Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Chemical Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chemgeo

Isotopic geochemistry of the Sawayaerdun orogenic-type gold deposit, Tianshan,

northwest China: Implications for ore genesis and mineral exploration
Hua-Yong Chen a, 1, Yan-Jing Chen b,⁎, Mike Baker a
a
CODES, ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 126, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
b
Key Laboratory of Crust and Orogen Evolution, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Sawayaerdun gold deposit is hosted by Carbonaceous metasediments and is considered to be the largest
Received 15 March 2011 Muruntau-type gold deposit in the Chinese Tianshan metallogenic belt. Gold mineralization at Sawayaerdun
Received in revised form 3 March 2012 occurs in quartz veins associated with three major hydrothermal events: an early, barren quartz vein stage,
Accepted 26 March 2012
middle stage mineralized quartz veins with pyrite and late carbonate (-quartz) veins.
Available online 4 April 2012
The isotopic compositions of quartz and sulfides from the Sawayaerdun gold deposit show some variation but
Editor: L. Reisberg are generally comparable to those of other orogenic-type gold deposits. Fluids trapped in early-stage quartz
have a δ18O range of 13.6‰ to 15.4‰, δD of − 48‰ to − 75‰, δ13C of 0.5‰ to 4.2‰ and δ30Si of − 0.2‰ to 0‰.
Keywords: In contrast, isotopic compositions of fluids trapped in middle-stage quartz have δ18O values of 6.7‰ to 14.7‰,
Orogenic gold deposit δD of − 56‰ to − 110‰, δ13C of 0.4‰ to 10.1‰ and δ30Si of − 0.3‰ to 0‰. Diagenetic and hydrothermal
Tianshan pyrite have similar sulfur (− 1.8‰ to 0.9‰) and Pb isotopic values that are associated with host rock
Isotope geochemistry compositions. The early-stage, 18O and 13C-rich fluids are probably derived from metamorphic decarbonation
Fluid source of the sedimentary host rock at depth, leading to the precipitation of early barren quartz veins. In the middle
Fluid evolution
stage, a decrease in the regional pressure and temperature regime could have resulted in the incorporation of
external fluids into the ore-forming system. These external fluids with isotopic signatures similar to that of
the host rock and generally rich in 34S and radiogenic Pb mixed with original ore-forming fluids to generate
extensive metal precipitation. Late-stage fluids trapped by calcite veins show isotopic compositions similar to
meteoric water, indicating the cessation of hydrothermal fluid circulation at Sawayaerdun occurred at this
time. The metallogenetic model illustrated by stable and Pb isotopes is also consistent with fluid inclusion
studies in Sawayaerdun.
The development of mineralization at Sawayaerdun is strongly linked to fluid mixing, as witnessed by the
isotopic signatures of fluids from identified ore-bearing zones. The isotopic compositions of other anomalous
zones at Sawayaerdun are similar to those of the mineralized zones, suggesting a high potential for further
exploration.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Since the discovery of the Muruntau gold deposit (175 Moz;
Goldfarb et al., 2001) in Central Kyzylkum, Uzbekistan, Muruntau-
type orogenic-Au deposits, commonly characterized by structural
control, metasediment hosts and multiple hydrothermal stages, have
become a major target for both mineral exploration and research in
the Central Asian Tianshan belt (Graupner et al., 2001; Wilde et al.,
2001; Morelli et al., 2007; Bierlein and Wilde, 2010). Many large-size
gold deposits, including Kumtor (18 Moz), Daugyztau (5 Moz) and
Jilau (>3 Moz), have been discovered in the Southern Tianshan belt
across Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan since the
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 86 10 62757390.
E-mail addresses: Huayong.chen@utas.edu.au (H.Y. Chen), yjchen@pku.edu.cn
(Y.J. Chen), bakermj@utas.edu.au (M. Baker).
1
Tel.: + 61 3 62261735.
early 1980s (Fig. 1, Rui et al., 2002; Yakubchuk et al., 2002). These
new discoveries, especially that of the Kumtor deposit (Kyrgyzstan),
which is only 40 km from the China–Kyrgyzstan border, have
stimulated more recent exploration activity in the Chinese Tianshan
and directly resulted in the discovery of the Sawayaerdun gold
deposit in Xinjiang, northwest China in the early 1990s (Ye et al.,
1998).
The Sawayaerdun deposit contains >3 Moz Au with an inferred
resource of at least 10 Moz (Rui et al., 2002). It is considered to be the
largest Muruntau-like gold deposit discovered in China (Liu et al.,
2007). Previous studies have shown that the Sawayaerdun gold
deposit shares many similarities with the Muruntau deposit and
other orogenic-type Au deposits, including geological setting, alter-
ation assemblages, paragenetic relationships and ore-forming fluids
(Liu et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2012). Recent
investigation indicates that hydrothermal fluids forming the
Sawayaerdun deposit are CO2-rich and probably evolved through

0009-2541/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2012.03.026
2 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11

Fig. 1. Simplified regional geologic map of the Central Asia showing the location of major Au deposits.
Modified from Chiaradia et al. (2006).

multiple stages (Chen et al., 2012), consistent with most orogenic-
type deposits (Chen et al., 2007). This paper aims to present the
isotopic geochemical constraints on the sources of fluids and metals,
as well as the geochemical nature of fluids from the major
hydrothermal stages, in order to determine the mechanism of metal
deposition at Sawayaerdun.
Detailed studies of the geology, alteration, mineralization and ore-
forming fluids have been performed on the major Muruntau-type Au
deposits of the Southern Tianshan belt, such as Muruntau (Wilde et
al., 2001; Bierlein and Wilde, 2010), Kumtor (Ivanove, 2000; Mao et
al., 2004) and Jilau (Cole et al., 2000). The discriminating features of
Au mineralization in the wider Tianshan belt have also been
investigated (Yakubchuk et al., 2002, 2005; Chiaradia et al., 2006).
Despite this work, systemic isotope studies of the major Au deposits
of the Southern Tianshan belt are still rare. The Sawayaerdun gold
deposit provides an excellent opportunity to study in detail the
sources of fluids and metals and the fluid evolution of an orogenic-
type hydrothermal system using isotopic geochemistry. This study
aims to improve our understanding of this major mineralization style
and in turn enhance exploration success in the Southern Tianshan
belt.
2. Regional and local geology
show strike-slip shearing features (Liu et al., 1996). They usually have
a northeast strike similar to the host strata and have evolved from
ductile through to brittle deformation (Ye et al., 1999). As illustrated
in Fig. 2, fault F1 and subsidiary fractures control the location of ore
formation, with orebodies occurring in the hanging wall of F1.
Only minor andesite and tuff flows have been identified at the top
stratigraphic horizons of the host rocks and no associated large
intrusions have been identified in the area. A few alkaline diabase and
diorite dykes were identified in the deposit and in Permian-aged
strata outside the ore zone. All dykes strike NNE or close to N–S (Liu
et al., 2007) and commonly intrude turbidities, causing pervasive
sericite, chlorite, epidote and carbonate alteration. K–Ar ages of the
diabase dykes range from 270.5 Ma to 127.9 Ma and probably record
at least two different phases of magmatic activity in the district (Liu et
al., 2007).
3. Alteration and mineralization
Twenty-four ore-bearing zones have been identified at the
Sawayaerdun deposit (Fig. 2), with four ore zones (I, II, IV and XI) of
economic grade. The NW-dipping ore zone IV is the largest with
~4200 m length and 15–48 m width and Au reserves exceeding 2.5

The Sawayaerdun gold deposit is situated approximately 28 km

north-northwest of Wulukeqiati Township, Wuqia County, Xinjiang
(Yang et al., 2007). It is located in the southern Tianshan orogenic
belt, which has contributed to the northwest margin of the Tarim
plate (Fig. 1). The deposit is hosted in a Late Carbonifierous
greenschist facies metamorphosed turbidite sequence that can be
subdivided into three lithologic units. The lower unit consists of gray
metamorphosed quartz-sandstones and carbonaceous slates. The
base of this unit is intercalated with marlstone and limestone
containing fossils such as Hapsiphyllide Grabau (Liu et al., 2007). The
middle unit contains dark-gray to black thinly-bedded siltstones with
interbedded carbonaceous slates. It is overlain by an upper unit of
gray to dark gray, medium- to thinly-bedded silty slate, siltstone, and
pebbled siltstone (Zheng et al., 2001; Liu et al., 2007). The orebodies
of the Sawayaerdun deposit mainly occur in the middle stratigraphic
unit (Fig. 2). The host rocks have yielded two Rb–Sr isochron ages of
304.7 ± 11.6 Ma and 292.4 ± 0.4 Ma, and a Sm–Nd isochron age of
294 ± 19 Ma (Liu et al., 2007).
At Sawayaerdun, subsidiary faults and shear zones between the
two regional faults host most of the auriferous quartz veins in this Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Sawayaerdun gold deposit.
region. These faults were active during late-Hercynian orogeny and Modified from Liu et al. (2007) and Chen et al. (2012).
 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11 3

