23 JCSS908

ISSN 1064-2307, Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences International, 2007, Vol. 46, No. 6, pp. 908–961.
© Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2007.

Original Russian Text © L.V. Litvintseva, I.S. Ulíyanov, S.V. Ulíyanov, S.S. Ulíyanov, 2007, published in Izvestiya Akademii Nauk. Teoriya i Sistemy Upravleniya, 2007, No. 6,
pp. 71–126.
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
Quantum Fuzzy Inference for Knowledge Base Design

in Robust Intelligent Controllers
L. V. Litvintseva, I. S. Ul’yanov, S. V. Ul’yanov, and S. S. Ul’yanov
OOO MCG QUANTUM, Moscow, Russia
Received January 19, 2006; in final form April 23, 2007
Abstract—The analysis of simulation results obtained using soft computing technologies has allowed one to
establish the following fact important for developing technologies for designing robust intelligent control sys-
tems. Designed (in the general form for random conditions) robust fuzzy controllers for dynamic control objects
based on the knowledge base optimizer (stage 1 of the technology) with the use of soft computing can operate
efficiently only for fixed (or weakly varying) descriptions of the external environment. This is caused by possi-
ble loss of the robustness property under a sharp change of the functioning conditions of control objects: the
internal structure of control objects, control actions (reference signal), the presence of a time delay in the mea-
surement and control channels, under variation of conditions of functioning in the external environment, and
the introduction of other weakly formalized factors in the control strategy. In this paper, a description of the
strategy of designing robust structures of an intelligent control system based on the technologies of quantum
and soft computing is given. The developed strategy allows one to improve the robustness level of fuzzy con-
trollers under the specified unpredicted or weakly formalized factors for the sake of forming and using new
types of processes of self-organization of the robust knowledge base with the help of the methodology of quan-
tum computing. Necessary facts from quantum computing theory, quantum algorithms, and quantum informa-
tion are presented. A particular solution of a given problem is obtained by introducing a generalization of strat-
egies in models of fuzzy inference on a finite set of fuzzy controllers designed in advance in the form of new
quantum fuzzy inference. The fundamental structure of quantum fuzzy inference and its software toolkit in the
processes of designing the knowledge base of robust fuzzy controllers in on-line, as well as a system for simu-
lating robust structures of fuzzy controllers, are described. The efficiency of applying quantum fuzzy inference
is illustrated by a particular example of simulation of robust control processes by an essentially nonlinear
dynamic control object with randomly varying structure.
DOI: 10.1134/S1064230707060081
INTRODUCTION quently, a conventional (based on the principles of a

In complex and essentially nonlinear dynamic mod- global negative feedback) PID controller cannot man-
els of control objects (CO) with weakly formalized age the control problem posed. The use of the soft com-
structure and random parameters, it is quite difficult to puting technology (based on genetic algorithms (GA)
determine an optimal structure of an automatic control and fuzzy neural networks (FNN)) has extended the
system (ACS), in which, e.g., a conventional propor- field of efficient application of fuzzy controllers by
tional–integral–differentiating (PID) controller is using new functions in the form of learning and adapta-
employed at the lower (executive) level. Especially, this tion. However, it is very difficult to design a globally
difficulty reveals itself in problems of designing the appropriate and robust structure of the intelligent con-
structures of automatic control systems of this type in trol system. This limitation is especially typical of
the presence of random noise different in its nature and unpredicted control situations, when the control objects
under uncertainty information about the control goals. operates in sharply changing conditions (a failure of
sensors or noise in the sensor system, the presence of a
In the design methodology of intelligent control sys- time delay in control signals or measurement, a sharp
tems (ICS) based on soft computing technology, the change in the structure of the control objects or its
structure of a fuzzy controller (FC) is considered as one parameters, etc.).
of the variants of designing conventional automatic
control systems. Beginning from the moment of origi- In a number of practical cases, conditions of this
nation (1974), the models of fuzzy controllers have type can be predicted, but it is difficult to realize a
demonstrated improved ability of controlling dynamic robust control in unpredicted situations based on the
control objects that have a weakly formalized structure designed (for a fixed situation) knowledge base (KB) of
or function in the conditions of uncertainty of the infor- a fuzzy controller (even of the whole set of predicted
mation source. As the experience and simulation results random situations). It seems to us that one of the exist-
have shown that, in the listed control situations fre- ing solutions is to form a finite number of knowledge
908
QUANTUM FUZZY INFERENCE FOR KNOWLEDGE BASE DESIGN 909
bases of the fuzzy controller for the set of fixed control software tools) in order to achieve the required robust-
situations. ness level of knowledge bases. Other industrial tools for
The question arises about how to determine which of forming knowledge bases, such as the FNN ANFIS
knowledge bases can be used at a particular time (built-in module in the Matlab simulation system) or
instant. In this case, the choice of a generalized strategy AFM (an ST Microelectronics development [6]), etc.
to provide the opportunity to switch the flow of control have an increased sensitivity to the variation of param-
signals input from different knowledge bases of the eters (characterizing a given control situation) com-
fuzzy controller and to adapt their output signal (if nec- pared with the KBO tools and result in the loss of con-
essary) to the current conditions of functioning of the trol robustness as was strictly shown in [7]. As a result,
knowledge bases of a control object is especially in fixed control situations, fuzzy controllers with
important. A simple variant of solving this problem is knowledge bases (designed with the help of the Knowl-
to use the method of weighted coefficients and aggre- edge base optimizer) have improved robustness, and
gate the output signals from each independent fuzzy the corresponding control laws contain less redundant
controller. Regrettably, this method has limited capabil- information and thus are used as an input signal for
ities (as simulation results have shown) since, fre- quantum fuzzy inference (in accordance with the devel-
quently, the distribution of weighting factors has to be oped technology of designing robust knowledge bases
determined in on-line dynamics (see in what follows (Fig. 3 in [7]). It is worth noting that the presence of
and [1, 2]), and the search procedure has combinatorial redundant information in control laws is physical real-
nature. ity, which takes place because of the use in the pro-
cesses of optimization of knowledge bases of a random
In this paper it is shown that a solution of the prob- choice in the form of genetic algorithms, as well as it
lems of this type can be found based on introducing the follows from the laws of information theory on the
self-organization principle in the course of designing necessity of presence of redundancy in unreliable data
knowledge bases of a fuzzy controller, which is imple- transmission channels with noise. This is the inevitable
mented and has a software toolkit using the developed cost of the possibility to obtain a solution of the prob-
model of quantum fuzzy inference with application of lem of optimal control of an essentially nonlinear con-
the methodology of quantum soft computing and sys- trol plant in the conditions of uncertainty in the source
tems engineering (System of Systems Engineering) information and the multi-criteria nature of the optimi-
using the synergetic self-organization principle [3–5]. zation conditions.
In particular, the implementation of the process of
self-organization of robust knowledge bases in this In the case of an unpredicted control situation, the
approach is performed using generalization of strate- additional information redundancy in the control laws
gies of fuzzy logical inference in the form of quantum of the fuzzy controllers arises as the total result of the
fuzzy inference. The structure of quantum fuzzy infer- inadequate reaction of the CO (control plant) (in the
ence and a system for simulating robust knowledge form of a new control error) and of the logically incor-
bases for fuzzy controller, which illustrate the effi- rect interpretation of the initialization of the corre-
ciency of application of quantum fuzzy inference, are sponding production rules in the Knowledge bases used
described. The model of the developed quantum fuzzy by the fuzzy controllers (trained only on given control
inference is regarded as a new type of the search quan- situations).
tum algorithm on the generalized space of knowledge The model of quantum fuzzy inference is a new type
bases of a fuzzy controller, and a generalized robust of the quantum search algorithm on the generalized
control signal is designed as the output result. space of structured data and, based on the methods of
The model of quantum fuzzy inference proposed in quantum computing theory [8–10], it allows one to
this paper harness particular individual knowledge solve efficiently control problems that could not be
bases of a fuzzy controller, each of which is obtained solved earlier at the classical level. The developed
with the help of an knowledge base optimizer (KBO) approach is first applied in the theory and practice of
for the corresponding conditions of functioning of a intelligent control systems. Therefore the present paper
control object and fixed control situations in a random is a generalization and development of the results
external environment. The process of designing partic- obtained in [1, 2, 6, 7].
ular individual knowledge bases of a fuzzy controller Remark 1. From the point of view of the complex-
with the help of the knowledge base optimizer for given ity theory of computations and the quantum algorithm
control situations is performed in accordance with the [8–10], the developed quantum algorithm (QA) is
design technology and is considered in detail in [1, 6] referred to the class of polynomial with bounded error,
(see stage 2 in Fig. 3 in [7]). the BPP class (bounded-error probabilistic polynomial
In particular in [7], based on a comparison of simu- time), and its quantum generalization is referred to the
lation results obtained in [1, 6], it was shown that for BQP class. Therefore, it is efficient by the definition.
sufficiently wide range of variation of parameters char- This means that, structurally, the quantum algorithm in
acterizing a given control situation, the knowledge base quantum fuzzy inference has a polynomial complexity;
optimizer yields an essential gain (compared with other i.e., the randomized algorithm has polynomial, rather
JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

910 LITVINTSEVA et al.
than exponential (as in classical search algorithms) The problem of designing the structure and knowl-
dependence on the input signals, and a bounded proba- edge bases of the most intelligent fuzzy controllers for
bility (at the level 3/4) of the measurement accuracy of a given control situation were considered in previous
the result of computations is sufficient for (making) an publications of the authors (see a detailed description in
efficient decision making. [1, 6, 7], and are used in this paper as source data. In
In the proposed model of the quantum algorithm for particular, in [7, Figs. 1 and 2], the interrelation
quantum fuzzy inference the following actions are real- between the measures of quality control and the types
ized [3–5]: (1) the results of fuzzy inference are proof intelligent computing tools was presented in detail.
cessed for each independent FC fuzzy controller; The relations between stability, controllability, and
(2) based on the methods of quantum information the- robustness were also investigated based on the thermo-
ory, valuable quantum information hidden in indepen- dynamic approach [7, Fig. 1, level 1, and Fig. 3]. The
dent (individual) knowledge bases is extracted; and corresponding quantitative measures and regularities
(3) in on-line, the generalized output robust control sig- were included in the software toolkit (support) of the
nal is designed in all sets of knowledge bases of the knowledge base optimizer.
fuzzy controller. In the modern control theory, various aspects of
In this case, the output signal of quantum fuzzy learning and adaptation processes of fuzzy controllers
inference in on-line is an optimal signal of control of were investigated. Many of the learning schemes were
the variation of the gains of the PID controller, which based on the error back propagation algorithm and their
involves the necessary (best) qualitative characteristics modifications [1]. The adaptation processes are based
of the output control signals of each of the fuzzy con- on iterative models of random algorithms. These ideas
trollers, thus implementing the self-organization princi- work well in designing control processes in the condi-
ple. Therefore, the domain of efficient functioning of tions of absence of weakly formalized noise of the
the structure of the intelligent control system can be external environment or unknown noise in the sensor
essentially extended by including robustness, which is system, etc. In more complex unpredicted control situ-
a very important characteristic of control quality. The ations, the learning and adaptation methods using error
robustness of the control signal is the ground for main- back propagation methods or iterative random algo-
taining the reliability and accuracy of control under rithms did not guaranteed the achievement of the
uncertainty conditions of information or a weakly for- required robustness and accuracy level of control pro-
malized description of functioning conditions and/or cesses. The efficient solution to this problem with the
control goals [7]. help of the knowledge base optimizer for particular
control situations was developed in [1, 2, 7].
In this paper, we describe the fundamental structure
of quantum fuzzy inference and its software toolkit in It was shown in [3] that to achieve self-organization
the processes of designing knowledge bases of robust [7, Fig. 1, level 3] in the structure of intelligent control
self-organized fuzzy controllers in on-line. In particu- systems, it is necessary to use quantum fuzzy inference.
lar, the functional organization of the system for simu- Figure 1 presents the general block diagram of quantum
lating robust knowledge bases for fuzzy controllers that fuzzy inference. The principles of operation of quan-
allows one to improve the efficiency of applying quantum fuzzy inference and its particular blocks are con-
tum fuzzy inference is presented. Necessary facts from sidered in detail in Section 5 below.
quantum computing theory and quantum information The table presents the structure of the intelligent
theory used for development and substantiation of the control system including the model of quantum fuzzy
structure of the quantum algorithm in quantum fuzzy inference and describes its advantages and disadvan-
inference are also presented. tages. The model of quantum fuzzy inference is based
on the physical laws of quantum computing theory [8–
10], namely, unitary, and invertible quantum operators
1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM are used. In the general form, the quantum algorithm
One of the main problems of the modern technology consists of three basic unitary operations: superposi-
of designing fuzzy controllers is the design and appli- tion, quantum correlation (quantum oracle and entan-
cation of robust knowledge bases in the structures of gled operators) and interference. The fourth operator,
intelligent control system [1] in order to increase their the operator of measurement of the results of quantum
ability to be self-learned (trained), self-organized, and computing is irreversible (classical).
self-developed. In connection with this fact, we pose in Quantum computing based on the listed types of
this paper the following problem: develop a model of operators is referred to a new type of computational
quantum fuzzy inference for designing robust knowl- intelligence [10]. In what follows (to provide a more
edge bases in intelligent controllers that ensure the complete understanding of the principles of operation
achievement of a guaranteed control in unpredicted of the quantum algorithm in quantum fuzzy inference),
(abnormal) control situations. In the end, the solution of we give a brief description of the listed quantum oper-
this problem results in increasing the robust level of the ators, their interrelations and properties. The necessary
structure of the intelligent control system. facts from quantum information theory and the theory

