar to the
bias tire, while lessening rolling resistance because the belts increase tread stiffness.
However the plies and belts are at different angles, which lessens performance compared to
radial tires.

Radial

Radial tire construction utilizes body ply cords extending from the beads and across the
tread so that the cords are laid at approximately right angles to the centerline of the tread,
and parallel to each other, as well as stiff stabilizer belts directly beneath the tread. The
advantages of this construction include longer tread life, better steering control, and lower
rolling resistance. Disadvantages of the radial tire include a harder ride at low speeds on
rough roads and in the context of off-roading, decreased "self-cleaning" ability and lower
grip ability at low speeds.
Solid
Many tires used in industrial and commercial applications are non-pneumatic, and are
manufactured from solid rubber and plastic compounds via molding operations. ​Solid tires
include those used for lawn mowers, skateboards, golf carts, scooters, and many types of
light industrial vehicles, carts, and trailers. One of the most common applications for solid
tires is for material handling equipment (forklifts). Such tires are installed by means of a
hydraulic tire press.

Semi-pneumatic
Semi-pneumatic tires have a hollow center, but they are not pressurized. They are
light-weight, low-cost, puncture proof, and provide cushioning. These tires often come as a
complete assembly with the wheel and even integral ​ball bearings​. They are used on ​lawn
mowers​, ​wheelchairs​, and ​wheelbarrows​. They can also be rugged, typically used in
industrial applications, and are designed to not pull off their ​rim​ under use.
Tires that are hollow but are not pressurized have also been designed for automotive use,
such as the ​Tweel​ (a portmanteau of tire and wheel) which is an experimental tire design
being developed at Michelin. The outer casing is rubber as in ordinary radial tires, but the
interior has special compressible ​polyurethane​ springs to contribute to a comfortable ride.
Besides the impossibility of going flat, the tires are intended to combine the comfort
offered by higher-profile tires (with tall sidewalls) with the resistance to cornering forces
offered by low profile tires. They have not yet been delivered for broad market use.

Specifications
Tire pressure monitoring system
Tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS) are electronic systems that monitor the tire
pressures on individual wheels on a vehicle, and alert the driver when the pressure goes
below a warning limit. There are several types of designs to monitor tire pressure. Some
actually measure the air pressure, and some make indirect measurements, such as gauging
when the relative size of the tire changes due to lower air pressure.
Inflation pressure​ Tires are specified by the vehicle manufacturer with a recommended
inflation pressure, which permits safe operation within the specified load rating and vehicle
loading. Most tires are stamped with a maximum pressure rating (for USA only). For
passenger vehicles and light trucks, the tires should be inflated to what the vehicle
manufacturer recommends, which is usually located on a decal just inside the driver's door
or in the vehicle owners handbook. Tires should not be inflated to the pressure on the
sidewall; this is the maximum pressure, rather than the recommended pressure.
If tire pressure is too high, the tire contact patch is reduced. This decreases rolling
resistance, but does not necessarily decrease ​braking distance​.​ ​In addition, ride comfort is
reduced and the center of the tread may wear more quickly than the shoulder.
If tire pressure is too low, the tire contact patch is increased. This increases rolling
resistance, tire flexing, and friction between the road and tire. Underinflation can lead to
tire overheating, premature tread wear, and tread separation in severe cases. Significant
underinflation can also increase braking distance.

Load rating​ Tires are specified by the manufacturer with a maximum load rating. Loads
exceeding the rating can result in unsafe conditions that can lead to steering instability and
even rupture. For a table of load ratings, see ​tire codes​.
Replacing a tire on a vehicle with one with a lower load rating than originally specified by
the vehicle manufacturer will often render the insurance invalid.
Speed rating​ The speed rating denotes the maximum speed at which a tire is designed to be
operated. For passenger vehicles these ratings range from 99 mph (160 km/h) to 186 mph
(300 km/h). For a table of speed ratings, see ​tire code​.
Replacing a tire on a vehicle with one with a lower speed rating than originally specified by
the vehicle manufacturer will often render the insurance invalid.
Service rating​ Tires (especially in the USA) are often given service ratings, mainly used
on bus and truck tires. Some ratings are for long-haul, and some for stop-start multi-drop
type work. Tires designed to run 500+ miles per day carrying heavy loads require special
specifications.
Rotation​ Tires may exhibit irregular wear patterns once installed on a vehicle and partially
worn. Furthermore, ​front-wheel drive​ vehicles will wear the front tires at a greater rate
compared to the rears. Tire rotation is the procedure of moving tires to different car
positions, such as front-to-rear, in order to even out the wear, thereby extending the life of
the tire.