Table 1
Characteristics of the main mineralization zones at the Sawayaerdun gold deposit.
Modified from Ye et al. (1999).
Mineralization Length Width Depth Shape of ore Grade range/
zone (m) (m) (m) bodies average (g/t)
I 2700 80–130 ? Irregular (4) 1.00–3.25/1.48
II 3000 50–80 ? Lentoid (5) 1.00–1.71/1.35
IV > 4000 20–100 300 Bedding (5) 1.22–3.57/2.66
XI 1800 20–50 ? Veins (2) 1.01–2.07/1.17
Only ore zone IV has been controlled by drilling. Numbers in brackets are identified ore
bodies.
Moz (Table 1; Yang et al., 2007). All ore-bearing zones experienced
multi-stage hydrothermal alteration, with pyrite, arsenopyrite, quartz,
sericite, chlorite and carbonate as the most common alteration
minerals. Gold mineralization was closely associated with intense
silicification and pyritization (Liu et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2012). Five
alteration mineral assemblages that formed during the main stages of
mineralization are recognized, including native gold–arsenopyrite–
pyrite–quartz, native gold–pyrite–jamesonite (stibnite)–quartz, native
gold–jamesonite (stibnite), native gold–quartz–siderite and native
gold–pyrite–pyrrhotite–quartz (Yang et al., 2007). Based on mineral
assemblages and crosscutting relationships, at least three paragenetic
stages can be distinguished at Sawayaerdun (for details see Chen et al.,
2012). The early stage is represented by the formation of thick barren
quartz veins. The middle stage is composed of quartz–polymetallic
sulfides, veinlets and stockworks cutting the earlier quartz veins. Major
sulfides formed during the middle stage include anhedral pyrite,
pyrrohotite, arsenopyrite and stibnite. The late stage is characterized
by carbonate-(quartz) veins with comb texture. Gold was mainly
introduced during the middle stage and mainly occurs as native gold
and electrum, with arsenopyrite and pyrite as the most salient gold-
bearing minerals (Ye et al., 1999; Chen et al., 2012).
As the major gangue mineral, quartz grains formed during the
early (barren) and middle (main mineralization) stages are strongly
distinguished by their occurrence, mineral assemblage, associated
alteration and mineral characteristics (Table 2). Early-stage quartz
veins commonly occur as thick lenses along strata, comprising
deformed, coarse-grained (0.5–1.0 mm) pale-gray quartz, and locally
include a small number of euhedral pyrite grains, which are similar to
those in the host metasediments and probably of diagenetic origin. In
contrast, quartz crystals formed during the middle stage are usually
small (0.05–0.20 mm) and have a dark-gray (“smoky”) color. Middle
stage quartz grains occur with sericite, fine-grained anhedral pyrite
and other sulfides. Both the middle-stage quartz-sulfide stockwork
and quartz crystals in these veinlets record a period of strong
deformation that occurred during or after ore formation.
4. Sampling and analytical techniques
Twenty-two representative samples were selected from the
collection for isotope studies. Of these, 16 are from middle stage
mineralized quartz veins containing gold–quartz–sulfides and four
are from early stage barren quartz veins. Two calcite samples were
selected to represent late stage fluids. All samples were collected
from I, II, IV and XI ore-bearing zones and F1 fault (Table 3). Mineral
separates for stable and lead isotope studies include early barren and
middle mineralized quartz grains, late-stage calcite grains, early
diagenetic and mineralized pyrite grains, and one hydrothermal
pyrrhotite (Tables 3 and 4).
Mineral separates were extracted from crushed and washed rock
samples. Quartz, calcite and sulfides were selected by handpicking
under a microscope. Mineral separates were outgassed at 150 °C
before analysis. Quartz separates were reacted with BrF5, followed by
total conversion to CO2 for oxygen isotope analysis (Clayton and
Mayeda, 1963). δD values were measured on water in fluid inclusions
decrepitated from quartz and carbonate separates by heating at
600 °C for 1 h. The released gases were passed through a CuO bucket
at 600 °C and frozen down with liquid nitrogen to obtain waters from
which hydrogen gas was released by reduction with zinc (Kyser and
O'Neil, 1984). For δ 13C analysis of fluid inclusions in quartz grains, the
gases were obtained by the same method applied in δD analysis, but
were frozen down directly to separate CO2. δ 18O and δ 13C values for
carbonate were measured on CO2 released from 5–10 mg powdered
carbonate samples reacted with 100% phosphoric acid at 25 °C for 4 h
(McCrea, 1950). Silicon was extracted from quartz separates using
the fluorination technique and the isotopic ratios were determined by
the procedures described by Taylor and Epstein (1962) and Jiang et al.
(1994). The δ 34S values of the sulfide minerals were determined
following oxidation to sulfur dioxide by cupric oxide combustion
(Fritz et al., 1974). For lead isotope ratios of pyrites and pyrrhotite,
approximately 10–50 mg of each sample were first leached in acetone
to remove surface contamination and then washed with distilled
water and dried at 60 °C in an oven. Washed sulfides were dissolved
in a dilute solution of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid. Following ion-
exchange chemistry, the lead in the solution was loaded onto
rhenium filaments using a phosphoric acid–silica gel emitter (Zhang
et al., 2011).
Oxygen, hydrogen, silicon and carbon isotope analyses were
conducted using a Finnigan MAT 251EM mass spectrometer; δ 34S
values were determined by a MAT 230C mass spectrometer and Pb
isotopes by a MAT 261 mass spectrometer at the Isotope Geochem-
istry Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. δ 18O and
δD are reported relative to the Vienna SMOW standard, δ 34S to the
Canyon Diablo triolite (CDT) standard, δ 13C to the Peedee Belemnite
limestone (PDB) standard, δ 30Si to the NBS-28 quartz sandstone
standard and all Pb ratios were corrected based on the values of NBS
SRM 981. A mass fractionation factor of 0.1% per mass unit during Pb
isotope analysis was determined by the reiterated analyses of SRM
981 in the lab and the total Pb blanks were about 1 ng. The δ 34S, δ 18O,
δ 13C, δ 30Si and δD values are reproducible to ±0.3, ±0.1, ±0.1,
±0.06 and ±2‰, respectively. The 2σ variations (in-run precisions)
are 0.1, 0.09, and 0.30% for the 206Pb/ 204Pb, 207Pb/ 204Pb, and 208Pb/
204
Pb ratios, respectively.
5. Results
5.1. δ 18O, δD, δ 13C and δ 30Si of quartz and fluids
δ 18O values of mineralized quartz range from 19.3 to 21.9‰, with
an average of 20.2‰ (Table 3). δ 18O values of early-stage quartz have

Table 2
Geological characteristics of quartz veins at Sawayaerdun.

Early stage barren quartz veins Middle stage mineralized quartz veins

Occurrence and texture
Mineral assemblages
Features of quartz
Associated alteration
Commonly as lentoid bodies in sediments layers
Quartz > 90%, locally with sulfides
White and coarse-grained (0.5–1 mm),
weak recrystalization and deformation common
Weak sericite and carbonate alteration
Veinlets in broken structure zones; breccia-like when enrich with sulfides
Quartz dominant but with enormous sulfides showing multiple generations
Fine-grained (0.05–0.2 mm) and usually “smoky”; deformed with sulfides
and show similar direction
Strong sericite, carbonate and sulfide alteration
4 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11

Table 3
Oxygen, hydrogen, silicon and carbon isotopic compositions of quartz and calcites from the Sawayaerdun gold deposit (‰).
The temperatures are from Chen et al. (2012).