of quantum correlation processes are presented. This phase. In the case when the system consists of two
information allows one to understand more completely quantum bits, it is described as tensor product. For
and deeply the solution of the following problem that is example, in the Dirac notation, a two-quantum system
difficult and fundamentally important for the theory is given as
and control systems: determine the role and influence of
quantum effects on the improvement of the robust level |ψ 1 ψ 2〉 = αγ |00〉 + αδ |01〉 + βγ |10〉 + βδ |11〉.
of the designed intelligent control processes for the The number of possible states of the combined sys-
sake of extracting additional quantum information hid- tem increases exponentially when a quantum bit is
den (and accessible only partially) in the correlation added. This fact results in the problem of estimating the
classical states of control laws and designed only based quantum correlation, which occurs for quantum bits in
on classical methods of soft computing. Additional a compound system (see example 4).
information and a detailed presentation of these prob- In quantum mechanics, a quantum state |ψ〉 is
lems with a mathematical proof of the required propo- expressed by the operator of density of a state ρ. The
sitions can be found in [10]. density matrix ρ of a quantum system has the following
properties: ρ† = ρ (Hermitian matrix); ρ > 0 (positive
2. QUANTUM COMPUTING: EXAMPLES matrix); and Trρ = 1 (normalized matrix). If the state of
AND PROPERTIES OF THE BASIC OPERATORS the quantum system is known exactly, then the system
As an example, we consider the conventional math- is described by the density operator in the matrix form
ematical formalism of describing models of the basic ρ = |ψ〉〈ψ| and is in a pure state. Otherwise, the system
quantum operators from the point of view of the second is in a mixed state. In this case, we have a mix of different
quantum problem of describing the quantum algorithm pure states described by the density operator ρ =
(see Subsection 5. 2). This formalism can be expressed
in the language of quantum states or transformations, ∑ p |ψ 〉 〈ψ | n the ensemble {pi|ψi〉}. The matrices that
i i i
i
but we are also interested in the possibility of an ade- satisfy the listed conditions generate a convex set.
quate description of quantum states and effects in the Therefore, they can be written in the form
language of logical inference: the application of the
conventional formalism, its power, and expressive
power as a quantum system of fuzzy logical inference
ρ = ∑ p |ψ 〉 〈ψ |,
k k k
k
[10, 11].
Example 1. Quantum bit as a quantum state. A con- where |ψk〉 are unit vectors of the Hilbert space and pk > 0,
ventional bit may be in one of the two states, 0 or 1.
Thus, its physical state can be represented as b = a10 +
∑ p = 1. The coefficient pk for a given k can be inter-
k k
preted as the probability of the event that the quantum
a21, which has one of the following forms: either a1 = 1 system is in a pure state |ψk〉.
and a2 = 0, then b = 0, or a1 = 0 and a2 = 1, then b = 1. However, this physical interpretation depends on the
On the contrary, the state of a quantum bit |ψ〉 is given representation
by a vector in a two-dimensional complex space. Here,
the vector has two components, and its projections on
the bases of the vector space are complex numbers. The
ρ= ∑ p |ψ 〉 〈ψ |,
k k k
k
quantum bit is represented (in the Dirac notation in the
form of a ket vector) as |ψ〉 = α|0〉 + β|1〉 or in the vector which is not unique—different states may have the
same density matrix. In particular, vectors may be taken
notation |ψ〉 = α , 〈ψ| = α β
T
(bra vector). If |ψ〉 = |0〉, orthonormal and interpreted as eigenvectors of the den-
β sity matrix ρ with eigenvalues pk, and the form
then |0〉 = 1 . . The amplitudes α and β are complex

ρ= ∑ p |ψ 〉 〈ψ |
k k k
k
0
numbers such that the condition αα* + ββ* = 1 holds, is called the spectral representation of ρ. Pure states are
where ì*î is the operation of complex conjugation; and one-dimensional projectors |ψ〉〈ψ| and are extremal
|0〉 and |1〉 form a pair orthonormal basis vectors called points of the convex set of density matrices. Thus,
a state of the computational basis. If α and β take zero based on density matrices of pure states, all the other
values, then ψ defines a classical, pure state. Otherwise, density matrices corresponding to mixed states as a
it is said that ψ is in the state of superposition of two convex combination in the form
classical basis states.
Geometrically, the quantum bit is in a continuous
ρ= ∑ p |ψ 〉 〈ψ |,
k k k
state between |0〉 and |1〉 until its state is measured. The k
notion of amplitude of the probabilities of the quantum are reproduced, but they do not admit themselves a
state is a combination of the concepts of state and description in the form of a nontrivial convex combina-

The structure and qualitative characteristics of QFI-based self-organizing ICS
912
Structure of control system Levels of control quality Advantages and disadvantages Limit capabilities
Data processing
data processing on soft computing
on quantum
computers
Stability A new level of control quality was Guarantees only necessary

QFI KBO GA
Controllability introduced (self-organization with conditions for optimization
Control precision elements of self-development). of the process of designing a
K – Guarantees the control quality robust KB.
FC
Adaptation
+ Learning in various spaces of search for In QFI, there is no
LITVINTSEVA et al.
Self-organization solutions of quantum fuzzy possibility of optimal control

(Y) ε U+ (X) Elements of self-develop- inference in on-line. of quantum operators.
+ PID + Control
controller object ment The process of designing a unified The process of global
Reference – u + KB is performed automatically by
signa
optimization depends on the
the operators of superposition and choice of a fitness function
m(t) quantum interference with the help
of a wise controller based on the and is performed by a
Sensor syste principle of minimum of information combinatorial method.
JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL

entropy and maximum of quantum Requires a large amount of
correlation (maximum of quantum computational time (high
amplitude of the probability of a temporal complexity of com-
quantum state) putations)
Vol. 46
No. 6
2007
tion of other matrices. There is a simple criterion for the form of states {|+〉, |–〉} defined as
determining the type of state of a quantum system: if
the trace of the density matrix Tr(ρ2) = 1, then the quan- ⎧ 1 1 ⎫
⎨ ------- ( |0〉 + |1〉 ), ------- ( |0〉 – |1〉 ) ⎬ , respectively. Using this
tum system is in a pure state; if Tr(ρ2) < 1, then a mixed ⎩ 2 2 ⎭
state takes place. The definition and calculation of the
trace of the density operator is given in what follows. representation of basis vectors, we can pass to the con-
ventional basis
From the point of view of information theory, the
quantum bit contains the same amount of information 1 1
as the classical bit, despite an infinite set of virtual |0〉 = ------- ( |+〉 + |–〉 ) Ë |1〉 = ------- ( |+〉 – |–〉 ).
states of the quantum bit. The quantum bit can be 2 2
described by an infinite number of superpositions of
classical states, but because of the irreversible character Example 2. Formation of the superposition state
of the measurement process, it is possible to extract using Hadamard operator (Walsh–Hadamard). The
only a simple classical bit of information from a single existence of the state of superposition and effect of
state among the possible ones. Note that the other vir- measurement of a quantum state (see example 6) phys-
tual states are destroyed, and information is lost. The ically means that there is information hidden from the
ground for this statement (a quantum bit contains no observer, which is contained in a closed quantum sys-
greater information than the classical one) is the fact tem (before the moment of its excitation from an exter-
that information is extracted as a result of a physical nal perturbation) in the form of observation of a quan-
process. For the sake of measurement of a quantum bit, tum state. The system remains to be closed up to an
its state is changed and, as a result, it passes to one of interaction with the external environment (i.e., up to the
the possible basis states. Each quantum bit exists in a action of system observation. The following question is
two-dimensional space, its measurement is associated the most important: How can we use efficiently infor-
with the corresponding basis and expresses the result mation hidden in superposition (see in what follows
only in one of the two states; i.e., one of the basis vec- examples in Section 3 and the results of simulation in
tors is associated with a given measurement device.
Thus, as in the classical case, in a measurement of a Section 8)? In the conventional formalism of quantum
quantum bit, there are only two possible results. Since computations, quantum operators are described in an
the measurement measures a state of the quantum bit, it equivalent matrix form. The multiplication of the
is impossible to register states in two different bases matrix of an operator by a state vector means the action
simultaneously. In simulating a classical dynamic sys- of the operation on the investigated system.
tem, its state can be measured at the first stage in one For example, the action of the Hadamard matrix (H)
basis, then, at the second stage, it can be measured in
another basis. In a true quantum system, this is impos- on the system |ψ〉 = |0〉 can be represented as
sible since the wave function, describing the state of the
quantum bit, is destroyed in measurement. Moreover, 1 1
quantum states in a true quantum system cannot be H |ψ〉 = H |0〉 = ------- 1 1 1 = ------- 1
cloned; i.e., there are objective physical limitations in 2 1 –1 0 2 1
view of which we cannot conduct the measurement in
1 ⎛ ⎞ 1
two ways, using, e.g., copying a quantum bit and its = ------- ⎜ 1 + 0 ⎟ = ------- ( |0〉 + |1〉 ).
registration in different bases [12]. In contrast to the 2⎝ 0 1⎠ 2
quantum bit, the state of a classical bit can be copied
and we are able to measure in different computational
bases. In addition, the unknown quantum bit cannot be Similarly,
split into complementing parts [13]; i.e., the informa-
tion that is contained in an unknown state of a quantum 1 1
bit is indivisible. H |ψ〉 = H |1〉 = ------- 1 1 0 = ------- 1
2 1 –1 1 2 –1
Thus, in quantum mechanics, operations that are
impossible in the classical mechanics are admissible, 1 ⎛ ⎞ 1
and vice versa, in classical mechanics, there are opera- = ------- ⎜ 1 + 0 ⎟ = ------- ( |0〉 – |1〉 ),
tors for solving problems that are inadmissible in quan- 2⎝ 0 –1 ⎠ 2
tum mechanics.
Remark 2. Computational basis {|+〉, |–〉}. To i.e., the Hadamard transform generates a state of the
describe and measure a quantum bit, we used above the quantum bit in the form of superposition of two classi-
computational basis {|0〉, |1〉}. However, this choice of cal states. The formation of the superposition with
the computational basis is not unique. It is possible to equivalent amplitudes of probabilities is an important
use various sets of vectors as orthonormal bases. For step for many quantum algorithms. Applying H⊗n in the
example, it is admissible to represent basis vectors in corresponding basis states |x〉 ∈ n, x ∈ {0, 1}n, we

obtain as a result the equivalent form of the Hadamard Thus, the estimation of values of the function f(x) of
transform only one iteration step is sufficient to compute in paral-
lel the values of f(x) from all possible input arguments
∑
1 x. This effect is equivalent to the application of proper-
H | x〉 = ------- ( –1 ) |z〉,
xz
2 z = 0, 1 ties of the black box (single use of the internal quantum

scheme). However, in reality, only one value of the
where xz = x1z1 + … + xnzn for x = 0 and x = 1. Thus, the function f(x) is accessible in the measurement of the
superposition with equivalent probability amplitudes result of computing f(x) in the superposition of all pos-
1 sible states, since, because of the effect of destruction
--------- for each basis state is obtained by the application of states in the superposition, only one state randomly
n
2 measured is available. The discussion of the choice of a
of the operator H⊗n to the state |0〉. model of a quantum oracle for quantum fuzzy comput-
ing and its substantiation are given in Section 6 in what
The value of the superposition state for the theory of follows.
computational processes becomes more understand-
able if we interpret the resulting superposition state as Remark 3. On computing function values with the
a set of 2n classical trajectories (paths) of computations help of the phase. The application of the operator Uf to a
with equivalent weights, based on which the quantum controlled quantum bit in the superposition state |ϕ〉 : =
computer physically conducts computations in parallel. 1
------- (|0〉 – |1〉) yields the following result:
In this sense, superposition plays the role of the first 2
stage in order to organize quantum parallelism.
1
Example 3. Quantum parallelism and models of U f | x, ϕ〉 = ------- ( | x, f ( x )〉 – | x, 1 f ( x )〉 )
computations with a quantum oracle. The considered 2
effect is one of the most important in quantum comput-
f ( x) 1 f ( x)
ing and is used (together with superposition) in many = ( –1 ) | x〉 ------- ( |0〉 – |1〉 ) = ( –1 ) | x, ϕ〉.
models of the quantum algorithms. It is especially 2
widely applied in various models of “black box” or Omitting |ϕ〉, we can define a new transformation of the
“quantum oracle” in constructing quantum algorithms
of different classes [8–10, 14–19], e.g., for calculating type Vf : |x〉 (–1)f(x)|x〉. Therefore, Vf allows one to
functions of the following form: g : {0, 1}n {0, 1}m. compute values of the function f(x) in terms of the
phase. In other words, the computation is possible
Since the mapping x (x, g,(x)), x ∈ {0, 1} is invert-
n
through the transformation of values of f from the basis
ible, there is a unitary transformation Ug, which is sim- states to amplitudes relative to given basic states. Now,
ulated efficiently by classical computations (x, g(x)), so applying Vf to the vector |ψ〉, we obtain the following
that |x, y〉 |x, y g(y)〉 for some y ∈ {0, 1}m. Note that state:
additional quantum bits necessary for implementing
.
invertible schematic transformations are not considered
∑
1 f ( x)
here. The transformation Uf that describes the black box |ψ'〉 = V f |ψ〉 = --------- ( –1 ) |z〉 (2.1)
n
(as a particular case Ug) is a unitary transformation in 2 z ∈ { 0, 1 }n
the form of a Boolean function f : {0, 1}n {0, 1}. If This corresponds to the application to the controlled
|y〉 is the initial state |0〉, then after application of the quantum bit of the operation
transformation Uf, the output of the transformation f(x)
is |x, f(x)〉. [U f H
(n + 1) n
( |0〉 |1〉 ) ].
The physical meaning of quantum parallelism is in Example 4. Simulation of quantum correlation
the presence of the effect of parallelism of computa- (entanglement) with the help of CNOT-similar opera-
tions after using the transformation Uf for the superpo- tors. A correct estimation of the power of quantum
sition state representing different values x. For exam- computing is possible only with the help of finding cor-
ple, applying Uf to the state relations between the values of variables in the quan-
tum algorithm at different time instants. As an example,
∑
n 1
| x, y〉 = |ψ, 0〉 , |ψ〉 = H |0〉 = --------- |z〉 , we consider a system of two quantum bits A and B. In
n
2 z ∈ { 0, 1 } n accordance with the law of tensor product of vector
spaces, the dimension of the space ÄÇ of the com-
we have as a result pound system Ä is determined as the product of
dimensions of the spaces Ç and ÄÇ = Ä Ç; i.e.,
∑
1
U f |ψ, 0〉 = --------- |z, f ( z )〉, as {|00〉, |01〉, |10〉, |11〉} . The computational basis of the
n
2 z ∈ { 0, 1 }n states for the compound system ÄÇ is expressed in
terms of the basis states of the systems A and B {|0〉, |1〉}
i.e., the superposition of all possible values of the com- by tensor product |x1, x2〉 = |x1〉 |x2〉 ∀(x 1, x2) ∈ {0, 1}2.
puted function. Note that in the compound system of quantum bits,