Wheel alignment
When mounted on the vehicle, the wheel and tire may not be perfectly aligned to the
direction of travel, and therefore may exhibit irregular wear. If the discrepancy in alignment
is large, then the irregular wear will become quite substantial if left uncorrected.
Wheel alignment is the procedure for checking and correcting this condition through
adjustment of ​camber​, ​caster​ and ​toe​ angles. These settings also affect the handling
characteristics of the vehicle.
Retread
Tires that are fully worn can be re-manufactured to replace the worn tread. This is known
as retreading or recapping, a process of buffing away the worn tread and applying a new
tread. Retreading is economical for truck tires because the cost of replacing the tread is less
than the price of a new tire. Retreading passenger tires is less economical because the cost
of retreading is high compared to the price of a new cheap tires, but favorable compared to
high-end brands.
Worn tires can be retreaded by two methods, the mold or hot cure method and the pre-cure
or cold one. The mold cure method involves the application of raw rubber on the previously
buffed and prepared casing, which is later cured in matrices. During the curing period,
vulcanization takes place and the raw rubber bonds to the casing, taking the tread shape of
the matrix. On the other hand, the pre-cure method involves the application of a
ready-made tread band on the buffed and prepared casing, which later is cured in an
autoclave so that vulcanization can occur.
During the retreading process, retread technicians must ensure the casing is in the best
condition possible, in order to minimize the possibility of a casing failure. Casings with
problems such as capped tread, tread separation, unrepairable cuts, corroded belts or
sidewall damage, or any run-flat or skidded tires, will be rejected.
In most situations, retread tires can be driven under the same conditions and at the same
speeds as new tires with no loss in safety or comfort. The percentage of retread failures
should be about the same as for new tire failures, but many drivers, including truckers, are
guilty of not maintaining proper air pressure on a regular basis, and, if a tire is abused
(overloaded, underinflated, or mismatched to the other tire on a set of duals), then that tire
(new or recapped) will fail.
Many commercial trucking companies put retreads only on trailers, using only new tires on
their steering and drive wheels. This procedure increases the driver's chance of maintaining
control in case of problems with a retreaded tire.