Samples Mineral δ18Omineral T (°C) δ18Owater δ30Si δDwater δ13CCO2 δ13CCC

Zone I
SW57 wmq 20.3 390 15.4 − 0.1 − 75 4.2
SW56 mq 19.6 330 13.0 − 89 6.5
SW63 mq 19.3 315 12.3 0.0 − 81 0.4
Zone II
SW65 wmq 20.3 340 14.1 − 0.2 − 72 3.2
SW17 mq 20.4 360 14.7 − 0.1 − 71 1.5
SW64 mq 20.6 220 9.5 − 78 3.1
Zone IV
SW27 wmq 21.2 300 13.6 0.0 − 48 0.5
SW8 mq 20.4 185 7.1 − 0.3 − 71 5.7
SW3 mq 20.1 210 8.4 2.6
SW26 mq 21.9 215 10.5 − 65 2.0
SW10 mq 21.5 230 8.2 − 0.3
SW51 mq 19.7 220 8.5 − 0.2 − 59 5.1
SW21 mq 19.4 220 8.2 − 61 8.6
SW48 mq 20.4 190 7.5 − 56 7.7
SW50 mq 20.6 265 11.7 − 0.1
SW49 mq 20.3 185 6.7
SW74 mq 19.7 220 8.5 − 72 10.1
Zone XI
SW79 mq 19.6 250 10.5 − 0.2 − 110 2.0
SW80 mq 20.1 260 8.2 − 70
F1 fault
SW32 wmq 21.4 295 13.7 0.0 − 72
SW33 cc 20.1 200 9.9 0.7 2.4
SW34 cc 17.5 200 7.3 − 77 0.2 1.9
wmq average 20.8 331 14.2 − 0.08 − 68 2.6
mq average 20.2 277 11 − 0.17 − 74 4.6
Zone I average (mq) 19.5 322 12.7 0 − 85 3.5
Zone II average (mq) 20.5 291 12.1 − 0.10 − 75 2.3
Zone IV average (mq) 20.4 215 8.5 − 0.23 − 64 6.0
Zone XI average (mq) 19.9 256 9.4 − 0.20 −90 2.0

Abbreviations: wmq, weakly mineralized quartz; mq, mineralized quartz; cc, calcite.
The δ18Owtaer values were calculated using equations for quartz–water and calcite–water provided by Zheng (1993) and O'Neil et al. (1969), respectively. The δ13C in CO2
equilibrated with calcite were calculated using equation of Deines et al. (1974).

a range of 20.3 to 21.4‰, with an average of 20.8‰. δ 18O values of
mineralized quartz from the zone IV show a similar range (19.4 to
21.9‰, average 20.4‰) to those of the other three ore zones (19.3–
20.6‰; average 19.9‰; Table 3). Based on the detailed paragenesis
study and using the temperatures acquired from the fluid inclusion
study (Table 3; Chen et al., 2012), the calculated δ 18O values of fluid
hosted by early-stage quartz vary from 13.6 to 15.4‰ (average
14.2‰; Table 3). The calculated δ 18Owater values of mineralized quartz
are between 6.7 and 14.7‰ with an average of 11.0‰ (Table 3), lower
than that of early quartz. Zone IV has a wide δ 18Owater range of 6.7 to
11.7‰ and an average value (8.5‰) similar to that of zone XI (9.4‰),
but lower than those of zones I and II (12.7‰ and 12.0‰). The
measured δD values of fluids hosted in mineralized quartz range
between − 56 and −110‰ with an average of − 74‰. In contrast,
early-stage quartz has higher δD values varying from −48 to −75‰
(average −68‰). The zone IV mineralized quartz has the highest δD
value of −64‰ of the four major mineralization zones (Table 3).
The δ 30Si values of quartz vary between − 0.3 and 0.0‰ (Table 3).
The average δ 30Si value of early-stage quartz (−0.08‰) is slightly
higher than that of mineralized quartz (−0.17‰). Mineralized quartz
from the zone IV yields the lowest average value of − 0.23‰ from the
four mineralized zones. The δ 13CCO2 values of fluid inclusions are
generally positive and variable (Table 3). The δ 13CCO2 values in early-
stage quartz vary from 0.5 to 4.2‰, with an average of 2.6‰; whereas
mineralized quartz has higher δ 13CCO2 values between 0.4 and 10.1‰
(average 4.6‰). Mineralized quartz from zone IV yields a wide
δ 13CCO2 range of 2.0–10.1‰ and has the highest average value of 6.0‰
amongst the four major mineralized zones (Table 3).
5.2. δ 18O, δD, and δ 13C of calcite and fluids
Two late-stage calcite samples give similar δ 18O values of 20.1‰
and 17.5‰, and δ 13C values of 2.4‰ and 1.9‰, respectively (Table 3).
Fluid inclusions in one calcite yield a δD value of −77‰, similar to
those of mineralized quartz (average of − 74‰, Table 3). Using the
estimated temperature of 200 °C (Chen et al., 2012) and the equation
of calcite–CO2 equilibrium (Deines et al., 1974), the calculated
δ 13CCO2 values are 0.7‰ and 0.2‰ (Table 3). Calculated δ 18Owater
values of the late-stage calcite grains are 9.9‰ and 7.3‰ respectively,
using the equation of calcite–H2O equilibrium (O'Neil et al., 1969).
5.3. δ 34S and Pb isotope compositions of sulfides and fluids
The δ 34S values of pyrite and pyrrhotite samples from the
Sawayaerdun gold deposit have a very narrow range (Table 4).
Three diagenetic pyrite samples give δ 34S ratios ranging from −1.6‰
to 0.3‰ with an average of −0.4‰, similar to that of hydrothermal
pyrite and pyrrhotite (− 1.8‰ to 0.9‰, average − 0.3‰). Using the
pyrite − pyrrhotite fractionation equation (Kajiwara and Krouse,
1971), the pyrite–pyrrhotite equilibrium temperature in sample
SW8 is calculated to be 500 °C. This estimation is markedly higher
than the temperature of 220–270 °C estimated from fluid inclusion
studies (Chen et al., 2012), and also higher than those of other typical
lode gold deposits (Jia et al., 2000; Ridley and Diamond, 2000),
suggesting that sulfur isotope systems between coexisting sulfides
were not equilibrated. Given the fO2 and temperature during mineral
precipitation, total δ 34S values of the fluids can be estimated from the
 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11 5

Table 4 δ 34S values of sulfides (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979; Ohmoto and
Sulfur and lead isotopic ratios of sulfides from the Sawayaerdun gold deposit. Goldhaber, 1997). The main mineralization stage of the Sawayaerdun
Pb isotopes of host rock are from Ye et al. (1999).
gold deposit is CH4-dominated and relatively reduced (Chen et al.,
206
Sample no. Mineral Pb/204Pb 207
Pb/204Pb 208
Pb/204Pb δ34S 2012), which is supported by the occurrence of pyrrhotite and is also
Zone I consistent with most orogenic gold deposits whose redox state is
SW59 hpy 18.164 15.620 38.476 − 0.9 generally below the SO2/H2S boundary (Phillips and Groves, 1983;
SW63 hpy 18.205 15.580 38.624 − 0.8 Mikucki and Ridley, 1993; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998; Jia et al., 2000;
Zone II
Kerrich et al., 2000). Given the low oxygen buffer and medium
SW17 hpy 18.083 15.616 38.378 − 0.9
SW64 hpy 18.086 15.614 38.400 0.4 temperature (220–270 °C), the sulfur isotopic fractionation between
SW65 dpy 18.131 15.623 38.480 0.2 sulfides and fluids is usually small (b2‰; Ohmoto and Goldhaber,
Zone IV 1997), which means the measured δ 34S values of sulfides are nearly
SW27 dpy 18.139 15.594 38.428 0.3 equal to those of the fluids.
SW8 hpy 18.504 15.643 39.314 − 0.4
Three diagenetic pyrites have 206Pb/ 204Pb values of 18.104 to
SW8 hpo 18.037 15.601 38.387 − 0.9
SW3 hpy 18.768 15.640 39.761 − 0.4 18.139 (average 18.125), 207Pb/ 204Pb values of 15.594 to 15.623
SW10 hpy 18.382 15.618 38.941 − 0.9 (average 15.607), and 208Pb/ 204Pb values of 38.316 to 38.480
SW16 hpy 18.131 15.635 38.467 − 0.1 (average 38.408; Table 4). Hydrothermal pyrites and pyrrhotite
SW51 hpy 18.758 15.647 39.654 0.5
have 206Pb/ 204Pb values of 18.076 to 18.893 (average 18.338),
SW21 hpy 18.416 15.637 39.248 − 1.8 207
SW48 hpy 18.138 15.622 38.425 0.9 Pb/ 204Pb values of 15.580 to 15.668 (average 15.626), and 208Pb/
204
SW50 hpy 18.893 15.668 40.404 − 1.4 Pb values of 38.303 to 40.404 (average 38.913). Compared to
SW74 hpy 18.076 15.595 38.303 0.8 diagenetic pyrite, hydrothermal pyrite displays a wider range of Pb
Zone XI isotopic values and more radiogenic compositions. Hydrothermal
SW79 hpy 18.133 15.623 38.381 0.8
pyrite from the zone IV yields the widest compositional range and the
F1 fault zone
SW32 dpy 18.104 15.603 38.316 − 1.6 highest average of the four major mineralization zones.
hpy average 18.338 15.626 38.913 − 0.3
dpy average 18.125 15.607 38.408 − 0.4 6. Discussion
Host rock average 18.184 15.612 38.331
Zone I average (hpy) 18.185 15.600 38.550 − 0.9
Zone II average (hpy) 18.085 15.615 38.389 − 0.3
6.1. Sources of ore-forming fluids and metals
Zone IV average (hpy) 18.452 15.634 39.168 − 0.4
Zone XI average (hpy) 18.133 15.632 38.381 0.8 6.1.1. Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes
Abbreviations: hpy, hydrothermal pyrite; dpy, diagenetic pyrite; hpo, hydrothermal The δ 18O values of quartz from the Sawayaerdun deposit range
prrhotite. narrowly from 19.3 to 21.9‰ (Fig. 3A), and are generally higher than
those of most lode gold deposits (δ 18O = 10–18‰; Fig. 3A; Kyser et
al., 1986; Kerrich, 1987; Goldfarb et al., 1991, 1997; McCuaig and
Kerrich, 1998; Ivanove, 2000; Kerrich et al., 2000; Jia et al., 2001).