there are states that cannot be expressed in terms of ten- Regrettably, the complexity of implementation of oper-
sor product of particular components of quantum bits. ations by quantum gates in this approach grows with
This property is called entanglement or nonseparability the number of entangled states connected with the con-
of quantum states. trolled bit.
Assume that |ψAB〉 consists of two states. If there are Remark 4. Efficient simulation of the quantum algo-
two states |ϕA〉 in Ä and |ϕB〉 in B such that |ψAB〉 = rithm on conventional computers. Entangled states in
|ϕA〉 |ϕB〉, then the state is called unentangled. Other- quantum computing are regarded as an additional phys-
wise, it is an entanglement or is unseparable [8, 10, 20]. ical resource that allows one to increase essentially the
As examples, we can present the system of two quan- design power compared with the conventional models
tum bits known as the Bell state of the EPR-state (in of computations. The number of parameters necessary
honor of the pioneers of these examples Bell, Einstein, for describing non-entangled (pure) states in the given
Podolsky, and Rosen) Hilbert space n (represented as the tensor product of
quantum bits) increases only linearly when the number
± 1 ± 1
|ϕ 〉 = ------- ( |00〉 ± |11〉 ); |ψ 〉 = ------- ( |01〉 ± |10〉 ). n of quantum bits grows. However, to describe the gen-
2 2 eral form of the state (non-entangled or entangled), an
exponential number (2n) vector coefficients are
When these states are measured as subsystems in a required. Therefore, the problem of the physical
compound system of entangled states, for a known resource of quantum computing cannot easily be
result about a state of the subsystem, we can determine solved.
exactly the state of the other subsystem (without con-
ducting measurements on it). Therefore, there exists This problem was addressed in detail from the gen-
another variant in the interpretation of these states. If eral positions of the theory of quantum computing in
we consider one of the states as entangled, then this [21]. In particular, it was shown that for the quantum
means that the state cannot be factorized in the state of algorithm (operating with pure states), to improve the
the product of the subsystems of two states. Thus, if an efficiency compared with the classical analogues when
operator is applied to one of the components of the the dimension the input quantum bits increases, an
entangled state, then the result of the action is not fac- unlimited number of entangled states are required.
torized over the other components, but is calculated for Moreover, the quantum algorithm can be simulated by
these components directly based on one of the mea- the conventional tools (classical algorithms) efficiently
sured components. only under the presence of small amount of quantum
correlation and a fixed level of tolerance of computa-
Acting by the Hadamard operator H in the Bell state tional operations in the quantum algorithm. Indepen-
|φ+〉 on the first component, we obtain as a result dently, in [22] it was shown how to simulate the quan-
tum algorithm with a relatively small quantum correla-
1 1
H 1 ------- ( |00〉 + |11〉 ) = ------- { ( H 1 |0〉 ) |0〉 + ( H 1 |1〉 ) |1〉 } tion by classical algorithms efficiently. The
2 2 computational cost increases linearly with the number
1 of input quantum bits, and it grows exponentially with
= --- ( |00〉 + |10〉 + |01〉 – |11〉 ), the increase of the required amount of quantum corre-
2 lation. The independent generalization of this approach
or in the matrix form was presented in [23] and the corresponding software–
hardware toolkit for efficient simulation of the quantum
1 algorithm on conventional computers was developed.
H 1 ------- ( |00〉 + |11〉 ) This approach is harnessed in this paper for simulation
2
in on-line of robust knowledge bases for intelligent
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ fuzzy controllers.
1 0 1 0 1 1
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ The presented arguments and results confirm the
1 ⎜ 0 1 0 1 ⎟ ⎜ ------
1 0 ⎟ = 1--- 1 ,
= ------
- - preferable role of quantum correlation as a driving
2 ⎜⎜ 1 0 –1 0 ⎟⎜ 2
⎟⎜ 0 ⎟
⎟
2 1 force of quantum computing (on pure states of the evo-
⎝ 0 1 0 –1 ⎠⎝ 1 ⎠ –1 lution of quantum dynamics).
Example 5. Simulation of quantum interference with
i.e., we have a new entangled state, which is used in the the help of the Hadamard transform and the quantum
feedback of the quantum genetic search algorithm for Fourier transform (QFT). To increase the probability of
enriching the quantum correlation of the entangled measurement and extraction of the desired (marked)
state (see Fig. 1). Successively acting on the second solution, the main unified idea in the processes of
component of the obtained state by the Hadamard oper- designing various models of the quantum algorithm is
ator H2, we arrive at to use the phenomenon of constructive/destructive
1 1 interference as a tool of extracting results of efficient
H 2 H 1 ------- ( |00〉 + |11〉 ) = ------- ( |00〉 + |11〉 ). computations of the quantum algorithm. To increase the
2 2 probability of extracting a “successful” solution, the

Quantum “wise” operators, selection,

Quantum fuzzy intersection, and mutation
inference block
GA KBO
Fitness
F1 F2 F3 function
Choice
CP
of FC based on KBO
KB1 I 0
Design of KB
Hadamard
Superposition Search
matrices
of signals of KB signal
matrix
Diffusion
KB2 FC + PID

KBn

0 I
Quantum Interference
Superposition correlation operator operator
operation
Reinforcement
of quantum correlation
Additional operator
of reinforceme
of quantum correlation
Fig. 1. The structure of the generalized quantum block.
constructive interference is applied, and to reduce cal state |0〉 (constructive interference) and weakened
“poor” solutions the destructive interference is used. essentially (up to zero) the probability amplitude of the
The constructive (destructive) effect can be illustrated other classical state |1〉 (destructive interference). Act-
clearly by the example of application the Hadamard ing on the superposition of possible solutions, interfer-
transform to the states{|0〉, |1〉}, and ence implements the process of forming the final phase
of quantum computing and is (as well as quantum cor-
⎧ 1 ⎫
⎨ |±〉 = ------- ( |0〉 ± |1〉 ) ⎬. It is obvious that H|0〉 = |+〉 and relation) a physical resource for reinforcing quantum
⎩ 2 ⎭ computing, as well as for solving various problems of
designing models of quantum algorithm. For example,
H|1〉 = |–〉; i.e., the state of superposition of classical applying the transform H⊗n to the state |ψ'〉 in form
states is reproduced in the form of quantum bits. Note (2.1), we obtain as a result the quantum state
that the application of the Hadamard transform to the
states |0〉 and |1〉 generates states with the same proba-
∑ ∑
1 xz + f ( x )
bility distribution. Since the state |+〉 is the superposi- -----n ( –1 ) |z〉,
tion of both classical states |0〉 and |1〉, under repeated 2 n n
z ∈ { 0, 1 } x ∈ { 0, 1 }
application of the Hadamard transform to |+〉, the clas-
sical model of logical inference (Kolmogorov model) which provides a background for designing a quantum
presumes the same probability of the resulting classical gate, e.g., in solving the Deutsch–Jozsa problem [10].
state (the principle of probability conservation). How- In the Shor model of quantum algorithm, in factor-
ever, because of operation in quantum computing with izing a product into prime numbers, the quantum Fou-
the concept of amplitude of probabilities [24, 25], the rier transform provides interference: the operator
application of the Hadamard transform to the state |+〉 QFTn ⊗ In acts on each basis vector belonging to a lin-
1 ear combination of the initial vector |ψ〉. This means
yields the following result: H|+〉 = ------- (|+〉 + |–〉) = |0〉. that any vector in this combination reproduces the
2 superposition of base vectors. The complex weighting
Thus, the interference effect between the probabili- coefficients of the basis vectors are equal in modulus
ties of both classical states becomes apparent. On the (i.e., the amplitudes of probabilities are equal), but have
one hand, the interference (in view of its physical char- different phases. Each basis vector is a weighted sum of
acter) reinforced the probability amplitude of a classi- probability amplitudes obtained from different

sequences of basis vectors. This sum can increase or λ i1 = λ i2 = … = λ ik – 1 = λ ik = λi, and the system state
decrease the resulting probability amplitude.
Since this effect is similar to the effect of interfer-
after the measurement is defined as ∑ k
λ ' |φ 〉 〈φ i j|,
j = 1 ij ij
ence of classical waves, it is said that the operator λi j
where λ 'i j = ---------------------. Thus, before measurement, for
⎧ (i – 1)( j – 1) ⎫ ∑
2
1 ci j
[ QFT n ] ij = --------- exp ⎨ 2πJ ------------------------------- ⎬
2
n
⎩ 2
n
⎭ the quantum system in the state |ψ〉, a possible measure-
ment result is defined as p(m) = 〈ψ|Pm|ψ〉, and after mea-
plays the role of the interference operator. From the math- surement, the system is renormalized in the state |ψ'〉 =
ematical point of view, when the operator QFTn ⊗ In acts P m |ψ〉
on a state, all columns of the resulting matrix are ----------------
- . The completeness of equations is established
employed in computing, and the interference is per- p(m)
formed between the weighting coefficients from differ- by the fact from probability theory
ent sequences of basis vectors [26]. Consider the spe-
cific features of a very important (and frequently 1 = ∑ p(m) = ∑ 〈 ψ P m ψ〉 . (2.2)
addressed in papers on the description of the founda- m m
tions of quantum mechanics) quantum operator
describing the irreversible process of extracting the The postulate on projective measurements has been
result of quantum computing. developed in different directions.
Example 6. Measurements in different computa- Postulate of a generalized quantum measurement.
tional bases. The postulate of quantum measurement The model of a generalized quantum measurement (a
was introduced by von Neumann. Only projective mea- closed quantum system S in a finite-dimensional state
surements were considered, in which “standard” quan- space) is described by a set {Mm} of measurement oper-
tum observable quantities A have a spectral representa- ators on the Hilbert space of the quantum system S,
tion in terms of orthogonal projective operators. The where the subscript m specifies the possible result of the
postulate states that, at the time of measurement of A, measurement process. Measurement operators satisfy
∑
T
the state vector of the quantum system is reduced to an the completeness condition: m M m M m = I. If the state
eigenvector of the observable quantity A corresponding
to the measurement result. of the system S is |ψ〉 before measurement, then the
probability to receive the output value m is determined
Thus, the basis of the main approach to designing
as p(m) = 〈 ψ M m M m ψ〉 . . In this expression and in
T
models of measurements in quantum computing is pro-
vided by the postulate of von Neumann projections: the what follows, the symbol “T” means the conjugation
result of the action of an observation of a state ψ over operation for a unitary operator. After measurement,
an observable quantity A as a result of measurement is the system S is renormalized as
one of the eigenvalues of A; i.e., a measurement
destroys the state ψ and renormalize it. For a finite- M m |ψ〉
|ψ'〉 = ----------------
-.
dimensional Hilbert space, this means mathematically p(m)
the following: let be a Hilbert space of dimension n
of a quantum system S. Assume that From this measurement model, models of projective
measurements and positive operator-valued (POV)
n n measurement measures follow as a particular case. For
A = ∑ λ |φ 〉 〈φ | = ∑ λ P
i i i i i
example if Mm satisfies two additional constraints, Mm =
M m and M m M m' = δ mm' M m , , then we obtain the model
T
i=1 i=1
of projective measurements presented above. If the
is the spectral representation of the observable quantity T
A, where λi are eigenvalues and φi is the eigenvector condition E = M m M m holds, we have positive operator-
valued measurement measures.
corresponding to λi; { φ i } i = 1 is an orthonormal basis of
n
In quantum information theory, there are strict rules
the space and Pi is the projection on the proper space and laws describing processes of information extrac-
of the operator A (spanned on the eigenvectors) with the tion from an unknown quantum state. The result of pro-
eigenvalues λi. A possible value of the projective mea- jective measurements of quantum bits has to be formu-
surement corresponds to an eigenvalue λi of the observ- lated in classical terms. More precisely, any projective
able quantity A. The observable quantity A of the state measurement of a quantum bit yields only one classical
|ψ〉 = ∑ n
|φ 〉 is reproduced as the value λi with the
i=1 i
information bit. Therefore, despite the existence of an
infinite set of possible quantum states of a quantum bit,
k 2
these states are indistinguishable. There are no mea-
probability ∑ c i j , where c i1 , … , c ik are such that surement processes in the framework of the von Neu-
j=1 mann model with the help of which we can extract

