DEBER

METODOLOGÍA DE LA INVESTIGACIÓN

RECOPILACIÓN BIBLIOGRÁFICA

BÁRBARA PINTO V.
27-11-2020
FACULTAD DE GEOLOGÍA Y PETRÓLEOS
Tema: Innovaciones en la perforación direccional

1. Unexpected Low-Resistivity Pay Zone while Drilling a Horizontal

Well: A Case Study from the Oriente Basin in Ecuador

Abstract
Low-resistivity pay reservoirs have been described in many basins around the world.
Technical information available explains the causes related to hydrocarbon bearing zones,
represented by low resistivity values. These causes are mainly associated with mineralogy
and complex pore structures. All the wells drilled and produced in the Johanna Este field in
Ecuador have met the condition of pay zones with high resistivity values in relation to the
well-known water formation resistivity.
A step change in the understanding of the main reservoir M1 sandstone occurred after drilling
the horizontal well JE34H. The first half of the lateral section was drilled with resistivity values
close to water resistivity. Vertical variations in the resistivity were confirmed in the second half
of the well, with no lithologic barriers between both zones observed in the logs. The oil
production obtained from this well was recognized as a field record, and the first time it was
associated with low resistivity values.
After an exhaustive review of the available information including LWD electrical logs, the tool
functioning, and cuttings description, it was possible to explain the low-resistivity pay within
the M1 sandstone reservoir at the mineralogical level. The density-neutron cross-plots used
for lithology identification show that the reservoir is mainly quartz with some mineral mixture.
The target zone is mainly made up of medium-to-coarse grain with no visible matrix in the
composition, showing no evidence of compaction or cement in density-neutron logs.
Macroscopic anisotropy was also discarded as the reason for the decrease in the measured
resistivity. In addition, structural compartments and preferential pathways for water invasion
created by faults and/or fractures were discarded based on the azimuthal density image
interpretation. The possible causes for the low resistivity pay were microporosity, presence
of disseminated clay, and presence of conductive minerals. Special analysis (cores, magnetic
resonance, capillary pressure, SEM) are required in order to understand the mineralogy and
porosity distribution.
A low-resistivity pay within the M1 has opened a door for future analysis by means of
conventional or special open hole and cased hole logs in order to identify reserves that could
be bypassed.

2. Machine learning for Improved directional drilling

Abstract
Directional drilling is a complex process involving the remote control of tool alignment and
force application to a very long drill string subject to variable external forces. Controlling bit
tool face orientation while ensuring adequate rate of penetration (ROP) is quite challenging,
with aspects that have been described as more art than science. Improving this control helps
preserve proper well trajectory and eliminate deviations that require corrective measures and
add to well costs. An artificial intelligence system was developed to learn from the actions of
expert directional drillers and the mechanics of drilling simulations. Machine learning
algorithms were employed to improve the efficiency of directional drilling: optimized ROP,
less tortuous borehole, less personnel on board (POB), and consistency across operations.
The system ingests historical and simulation data corresponding to the information used and
actions taken by expert directional drillers and uses that data to generate decisions that result
in efficient slide drilling. To create a system for controlling tool face angle and guiding drill bit
sliding during directional drilling, relevant historical data from directional drilling operations
was gathered. Much of this data was recorded in the drilling logs, which the drilling operator
traditionally uses to control drilling parameters. The collected data was then filtered and used
to structure and train artificial neural networks and select appropriate hyperparameters.
Reinforcement learning methods were used to refine the neural networks trained on historical
data. A computational model for drill string physics was used to simulate the mechanics of
directional drilling. A successfully trained network was considered one that minimized
deviation from planned wellbore trajectory, minimized tortuosity, and maximized ROP. The
neural network developed could replicate the decisions of expert directional drillers within a
small error (<3%). Reinforcement learning was then successfully used to improve network
performance, particularly for conditions not previously considered. Since the algorithm has
demonstrated competence in the historical and simulated realms, it will be further tested as
a real-time advisory system for control of directional drilling operations. The system will be
tested in simulation with an expert directional driller before use in a field drilling operation.
Ultimately, the algorithm can be directly integrated into drilling operations, enabling fully
automated directional drilling.