Fig. 3. Oxygen isotopic compositions of quartz (A) and ore-forming fluids (B) from zones I, II, IV and XI. References for the isotopic ranges of other deposits are given in the text.
6 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11
Fig. 4. Hydrogen isotopic compositions of the ore-forming fluids at Sawayaerdun. References for the isotopic ranges of other deposits and meteoric water are given in the text.
High δ 18O values of quartz may be caused by significant fractionation
due to the relatively low ore-forming temperatures (Table 3; O'Neil,
1986; Kyser, 1987) compared with other lode gold deposits
(commonly 300–350 °C; Ridley and Diamond, 2000). The calculated
δ 18O values of Sawayaerdun ore-forming fluids vary from 6.7 to
14.7‰, generally consistent with, but spanning a wider range than
those of other orogenic gold deposits (Fig. 3B). The early barren
quartz from Sawayaerdun has high δ 18Owater values (Fig. 3B), which
probably indicate an association with the 18O-rich sediment host.
The δD values of − 48 to − 110‰ from the ore-forming fluids at
Sawayaerdun (Table 3) fall into the δD range of most lode gold
deposits (Fig. 4; Kerrich, 1987; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998; Ridley and
Diamond, 2000). They are consistent with those of the Juneau gold
belts, Alaska (Goldfarb et al., 1991), but are distinct from the Bendigo
gold deposit, Australia (Jia et al., 2001; Fig. 4). The δD values of
Sawayaerdun ore-forming fluids peak at −70 to −72‰, which is
consistent with modern meteoric water in the Tianshan region
(−70‰; Zhang, 1985), indicating a possible meteoric water source
for the ore-forming fluids. The low δD values (b−80‰) obtained in
some carbonaceous turbidite-hosted lode gold deposits have been
interpreted to result from the reaction between deep-sourced non-
meteoric fluids and δD-depleted organic matter in host rocks
(Goldfarb et al., 1989; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998; Jia et al., 2001).
However, the δD values at Sawayaerdun are highly variable and only a
few samples yield low values (Fig. 4). The higher δD values in early-
stage barren quartz compared with mineralized quartz at Sawayaerdun
are probably the result of the higher CH4 and H2S contents in fluids
trapped in mineralized quartz (Chen et al., 2012). Experiments have
documented that strong hydrogen fractionation occurs between
H2O\CH4 and H2O\H2S and that δD is usually depleted in CH4 and
Fig. 5. Calculated δD and δ18O values of fluids at Sawayaerdun. References for the fields
of other deposits are given in the text.
Fields for magmatic and metamorphic waters are from Taylor (1997).
H2S (Richet et al., 1977; Hoefs, 1997). Fig. 5 illustrates that early-stage
barren quartz at Sawayaerdun contains fluids with higher δ 18O and
δD values and is probably derived from a metamorphic-related
fluid. In contrast, ore-forming fluids hosted by mineralized quartz,
especially those of zone IV, are similar to those of other lode gold
deposits, and fluids in late-stage calcite have a composition close to
meteoric water.
6.1.2. Silicon isotopes
Silicon isotopes have been investigated over the last few decades
(Clayton, 1986; Ding et al., 1988). Although there is a relatively
narrow variation of δ 30Si values occurring in natural materials (−4 to
4‰; Jiang et al., 1994), silicon isotopes have been applied in different
ore deposit types to identify the sources of metals and ore-forming
fluids (Jiang et al., 1992, 1993; Zhou et al., 2007).
The δ 30Si values of quartz at Sawayaerdun have a range of −0.3 to
0‰ (Fig. 6), which is distinct from those of Precambrian Banded Iron
Formations (−2.2 to −1.1‰), but similar to those of hydrothermal
quartz from disseminated sediment-hosted gold deposits in south-
west China (−0.4 to 0.5‰; Jiang et al., 1994). Silicon isotopic
fractionation between quartz and fluid is generally between 0.4‰ and
1.0‰ (Douthitt, 1982; Li et al., 1994; Ding et al., 1996). Accordingly,
the δ 30Si values of ore-forming fluids at Sawayaerdun have a range of
0.2–1.0‰ (Fig. 6), which is similar to that of sedimentary rocks: i.e.,
higher values in early-stage barren quartz (Table 3) are more
consistent with those of shallow sea radiolarian rocks or siliceous
dolomite, whereas the lower values in the mineralized quartz are
more consistent with shale and sandstones (Fig. 6). These results
indicate different silicon sources for the fluids in the two stages of
quartz veins; however, the narrow range of δ 30Si values may suggest
that such differences are very subtle.
6.1.3. Carbon isotopes
The δ 13CCO2 values (0.4–10.1‰, average 4.6‰) of ore-forming
fluids trapped in mineralized quartz from Sawayaerdun are higher
than those of major carbon reservoirs such as seawater (0‰; Ohmoto
and Rye, 1979), magmatic fluids and mantle (−7 to −2‰; Deines et
al., 1991; Cartigny et al., 1998), reduced carbon in sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks (−25‰; Hoefs, 1997) and reduced carbon that
underwent carbon isotope exchange with carbonates in metasedi-
mentary rocks (−15‰; Schidowski et al., 1983). The δ 13CCO2 values
at Sawayaerdun are also higher than those of carbonate minerals in
many lode gold deposits (− 23 to 2‰; Rye and Rye, 1974; Kerrich,
1987; Kontak and Kerrich, 1997; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998; Ridley
and Diamond, 2000). The high δ 13CCO2 values at Sawayaerdun could
be interpreted as the result of strong fractionation of the carbon
isotopes between CO2 and C (e.g., graphite in host rocks; Chacko et al.,
1991; Ohmoto and Goldhaber, 1997) or during decarbonation of
marine carbonates (Fig. 7; Burrows et al., 1986; Tang et al., 2009,
2011). Fig. 7 illustrates that δ 13C and δ 18O values of ore-forming fluids
in early-stage barren quartz veins could be derived from the
 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11
Fig. 6. δ30Si values of quartz and fluids at Sawayaerdun. References for the ranges of other units and deposits are given in the text.
decarbonation of marine carbonate. They evolved into a fluid system
with higher δ 13C but lower δ 18O values which precipitated most of
the metals during mineralization, then into the late hydrothermal
fluids with low δ 13C and δ 18O values.
6.1.4. Sulfur isotopes
Hydrothermal pyrite and pyrrhotite at Sawayaerdun have a
narrow δ 34S range of 0.9‰ to − 1.8‰ (Table 4), similar to that of
basaltic and granitic rocks, but also within the range of metamorphic
and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 8). The δ 34S values of Sawayaerdun
hydrothermal sulfides are comparable to those of most lode gold
deposits, such as Juneau (Goldfarb et al., 1989), Kumtor (Ivanove,
2000) and Bendigo (Jia et al., 2001) in which ore-forming fluids were
inferred to be metamorphic in origin. Diagenetic pyrite at Sawayaer-
dun also has a narrow δ 34S range (− 1.6‰ to 0.3‰) similar to that of
hydrothermal pyrite, probably indicating a similar source for the
fluids. These δ 34S values are comparable to those of diagenetic pyrite
from other lode gold deposits (Fig. 8). Although the near-zero δ 34S
values indicate a possible magmatic source in many magmatic–
hydrothermal deposits (Hoefs, 1997), the geological characteristics
and other isotope compositions preclude this at Sawayaerdun.
Sulfides in the host sediments are commonly 34S-depleted and
generated low δ 34S values (b−5‰) of ore-forming fluids during the
sulfur fractionation in the Bendigo and Juneau gold deposits
(Goldfarb et al., 1991; Jia et al., 2001). Nevertheless, sulfides in
sedimentary rocks may have a wide δ 34S range (Fig. 8) due to
biological isotope fractionations and some sulfides in sediment-
hosted deposits could be significantly enriched in 34S (e.g., ≥0‰ of
diagenetic pyrite at Sawayaerdun) compared to 34S-depleted sulfides
(Sasaki and Krouse, 1969). Thus, the narrow δ 34S range at
Fig. 7. Calculated δ13C and δ18O values of fluids at Sawayaerdun. References for the fields of major carbon reservoirs and other deposits are given in the text.
7
Sawayaerdun probably indicates a source of host sediment rather
than a magmatic system.
6.1.5. Lead isotopes
All Pb isotopic compositions of pyrite samples from Sawayaerdun
show negative single-stage model ages (Faure, 1986), probably
indicating the presence of excess radiogenic Pb in the fluid system
either through decay of U and Th or mixing which introduced
radiogenic lead (Johansson, 1983; Horner et al., 1997). The Pb
isotopes of all sulfides define a rough correlation in a diagram of
207
Pb/ 204Pb vs. 206Pb/ 204Pb (Fig. 9a), which would yield an age of
1375 ± 725 Ma if interpreted chronologically (Ludwig, 1991). This
age is much older than the Rb\Sr and Ar\Ar ages reported at
Sawayaerdun (~ 230 Ma; Ye et al., 1999; Liu et al., 2007), indicating
that the ore-forming fluids at Sawayaerdun may not have evolved in a
closed system after Pb trapping and external Pb may have been
involved during their evolution.
Pyrite is a Pb-poor mineral and the decay of U and Th to radiogenic
lead in pyrites should be considered (Le Guen et al., 1992; Ho et al.,
1994; Zhou et al., 2001), especially for pyrite with a relatively old age.
Because analytical determinations of μ ( 238U/ 204Pb) and ω ( 232Th/
204
Pb) are not available, we here use the values from the proximal
orogen (μ = 10.28 and ω = 42.88; Zartman and Haines, 1988) to
estimate the additional radiogenic lead. If the pyrite at Sawayaerdun
was formed at ca. 230 Ma (Ye et al., 1999), the calculated additional
values of 206Pb/ 204Pb, 207Pb/ 204Pb and 208Pb/ 204Pb are 0.375, 0.019
and 0.493, respectively. Similar Pb isotope values were obtained for
the whole rocks, i.e., 206Pb/ 204Pb = 0.490, 207Pb/ 204Pb = 0.026 and
208
Pb/ 204Pb = 0.641, using the formation age of 300 Ma (Liu et al.,
1999, 2007).
8 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11