σ
more information than a single expected information implements the negation operation “NOT” ηa z η1 – a
bit from the quantum bit. The identification of the state under the condition that the computational basis is cho-
of the quantum bit is not complete; i.e., for an unknown sen in another way, i.e., in the form ηa = |a〉' '〈a|, where
state of the quantum bit |ψ〉, it is impossible to deter-
mine its true state using projective measurements. The 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
measurement of the state of the quantum bit |ψ〉 = a|0〉 + |a〉' = ------- ⎜ ⎟ . . This simple example shows the
b|1〉 corresponding to the observation {1, 2} (where 2 ⎝ ( –1 ) a ⎠
1(2) is the subspace spanned on the state |0〉 , (|1〉) or,
in other words, in accordance with the standard compu- dependence of the procedure of establishing the quan-
tational basis {|0〉 , (|1〉}) has the bit 0 (1) with the prob- tum-logical correspondence on the choice of states in
ability |a|2 (|b2) as the output result, and the state |ψ〉 = the computational basis. Moreover, even if a computa-
a|0〉 + b|1〉 collapses to the state |0〉 (|1〉). The whole other tional basis is chosen, there is a set of variants for fur-
information that belongs to the superposition is irre- ther description of the operation. For example, if an
versibly lost. Therefore for an observer, the quantum bit operation γa is chosen, then the operator σ̃ x =
is represented as a random variable with a certain prob-
ability distribution. However, the quantum bit |ψ〉 = a|0〉 + ⎛ iθ ⎞ ∼
σ
⎜ 0 e ⎟ also implements the bit conversion γa x
b|1〉 can also be measured relative to other computa- ⎜ iθ ⎟

tional bases in an infinite number of ways. For example, ⎝ e 0 ⎠
the dual computational basis is used frequently
γ1 – a for given values of the angles (θ, φ). The standard
negation operation for θ = φ = 0 is only a variant, but not
the uniquely possible one. This fact is explained by the
⎧ 1 1 ⎫ physical nature of quantum states, which are described
= ⎨ |+〉 ≡ |0'〉 = ------- ( |0〉 + |1〉 ), |–〉 ≡ |1'〉 = ------- ( |0〉 – |1〉 ) ⎬, by rays rather than vectors in the Hilbert space. The
⎩ 2 2 ⎭ presented arguments take place even in establishing the
1 1 reverse correspondence between quantum and classical
|0〉 = ------- ( |0'〉 + |1'〉 ), |1〉 = ------- ( |0'〉 – |1'〉 ). operators; i.e., different classical operators can corre-
2 2 spond to a quantum operator. For example, both the
σ
Then identity operation γa z γa and the negation operation
σz
1 ηa η1 – a correspond to the quantum operator σz.
|ψ〉 = ------- ( [ a + b ] |0'〉 + [ a – b ] |1'〉 )
2 Consider the example of application of measure-
and the measurement |ψ〉 in this basis yields 0 (or 1) ment models in quantum computing. Assume that a
with the probability compound quantum system of two quantum bits is
given in the form of the state vector in the complex state
--- a + b ⎛ or --- a – b ⎞ .
1 2 1 2 4 in the computational basis
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Remark 5. Quantization of classical operators in |ψ〉 = a 0 |00〉 + a 1 |01〉 + a 2 |10〉 + a 3 |11〉. (2.3)
different computational bases (on the correspondence
between the quantum and classical operators). Con-
sider as an example the problem of ìquantizationî of a Note that (2.3) is a generalized entangled state. If the
given classical operator. Assume that a single-bit nega- first bit is measured in the state |ψ〉, then there exist the
tion operation (NOT gate) is the classical operator, following two possible results: the first bit is equal to
which converts the bit (a) into its complement (2), (1 – a), zero (m = 0) or it equals one (m = 1). In the first case,
(a = 0, 1). It is not difficult to show that, as the quantum the corresponding operator of generalized measure-
component of this operation, it is sufficient to choose ment is determined as M0 = |00〉〈00| + |01〉〈01|. In the
second case, M1 = |10〉〈10| + |11〉〈11|. The probability
⎛ ⎞
the unitary Pauli matrix of type σx = ⎜ 0 1 ⎟ . However, of the event that the first bit in the state |ψ〉 is zero is cal-
⎝ 10⎠ culated in the form p(0) = 〈 ψ M 0 M 0 ψ〉 = |a0|2 + |a1|2.
†
if we take the negation operation for the quantum bit in After measurement, the state is determined as
the form of the matrix γa = |a〉〈a|, where |a〉 =
⎛ 1–a⎞ σx
⎜ ⎟ , , then the relation γa γ1 – a holds exactly.
⎝ a ⎠ M 0 |ψ〉 M 0 |ψ〉 a 0 |00〉 + a 1 |01〉
|ψ'〉 = --------------- - = ----------------------------------
= ------------------------------------ -.
⎛ ⎞ p(0) 〈 ψ M 0 M 0 ψ〉
T
a0 + a1
2 2
On the other hand, the Pauli matrix σz = ⎜ 1 0 ⎟ also
⎝ 0 –1 ⎠
In the second case, the probability that the first bit in the surements (m = 2, 3), either the second bit is zero or it
state |ψ〉 is one is determined as p(1) = 〈 ψ M 1 M 1 ψ〉 =
T equals one. In the first case the corresponding operator
of generalized measurement M2 = |00〉〈00| + |10〉〈10|, and
|a2|2 + |a3|2, and, after a measurement, the system state is for the second case, we have M3 = |10〉〈10| + |11〉〈11|,
described in the following form: where M2 = P00 + P10 and M3 = P01 + P11. It is obvious
that the given measurements with possible values (m =
M 1 |ψ〉 M 1 |ψ〉 a 2 |01〉 + a 3 |11〉 2, 3) differ from the previous variant (m = 0, 1).
|ψ 〉 = ---------------
n
- = ----------------------------------
= ------------------------------------ -. Let us discuss the specific features of the formalism
p(1) 〈 ψ M 1 M 1 ψ〉
T
a2 + a3
2 2
for describing quantum measurement processes by the
example of generalized Bell states. We recall that the
For the considered example, the operator of general- four Bell states
ized measurement Mm can be expressed in terms of the ± 1 ± 1
operators of projective measurement M0 = P00 + P01 and |φ 〉 = ------- ( |00〉 ± |11〉 ); |ψ 〉 = ------- ( |01〉 ± |10〉 )
M1 = P10 + P11, where P00, P01, P10, and P11 are the cor- 2 2
responding projections on the space 4 are maximum entangled and generate a basis of entan-
gled states in the space 4. They are called “magic” fre-
quently because of their unusual physical properties
⎛ 1 0 0 0 ⎞ ⎛ 0 0 0 0 ⎞ and the important role in quantum computing. Let us
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
P 00 = ⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟, P 01 = ⎜ 0 1 0 0 ⎟, 1
distinguish a particular case |φ±〉 = ------- (|00〉 +|11〉). If we
⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟ ⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 2
⎝ 0 0 0 0 ⎠ ⎝ 0 0 0 0 ⎠ measure the first bit in |φ±〉, then as above there exist two
possible results, either zero or one. If m = 0, then we
have the variant of the generalized measurement M0
⎛ 0 0 0 0 ⎞ ⎛ 0 0 0 0 ⎞ presented above. The probability of the event that the
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ first bit in the state |φ+〉 is 0 is determined in the form
P 10 = ⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟, P 11 = ⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟, 1
⎜ 0 0 1 0 ⎟ ⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟ p(0) = 〈 φ M 0 M 0 φ 〉 = --- . After a measurement, we
+ T +
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 2
⎝ 0 0 0 0 ⎠ ⎝ 0 0 0 1 ⎠ have the quantum state
1
where P00 + P01 + P10 + P11 = I(4) and I(4) is the identical ------- |00〉
M 0 |φ 〉
+
operator in 4. The matrices M0 and M1 are two-dimen- |φ '〉 = ---------------------------------------
+ 2
= ---------------- = 2 |00〉.
sional projectors in 2 ⊗ 2 and can be rewritten in the 〈 φ M0 M0 φ 〉
+ T + 1
form of block matrices ---
2
For the case m = 1, an analogue of the generalized mea-
⎛ (2) ⎞ ⎛ 0 0 ⎞ surement M1 holds. The probability that the first bit in
M0 = ⎜ I 0 ⎟ , M1 = ⎜ ⎟,
⎝ 0 0⎠ ⎝ 0 I (2) ⎠ the state |φ+〉 is equal to one is calculated as p(1) =
1
〈 φ M 1 M 1 φ 〉 = --- . After a measurement, we obtain
+ T +
where I(2) is the identical operator in the complex space 2

2. It can easily be tested by direct calculation that the the quantum state
following necessary condition holds: 1
------- |11〉
M 1 |φ 〉
+
(4) 2
|φ '〉 = --------------------------------------- 2 |11〉
T T +
M0 M0 + M1 M1 = I . = ---------------- =
1
〈 φ M1 M1 φ 〉
+ T +
---
Consider the corresponding interrelation with posi- 2
tive operator-valued measurement measures, In this 1 1
case for two positive definite operator-valued measures, and as a result p(0) + p(1) = --- + --- = 1 (the law of prob-
2 2
by the definition, the relations
ability conservation). Note that the operators M0 and M1
are positive operator-valued measures for generalized
T T
E0 = M 0 M 0 = M 0 , E1 = M 1 M 1 = M 1 , observable quantities. Consider the well-known com-
plementarity or duality principle of a particle–wave
(4)
and E 0 + E 1 = I system, which is a ground for many concepts in quan-
tum mechanics.
hold. If the second bit is measured in the state |ψ〉, then Quantum particle–wave duality in models of mea-
there exist two other variants of possible results of measurement processes. At the structural level, the model of

1
quantum mechanics consists of two constituents, the Çë has the probability p = --- , and is either in the state
first of which operates with the concept of quantum 2
ρ 00 or in ρ 11 . According to the postulate of quantum
BC BC
state of the investigated quantum system, and the sec-
ond one is oriented to quantum dynamics (evolution of measurements, if a projective measurement in the basis
the quantum system). The presence of two approaches {|0〉, |01〉} was carried out over the system Ä, then the
is connected with the particle–wave duality of the
result is the state |0〉 (corresponding to ρ 00 ) or the state
BC
description of dynamic objects of quantum mechanics.
Note certain specific features and properties of quan- 1
|01〉 (corresponding to ρ 11 ) with the probability p = --- .
BC
tum evolution and the interrelation of measurements 2
processes with the duality of the representation of
dynamic objects in quantum mechanics. Consider the Consider the quantum state |w〉 of three quantum
wave representation of quantum mechanics. Assume 1
that the state of a quantum system is described in the bits of the form |w〉 = ------- (|1A0B0C〉 + |0A1B0C〉 +
3
following form: |ψ〉 = ∑ a |i〉 , where ∑ a
i i i i =1, and |0A0B1C〉). Let us take the trace over the quantum bit A
{|i〉} determines the set of orthogonal vectors. If i ≥ 2,
1 BC 2 +
T r A ( |w〉 〈w| ) = --- ρ 00 + --- |ψ BC〉 〈ψ BC|,
+
then we say that the dynamics of the given quantum
system have a wave character. Otherwise i = 1, the 3 3
quantum system describes the dynamic behavior of a
single particle, and we deal with the corpuscular behav- 1
where |ψ BC〉 = ------- (|0B1C〉 + |1B0C〉) determines the Bell
+
ior of the considered system. 2
The trace of a matrix and processes of quantum state. Thus after the projective measurement over the
measurements.,. Let us consider the trace of a matrix A, system Ä in the basis {|0〉, |1〉} the system with the
Aii: Tr(A) ≡ ∑ i
A ii . The matrix trace has the cyclic 1
probability p = --- can be in the state |0〉 (corresponding
3
property and is linear. Suppose that the state of two
2
physical systems A and B is described by the density to ρ 00 ) and with the probabilityp = --- , in the state |1〉
BC
operator ρÄÇ. The reduced density operator for the sys- 3

tem A can be written in the following form: ρA ≡ (corresponding to |ψ BC〉 ).
+
TrB(ρAB), where the partial trace TrB is the mapping of

operators known as the partial trace over the system Ç
Assume that Q is compound system (of two quan-
ρ ≡ T rB(ρ ) = T rB(ρ = |a 1〉 〈a 1| ⊗ |b 1〉 〈b 1| ) ≡
A AB AB
tum bits Q1 and Q0), which is in the Bell state
≡ ( |a 1〉 〈a 1| )Tr ( |b 1〉 〈b 1| ).
|0 1 0 0〉 – |1 1 1 0〉
|Ψ Q〉 = --------------------------------
-.
Thus, the partial trace of an operator is a tool for quan- 2
titative description of the observed subsystems belong-
ing to a compound system. The density operator ρQ has the representation
To distinguish quantum states, quantum measure-
ments are required. A projective measurement over a
|0 1 0 0〉 – |1 1 1 0〉⎞ ⎛ 〈0 1 0 0| – 〈1 1 1 0|⎞
ρ Q = ⎛ --------------------------------
subsystem is similar to the operation of taking the par-
- ---------------------------------
tial trace. Assume that we have a state GHZ of the fol- ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
lowing form:
1 1
|GHZ〉 = ------- ( |0 A 0 B 0 C〉 + |1 A 1 B 1 C〉 ) = --- ( |0 1 0 0〉 〈0 1 0 0| – |0 1 0 0〉 〈1 1 1 0|
2 2 (2.4)
(an entangled three-particle state of three quantum bits ⎛ 1 0 0 –1 ⎞

ÄBC). Then the partial trace over one quantum bit, e.g., ⎜ ⎟
1⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟.
– |1 1 1 0〉 〈0 1 0 0| + |1 1 1 0〉 〈1 1 1 0| = ---
over the system Ä, can be written as 2⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
1 BC 1 BC ⎝ –1 0 0 1 ⎠
T r A ( |GHZ〉 〈GHZ| ) = --- ( ρ 00 ) + --- ( ρ 11 ),
2 2
where ρ 00 = |0B0C〉〈0B0C|, ρ 11 = |1B1C〉〈1B1C|; i.e., after