Performance characteristics
Tread wear​ Tread wear, also known as tire wear, is caused by friction between the tire and
the road surface. Government legal standards prescribe the minimum allowable tread depth
for safe operation.
There are several types of abnormal tread wear. Poor ​wheel alignment​ can cause excessive
wear of the innermost or outermost ribs. Gravel roads, rocky terrain, and other rough terrain
will cause accelerated wear. Over inflation above the sidewall max can cause excessive
wear to the center of the tread. However, inflating up to the sidewall limit will not cause
excessive wear in the center of the tread. Modern tires have steel belts built in to prevent
this. Under inflation causes excessive wear to the outer ribs. Quite often the placard
pressure is too low and most tires are underinflated as a result. Unbalanced wheels can
cause uneven tire wear, as the rotation may not be perfectly circular. Tire manufacturers
and car companies have mutually established standards for tread wear testing that include
measurement parameters for tread loss profile, lug count, and heel-toe wear.
Dry traction​ Dry traction is measure of the tire’s ability to deliver traction, or grip, under
dry conditions. Dry traction increases in proportion to the tread contact area. Dry traction is
also a function of the tackiness of the rubber compound.
Wet traction​ Wet traction is measure of the tire's ability to deliver traction, or grip, under
wet conditions. Wet traction is improved by the tread design's ability to channel water out
of the tire footprint and reduce hydroplaning. However, tires with a circular cross-section,
such as those found on racing bicycles and motorcycles, when properly inflated have a
sufficiently small footprint to not be susceptible to hydroplaning. For such tires, it is
observed that fully slick tires will give superior traction on both wet and dry pavement.
Force variation​ The tire tread and sidewall elements undergo deformation and recovery as
they enter and exit the footprint. Since the rubber is elastomeric, it is compressed during
this cycle. As the rubber deforms and recovers it imparts cyclical forces into the vehicle.
These variations are collectively referred to as ​Tire Uniformity​. Tire Uniformity is
characterized by Radial Force Variation (RFV), Lateral Force Variation (LFV), and
Tangential Force Variation. Radial and Lateral Force Variation is measured on a ​Force
Variation Machine​ at the end of the manufacturing process. Tires outside the specified
limits for RFV and LFV are rejected. In addition, Tire Uniformity Machines are used to
measure geometric parameters including Radial Runout, Lateral Runout, and Sidewall
Bulge in the tire factory at the end of the manufacturing process as a quality check. In the
late 1990s ​Hunter Engineering​ introduced the GSP9700 Road Force balancer which is
equipped with a load roller similar to the Force Variation Machine used at the factory to
grade tire uniformity. This machine can find the best position for the tire on a given wheel
so the over-all assembly is as round as possible.
Balance​ When a wheel and tire is rotated, it will exert a centrifugal force characteristic of
its center of gravity. This cyclical force is referred to as balance, and a non-uniform force is
referred to as imbalance or unbalance. Tires are checked at the point of manufacture for
excessive static imbalance and dynamic imbalance using automatic Tire Balance Machines.
Tires are checked again in the auto assembly plant or tire retail shop after mounting the tire
to the wheel. Assemblies that exhibit excessive imbalance are corrected by applying
balance weights to the wheels to counteract the tire/wheel imbalance.
To facilitate proper balancing, most high performance tire manufacturers place red and
yellow marks on the sidewalls of its tires to enable the best possible match-mounting of the
tire/wheel assembly. There are two methods of match-mounting high performance tire to
wheel assemblies using these red (Uniformity) or yellow (Weight) marks.
Centrifugal growth​ A tire rotating at higher speeds will tend to develop a larger ​diameter​,
due to ​centrifugal forces​ that force the tread rubber away from the axis of rotation. As the
tire diameter grows the tire width decreases. This centrifugal growth can cause rubbing of
the tire against the vehicle at high speeds. Motorcycle tires are often designed with
reinforcements aimed at minimizing centrifugal growth.

Rolling resistance
Rolling resistance is the resistance to rolling caused by deformation of the tire in contact
with the road surface. As the tire rolls, tread enters the contact area and is deformed flat to
conform to the roadway. The energy required to make the deformation depends on the
inflation pressure, rotating speed, and numerous physical properties of the tire structure,
such as spring force and stiffness. Tire makers seek lower rolling resistance tire
constructions in order to improve fuel economy in cars and especially trucks, where rolling
resistance accounts for a high amount of fuel consumption.
The pneumatic tire also has the more important effect of vastly reducing rolling resistance
compared to a solid tire. Because the internal air pressure acts in all directions, a pneumatic
tire is able to "absorb" bumps in the road as it rolls over them without experiencing a
reaction force opposite to the direction of travel, as is the case with a solid (or foam-filled)
tire. The difference between the rolling resistance of a pneumatic and solid tire is easily felt
when propelling ​wheelchairs​ or baby buggies fitted with either type so long as the terrain
has a significant roughness in relation to the wheel diameter.​]
Stopping distance​ The use of performance oriented tires, which have a tread pattern and
rubber compounds designed to grip the road surface, usually has slightly shorter stopping
distances. However, specific braking tests are necessary for data beyond generalizations.
Markings
DOT code
In the ​United States​, the ​DOT Code​ is an ​alphanumeric​ character sequence molded into the
sidewall of the tire for purposes of tire identification. The DOT Code is mandated by the
US Department of Transportation​. The DOT Code is useful in identifying tires in a ​product
recall​.
The DOT Code begins with the letters "DOT" followed by a plant code (two numbers or
letters) that identifies where it was manufactured. The last four numbers represent the week
and year the tire was built. A three-digit code was used for tires manufactured before the
year 2000. For example, 178 means it was manufactured in the 17th week of 8th year of the
decade. In this case it means 1988. For tires manufactured in the 1990s, the same code
holds true, but there is a little triangle (Δ) after the DOT code. Thus, a tire manufactured in
the 17th week of 1998 would have the code 178Δ. In 2000, the code was switched to a
4-digit code. Same rules apply, so for example, 3003 means the tire was manufactured in
the 30th week of 2003.
Other numbers are marketing codes used at the manufacturer's discretion.
E-mark​ All tires sold for road use in Europe after July 1997 must carry an E-mark. The
mark itself is either an upper case "E" or lower case "e" - followed by a number in a circle
or rectangle, followed by a further number. An (upper case) "E" indicates that the tire is
certified to comply with the dimensional, performance and marking requirements of ECE
regulation 30. A (lower case) "e" indicates that the tire is certified to comply with the
dimensional, performance and marking requirements of Directive 92/23/EEC. The number
in the circle or rectangle denotes the country code of the government that granted the type
approval. The last number outside the circle or rectangle is the number of the type approval
certificate issued for that particular tire size and type.
Mold serial number​ Tire manufacturers usually embed a mold serial number into the
sidewall area of the mold, so that the tire, once molded, can be traced back to the mold of
original manufacture.