Fig. 8. δ34S values of diagenetic and hydrothermal pyrites at Sawayaerdun. References for the ranges of major sulfur reservoirs and other deposits are given in the text.

Fig. 9 illustrates that the Pb isotopic compositions of Sawayaerdun
pyrite show similarities to the orogenic Pb (Zartman and Haines,
1988). The similarity of Pb isotopic compositions between the host
rock and pyrite at Sawayaerdun (Ye et al., 1999; Zheng et al., 2000)
suggests a similar Pb source, which has been documented in many
lode gold deposits (Ho et al., 1995; McNaughton and Groves, 1996;
Geraldes et al., 1997; Bierlein and McNaughton, 1998; Ridley and
Diamond, 2000; Zhang et al., 2011) and is generally consistent with
the Pb isotope signatures of the gold deposits in Southern Tianshan
(Fig. 9), including Kumtor (Chiaradia et al., 2006). The shifting Pb
isotopic compositions of hydrothermal pyrite from Sawayaerdun,
especially those from Zone IV (Fig. 9), most likely indicate mixing
between less and more radiogenic lead sources. Such shifting in Fig. 9
cannot be explained by in situ growth of radiogenic Pb because these
pyrites are from the same hydrothermal stage and should have
similar radiogenic Pb contents after trapping if they are from a single

Fig. 9. Pb isotopic compositions of diagenetic and hydrothermal pyrite at Sawayaerdun.