BC BC
Let us calculate the partial trace based on the state of
taking the partial trace over system Ä, the subsystem the second quantum bit; i.e., the system Q1. As a result

the reduced density operator ρ Q0 ≡ ρ0 has the following after which the wave behavior of the particle is
form: destroyed.
Consider the case of quantum measurements with
ρ0 = T r1 ( ρ0 ) the help of projective operations. As was mentioned
above, the probability of the measurements result is
1
= --- [ T r 1 ( |0 1 0 0〉 〈0 1 0 0| ) – T r 1 ( |0 1 0 0〉 〈1 1 1 0| ) determined in the form p(m) = 〈 ψ M m M m ψ〉 . Since
T
2
the state of the quantum system is orthogonal after a pro-
– T r 1 ( |1 1 1 0〉 〈0 1 0 0| ) + T r 1 ( |1 1 1 0〉 〈1 1 1 0| ) ]
1
jective measurement, by the definition |ψ〉 = i a i |i〉 , ∑
= --- [ |0 0〉 〈0 0| 〈0 1|0 1〉 – |0 0〉 〈1 0| 〈1 1|0 1〉 – |1 0〉 〈0 0| 〈0 1|1 1〉 i = 1, its behavior has the corpuscular character. Thus,
2 the wave representation is destroyed. However, after
1 positive operator-valued measurements, the quantum
+ |1 0〉 〈1 0| 〈1 1|1 1〉 ] = --- [ |0 0〉 〈0 0| + |1 0〉 〈1 0| ] system may display wave properties. Assume that the
2
quantum system is two-dimensional in the basis {|0〉,
1⎛ ⎞ 1 |1〉}. Consider the positive operator-valued measure of
= --- ⎜ 1 0 ⎟ = --- I. measurement in the form of three operators
2⎝ 0 1 ⎠ 2
2
E 1 = ---------------- |1〉 〈1|;
Note that it was taken into account that the states are 1+ 2
orthogonal, 〈01|01〉 = 1, 〈01|11〉 = 0, etc. Note that in this
example the reduced state ρ0 is mixed since 2 1
E 2 = ---------------- --- ( |0〉 – |1〉 ) ( 〈0| – 〈1| );
1 + 22
I 2
Tr [ ( ρ 0 ) ] = Tr ⎛ ---⎞ = --- < 1.
2 1
⎝ 2⎠ 2 E3 = I – E1 – E2 ,
which are not pairwise orthogonal. After positive oper-
This result characterizes the specific feature of the ator-valued measurements, the quantum system dis-
quantum system that is principally absent in the classi- plays both the wave and corpuscular behavior. This
cal system [8]. Indeed, the state of a compound system complementarity exists between an entangled state
is pure, Tr[(ρQ)2] = 1, and it is established exactly (max- (quantum correlation) and interference. The measure of
imum information). However, the first quantum bit is in quantum correlation (entanglement) is a decreasing
a mixed state. This means that information about the function of the visibility measure depending on inter-
state of this quantum bit is not maximal, and the system ference. Consider the complementarity between quan-
itself has more chaotic behavior than the compound tum correlation and interference by the example of the
system. A similar property, which strange for classical generalized Bell state.
systems, when complete information about the com-
pound system is available, and for the subsystems only Example 7. Complementarity between an entangled
a part of information is known, characterizes the ability state and interference. Let us take the generalized
of quantum systems to be self-organized by using the (entangled) Bell state |ψ〉 = a|01〉|02〉 + b|11〉|12〉 with a
super-correlation property (quantum correlation) con- limitation of the probability amplitudes following from
tained in entangled states. It is the presence of quantum the unitarity condition a2 + b2 = 1. Let us perform a uni-
correlation that explains the possibility to organize a tary transformation with the help of the rotation opera-
pure state in two mixed compound states. tor (matrix) with respect to the first computational basis
{|01〉, |11〉} for the first quantum bit |01〉 cosα|01〉 +
The Schredinger equation describes the evolution of sinα |11〉 and obtain as a result
the state of a quantum system. The generalized quan-
tum dynamic processes are formalized by quantum |ψ〉 |ψ'〉 = a ( cos α |0 1〉 + sin α |1 1〉 ) |0 2〉
operators. The complementarity principle presumes the
use of particle–wave duality in describing a quantum + b ( cos α |1 1〉 – sin α |0 1〉 ) |1 2〉.
object. To extract information on the behavior of the The next operation is the observation of the first quan-
quantum object, it is necessary to conduct quantum tum bit without perturbation of the second one. The
measurements. Unitary operations are connected with probability of extracting the state |01〉, determined as
the wave representation of a quantum object. However,
non-unitary operators violate the wave pattern of sys- 1
P |01〉 = --- [1 + (a2 – b2)cos2α], is a typical example of the
tem description and result in a corpuscular representa- 2
tion. In the quantum case, completeness and correct- interference effect if the angle α is interpreted as a con-
ness of relations require that the condition Tr(ρ) = 1 is trolled parameter. The visibility measure of interfer-
satisfied, which is valid for quantum measurements by ence is Γ ≡ |a2 – b2|. As a physical measure of the mea-
condition (2.2). The trace operation means that we can surement result, it disappears if the initial state was
detect a particle in the state space with definiteness, maximum entangled (maximum correlated), i.e., for

a2 = b2. This physical measure is maximal when the tion. In quantum mechanics, the measurement process
state is separable (i.e., for either a = 0 or b = 0). has the irreversible character and is a non-deterministic
On the other hand, it is known that the partial trace operation, which results in measurement of only one of
over one of the states in the form of the von Neumann the basis vectors in the formed superposition. The prob-
entropy (see the definition in what follows) ability of each basis vector to be a measurement result
in the composition of the superposition for a given
E ≡ S ( ρ red ) = –a log a – b log b ,
2 2 2 2
computational basis depends on the complex coeffi-
cient (probability amplitude). The process of termina-
where the reduced density operator tion of the iterative action of the quantum algorithmic
ρ red = T r 2 |ψ'〉 〈ψ'| = T r 2 |ψ〉 〈ψ| gates is performed by a program method based on the
principle of minimal information entropy of an “intelli-
a |0 1〉 〈0 1| + b |1 1〉 〈1 1|.
2 2
gent quantum state”, containing valuable information
about the desired solution [10, 26]. quantum algorith-
is the measure of entanglement of the state (quantum mic gates can be implemented with the help of a soft-
correlation). The quantum correlation takes the maxi- ware–hardware toolkit of evolutionary quantum com-
mum value E = 1 for a2 = b2, and it takes the minimum puting.
value E = 0 if either a = 0 or b = 0. Thus, the greater is In quantum programming, there exists a proof of
the quantum correlation of the state, the lower is the completeness of the description of a quantum algorith-
interference visibility, and vice versa. mic gate by the corresponding programming languages
Another popular correlation measure, called nega- of improved semantic expressiveness [10]. By analogy
tivity N, is defined as a negative value of the doubled with the existence of equivalence in the theory of com-
value of the least eigenvalue of the transposed density puting, which is based on classical algorithms, we
matrix. Therefore, N = 2|ab|. In this case, the comple- know a hypothesis on equivalence between the repre-
mentarity measure is expressed as N 2 + Γ 2 = 1. Then, sentation of expressions of quantum operations at the
the interrelation between the entangled state and inter- syntactic level with conservation of the completeness
ference follows from the constraint in the form of uni- of their description for the sake of inclusion in quantum
tarity of quantum operators a2 + b2 = 1. programming languages of semantic expressiveness of
Thus in models of quantum algorithm, the measures quantum operators (at the functional level of the
of quantum correlation and interference are not inde- description of actions of quantum operators). One of
pendent, and the efficiency of finding a successful solu- the natural steps in this direction is the development of
tion with the help of the quantum algorithm depends on principles of logical inference and test of the truth of
their interrelation. propositions in quantum programming languages for
Example 8. Design of quantum algorithmic gates avoiding contradictions in the obtained consequence of
and quantum programming. The ground of the method logical inference. We refer to these language, e.g., the
of designing quantum algorithmic schemes and similar QML (Quantum Programming Language) [10, 27–34].
methods for forming new types of quantum algorithms Consider how a consistent description of the defini-
is provided by the system for designing quantum algo- tion of action of the Hadamard operator is implemented
rithmic gates (QAGC) described in [8, 10, 23]. As in the in QML in the following form:
general structure of the quantum algorithm, the struc- Hx = if x then ( false + ( –1 )true )else ( false + true ).
ture of the system for designing QAG (quantum algo-
rithmic gates) is based on the formalization of the Let us estimate the completeness and truth of this
description of three main quantum operators (superpo- expression, which is equivalent to the test of truth of the
sition, quantum correlation (of entangled states), and fact that the successive action of Hadamard operators
interference) and measurement in the form of elemen- H(Hx) leads to the result equivalent to x at the func-
tary evolutionary unitary operators. In accordance with tional level. For this purpose we use the following
the quantum scheme of the QA (quantum algorithm), model of logical inference in QML [29]:
these operators are combined by tensor and direct prod- H(Hx) = if (ifx then (false+(–1)true)else(false + true))
ucts in a unified evolutionary quantum unitary operator then (false + (–1)true)
[10, 23]. Structurally, the quantum algorithmic gates else (false + true)
acts on the initial canonical basis vector and forms a
complex linear combination of the constituent classical – – by commuting conversion for “if”
vectors (called superposition) in the form of basis vec- = if x
tors as the output result of the action of the superposi- then if (false + (–1)true)
tion operator. The superposition contains information then (false + (–1)true)
about the solution of the investigated problem as one of else (false + true)
the components. After forming the superposition, in the
quantum algorithmic gates, the operators of quantum else if (false + true)
correlation, interference, and measurement are applied then (false + (–1)true)
in order to extract information about the desired solu- else (false + true)

– – by “if” (subsystem) Q0 is greater than in the “complete” (com-

= if x pound) quantum system Q. Classical systems do not
then (false – false + true + true) have this effect in view of the properties of the Shannon
information entropy.
else (false + false + true – true)
– – by simplification and normalisation 1
Example 10. Consider the Bell state |ψ〉 = ------- (|00〉 +
= if x then true else false 2
– – by η-rule for “if” |11〉) in the Hilbert space AB = A ⊗ B, where A=
=x B = 2. The density matrices ρAB = |ψ〉〈ψ|, ρA, and
Elements of the theory of testing completeness and ρA|B determined as
truth of the semantics of the functional description of
the quantum algorithm in the QML functional quantum ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 0 0 1 ⎞
programming language were described in [10, 27–34]. ⎜ --- 0 ⎜ ⎟
ρA = ⎜ 2 ⎟, ρA B = ⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟,
⎜ 1⎟ ⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟
3. QUANTUM INFORMATION PROCESSES ⎜ 0 --- ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
AND LAWS OF QUANTUM ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 1 0 0 1 ⎠
INFORMATION THEORY
The Shannon information entropy is defined as ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ --- 0 0 --- ⎟
⎜ 2 2 ⎟
H( p) = – ∑ p log p .
i i ⎜ 0 00 0 ⎟
i ρ AB = ⎜ ⎟.
The von Neumann entropy has the following form: ⎜ 0 00 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
νN ⎜ 1 1 ⎟
S ( ρ ) = –Tr ( ρ log ρ ). --- 0 0 ---
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
In the particular case, when the matrix ρ is diagonal, the
Shannon and von Neumann entropies are equal. How- The matrix of conditional density is ρA|B = ρAB (IA ⊗ ρB)–1
ever, the laws and consequences of quantum informa- (in this case the cross density matrix ρAB and the mar-
tion theory have a number of fundamental distinctions ginal density matrix IA ⊗ ρB commutes). It follows from
under the quantum generalization of Shannon classical the definition of the von Neumann entropy that SνN(A) =
information theory [8, 10, 35–37]. Let us investigate SνN(B). Then, we have
briefly some of these specific features employed in the S ( AB ) = S ( B ) + C ( A B ) = 1 – 1 = 0,
models of quantum fuzzy inference by examples.
Example 9. Consider the specific features of the since S(A|B) = –1.
description and information analysis of Bell entangled Therefore, in contrast to the Shannon classical infor-
states mation theory, the von Neumann quantum conditional
|0 1 0 0〉 – |1 1 1 0〉 entropy can take negative values when entangled states
|Ψ Q〉 = --------------------------------
-. are considered. This fact is connected directly with the
2 quantum non-separability of entangled states, and they
Since the Bell state with density operator (2.4) is pure, are interpreted as super-correlated states. Thus, the neg-
ρQ represents a pure ensemble. Therefore, there is no ativeness of the conditional entropy indicates the pres-
uncertainty in the quantum state; i.e., the von Neumann ence of entangled states in a compound quantum sys-
entropy is zero SνN(ρQ) = 0. The reduced density opera- tem and determines the lower bound of their correlation
tor ρ0 for the quantum bit |00〉 is the partial trace over the [8, 10, 38, 39].
system Q, i.e., The validity of this fact was also established in the
Shor and Grover quantum search algorithms [10, 26]
1 1⎛ ⎞ and is harnessed in solving the problem of efficient ter-
ρ 0 = T r 1 ( ρ Q ) = --- ( |0〉 〈0| + |1〉 〈1| ) = --- ⎜ 1 0 ⎟ .
2 2⎝ 0 1 ⎠ mination of the quantum algorithm. We also note that
not all base classical relations and inequalities have
Therefore, the quantum uncertainty in the state |00〉 is quantum analogues. For example, in the classical case,
determined by the von Neumann entropy as SνN(ρQ) = 1. we have
Thus, the information analysis of uncertainty in the
compound quantum system allows one to explain I ( x : y ) ≤ min [ H ( x ), H ( y ) ] .
clearly the presence of unusual (non-classical) proper- while, in the quantum case, the upper bound is given by
ties: if we ignore a part of information about the state of the inequality
a subsystem, this results in an increase of quantum
uncertainty. As a result, quantum uncertainty in a part S ( X : Y ) ≤ 2min [ S ( X ), S ( Y ) ] .