Vehicle applications
Tires are classified into several standard types, based on the type of vehicle they serve.
Since the manufacturing process, raw materials, and equipment vary according to the tire
type, it is common for tire factories to specialize in one or more tire types. In most markets,
factories that manufacture passenger and light truck radial tires are separate and distinct
from those that make aircraft or OTR tires.
Passenger and light truck types

High performance

High performance tires are designed for use at higher speeds, and more often, a more
"sporty" driving style. They feature a softer rubber compound for improved traction,
especially on high speed cornering. The trade off of this softer rubber is shorter tread life.
High performance street tires sometimes sacrifice wet weather handling by having
shallower water channels to provide more actual rubber tread surface area for dry weather
performance. The ability to provide a high level of performance on both wet and dry
pavement varies widely among manufacturers, and even among tire models of the same
manufacturer. This is an area of active research and development, as well as marketing.

Mud and snow

Mud and Snow, (or M+S, or M&S), is a classification for specific winter tires designed to
provide improved performance under low temperature conditions, compared to all-season
tires. The tread compound is usually softer than that used in tires for summer conditions,
thus providing better grip on ice and snow, but wears more quickly at higher temperatures.
Tires may have well above average numbers of sipes in the tread pattern to grip the ice.
Dedicated winter tires will bear the "Mountain/Snowflake Pictograph" if designated as a
winter/snow tire by the American Society for Testing & Materials. Winter tires will
typically also carry the designation MS, M&S, or the words MUD AND SNOW (but see
All-season tires, below).

Studded, ​highly-siped​, winter tire

Some winter tires may be designed to accept the installation of metal studs for additional
traction on icy roads. The studs also roughen the ice, thus providing better friction between
the ice and the soft rubber in winter tires. Use of studs is regulated in most countries, and
even prohibited in some locales due to the increased road wear caused by studs. Typically,
studs are never used on heavier vehicles. Studded tires are used in the upper tier classes of
ice racing​. and ​rallying​.
Other winter tires rely on factors other than studding for traction on ice, e.g. highly porous
or ​hydrophilic​ rubber that adheres to the wet film on the ice surface.
Some jurisdictions may from time to time require snow tires, or traction aids (e.g. tire
chains) on vehicles driven in certain areas during extreme conditions.
Mud tires are specialty tires with large, chunky tread patterns designed to bite into muddy
surfaces. The large, open design also allows mud to clear quickly from between the lugs.
Mud terrain tires also tend to be wider than other tires, to spread the weight of the vehicle
over a greater area to prevent the vehicle from sinking too deeply into the mud. However in
reasonable amounts of mud and snow, tires should be thinner. Due to them having a thinner
wheel base, the tire will have more pressure per square inch on the road surface, thus
allowing the tires to penetrate the snow layer and grip harder snow or road surface beneath.
This does not compensate when the snow is too deep for such penetration.