3. Directional Hydraulic Fracturing Using Radial Jet Drilling

Technology
Abstract
Hydraulic fracturing technique has been proven as an efficient method to enhance
productivity of onshore resources including shale oil and gas, and for in-situ recovery mining
systems, and to increase the safety and efficiency of block cave and longwall mining. Local
variations in in-situ stresses, rock material, layering, or existence of natural fractures can
affect the direction of hydraulic fractures. Alternatively, a new technology based on Radial Jet
Drilling (RJD) has been widely used in petroleum and geothermal industries for improving
injectivity/productivity of wells, where small-diameter holes are drilled out from the wellbore
into the rock formation using a high-pressure fluid jet. In this study, we investigate a directional
hydraulic fracturing technique by combining the RJD technology with hydraulic fracturing
technique to optimize the hydraulic fractures. In the proposed method, RJD laterals, drilled in
a desirable depth and direction in the host formation, are hydraulic fractured. The hydraulic
fractures are propagating along the RJD laterals.

4. Directional Measurements While Drilling

Abstract
Real-time downhole estimation of inclination and azimuth is desirable for improved wellbore
quality, better management of the drilling process with regard to wellbore hydraulics and
drilling dynamics, and is a prerequisite for advanced directional drilling services such as
downhole azimuthal hold mode and surface-based automated trajectory control. However,
reliable estimation of azimuth while drilling remains a challenging problem, particularly in
certain orientations in harsh drilling environments. We present a detailed problem description
and describe the approach used to develop a new algorithm to estimate azimuth while drilling,
which offers significant improvements over existing algorithms. Such an algorithm will form
the foundation for advanced drilling system automation services, such as automated
trajectory drilling.

5. Slide-Drilling Guidance System Optimizes Directional Drilling

Path
Abstract
The amount of uncertainty related to directional drilling makes accurate drilling challenging,
leaving much to human know-how and interpretation. Additionally, few path planning
methods in the literature consider the directional steering tool being used. The formulation of
the problem of optimization varies greatly between rotary steerable systems (RSS) and mud-
motor configurations. Additional cost functions and constraints exist for mud-motor use,
which significantly increases the complexity of the problem. A slide drilling- guidance system
is proposed to combat this issue and to help automate directional drilling.

6. Directional Drilling Automation: Human Factors and Automated

Decision-Making
Abstract

Inconsistent directional drilling performance has cost the oil and gas industry billions of dollars
in drilling costs, missed production potential, and increased lifting costs. While some
directional drillers perform at ahigh-level, others often fail to properly compensate for multiple
variables seen while drilling. Automation of the directional drilling service including automated
decision-making is proving to be a viable solution to this problem and has been implemented
in the drilling of thousands of wells in North America in recent years.
A joint industry project (JIP) affiliated with the IADC (International Association of Drilling
Contractors),SPE DSATS (Society of Petroleum Engineers Drilling Systems Automation
Technical Section), AUVSI(Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International),
Southwest Research Institute, Energistics, and the OPC (Open Platform Communications)
Foundation has created a Drilling Systems Automation (DSA)Roadmap to help the industry
understand the direction of drilling systems automation. In this roadmap, the authors suggest
that the transition from humans to automation in the general drilling space can occur across
four cognitive functions: acquiring information, analyzing and displaying information, deciding
action, and implementing action. They also suggest that there is value in partial automation.
This assessment is accurate when applied to directional drilling; over the past few years many
individual directional drilling tasks have become either fully automated or partially automated,
each bringing significant value to the operation. These individual automated tasks
systematically link together, moving toward the fully automated rig.
Continuous real-time updating of the bit position is one of the many critical analysis steps that
can be automated, driving steering decisions. The practice of accurately predicting bit position
and trajectory is a skill that is artfully developed by expert directional drillers over many years.
To demonstrate the value of partial automation, a specific example is presented where the
continuous calculation of the real-time bit position and its trajectory is fully automated,
showing that the analysis and decision-making performed by the automated system is faster
and more accurate than performed by human directional drillers. Although the details of only
a single automated task is the focus of the case study, it is important to realize that it is just
one of many automated tasks currently implemented in the field on the path to full automation.

In the transition from human to automated processes, roles and responsibilities must change
both on the rig and in the office in order to fully benefit from its value potential. With most of
the heavy cognitive lifting performed by a machine, a single directional driller can now work
remotely and manage the directional control of multiple wells simultaneously. This remote
directional driller can perform data analysis in a structured scientific manner. Automation
incorporates the science, integrates previously siloed best practice sand individual
knowledge, and allows for continual consideration of the economic consequences to the asset
from each decision.