T
Quantum information theory has strictly substanti- surement (see Section 2) in the state A i A i , for which
ated rules of how to extract information from an the density matrix has the following definition:
unknown quantum state [8, 10, 35–37]. An optimal
Ai ρ B Ai
T
quantum process of extraction of valuable information
ρ B = ----------------------------
i
from individual knowledge bases designed for fixed -.
Tr ( A i ρ B A i )
T
control situations on the basis of soft computing is
based on four facts of quantum information theory pre- Then, the final state of the subsystem B is
sented below. In particular, it was proved that there
exist an efficient quantum data compression, coupling
∑A ρ ∑p ρ
T i
i B Ai = i B.
of classical and quantum parts of information in the
i i
quantum state, and total correlation in the quantum
∑
state is a mix of classical and quantum correlations, and
p S ( ρ B ) . The
i
there is a hidden (observed) classical correlation in the The entropy of the reduced state is i i
quantum state. In what follows, we consider briefly the amount of classical information received in the mea-
physical meaning of the listed facts and their role in the surement i is expressed with the probability pi as the
processes of designing optimal processes and control Shannon information entropy H(p). If the quantum
signals based of quantum fuzzy inference. states ρ B belong to orthogonal subspaces, then the
i
Fact 1. Efficient quantum data compression. In the entropy of the final state (after a measurement) is the
classical information theory, Shannon showed how p S ( ρ B ) and ∑
i
sum of the reduced quantum entropy i i
much (under given accuracy) we can compress limit-
edly a message comprising N independent symbols the classical information, i.e.,
(xa), where each symbol enters the message with the
⎛ i ⎞
prior probability pa, using the concept of information
∑ p (ρ B )⎟ = H( p) + ∑ p S(ρ B ).
i
S⎜ i i
entropy. The Shannon information entropy H(pa) is ⎝ ⎠
defined as i Classical i
Quantum
H ( pa ) = – ∑ p log p .
a 2 a
Thus, the amount of information contained in the
quantum state can be separated (coupled in the form)
a
into the quantum and classical components [40]. There-
The following proposition was proved: a block of codes fore, in simulating robust structures of intelligent con-
of length NH bits is sufficient for coding all typical trol systems, the classical information is simulated by
(most frequently occurred) sequences without account using the knowledge base optimizer, and its deficit can
of the methods of coding non-typical sequences of the be defined as [8, 10]
message. Note that the probability of error coding
⎛ i⎞
(information loss) does not exceed a given threshold ε. ∆I = S ⎜ ∑ p ρ ⎟⎠ – ∑ p S ( ρ B) = H ( p ).
i
i B i
In quantum information theory, symbols are density ⎝ i i
matrices. Two variants are possible. In the first variant, Total Quantum Classical
the density matrices correspond to an ensemble of pure
states |φa〉. In the second variant, the ensemble is formed Therefore, we can extract additional amount of
by density matrices ρa with the probability pa. Consider valuable quantum information from individual knowl-
the ensemble of states for the second variant. In this edge bases for subsequent use in designing intelligent
case, the matrix of density of messages comprising N control of improved level. Note that quantum proce-
symbols is described as ρ(N) = ρ ⊗ ρ ⊗ … ⊗ ρ, where dures for compression and reduction of redundant
information contained in classical control signals are
ρ= ∑ p |φ 〉 〈φ a|.
a a a applied (using the corresponding models of quantum
correlation in the quantum algorithm of quantum fuzzy
The von Neumann entropy of messages has the sim- inference).
ple relation with the ensemble entropy, S = −Tr(ρlnρ). Fact 3. Amount of total, classical, and quantum cor-
The following inequality that relates the Shannon infor- relation. Entangled states or, in the general form, quan-
mation entropy and the von Neumann entropy is tum correlation are typical physical resources of quan-
known: S(ρ(N) = NS(ρ); i.e., the value of the Shannon tum computing. However, not all types of correlation
information entropy exceeds the value of the von Neu- have pure quantum nature. In other words, total corre-
mann entropy. This means that the application of quan- lations are mixes of classical and quantum correla-
tum information theory allows one to perform deeper tions [41].
compression of classical information [8, 10].
For optimal design (efficiently simulated on conven-
Fact 2. Coupling (separation) of information in the tional computers) of a given class of quantum algo-
quantum state in the form of classical and quantum rithms, it is important to know the type (or form) of the
components. Consider the model of a generalized mea- necessary classical correlation. For example, if it is pos-

sible to determine the classical component of the corre- 4. TOTAL AND HIDDEN (OBSERVABLE)
lation, then, using optimal positive operator-valued) CORRELATION IN QUANTUM STATES
measurement measures (see the details in Section 2), it There is a belief that the expected computational
is admissible to extract the maximum amount of infor- power of quantum computing issues from the presence
mation in the classical form contained in the quantum of quantum resource. Entangled states, or quantum cor-
state with the minimum increasing of entropy [42, 43]. relation in the general case are bright examples of this.
The amount of total correlation can be split into the However, as was mentioned in Section 3, not all corre-
classical and quantum components. This measure is lation forms have purely quantum nature; i.e., the total
equivalent to the measure of maximum classical/quan- correlation is a mix of classical and quantum correla-
tum mutual information I(A : B), retaining the direct tions. The knowledge of how and where the classical
physical interpretation of the interrelations between the correlation is used in the quantum correlation is an
corresponding measures [44]. important point. For example, if it is possible to deter-
mine and select the classical correlation component,
Fact 4. Hidden (observable) classical correlation in then using optimal measurement, we can extract certain
the quantum state. In quantum information theory, the additional information amount in the classical form
following unexpected fact was established. The condi- hidden in the quantum state with a minimal increasing
tion of proportional increase of the amount of informa- of entropy.
tion Physically, the listed correlation types are character-
ized by the amount of work (noise) that is necessary to
I Cl ( ρ ) = max I ( A : B ), do for eliminating (destroying) the correlation. For the
MA ⊗ MB total correlation, the amount of work for complete
destroying is required. For the quantum correlation, the
determined by local measurements MA ⊗ MB in the state amount of work to the destruction into separable states
ρAB can be violated under some extremal constraints on is sufficient. However, even in the case of classical cor-
the initial mixed state ρ. For example, the initial amount relation, the maximum correlation is destroyed after
of information in the form of a single classical informa- eliminating the quantum correlation. The total amount
tion bit sent from A to B can be enlarged at the receipt of correlation, measured by the minimum production of
stage by a definite amount in the quantitative measure randomization and equivalent to the requirement of
ICl(ρ) [45]. This fact is explained from the position of total destruction of all forms of correlation in the state
the observation phenomenon of the classical correla- ρAB, is equivalent to the quantum amount of mutual
tion in the quantum state ρ. Since the amount of infor- information [46, 47].
mation ICl(ρ) is proportionally increased at the classical
level, the phenomenon of correlation observation is a 4.1. Classical and Quantum Correlations
pure quantum effect arising due to the fact that quantum
The classical mutual information contained in the
non-orthogonal states are indistinguishable. Therefore, quantum state ρAB (before its measurement) can be esti-
there exist quantum two-particle states that contain a mated in a natural way as the maximum mutual infor-
large amount of classical correlation non-observable at mation which can be extracted by local measurements
the classical level because of the amount of classical MA ⊗ MB in the state ρAB
information in the transmission channel that is non-pro-
portionally small for its observation (limited data trans- I Cl ( ρ ) = max I ( A : B ).
MA ⊗ MB
mission ability).
Here, I(A : B) is the classical mutual information
There are (2n + 1) quantum bits, using which a sin- defined in the form
gle-bit message increases twice the optimal amount of
classical mutual information as a result of measure- I ( A : B ) ≡ H ( p A ) + H ( p B ) – H ( p AB ),
ments between the subsystems. In general, for n/2 bits
sent, the specified amount of information increases to n where H is the information entropy and pAB, pA, and pB
are the density functions of the probability distribution
bits. It is impossible to obtain the specified effect at the of the mutual and individual results obtained by local
classical level because of the laws of classical physics. measurements MA ⊗ MB in the state ρ [45].
In this case, the following fact is remarkable: the states
that support the specified effect are not necessarily Example 11. Mutual information and classical cor-
relation. To understand the role of classical correlation
entangled, and the corresponding classical data and its interrelations with the concept of mutual infor-
exchange channel can be implemented by the Had- mation, we define quantum mutual information for the
amard transform. The presented facts yield the infor- two-particle state ρAB of the quantum system in the
mation resource of the background of quantum fuzzy Stratonovich form
inference employed in simulation of robust knowledge
bases for intelligent fuzzy controllers. I ( A : B ) = S ( ρ A ) + S ( ρ B ) – S ( ρ AB ).

Consider a compound system AB in the state ρAB, which Then the property of complete proportionality follows
can be in the state ρA and ρB with the probabilities p and from the property of proportionality growth. The same
(1 – p), respectively. For this case of the compound sys- is true for quantum mutual information
tem AB, mutual information can be calculated in the
following form [42]:
I Q ( A : B ) = S ( ρ A ) + S ( ρ B ) – S ( ρ AB ).
I ( A : B ) = 2H ⎛ --- [ 1 + p + ( 1 – p ) ]⎞
1 2 2
⎝2 ⎠ It was unexpected that the property of proportional-
(4.1) ity growth is violated for ICl(ρ) in an extremal way in the
case of mixed initial states ρ—simple classical bit sent
– H ⎛ --- [ 1 + 1 + 3 p – 3 p ]⎞ .
1 2
⎝2 ⎠ from A to B can result in an increase of ICl(ρ) to a certain
big value. We consider this phenomenon as an opportu-
If ρAB is a separable state, then its relative entropy in the nity of observation of classical correlation in the quan-
entangled state is zero. tum state ρ. If the property of growth of proportionality
The physical interpretation of the value ICl(ρ) is ICl(ρ) takes place at the classical level, then the phenom-
many-valued [45, 48]: ICl(ρ) manifests itself as maxi- enon of observed classical correlation is a pure quan-
mum classical correlation extracted by a purely local tum effect. This result immediately follows from indis-
measurement procedure from the state ρ; ICl(ρ) corre- tinguishability of non-orthogonal quantum states.
sponds the classical definition when the state ρ is clas- Example 12. Assume that an initial state ρ, the type
sical, i.e., diagonal in some (locally used) computa- of message transfer, and the corresponding amount of
tional basis and corresponds to the classical distribu- data transferred are given. The increase of correlation
tion; if ρ is a pure state, then ICl(ρ) specifies the can be characterized by the following functions:
correlation determined by the Schmidt basis and equiv-
alent to the measure of entangled pure states; ICl(ρ) = 0
(l) (l)
if and only if I Cl = max I Cl ( Λ ( ρ ) )
(l)
Λ
ρ AB = ρ A ⊗ ρ B . ( one-way classical message );
It is known that some suitable measures of quantum
correlation have to satisfy certain axiomatic properties: [l] [l]
(1) quantum correlation is non-local and cannot I Cl = max I Cl ( Λ ( ρ ) )
[l]
Λ
increase in local measurement procedures (monotonic-
ity property); (2) complete proportionality; (3) growth ( two-way classical message ).
of proportionality; and (4) continuity in ρ.
Physically, property (2) means that the state proto- The operator Λ is an operation on a two-particle
col constituted of the non-correlated initial state using l state, which consists of local operations and contains
quantum bits or 2l classical bits (for data transmission no more than 2l classical or l quantum bits in a mes-
through a quantum communication channel) and apply- sage. This is reflected in the corresponding superscripts
ing local operations cannot generate more than 2l cor- (l) or [l]. Denote by ρ and ρ' the states before and after
relation bits. Property (3) presumes that in transmitting the operations with message exchange, ρ' = Λ(ρ). The
( L)
a message of l quantum bits or 2l quantum bits the cor- amount of correlation I Cl ( ρ ), hidden (unobservable)
relation in the initial state does not increase and does in the state with l quantum bits in one-way message
not exceed 2l bits. exchange can be bounded by the following condition
Properties (1)–(4) fulfill completely, in particular, [45]:
for classical mutual information I(A : B) when the mes-
sage transfer is performed by the classical method. For ( L)
I Cl ( ρ ) – I Cl ( ρ ) ≤ l + ( 2 – 1 )I Cl ( ρ ).
l
example, the properties of the complete proportionality
and growth of proportionality I(A : B) for the classical
case follow from the fact that
For small values ICl(ρ), the amount of hidden (unob-
servable) correlation in the two-way exchange is
max ( H ( p A ), H ( p B ) ) ≤ H ( p AB ) ≤ H ( p A ) + H ( p B ) , bounded from above
so that when A sends a classical system A' to B, we have
[l]
I Cl ( ρ ) – I Cl ( ρ ) ≤ 2l + O ( d I Cl ( ρ ) log I Cl ( ρ ) ).
2
I Cl ( ρ ) = I ( A ;BA' ) ≤ I ( AA', B ) + H ( p A' ).