All season

The All Season tire classification is a compromise between one developed for use on dry
and wet roads during summer and one developed for use under winter conditions. The type
of rubber and the tread pattern best suited for use under summer conditions cannot, for
technical reasons, give good performance on snow and ice. The all-season tire is a
compromise, and is neither an excellent summer tire nor an excellent winter tire. They
have, however, become almost ubiquitous as original and replacement equipment on
automobiles marketed in the United States, due to their convenience and their adequate
performance in most situations. All-Season tires are also marked for mud and snow the
same as winter tires but rarely with a snowflake. Owing to the compromise with
performance during summer, winter performance is usually poorer than a winter tire.

All-terrain

All-terrain tires are typically used on ​SUVs​ and ​light trucks​. These tires often have stiffer
sidewalls for greater resistance against puncture when traveling off-road, the tread pattern
offers wider spacing than all-season tires to remove mud from the tread. Many tires in the
all-terrain category are designed primarily for on-road use, particularly all-terrain tires that
are originally sold with the vehicle.

Spare

Some vehicles carry a spare tire, already mounted on a wheel, to be used in the event of flat
tire or blowout. Minispare, or "space-saver spare" tires are smaller than normal tires to save
on trunk/boot space, gas mileage, weight and cost. Minispares have a short life expectancy,
and low speed rating.

Run-flat

Several innovative designs have been introduced that permit tires to run safely with no air
for a limited range at a limited speed. These tires typically feature strong, load-supporting
sidewalls. An infamous example of an alternate run flat technology has plastic load-bearing
inserts attached to the rim instead of the reinforced sidewalls.

Heavy duty truck

Heavy duty tires are also referred to as Truck/Bus tires. These are the tire sizes used on
vehicles such as commercial freight trucks, dump trucks, and passenger buses. Truck tires
are sub-categorized into specialties according to vehicle position such as steering, drive
axle, and trailer. Each type is designed with the reinforcements, material compounds, and
tread patterns that best optimize the tire performance.

Agricultural
The agricultural tire classification includes tires used on farm vehicles, typically tractors
and specialty vehicles like harvesters. Driven wheels have very deep, widely spaced lugs to
allow the tire to grip soil easily. High flotation tires are used in swampy environments and
where ​soil compaction​ is a concern, featuring large footprints at low inflation pressures.

Racing

NASCAR​ tires

Racing tires are highly specialized according to vehicle and ​race track​ conditions. This
classification includes tires for top-fuel dragsters, drift racers, extreme off-road racing,
oval-track racers, jet-powered trucks, and monster trucks - as well as the large-market race
tires for ​Formula One​, ​IndyCar​, ​NASCAR​, ​rallying​, ​MotoGP​ and the like. Tires are
specially engineered for specific race tracks according to surface conditions, cornering
loads, and track temperature. Racing tires often are engineered to minimum weight targets,
so tires for a 500 mile race may run only 100 miles before a tire change. Some tire makers
invest heavily in race tire development as part of the company's ​marketing strategy​ and a
means of ​advertising​ to attract customers.
Racing tires often are not legal for normal highway use.
Industrial
Airless tire

The Industrial tire classification is a bit of a catch-all category and includes pneumatic and
non-pneumatic tires for specialty industrial and construction equipment such as ​skid loaders
and ​fork lift​ trucks.

Bicycle

A Cheng Shin brand bicycle tire in the style of a ​cruiser bicycle

This classification includes all forms of ​bicycle​ tires, including road racing tires, ​mountain
bike​ tires, snow tires, and ​tubular tires​.
Aircraft
Changing a tire on a ​P-3C Orion​ aircraft