The evolution lines for major geological units are from Zartman and Haines (1988). Ranges of Pb isotopes of the major deposits in the
southern Tianshan are from Chiaradia et al. (2006). Pb isotopes of host rock are from Ye et al. (1999).
 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11
system. Fluid mixing is also supported by both the other kinds of
isotope tracers mentioned above and the fluid inclusion studies (Chen
et al., 2012). Most hydrothermal pyrites share similar Pb isotopic
compositions with their host rocks (Fig. 9), indicating host rock is
probably an important source of ore-forming fluids during fluid–rock
reaction (Doe and Delevaux, 1972; Bjorlykke and Thorpe, 1982; Nie
and Bjorlykke, 1994; Horner et al., 1997). However, fluids with more
radiogenic Pb are probably from other sources.
6.2. Evolution of ore-forming fluids at Sawayaerdun
Hydrothermal fluids at Sawayaerdun evolved over at least three
stages. These include an early high-temperature (>300 °C) CO2-rich
stage with barren quartz formation; a reduced medium-temperature
(250 °C) middle stage with pyrite precipitation and mineralization;
and a late low-temperature (b200 °C) non-mineralized calcite stage
(Chen et al., 2012).
6.2.1. Early barren quartz stage
In the Late Paleozoic, the Southern Tianshan Ocean began to close
due to Andean-type subduction. This was followed by the collision of
the Tarim and Kazakhstan plates, causing extensive compression,
crustal shortening, thickening and uplift in the Southern Tianshan
area. During this time, carbonaceous sediments and carbonate rocks
(e.g., the subducting Devonian limestone to the east of the F1 fault;
Fig. 2) in the locality of the Sawayaerdun gold deposit experienced
strong deformation and metamorphism which generated enormous
amounts of metamorphic fluids (Chen and Fu, 1992; Kerrich, 1999;
Pirajno, 2009). Subsequently, these fluids, rich in δ 18O and δ 13C
(Figs. 5 and 7), migrated along fractures and precipitated early-stage
quartz from a high-temperature (>300 °C), low-salinity and CO2-rich
fluid (Chen et al., 2012).
6.2.2. Middle mineralization stage
With continuous crustal uplift and erosion the deeply-buried early
quartz veins and structural zones were raised, resulting in decom-
pression and a drop in temperature. This change in tectonic
conditions led to the development of strike-slip fault systems and
also enhanced the available space for ore deposition. Fluid inclusion
populations indicate that extensive fluid immiscibility (boiling) and
fluid mixing occurred at this stage (Chen et al., 2012). Boiling resulted
in CO2 escape and was associated with the consumption of H + (H + +
HCO3− = H2O + CO2) causing decomposition of [Au(HS)2] − and
leading to the precipitation of native gold. Fluid mixing caused by
the inflow of meteoric fluids can also effectively cause decomposition
of [Au(HS)2] − and precipitation of native gold and pyrite, due to the
reaction of 2HCO3− + [Au(HS)2] − + Fe 3 + = Au + FeS2 + 2H2O + 2CO2
(Chen et al., 2007). Fluids from around the structural zones,
dominantly a mixture of meteoric and connate water circulating in
metasediments with a lower δD but rich in 34S and radiogenic Pb
(Figs. 5, 8 and 9), were introduced into and mixed with the ore-
forming fluid system. Fluid mixing has been documented in many
orogenic-type gold deposits, including the Muruntau gold deposit
(Brown, 1998; Sui et al., 2000; Bierlein and Maher, 2001; Graupner et
al., 2001). Gold mineralization in many orogenic gold deposits has
been documented during the compression–extension transition stage
that is also favorable for fluid boiling and mixing (Chen et al., 2000,
2004, 2006, 2012).
6.2.3. Late carbonate stage
Following the main mineralization stage at Sawayerdun, the
regional heat source and associated hydrothermal fluid circulation
quickly dissipated, as represented by local carbonate (-quartz)
veinlets without mineralization. These veinlets were generally formed
from fluids at a low-temperature (b200 °C) and were essentially
barren (Chen et al., 2012). Isotopic compositions of the late-stage
9
fluids indicate meteoric water was probably the dominant component
of the ore-forming fluid system following the cessation of minerali-
zation at Sawayaerdun (Fig. 5).
6.3. Comparison of the major ore zones at Sawayaerdun
Four major mineralization zones have been identified at
Sawayaerdun, of which the zone IV is the largest with Au reserves
exceeding 2.5 Moz (Table 1, Liu et al., 2007). Isotopic compositions of
mineralized quartz and sulfides from zone IV are generally distinct
from those of other zones (Figs. 5, 7 and 9). Mineralized quartz in
zone I generally show similar isotopic features to early-stage barren
quartz. However, those from the II and XI zones have more
similarities with zone IV (Figs. 5 and 7). These characteristics are
consistent with our fluid inclusion studies and could be applied to
mineral exploration at Sawayaerdun. Isotopic compositions from
zone IV also indicate that significant fluid mixing occurred during the
mineralization stage (Figs. 5, 7 and 9). However, this process is not as
clear in the other ore zones and could account for their relatively
weak mineralization compared to zone IV.
7. Conclusions
Based on the isotopic study of minerals associated with ore-
formation at the Sawayaerdun deposit, the following conclusions
have been made:
1) The isotopic compositions of quartz and sulfides from the
Sawayaerdun gold deposit show some difference to, but are
generally comparable with, those of other orogenic-type gold
deposits. Stable isotopes (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and sulfur)
and Pb isotopes of ore-forming fluids at Swayaerdun have the
characteristics of metamorphic fluids formed during regional
orogenesis and are distinctly different from fluids from mantle
and magmatic sources. The incorporation of fluids derived from
the metasedimentary host rocks in the deposit can be identified
from stable and radiogenic isotopic compositions.
2) Hydrothermal fluids present during the early, middle and late
stages at Sawayaerdun can be traced using isotopic compositions.
The early-stage fluids with high δ 18O and δ 13C values are probably
derived from metamorphic devolatilization including decarbon-
ation of the sedimentary host rocks at depth and precipitated early
barren quartz veins. During the middle stage, decompression
introduced external fluids into the ore-forming system. These
external fluids, with isotopic signatures distinct from those of the
host rocks and generally rich in 34S and radiogenic Pb, mixed with
the existing ore-forming fluids and caused extensive metal
precipitation. Late-stage fluids trapped by calcite veins show
isotopic compositions similar to meteoric water, indicating the
end of hydrothermal activity at Sawayaerdun.
3) Ore-forming fluids from the larger IV mineralization zone have
isotopic compositions distinct from those of other ore zones. Fluid
mixing in zone IV is illustrated by stable and Pb isotope values. The
isotopic compositions of zones II and XI show strong similarities to
zone IV and probably indicate a high potential for future
exploration.
Acknowledgment
This study is financially supported by the Geological Survey of
China (project 1212011140056), Ministry of Science and Technology
(Project 305) and NSFC (project U1139301). The first author thanks
Professors Minghua Zheng, Jiajun Liu and Xunrong Long for their
logistical support during fieldwork. Professor Defang Wan is thanked
for helping laboratory analysis. Comments and suggestions from two
anonymous reviewers greatly improved the quality of the paper.
10 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11
References
Bierlein, F.P., Maher, S., 2001. Orogenic disseminated gold in phanerozoic fold belts —
examples from Victoria, Australia and elsewhere. Ore Geology Reviews 18,
113–148.
Bierlein, F.P., McNaughton, N.J., 1998. Pb isotope fingerprinting of mesothermal gold
deposits from central Victoria, Australia; implications for ore genesis. Mineralium
Deposita 33, 633–638.
Bierlein, F.P., Wilde, A.R., 2010. New constraints on the polychronous nature of the
giant Muruntau gold deposit from wall-rock alteration and ore paragenetic studies.
Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 57, 839–854.
Bjorlykke, A., Thorpe, R.L., 1982. The source of lead in the Osen sandstone lead deposit
on the Baltic Shield, Norway. Economic Geology 77, 430–440.
Brown, P.E., 1998. Fluid inclusion modeling for hydrothermal systems. Reviews in
Economic Geology 10, 151–171.
Burrows, D.R., Wood, P.C., Spooner, E.T.C., 1986. Carbon isotope evidence for a
magmatic origin for Archean gold-quartz vein ore deposits. Nature 321, 851–854.
Cartigny, P., Harris, J.W., Javoy, M., 1998. Eclogitic diamond formation at Jwaneng: no