4.2. Hidden (Observable) Classical correlation procedure of preparing the state ρ and then extract
in a Quantum State the classical correlation hidden in the state ρ'. The
(l)
Let us discuss the situation in which some initial correlation is a small quantity I Cl ( ρ ) =
amount of correlation is not accessible to observa-
tion in one-way message exchange. The initial state 1
--- log d. After the complete measurement MA in the
is determined by the subsystems A and B on the cor- 2
responding subspaces of dimensions 2d and d in the one-way message exchange, the final value of the
form amount of information in the quantum state is deter-
(l)
mined as ICl(ρ') = I Cl ( ρ ) = log d ; i.e., the amount of
d–1 1
∑ ∑ ( |k〉 〈 k ⊗ t〉 〈t| )
1
ρ = ------ ⊗ ( U t |k〉 〈k|U t ) B , (4.2)
T
A available information increases.
2d
k = 0t = 0
Remark 6. Note that the complete measurement
MA in the basis {|k〉 ⊗ |t〉} (Section 2) is optimal for
where the operators U0 = I and U1 change the initial the system A. The output value of the measurement
computational basis by the united one as |〈i|U1|k〉| = result gives exactly information about what pure
state of the ensemble is chosen. Therefore, there is
1 an opportunity to apply the classical local process
------- ∀ i, k. Then, the player B takes randomly a state
a of processing (of the measurement result) for
obtaining information about the distribution of
|k〉 of d states in two possible randomized bases
results for other measurements. For the system A,
(depending on the case when either t = 0 or t = 1
the choice of the optimal measurement allows the
in (4.2)
system B to extract from ICl(ρ) amount of informa-
At the same time, the observer A has complete infor- tion IAcc about the ensemble of uniformly distributed
mation about the quantum state of the observer B. states {|k〉, (U1 = H)|k〉}k = 0, …, d – 1.
Receiving the required amount of information in the
(l)
form I Cl ( ρ ) = log d + 1, A sends a value t to B, which,
in turn, applies the operator Ui to its state and measure 4.3. Available Information
about the Ensemble of Mixed States
the value k in the computational basis. As a result, A and
(l) In the general case, the available information about
B have the measurement k and t, which yields I Cl ( ρ ) =
the ensemble of mixed states ε = {pi, ηi} is defined as
log d + 1 correlation bits. the maximum mutual information between the mea-
sured state with the index i and the result of its measure-
The state ρ evolutes according to the following ment. The amount of available information IAcc(ε) can
scenario [45]. Let d = 2n. Then, A chooses randomly be characterized as the maximum value of information
k of length n bits and sends to B either a message extracted from the quantum state with the help of posi-
about the state |k〉 or H⊗n|k〉 depending on a random tive operator-valued measurements (section 2) with ele-
value of the bit either t = 0 or t = 1. Here, H is the ments of only rank 1 [8].
Hadamard transform; A sends t to B and, later,
observes the created correlation. It was experimen- Assume that M = {αj|φj〉〈φj|} means a positive opera-
tally established that the application of the Had- tor-valued measurement with elements of rank 1, where
amard transform and measurement of the state of the each state |φj〉 is normalized and αj > 0. Then, IAcc(ε) can
quantum bits is sufficient in order to implement the be calculated as
p i 〈 φ j η i φ j〉
I Acc ( ε ) = max –
M
∑ p log p + ∑ ∑ p α 〈 φ
i i i j j η i φ j〉 log ----------------------------
〈 φ j µ i φ j〉
, (4.3)
i i i
Classical component Quantum component

∑
1 I
where µ = i
p i η i . Let us apply expression (4.3) to lowing values: i = k, t; pk,t = ------ , µ = --- and 〈φj|µ|φj〉 =
2d 2
the solution of the abovementioned problem. The 1
⎧1 ⎫ --- . . Substituting all presented expressions in formula
ensemble of states is given as ⎨ ------, U t |k〉 ⎬ for the fol- d
⎩ 2d ⎭ k, t
(4.3) for IAcc(ε), we obtain
ε 〈 φ j U t k〉
2
I Cl ( ε ) = max log 2d + ∑ -----j- 〈 φ j U t k〉 log --------------------------
2
-
M 2d 2
j, k , t
Classical Quantum component

component
αj⎛1 2⎞
∑ ----d- ⎜⎝ --2- ∑ 〈 φ U t k〉 log 〈 φ j U t k〉 ⎟ ,
2
= max log d + j
M
j k, t
⎠
Classical Quantum component
component
Example 13. Let a two-particle state ρAB be given.

where the following notation is used: ∑α j j = d and
We define a possible measure of classical correlation
∑ 〈 φ j U t k〉
2
t = 1. between subsystems A and B as
k
α ⎧ i ⎫
Since the relation
j d ∑
-----j = 1 is satisfied, the second Cor B ( ρ AB ) = max ⎨ S ( ρ A ) –
B ⎩
∑ p S(ρ i A ) ⎬,
⎭
(4.4)
i
expression is a convex combination and can be
bounded from above by maximization in the first term where ρA = TrB(ρAB) is the reduced density matrix. The
von Neumann entropy is S(ρ) = –Tr(ρ log ρ . The con-
∑ 〈φ U
1
I Cl ( ε ) ≤ log d + max --- k〉 log 〈 φ U t k〉 .
2 2
ditional density matrix ρ A s defined in terms of the den-
t i
|φ〉 2
k, t
sity matrix of the state A after the realization of the
Note that the term measurement Bi over the state B in the form
∑ 〈φ U k〉 log 〈 φ U t k〉 T r B ( B i ρ AB )
2 2
–
ρ A = ------------------------------.
t i
k, t T r AB ( B i ρ AB )
is a sum of entropy measures of the measured state |φ〉
The probability to determine A in the state ρ A is pi =
i
in the computational and generalized bases. This
entropy sum is bounded by the value log d. Lower TrAB(BiρAB). Correlation measure (4.4) has a simple
bounds of a similar type in the theory of quantum mea- physical interpretation: if A and B are not correlated,
surements are called entropy uncertainty inequalities then the marginal value of the entropy [S(ρA)] of the
(EUI), which determine quantitatively that it is impos- state A and the weighted averaged value of the entropy
sible to extract the vector |φ〉 from two generalized of A after the positive operator-valued measurement
∑
[ i p i S ( ρ A ) ] over the state B yields as a consequence
(joint) bases. i
The presented relations imply that CorB(ρAB) = 0 since for the non-correlated system AB,
1 the state of A does not depend on the action of the pos-
I Cl ( ρ ) ≤ --- log d. itive operator-valued measurement over the state of B.
2
The equality can be reached if B is measured in the In addition, we note that the relation
∑p ρ
computational basis
ρA =
i
i A;
1 (l) 1
I Cl ( ρ ) = --- log d, I Cl ( ρ ) – I Cl ( ρ ) = 1 + --- log d. i
2 2
takes place. Then for the given positive operator-valued
Note that the property of proportionality increase is sat- measurement over the system B, the expression [S(ρA) –
isfied for multiple copies of the state ρ. Wootters
∑ p i S ( ρ A ) ] gives the entropy deficit, whose defini-
i
showed in [8] that the available information from m i
independent copies of the ensemble ε of separated tion was given in [49]. Therefore, the classical correla-
states is additive, IAcc(ε⊗m) = mIAcc(ε). This implies that tion CorB(ρAB) can be considered as the maximum aver-
for the considered case we have ICl(ρ⊗m) = mICl(ρ). aged increase of the entropy of the system A when the

state ρ A (after completion of the measurement Bi over

i
surement (at least one), for which this measure takes
the system B) is compared specifically with the situa- zero value. Therefore, quantum correlation is attached
tion in which only mixed states ρA are known. The clas- to the minimum value of the measure of quantum
sical correlation establishes the measure of correlation chaos.
power of two subsystems without specifying the prior- When choosing the corresponding set of measure-
ity of the subsystem used for extracting this correlation. ments over the system B as a set of one-dimensional
The amount of quantum mutual information I(A : B) projections, it is easy to test that the set of measure-
of the two-particle compound system AB can be decom- ments under which the quantum chaos is minimized,
posed into the information deficit (or work) ∆ and the i.e., the quantity J is maximized, is equivalent to posi-
classical information deficit ∆cl in the form I = ∆cl + ∆. tive operator-valued measurements optimizing the
This results in a natural analogy with the decomposi- measure of classical correlations of binary states. This
tion process for the case of amount of mutual informa- result follows from these quantitative measures and the
tion employed in describing various classical correla- result of optimization of classical correlations under the
tion measures [46]. The amount of estimated classical application of only projective measurements. There-
correlation and relative entropy (EREn) in entangled fore, we have
states also does not exceed in total the amount of the max [ J ( A : B ) { Π B } ] = Cor B ( ρ AB ).
von Neumann mutual information between the two i
subsystems, i.e., Then, we have

I ( ρ A : B ) > [ C B ( ρ AB ) ] opt + E REn . I ( A : B ) = Cor B + min δ ( A : B ) ,
Physically, this means that the choice of a non-opti- { Π iB }
mal positive operator-valued measurement may destroy i.e., for binary states, the classical correlation and quan-
the total correlation. It is natural that in the consider- tum chaos are the constituent components in the esti-
ation of all possible positive operator-valued measure- mation of mutual information. Therefore, there is no
ments for a given state, the optimal class of positive measurement that extracts classical correlation that is
operator-valued measurements cannot eliminate the able to change the value of mutual information between
total correlation. The possibility of different definitions two subsystems when the classical correlation is added
of measures of quantum correlations different from the to the relative entropy. This is confirmed by the state-
representation of them in the form (EREn) is another ment that it is more convenient to use the concept of
alternative, which makes the concepts of classical cor- quantum chaos as the quantum component for the clas-
relation and mutual information consistent. One of the sical correlation instead of relative entropy.
possible candidates is quantum chaos [50].
Example 14. Mutual information and quantum
chaos. In contrast to the definition of classical condi- 5. A MODEL OF QUANTUM FUZZY INFERENCE
tional entropy, the quantum conditional entropy is a BASED ON TECHNIQUES OF QUANTUM
dependent quantity on the measurement procedure con- AND SOFT COMPUTING
ducted over the investigated system. As the measure of According to the general ideas of implementation of
quantum chaos, we take [50, 51] models of quantum computing on a quantum algorith-
mic gate [8, 10, 23], the logical combination of partic-
δ ( A : B ) = I ( A : B ) – J ( A : B ){ΠB} . ular knowledge bases in a single generalized space can
i
be implemented with the help of the superposition
The quantity J specifies information about the sys- operator; then, using the quantum correlation operator
tem B based on the results of a series of measurements (which, in the search quantum algorithm, is described
{ Πi }
B
by various models of a quantum oracle [10]) the search
of a ìsuccessfulî marked solution is formalized, and,
J ( A : B ){ΠB} = S ( A ) – S ( A { Πi } )
B
using the interference operator together with classical
i
measurement operations, the desired “appropriate”
= S( A) – ∑ * p S ( *ρ i ),
solutions are extracted from the processes of quantum
A
i
computing (as a result of operation of the quantum
A algorithm). The additional operator in the local feed-
where *pi and *ρ i are chosen in advance as special back of the communication block of quantum fuzzy
cases of pi and ρ i , when the set of measurements are
A
inference (Fig. 1) plays the role of reinforcement of
quantum correlations in the course of controlling the
formed as bounded one-dimensional projections Π i .
B
search for successful solutions.
The presented definition of quantum chaos clearly The method of designing robust knowledge bases of
describes the inseparable dependence of quantum con- self-organizing structures of a fuzzy controller
ditional entropy on the measurement procedure. The described in what follows is based on a special (simpli-
measure of quantum chaos is zero if there exists a mea- fied) variant of the general model of quantum fuzzy

inference. Then, the considered model (as a particular a fuzzy PID controller for the current unpredicted con-
case of the quantum block in Fig. 1) uses as the input trol situation.
signal a finite set of partial knowledge bases designed
using the knowledge base optimizer) [1, 2, 7]. The
structure and the Quantum algorithm of the simplified 5.1. A Method for Solving the Problem
model of quantum fuzzy inference are applied in the For solving the problem posed, we apply the process
system for simulating knowledge bases of self-organiz- of extracting new hidden quantum information from a
ing structures of the fuzzy controller. The self-organiz- finite set of knowledge bases (designed with the help of
ing fuzzy controllers based on quantum fuzzy inference the knowledge base optimizer) based on the superposi-
are involved in control loops of robust on-line intelli- tion operator, as well as the method of reduction and
gent control systems (see in what follows the descrip- compression of redundant classical information in
tion in Section 7). knowledge bases of individual fuzzy controllers also
designed based on the knowledge base optimizer (see
Related works and results: quantum genetic algo- the Introduction). The processes of compression and
rithms and quantum evolutionary programming. Quan- reduction of redundant information in classical individ-
tum evolutionary programming, which, in turn, can be ual Knowledge bases forming the laws for controlling
divided conditionally into two fields [4, 10, 52], genetic the coefficient gains schedule of a fuzzy PID controller
algorithms generated by an analogue of quantum pro- are based on the laws and results of quantum informa-
cesses and quantum genetic algorithms, is a generalization theory [8, 10, 36, 37]. In particular, an efficient
tion of the so-called classical evolutionary algorithms algorithm of quantum information theory is applied for
in the theory of computational intelligence. data compression. Using the criterion of minimum of
In the first case, chromosomes in quantum cells are the von Neumann entropy, this algorithm maps the set
represented in the form of quantum bits, and the solu- of quantum (non-informative) bits into a small subset of
tion is found by the method of designing quantum algo- informative quantum bits that have a higher probability
rithmic gates (Fig. 2). In the second case, an attempt is to appear in the message. The reduction of redundant
made to solve the key problem in this field consisting of classical information in the laws for control of knowl-
how a genetic algorithm can be implemented in the edge bases of a fuzzy controller results in an increase in
tools of the hardware support of quantum computing. the value information and, as a consequence, in an
One of the main points for developing a family of quan- increase in the robust level of control processes without
tum genetic algorithms is to construct a quantum algo- loss of quality, such as the reliability of the accuracy
rithm that provides the advance of parallel computing support for control processes (see Figs. 1 and 3 in [7]).
of both genetic algorithms and quantum computing, As a result, the designed robust knowledge base for a
and due to the presence of quantum effects in computa- fuzzy controller (with the help of the model of quantum
tional processes, also provides an efficient random fuzzy inference) can adapt the laws for controlling the
search [10, 53]. coefficient gains schedule of a fuzzy PID controller to
unforeseen changes in the external environment of
Various models of quantum evolutionary program- functioning the control object and to uncertainty in the
ming, such as the optimization algorithm based on the source information about the control situation. In this
quantum swarm particle method, intelligent genetic paper, we consider the main ideas of quantum comput-
operators, etc, have been developed (see [4, 10, 52]). ing and quantum information theory as applied to the
Some of these models were descried briefly in [4, 52]. development of methods for designing a robust knowl-
In [10], the distinctions and general properties, such as edge base based on quantum fuzzy inference.
parallelism of computations in genetic algorithms and Applied aspect. Based on the result of simulating the
in the quantum algorithm, estimates of computational laws for controlling the gains of fuzzy PID controllers
complexity in quantum genetic algorithms, etc., were obtained by using the model of quantum fuzzy infer-
described. It is worth noting that the model of a quan- ence, a new principle for designing robust structures of
tum genetic algorithm presented in Fig. 1 generalizes intelligent control systems is formulated: the design of
the models of quantum evolutionary programming a fuzzy controller for efficient control of complex con-
listed above. trol objects that is simple in structure and practical
The main problem of the model of quantum fuzzy implementation with an improved wise level.
inference presented in the paper is to provide the possi- In this section, we consider briefly the necessary
bility of on-line realization of self-organization pro- properties and laws of quantum computing and quan-
cesses in designing control processes on the set of new tum information theory employed in the model of the
unpredictable control situations or under conditions of quantum block (Fig. 1) in the form of quantum fuzzy
incomplete information about the external environ- inference for the software support of the self-organiza-
ment, using a finite set of knowledge bases designed tion properties of robust fuzzy controllers (see Section 6
based on the knowledge base optimizer [3–5, 7]. The in what follows). A simplified model of quantum fuzzy
output of the quantum fuzzy inference block is the inference and the operation algorithm are investigated
robust control signal of the coefficient gains schedule of that allow one to obtain practical results in the pro-