Aircraft tires are designed to withstand extremely heavy loads for short durations. The
number of tires required for aircraft increases with the weight of the plane (because the
weight of the airplane is distributed better). Aircraft tire tread patterns are designed to
facilitate stability in high ​crosswind​ conditions, to channel water away to prevent
hydroplaning, and for braking effect. Aircraft tires are usually inflated with ​nitrogen​ or
helium​ in order to minimize expansion and contraction from extreme changes in ambient
temperature and pressure experienced during flight. Dry nitrogen expands at the same rate
as other dry atmospheric gases, but common compressed air sources may contain moisture,
which increases the expansion rate with temperature. Aircraft tires generally operate at high
pressures, up to 200 psi (13.8 bar) for airliners, and even higher for business jets. Tests of
airline aircraft tires have shown that they are able to sustain pressures of maximum 800 psi
(55.2 bar) before bursting. During the test the tires have to be filled with water, instead of
helium or nitrogen which is the common content of aircraft tires, to prevent the test room
being blown apart by the energy when the tire bursts.
Aircraft tires also include ​heat fuses​, designed to melt at a certain temperature. Tires often
overheat if maximum braking is applied during a rejected takeoff or an ​emergency landing​.
The fuses provide a safer failure mode that prevents tire explosions by deflating in a
controlled manner, thus minimizing damage to aircraft and objects in the surrounding
environment.
The main purpose of requiring that an inert gas, such as nitrogen, be used instead of air, for
inflation of tires on certain transport category airplanes is prompted by at least three cases
in which the oxygen in air-filled tires combined with volatile gases given off by a severely
overheated tire and exploded upon reaching ​autoignition temperature​. The use of an inert
gas for tire inflation will eliminate the possibility of a tire explosion.

Sound and vibration characteristics

The design of treads and the interaction of specific tire types with the roadway surface type
produces considerable effect upon sound levels or ​noise pollution​ emanating from moving
vehicles. These sound intensities increase with higher vehicle speeds. There is a
considerable range in acoustical intensities produced depending upon the specific tire tread
design and its interaction with the roadway surface type. There is a study "under
development which will be able to predict the interior noise due to the vibrations of a
rolling tire structurally transmitted to the hub of a vehicle".
Safety
Proper vehicle safety requires specific attention to inflation pressure, tread depth, and
general condition of the tires. Over-inflated tires run the risk of explosive decompression
(they may pop). On the other hand, under-inflated tires have a higher rolling resistance and
suffer from rapid tread wear on the edges of the tread. Excessive tire wear will reduce
steering and braking response​]​, and tires worn down past their safety margins and into the
casing run the very real risk of rupturing. Also, certain combinations of cross ply and radial
tires on different wheels of the same vehicle can lead to vehicle instability, and may also be
illegal. Tire inflation pressure and tread depth should be checked regularly in accordance
with the vehicle manufacturer’s recommendations.
Tires should be repaired only at experienced tire repair shops, and in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.

Penny Test - test for safe tread depth

A common test to check for excessive tire wear is to insert a ​US penny​ into the tread to see
if it has been reduced to 1/16 or 2/32 of an inch. If part of Lincoln's head is covered by the
tread, the tire has a legal amount of tread. If all of his head can be seen, however, it is time
to replace the tire. It's important to note that a tire that just passes the "penny test" could be
still be dangerous when driving in snow and could increase the risk of ​hydroplaning​.
Outside of the USA, the head of an unused match can be inserted into the tire's tread. If the
tread is at any point below 3/4 of the head, the tire should be replaced. This test is most
common in the ​EU​, Australasia, and Asia.
Also, US and European tires have 'wear bars', or "Tread Wear Indicators" (TWI) moulded
into the grooves of the tire. When these become flush with the tops of the remaining tread,
the tire is at the legal limit of normal safety and must be replaced. Certain European
countries have stricter limits on tread wear compared to other European countries.
The November 2007 issue of "​Consumer Reports​" magazine, (page 60), stated that based
on tests they conducted; tires should be replaced when the tire tread is down to 1/8 inch.
This is about the distance to ​George Washington​'s hairline on a ​US quarter​.
Flat
A flat tire

A flat tire occurs when a tire deflates to the point where the metal of the wheel rim comes
to ground level. This can occur as a result of normal wear-and-tear, a leak, or more serious
damage. A tire which has lost sufficient pressure to cause it to become distorted at the
bottom will impair the stability of the vehicle and may damage the tire further if it is driven
in this condition. The tire should be changed and/or repaired before it becomes completely
flat. Continuing to drive a vehicle with a flat tire will damage the tire beyond repair,
possibly damage the rim and vehicle, and put the occupants and other vehicles in danger. A
flat tire or low-pressure tire should be considered an emergency situation, requiring
immediate attention to rectify the problem. (Some tires, known as "run-flat" tires, have
either extremely stiff sidewalls or a resilient filler to allow driving a limited distance while
flat, usually at reduced speed, without permanent damage or hazard.).