room for a recycled component. Science 280, 1421–1424.
Chacko, T., Mayeda, T.K., Clayton, R.N., Goldsmith, J.R., 1991. Oxygen and carbon
isotope fractionations between CO2 and calcite. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
55, 2867–2882.
Chen, Y.J., Fu, S.G., 1992. Gold Mineralization in West Henan. Seismological Press,
Beijing. 234 pp. (in Chinese with English abstract).
Chen, H.Y., Bao, J.X., Zhang, Z.J., Liu, Y.L., Ni, P., Ling, H.F., 2000. Isotopic indication to
source of ore materials and fluids of the Wangfeng gold deposit in Tianshan: a case
study of metallogenesis during collisional orogenesis. Science in China. Series D 43,
155–166 (Suppl.).
Chen, Y.J., Pirajno, F., Sui, Y.H., 2004. Isotope geochemistry of the Tieluping silver
deposit, Henan, China: a case study of orogenic silver deposits and related tectonic
setting. Mineralium Deposita 39, 560–575.
Chen, Y.J., Pirajno, F., Qi, J.P., Li, J., Wang, H.H., 2006. Ore geology, fluid geochemistry
and genesis of the Shanggong gold deposit, eastern Qinling Orogen, China.
Resource Geology 56, 99–116.
Chen, Y.J., Ni, P., Fan, H.R., Lai, Y., 2007. Diagnostic fluid inclusions of different types
gold deposits. Acta Petrologica Sinica 23 (9), 2085–2108 (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Chen, H.Y., Chen, Y.J., Baker, M.J., 2012. Evolution of ore-forming fluids in the
Sawayaerdun gold deposit in the Southwestern Chinese Tianshan metallogenic
belt. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 49, 131–144.
Chiaradia, M., Konopelko, D., Seltmann, R., Cliff, R.A., 2006. Lead isotope variations
across terrane boundaries of the Tien Shan and Chinese Altay. Mineralium Deposita
41, 411–428.
Clayton, R.N., 1986. High temperature isotope effects in the early solar system. Reviews
in Mineralogy 16, 129–139.
Clayton, R.N., Mayeda, T.K., 1963. The use of bromine pentafluoride in the extraction of
oxygen from oxides and silicates for isotopic analysis. Geochimica et Cosmochi-
mica Acta 27, 43–52.
Cole, A., Wilkinson, J.J., Halls, C., Serenko, T.J., 2000. Geological characteristics, tectonic
setting and preliminary interpretations of the Jilau gold–quartz vein deposit,
Tajikistan. Mineralium Deposita 35, 600–618.
Deines, P., Langmuir, D., Harmon, R.S., 1974. Stable carbon isotope ratios and the
existence of a gas phase in the evolution of carbonate ground waters. Geochimica
et Cosmochimica Acta 38, 1147–1164.
Deines, P., Harris, J.W., Gurney, J.J., 1991. The carbon isotopic composition and nitrogen
content of lithospheric and asthenospheric diamonds from the Jagersfontein and
Koffieontein kimberlites, South Africa. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 55,
2615–2626.
Ding, T.P., Wan, D.F., Li, J.C., Jiang, S.Y., Song, H.B., Li, Y.H., Liu, Z.J., 1988. The analytical
method of silicon isotopes and its geological application. Mineral Deposits 7, 90–95
(in Chinese).
Ding, T.P., Jiang, S.Y., Wan, D.F., Li, Y.H., Li, J.C., Song, H.B., Liu, Z.J., Yao, X.M., 1996.
Silicon Isotope Geochemistry. Geological Publishing House, Beijing. 125 pp.
Doe, B.R., Delevaux, M.H., 1972. Source of lead in Southeast Missouri galena ores.
Economic Geology 67, 409–425.
Douthitt, C.B., 1982. The geochemistry of the stable isotopes of silicon. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 46, 1449–1458.
Faure, G., 1986. Principles of Isotope Geology, 2nd edition. John Wiley and Sons, New
York. 589 pp.
Fritz, P., Drimmie, R.J., Nowicki, V.K., 1974. Preparation of sulfur dioxide for mass
spectrometer analyses by combustion of sulfides with copper oxide. Analytical
Chemistry 46, 164–166.
Geraldes, M.C., Figueiredo, B.R., Tassinari, C.C.G., Ebert, H.D., 1997. Middle Proterozoic
vein-hosted gold deposits in the Pontes e Lacerda region, southwestern Amazonian
Craton, Brazil. International Geology Review 39, 438–448.
Goldfarb, R.J., Leach, D.L., Rose, S.C., Landis, G.P., 1989. Fluid inclusion geochemistry of
gold-bearing quartz veins of the Juneau gold belt, southeastern Alaska: implica-
tions for ore genesis. Economic Geology Monograph 6, 363–375.
Goldfarb, R.J., Newberry, R.J., Pickthorn, W.J., Gent, C.A., 1991. Oxygen, hydrogen, and
sulfur isotope studies in the Juneau gold deposit, southeastern Alaska: constraints
on the origin of hydrothermal fluids. Economic Geology 86, 66–80.
Goldfarb, R.J., Miller, L.D., Leach, D.L., 1997. Gold deposits in metamorphic rocks of
Alaska. Economic Geology Monograph 9, 151–190.
Goldfarb, R.J., Groves, D.I., Cardoll, S., 2001. Orogenic Au and geologic time: a global
synthesis. Ore Geology Reviews 18, 1–75.
Graupner, T., Kempe, U., Spooner, E.T.C., Bray, C.J., Kremenetsky, A.A., Irmer, G., 2001.
Microthermometric, Laser Raman Spectroscopic, and volatile-ion chromatographic
analysis of hydrothermal fluids in the Paleozoic Muruntau Au-bearing quartz vein
ore field, Uzbekistan. Economic Geology 96, 1–23.
Ho, S.E., McNaughton, N.J., Groves, David I., 1994. Criteria for determining initial lead
isotopic compositions of pyrite in Archaean lode-gold deposits; a case study at
Victory, Kambalda, Western Australia. Chemical Geology 111, 57–84.
Ho, S.E., McQueen, K.G., McNaughton, N.J., Groves, D.I., 1995. Lead isotope systematics
and pyrite trace element geochemistry of two granitoid-associated mesothermal
gold deposit in the southeastern Lachlan fold belt. Economic Geology 90,
1818–1830.
Hoefs, J., 1997. Stable Isotope Geochemistry, 3nd Edition. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 201 pp.
Horner, J., Neubauer, F., Paar, W.H., Hansmann, W., Koeppel, V., Robl, K., 1997.
Structure, mineralogy, and Pb isotopic composition of the As–Au–Ag deposit
Rotgulden, Eastern Alps (Austria): significance for formation of epigenetic ore
deposits within metamorphic domes. Mineralium Deposita 32, 555–568.
Ivanove, S., 2000. Constrains on the fluid evolution at Kumtor deposit. GSA 2000
presentation. http://homepage.usask.ca/~smi454/project/articles/GSA2000.htm.
Jia, Y., Li, X., Kerrich, R., 2000. A fluid inclusion study of Au-bearing quartz vein systems
in the central and north Deborah deposits of the Bendigo gold field, Central
Victoria, Australia. Economic Geology 95, 467–495.
Jia, Y., Li, X., Kerrich, R., 2001. Stable isotope (O, H, S, C and N) systematics of quartz
vein systems in the tubidite-hosted Central and North Deborah gold deposits of the
Bendigo gold field, Central Victoria, Australia: constraints on the origin of ore-
forming fluids. Economic Geology 96, 705–721.
Jiang, S.Y., Ding, T.P., Wan, D.F., 1992. A study on silicon and oxygen isotope
geochemistry of some lead–zinc ore deposits in China. Chinese Science Bulletin
37, 1022–1027.
Jiang, S.Y., Ding, T.P., Wan, D.F., Li, Y.H., 1993. Silicon isotopic composition of Archean
banded Si–Fe formation (BIF) in the Gongchangling ore deposit, Liaoning province,
China. Science in China. Series B 36, 482–489.
Jiang, S.Y., Palmer, M.R., Ding, T.P., Wan, D.F., 1994. Silicon isotope geochemistry of the
Sullivan Pb–Zn deposit, Canada: a preliminary study. Economic Geology 89,
1623–1629.
Johansson, A., 1983. Lead isotope composition of Caledonian sulfide-bearing vein in
Sweden. Economic Geology 78, 1674–1688.
Kajiwara, Y., Krouse, H.R., 1971. Sulfur isotope partitioning in metallic sulfide systems.
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 8, 1397–1408.
Kerrich, R., 1987. The stable isotope geochemistry of Au–Ag vein deposits in metamorphic
rocks. In: Kyser, T.K. (Ed.), Stable isotope geochemistry of Low temperature fluids:
Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course, 13, pp. 287–336.
Kerrich, R., 1999. Nature's gold factory. Science 284, 2101–2102.
Kerrich, R., Goldfarb, R., Groves, D.I., Garwin, S., Jia, Y.F., 2000. The characteristics,
origins, and geodynamic settings of supergiant gold metallogenic provinces.
Science in China. Series D 43, 1–68 (Suppl.).
Kontak, D.J., Kerrich, R., 1997. An isotopic (C, O, Sr) study of vein gold deposits in the
Meguma terrane, Nova Scotia: implications for source reservoirs. Economic
Geology 92, 161–180.
Kyser, T.K., 1987. Equilibrium fractionation factors for stable isotopes. In: Kyser, T.K.
(Ed.), Stable Isotope Geochemistry of Low Temperature Fluids: Mineralogical
Association of Canada Short Course, 13, pp. 287–336.
Kyser, T.K., O'Neil, J., 1984. Hydrogen isotope systematics of submarine basalts.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48, 48–53.
Kyser, T.K., Janser, B.W., Wilson, M.R., Hattie, I., 1986. Stable isotope geochemistry
related to gold mineralization and exploration in the Western Shield. In: Clark, L.A.
(Ed.), Gold in the Western Shield: CIM Special, vol. 38, pp. 470–498.
Le Guen, M., Lescuyer, J.L., Marcoux, E., 1992. Lead-isotope evidence for a Hercynian
origin of the Salsigne gold deposit (southern Massif Central, France). Mineralium