7. A Model Predictive Control Method for Autonomous Directional

Drilling
Abstract
Directional drilling for hydrocarbon exploration has been challenged to become more cost-
effective and consistent with fast-growing drilling operations for both offshore and onshore
production areas. Autonomous directional drilling provides a solution to these challenges by
providing repeatable drilling decisions for accurate well placement, improved borehole
quality, and flexibility to adapt smoothly to new technologies for drilling tools and sensors.
This work proposes a model predictive control (MPC)-based approach for trajectory tracking
in autonomous drilling. Given a well plan, bottomhole assembly (BHA)configuration, and
operational drilling parameters, the optimal control problem is formulated to determines
teering commands (i.e., tool face and steering ratio) necessary to achieve drilling objectives
while satisfying operational constraints.
The proposed control method was recently tested and validated during multiple field trials in
various drilling basins on two- and three-dimensional (2D and 3D) well plans for both rotary
steerable systems (RSS) and mud motors. Multiple curve sections were drilled successfully
with automated steering decisions, generating smooth wellbores and maintaining proximity
with the given well plan.

8. Directional Advisor Driven Rig and Directional Operation

Integration
Abstract
In the North America Land market, drilling operations are typically conducted by a selection
of different service companies. Each is responsible for a different aspect of the well
construction process, and they must work together to deliver a successful well for the
operator. This operational model can lead to overlaps and gaps across the various providers
in terms of responsibilities and tasks. Due to differing skill sets across rig and directional
personnel, integrating rig and directional execution has practically translated into drilling
contractors establishing a directional company and providing both services. While this
provides a single accountability point for both, it does not fundamentally change the
operational model. A new approach to integrated operations is now possible with the
assistance of directional advisor software, coupled with changes in rig driller capability and
accountability. This study demonstrated that by utilizing directional advisor software
directional operations could be integrated with rig operations without negatively impacting
well construction performance. Through the course of a fast-paced, twenty-two (22) well
program in western Canada, directional operations were transitioned through a series of steps
from a traditional model of two rigsite directional drillers and two rigsite measurement-while-
drilling (MWD) engineers to an integrated and reduced crew model where all directional
operations were directed from a remote operations center and directional steering was
executed by the rig crew

9. Successful Use of Directional Casing While Drilling

Abstract
This paper provides technical feedback of a successful use of Directional Casing While
Drilling (D-CwD), a technique allowing to simultaneously drill and case the hole while following
the directional plan. It highlights how substantial gains were realized on Badamyar project in
Myanmar, having benefited from the D-CwD technique to optimize the architecture. The
Badamyar development campaign involved the drilling of four horizontal gas wells in
conventional offshore environment in Myanmar. Other regional wells had already
experienced wellbore issues to get the 13 3/8″ casing vertically to 450m. On Badamyar,
drilling directly with the casing allowed to minimize operational exposure to losses and
wellbore instability, and to achieve the challenge to get the 13 3/8″ to 800m and 45deg
inclination, avoiding the requirement for an additional surface casing.
All four 13 3/8" sections were successfully directionally casing-drilled and cemented in
fourteen days within budget duration, which, despite the additional complexity, is comparable
to the best performance in the block in the last twenty years. The average Rate of Penetration
was 30 m/hr, same as fastest conventional case in the field, without mentioning the huge
advantage that when reaching the required depth, the casing is already in the hole. Indeed,
once the casing has reached the required depth, drill pipe is run inside the casing to unlatch
and recover the directional BHA, and pull it back to surface, leaving the casing in place ready
for the cement job. While conventionally, casing still needs to be run with associated time and
risks (losses, wellbore stability, stuck casing, accidental side-track, etc…). This Directional-
CwD was a new concept to most of the teams involved: Operator, Rig contractor and Tubular
Running Services. It required changing the "hundred and thirty years of conventional drill-
pipe drilling" mindset. This paper describes the decision-making process to switch from
conventional to casing drilling, the preparation phase where risks were identified and
mitigated, as well as the excellent operational
results.
This paper, by presenting a successful first implementation within a major O&G company,
brings to the drilling industry an additional case that the system works, is technically fit-for
purpose, cost effective, and has the tremendous potential to replace conventional drilling in
several applications. It also highlights some potential limits and opportunities for optimization
which should be considered for further development (trajectory constraints, fatigue life and
well control).