Deposita 27, 129–136.
Li, Y.H., Ding, T.P., Wan, D.F., 1994. Experimental studies of silicon isotope dynamic
fractionation and application in geology. Mineral Deposits 13, 282–287 (in Chinese).
Liu, B., Wang, Z., Zhang, C., Ma, H., Zhou, H., Zhu, H., Gong, Y., Jia, W., 1996. Tectonic
Framework and Evolution in Southwest Tianshan Mountains, China. Publishing
House of China University of Geoscience, Wuhan. 118 pp. (in Chinese with English
abstract).
Liu, J., Zheng, M., Long, X., Gu, T., 1999. Reidentification of the orehosted strata age of
the Sawaya'erdun gold deposit in Xinjiang, southwestern Tianshan. Chinese
Science Bulletin 44, 1811–1814.
Liu, J., Zheng, M., Cook, N.J., Long, X., Deng, J., Zhai, Y., 2007. Geological and geochemical
characteristics of the Sawaya'erdun gold deposit, southwestern Chinese Tianshan.
Ore Geology Reviews 32, 125–156.
Ludwig, K.R., 1991. ISOPLOT: a plotting and regression program for radiogenic-isotope
data; version 2.53. Open-File Report, U. S. Geological Survey, OF 91–0445, p. 39.
Mao, J., Konopelko, D., Seltmann, R., Lehmann, B., Chen, W., Wang, Y., Eklund, O., 2004.
Post-collisional age of the Kumtor gold deposit and timing of Hercynian events in
the Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan. Economic Geology 99, 1771–1780.
McCrea, J.M., 1950. On the isotopic chemistry of carbonates and a paleotemperature
scale. The Journal of Chemical Physics 18, 849–857.
McCuaig, T.C., Kerrich, R., 1998. P-T-t-deformation-fluid characteristics of lode gold
deposits: evidence from alteration systematics. Ore Geology Reviews 12, 381–453.
McNaughton, N.J., Groves, D.I., 1996. A review of Pb-isotope constrains on the genesis
of lode gold deposits in the Yilgarn craton, Western Australia. Royal Society of
Western Australia Journal 79, 123–129.
Mikucki, E.J., Ridley, J.R., 1993. The hydrothermal fluid of Archean lode-gold deposits at
different metamorphic grades. Compositional constrains from ore and wallrock
alteration assemblage. Mineralium Deposita 28, 469–481.
 H.Y. Chen et al. / Chemical Geology 310-311 (2012) 1–11
Morelli, R., Creaser, R.A., Seltmann, R., Stuart, F.M., Selby, D., Graupner, T., 2007. Age
and source constraints for the giant Muruntau gold deposit, Uzbekistan, from
coupled Re–Os–He isotopes in arsenopyrite. Geology 35, 795–798.
Nie, F.J., Bjorlykke, A., 1994. Lead and sulfur isotope studies of the Wulashan quartz-K
feldspar and quartz vein gold deposit, southwestern Inner Mongolia, People's
Republic of China. Economic Geology 89, 1289–1305.
O'Neil, J.R., 1986. Theoretical and experimental aspects of isotope fractionations.
Reviews in Mineralogy 16, 1–40.
Ohmoto, H., Goldhaber, M.B., 1997. Sulfur and carbon isotopes. In: Barnes, H.L.
(Ed.), Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits. Wiley Interscience, New
York, pp. 435–486.
Ohmoto, H., Rye, R.O., 1979. Isotopes of sulfur and carbon. In: Barnes, H.L. (Ed.),
Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits. Wiley Interscience, New York,
pp. 509–567.
O'Neil, J.R., Clayton, R.N., Mayeda, T.K., 1969. Oxygen isotope fractionation in divalent
metal carbonates. The Journal of Chemical Physics 51, 5547–5558.
Phillips, G.N., Groves, D.I., 1983. The nature of Archean gold-bearing fluids as deduced
from gold deposits of Western Australia. Journal of the Geological Society of
Australia 30, 25–39.
Pirajno, F., 2009. Hydrothermal Processes and Mineral Systems. Springer, Berlin. 1250
pp.
Richet, P., Bottinga, Y., Javoy, M., 1977. A review of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
sulphur, and chlorite stable isotope fractionation among gaseous molecules.
Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences 5, 65–110.
Ridley, J.R., Diamond, L.W., 2000. Fluid chemistry of orogenic lode gold deposits and
implications for genetic models. In: Hagemann, S.G., Brown, P.E. (Eds.), Gold in
2000: Reviews in Economic Geology, 13, pp. 141–162.
Rui, Z.Y., Goldfarb, R.J., Qiu, Y.M., Zhou, T.H., Chen, R.Y., Pirajno, F., Yun, G., 2002.
Paleozoic-early Mesozoic gold deposits of the Xinjiang Autonomous Region,
northwestern China. Mineralium Deposita 37, 393–418.
Rye, D.M., Rye, R.O., 1974. Homestake gold mine, South Dakota: I. Stable isotope
studies. Economic Geology 69, 293–317.
Sasaki, A., Krouse, H.R., 1969. Sulphur isotopes and the Pine Point lead–zinc
mineralization. Economic Geology 64, 718–730.
Schidowski, M., Hayes, J.M., Kaplan, I.R., 1983. Isotopic inferences of ancient
biochemistry: carbon, sulfur, hydrogen and nitrogen. In: Schopf, J.W. (Ed.), Earth's
Earliest Biosphere. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, pp. 149–186.
Sui, Y.H., Wang, H.H., Gao, X.L., Chen, H.Y., 2000. Ore fluid of the Tieluping silver deposit
of Henan Province and its illustration of the tectonic model for collisional
petrogenesis, metallogenesis and fluidization. Science in China. Series D, 43, pp.
108–121 (Suppl.).
Tang, H.S., Wu, G., Lai, Y., 2009. The C–O isotope geochemistry and genesis of the
Dashiqiao magnesite deposit, Liaoning province, NE China. Acta Petrologica Sinica
25, 455–467.
Tang, H.S., Chen, Y.J., Wu, G., Lai, Y., 2011. Paleoproterozoic positive δ13Ccarb excursion
in the northeastern Sinokorean craton: evidence of the Lomagundi Event.
Gondwana Research 19, 471–481.
Taylor, H.P., 1997. Oxygen and hydrogen isotope relationships in hydrothermal
mineral deposits. In: Barnes, H.L. (Ed.), Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore
Deposits. Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 229–302.
11
Taylor, H.P., Epstein, S., 1962. Relationships between 18O/16O ratios in coexisting
minerals of igneous and metamorphic rocks, Part I: principles and experimental
results. America Geological Society Bulletin 73, 461–480.
Wilde, A.R., Layer, P., Mernagh, T., Foster, J., 2001. The giant Muruntau gold deposit:
geologic, geochronologic, and fluid inclusion constraints on ore genesis. Economic
Geology 96, 633–644.
Yakubchuk, A., Cole, A., Seltmann, R., Shatov, V., 2002. Tectonic setting, characteristics,
and regional exploration criteria for gold mineralization in the Altaid orogenic
collage: the Tien Shan province as a key example. Society of Economic Geologists
Special Publication 9, 177–201.
Yakubchuk, A.S., Shatov, V.V., Kirwin, D., Edwards, A., Tomurtogoo, O., Badarch, G.,
Buryak, V.A., 2005. Gold and base metal metallogeny of the central Asian orogenic
supercollage. Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, pp. 1035–1068.
Yang, F., Mao, J., Wang, Y., Bierlein, F.P., Ye, H., Li, M., Zhao, C., Ye, J., 2007. Geology and
Metallogenesis of the Sawayaerdun Gold Deposit in the Southwestern Tianshan
Mountains, Xinjiang, China. Resource Geology 57 (1), 57–75.
Ye, J., Ye, Q., Meng, X., Wang, J., Zhang, X., 1998. The forming condition and prospecting
of Muruntau type gold deposit in southwestern Tianshan, China. Mineral Deposits
17, 41–42 (Suppl.) (in Chinese).
Ye, Q.T., Wu, Y.P., Fu, X.J., Chen, M.Y., Ye, J.H., Zhuang, D.Z., Yang, F.Q., Bai, H.H., 1999.
Ore-Forming Conditions and Metallogenic Prognosis of Gold and Nonferrous
Metallic Resources in Southwestern Tianshan Mountains. Geological Publishing
House, Beijing. 201 pp.
Zartman, R.E., Haines, S.M., 1988. The plumbotectonic model for Pb isotopic
systematics among major terrestrial reservoirs — a case of for bi-directional
transport. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 52, 1327–1339.
Zhang, L., 1985. The Application of Stable Isotopes in Geosciences. Science and
Technology Press, Xi'an. 267 pp. (in Chinese).
Zhang, J., Chen, Y.J., Yang, Y., Deng, J., 2011. Lead isotope systematics of the
Weishancheng Au–Ag belt, Tongbai Mountains, central China: implication for ore
genesis. International Geology Review 53, 656–676.
Zheng, Y., 1993. Calculation of oxygen isotope fractionation in hydroxyl-bearing
silicates. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 120, 247–263.
Zheng, M., Liu, J., Long, X., Zhang, S., Song, X., 2000. Ore-forming geochemical
characteristics the of Sawayaerdun gold deposit, southwest Tien Shan. Bulletin of
Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry 19, 226–227 (in Chinese).
Zheng, M., Zhang, S., Liu, J., Long, X., Song, X., 2001. The Forming Setting of Muruntau-
Type Gold Deposit in Southwestern Tianshan Mountains and Metallogenic
Exploration. Geology Press, Beijing. 131 pp. (in Chinese).
Zhou, C.X., Wei, C.S., Guo, J.Y., Li, C.Y., 2001. The source of metals in the Qilinchang Zn–
Pb deposit, Northeastern Yunnan, China: Pb–Sr isotope constraints. Economic
Geology 96, 583–598.
Zhou, T.F., Yuan, F., Yue, S.C., Liu, X.D., Zhang, X., Fan, Y., 2007. Geochemistry and
evolution of ore-forming fluids of the Yueshan Cu–Au skarn and vein-type
deposits, Anhui Province, South China. Ore Geology Reviews 31, 279–303.