10. A 300 Degree Celsius Directional Drilling System

Abstract
The typical rating for downhole measurement-while-drilling equipment for oil and gas drilling
is between 150°C and 175°C. There are currently few available drilling systems rated for
operation at temperatures above 200°C. This paper describes the development, testing and
field deployment of a drilling system comprised of drill bits, positive displacement motors and
drilling fluids capable of drilling at operating temperatures up to 300°C. It also describes the
development and testing of a 300°C capable measurement-while-drilling platform. The
development of 300°C technologies for geothermal drilling also extends tool capabilities,
longevity and reliability at lower oilfield temperatures. New technologies developed in this
project include 300°C drill bits, metal-to-metal motors, and drilling fluid, and an advanced
hybrid electronics and downhole cooling system for a measurement-while-drilling platform.
The overall approach was to remove elastomers from the drilling system and to provide a
robust "drilling-ready" downhole cooling system for electronics. The project included
laboratory testing, field testing and full field deployment of the drilling system. The US
Department of Energy Geothermal Technologies Office partially funded the project. The use
of a sub-optimal drilling system due to the limited availability of very high temperature
technology can result in unnecessarily high overall wellbore construction costs. It can lead to
short runs, downhole tool failures and poor drilling rates. The paper presents results from the
testing and deployment of the 300°C drilling system. It describes successful laboratory testing
of individual bottom-hole-assembly components, and full-scale integration tests on an in-
house research rig. The paper also describes the successful deployment of the 300°C drilling
system in the exploratory geothermal well IDDP-2 as part of the Iceland Deep Drilling Project.
The well reached a measured depth of 4659m, by far the deepest in Iceland. The paper
includes drilling performance data and the results of post-run analysis of bits and motors used
in this well, which confirm the encouraging results obtained during laboratory tests. The paper
also discusses testing and performance of the 300°C rated measurement-while-drilling
components — hybrid electronics, power and telemetry - and the performance of the drilling
tolerant cooling system. This is the industry's first 300°C capable drilling system, comprising
metal-to-metal motors, drill bits, drilling fluid and accompanying measurement-while-drilling
system. These new technologies provide opportunities for drilling oil and gas wells in
previously undrillable ultra-high temperature environments.

Bibliografía
➢ Ameneiro, R., Chiluiza, L., Espinel, G., Guerrero, M. S., & Ramirez, D. (2020, July 20).
Unexpected Low-Resistivity Pay Zone while Drilling a Horizontal Well: A Case Study from the
Oriente Basin in Ecuador. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/199092-MS
➢ Karvinen, K., Hoehn, O., Schulze, S., & Wassermann, I. (2019, September 23). Directional
Measurements While Drilling. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/196131-MS
➢ Stefánsson, A., Duerholt, R., Schroder, J., Macpherson, J., Hohl, C., Kruspe, T., & Eriksen,
T.-J. (2018, March 6). A 300 Degree Celsius Directional Drilling System. Society of Petroleum
Engineers. doi:10.2118/189677-MS
➢ Pollock, J., Stoecker-Sylvia, Z., Veedu, V., Panchal, N., & Elshahawi, H. (2018, April 30).
Machine Learning for Improved Directional Drilling. Offshore Technology Conference.
doi:10.4043/28633-MS
➢ Carpenter, C. (2020, May 1). Slide-Drilling Guidance System Optimizes Directional Drilling
Path. Society of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/0520-0066-JPT
➢ Hildebrand, G., Schultz, H., Torre, A. M., & Olesen, L. (2018, March 6). Directional Advisor
Driven Rig and Directional Operation Integration. Society of Petroleum Engineers.
doi:10.2118/189607-MS
➢ Salimzadeh, S., Zhang, X., Kear, J., & Chen, Z. (2020, September 18). Directional Hydraulic
Fracturing Using Radial Jet Drilling Technology. American Rock Mechanics Association.
➢ Penot, S., Segui, E., & Pickup, D. (2019, March 22). Successful Use of Directional Casing
While Drilling. International Petroleum Technology Conference. doi:10.2523/IPTC-19462-MS
➢ Chmela, B., Kern, S., Quarles, T., Bhaduri, S., Goll, R., & Van, C. (2020, February 25).
Directional Drilling Automation: Human Factors and Automated Decision-Making. Society of
Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/199556-MS
➢ Demirer, N., Zalluhoglu, U., Marck, J., Gharib, H., & Darbe, R. (2019, September 23). A Model
Predictive Control Method for Autonomous Directional Drilling. Society of Petroleum
Engineers. doi:10.2118/195917-MS