cesses of designing robust knowledge bases in various |ψfin〉 reflects the result of computing by the action of
structures of intelligent control systems. the operator U on the initial state |ψin〉.
Choosing different forms of the operator U (in par-
5.2. Basic Structures and Models of Quantum ticular, Hamiltonian), we can form different models of
Computing Employed in the Model quantum computing. In the general form, the model of
of Quantum Fuzzy Inference quantum computing [8, 10] comprise the following five
stages:
The model of quantum fuzzy inference harnesses preparation of the initial (classical or quantum) state
and implements the processes of extraction of hidden |ψin〉;
quantum information contained in classical individual
knowledge bases for fuzzy controllers based on the execution of the Hadamard transform for the initial
physical laws of quantum information theory and quan- state in order to prepare the superposition state;
tum computing. Classical knowledge bases for fuzzy application of the entangled operator or the quantum
controllers were designed in [1, 7] in advance for par- correlation operator (quantum oracle) to the superposi-
ticular fixed control situations drawing the learning tion state;
processes based on the knowledge base optimizer, and application of the interference operator;
fuzzy controllers form optimal signals for controlling
the coefficient gains of conventional PID controllers. application of the measurement operator to the
To extract and aggregate the additional hidden valuable result of quantum computing |ψfin〉.
information in knowledge bases based on quantum Quantum operators work in an iterative mode,
fuzzy inference, it is necessary to enable new additional depending on the type of quantum algorithm. Note that
logical operators for data processing lacking in the it is supposed for the general case that certain computa-
tools of soft computing technology [3–5]. tional problems can be solved on a quantum computer
Additional (necessary for processing classical infor- more efficiently (with smaller computational complex-
mation) unitary invertible (quantum) operators have the ity, the so-called NP-problem) than on a classical com-
following names: superposition, quantum correlation puter. Moreover, with the help of efficient application
(entangled operators), interference, being mathematical of a quantum computer, we can obtain solutions of
tools of quantum computing [8–10]. In quantum com- problems that cannot be solved at the classical level;
puting theory (Section 2), we can distinguish the fol- i.e., the problem for which there is no classical (ran-
lowing two lines of investigations: domized) algorithm can be efficiently solved by apply-
ing the quantum algorithm.
given a set of points of a functional S = {(x, y)}, find
the form of an operator U such that the condition y = These observations testify that quantum algorithms
U · x holds; provide a physically substantiated background for not
only a technique for computation acceleration, but also
given a problem (quantum algorithm), find the form for finding solutions of complex problems using quan-
of the quantum scheme, a quantum algorithmic gate tum laws, such as superposition for extending the space
that solves this problem (implementing the given quan- of possible solutions, quantum parallelism of computa-
tum algorithm). tional processes in order to accelerate the search for
Algorithms for solving these problems can be solutions, and quantum interference in order to extract
implemented based both on hardware and with the help the desired solution. Additionally to the mentioned
of the corresponding software product with implemen- computational resources, quantum correlation is con-
tation on a conventional computer [10]. In [10, 23], the sidered as a new physical computational resource,
possibility of efficient simulation of the quantum algo- which allows one to increase sharply the successful
rithm on a conventional computer, which is used in this search of solutions to the problems that have not been
paper for simulating the quantum algorithm in quantum addressed in the classical computational field. Among
fuzzy inference was shown. these problems are the following: teleportation, super-
The fundamental result of the quantum computing dense coding, data transmission via quantum commu-
theory consists in the fact that all operations (similar to nication channels with an improved confidentiality and
the classical case) can be implemented in a circuit con- security level (against unauthorized access and eaves-
sisting of universal basis elements. In contrast to the drop), and the correction of quantum codes with a given
classical analogue, the quantum algorithmic gates can tolerance level, etc. [8–10].
be executed on various classes of universal elements From the mathematical point of view, joint quantum
depending on the employed computational basis. states are formed with the help of tensor (Kronecker)
Quantum algorithmic gates (with fixed computational product on Hilbert spaces of basis states. The result of
and measurement bases) provide a description of the this operation is a quantum register. The involvement of
evolution of a unitary operator U such that a quantum quantum correlation in the computational process leads
computational process |ψfin〉 = U|ψin〉 corresponds to it, to an increased rate and reliability of the search for
where the vector (wave function) |ψin〉 specifies the ini- solutions based on the corresponding quantum algo-
tial conditions for computing (the solved problem), and rithm, and due to the given physical computational

resource, many computational operations can be exe- sible to implement quantum computing based on a clas-
cuted in parallel. Therefore, in this sense, quantum cor- sically efficient emulator.
relation demonstrates a new special physical resource
of quantum computing. Thus, the method for designing quantum algorith-
mic gates developed in [10, 23] can be applied for sim-
From the point of view of functional capabilities, ulating the processes of global optimization of knowl-
quantum algorithms can be classified into the following edge bases in robust structures of intelligent control
two groups: decision-making algorithms and search systems using the technique of quantum computing,
algorithms. In quantum computations, first of all, the which contains software tools, such as quantum genetic
qualitative properties of functions, which are coded in search algorithm and quantum learning optimization
the initial quantum states, are of interest. To find a solu- processes. The model of quantum fuzzy inference is a
tion by using quantum algorithms, the initial superposi- basis of software optimization toolkit of this type.
tion of initial states is purposefully changed, applying
successfully the listed types of quantum operators. In Remark 7. The problem of evaluating quantum
this case, we can use the algebraic formalism, which is effects in the quantum algorithm and developing the
supported by abstracting logical inference relative to models of quantum algorithm themselves is referred to
quantum effects and maps the most important quantum the class of problems of increased complexity. In quan-
effect at the programming level, eliminating the diffi- tum computing, there are many technical difficulties
culty of a hardware implementation, such as decoher- connected with the necessity to manipulate with non-
ence. traditional properties of quantum information. Among
Quantum algebra allows one to formalize certain them is the impossibility of copying quantum informa-
important properties of quantum effects by including tion about an unknown quantum state, destruction of
their description in certain program attributes (Section valuable information contained in the superposition in
2). Then the software tools contain a technique for the measurement of computational results, and opera-
describing program attributes and efficient logical tions with concepts that are nonstandard for classical
inference on a large number of quantum bits and basis computing theory, such as quantum correlation, relative
states with a high level of quantum correlation, as well phase, or superposition. Superposition and quantum
as possesses a descriptive representation for physical correlation (entangled states) do not have classical ana-
properties of the described quantum operators [10, 27– logues and determine the power of quantum comput-
34]. This approach is hardware-independent and can be ing. The phase has a conventional interpretation of a
used as a model of quantum computing or the basis of continuous quantity, but in quantum computing, the
a quantum programming language. base phase unit plays an additional role of distinguish-
ing quantum states of intermediate states without pos-
In Section 2, examples illustrating the main quan-
sibility of copying. Note that the descriptive represen-
tum operators and the properties were considered.
tation of quantum operators points to the necessity to
Staged application of quantum algorithmic gates and
the measurement of computational results after applica- include the desired qualitative properties of functions in
tion of quantum operators in quantum algorithmic gates the process of preparation of the initial superposition of
allow one to implement quantum fuzzy inference on a initial quantum states as potential solutions.
classical computer (see Fig. 1). The quantum block Many of the most popular models of quantum com-
repeats iteratively k times quantum operations in order puting are direct quantum generalizations of the corre-
to reproduce a set of k basis vectors containing the sponding constructions of classical computations.
desired solution. Since the measurement is not a deter- Among them are the quantum Turing machine, quan-
ministic operation, the basis vectors obtained in the set tum gates, and random walk. These models are based
are not identical and each of them codes a part of infor- on unitary evolution (as a basis mechanism of informa-
mation necessary for solving the investigated problem. tion processes). Only at the end of computations, finite
The last component of the quantum algorithm contains measurements are conducted, which results in a map-
the block for interpretation of the set of basis vectors, ping of quantum information to classical one (for read-
which allows one to select the final informal solution of ing the computational result in the classical form). The
the investigated problem with a probability. two main ideas are considered. The first idea is con-
As was mentioned above, the fundamental result of nected with amplification of the probability amplitudes
quantum computing theory consists in the established of the desired solution, and the second idea states that
opportunity to embed all quantum algorithms into classical computations can be simulated on a quantum
quantum gates implemented using universal typical computer. Thus, instead of describing the quantum
elementary circuits (of type “AND”, “OR”, “NOT”, algorithm, we can deal with the corresponding classical
“controlled NOT”, etc.), which are employed in the algorithm, which gives a solution with a given error
structure of a conventional computer. These cells are probability. Then, the classical algorithm is trans-
described mathematically by unitary operators reflect- formed into a quantum algorithm, and the procedure for
ing the evolution of the computational process. In quan- amplification of the probability amplitude of the
tum computing theory, it was also shown that it is pos- desired solution in the quantum algorithm is applied.

Normalization block Density function of the probability

distribution
max K P
Quantum fuzzy inference

KFC1
1 2 Quantum bits 3Choice of n
Normalization states
KFC2 n=4
2n = 16 possible states
Oracle and 4
interference Superposition
5 Choice of the state

with maximum
probability amplitude
State
with quantum
correlation
6
Decoding New KQFI
Scaling C = {CP, CD, CI}
Fig. 2. The functional structure of QFI in real time.
Other models of quantum computing are based on fuzzy controller (“Initial state” step in Fig. 2) generated
the application of only irreversible measurements (one- in advance are input to quantum fuzzy inference. The
way quantum computing), on the theory of hidden vari- next step is a normalization process (block 1 in Fig. 2)
ables, and adiabatic quantum computing algorithms. for signals received in the interval [0, 1] by division of
There is also a model of quantum computing based on the amplitudes of the trajectories of control signals by
a dual quantum computer, using corpuscular and inter- the maximum amplitude (block “max K” together with
ference properties of quantum systems, etc. These mod- block 1 in Fig. 2).
els were investigated in [10] from the point of view of
the quantum theory of optimal control processes. With After normalization of signals, quantum bits are
account of remarks made, we analyze briefly the func- formed (block 2 in Fig. 2) from the current values of the
tional model of quantum fuzzy inference based on typ- normalized control signals. For this purpose, the den-
ical quantum operators of quantum computing. sity functions of the probability distribution are deter-
mined in advance based on representative sample tra-
jectories of control signals. Then, by integrating the
5.3. A Model of Quantum Fuzzy Inference obtained density functions of the probability distribu-
As was mentioned above, the main problem solved tion integral functions of the probability distribution are
by quantum fuzzy inference is to form a knowledge determined (blocks “P” and 2 in Fig. 2). The functions
base with improved robustness level from a finite set of the probability distribution obtained in this way
ofkKnowledge bases for fuzzy controllers generated allow one to select ìvirtualî states |1〉 of control signals
with application of techniques of soft computing and for forming the superposition using the Hadamard
stochastic simulation. Consider briefly the functional transform from the current state of selected control sig-
structure and operation of the basic blocks of quantum nals. Note that we use a probability law of the form
fuzzy inference. As an example without loss of gener- P(|0〉) + P(|1〉) = 1, where P(|0〉) and P(|1〉) are the prob-
ality of the result, we discuss the process of extracting abilities of the current real and virtual states of the con-
hidden quantum information, data processing, and gen- trol signals, respectively. For the current real normal-
eration of robust knowledge bases of fuzzy controllers ized state of the control signal |0〉, using the integral
using knowledge bases of two fuzzy controllers function of the probability distribution, we determine
designed for fixed control situations (different each its probability. Then, from the law of probability con-
from another). servation, the probability of the virtual state of the nor-
Figure 2 shows the functional structure of a simpli- malized control signal is calculated. Using the same
fied model of quantum fuzzy inference as a particular integral law of probability distribution, by the inverse
case of the generalized model presented in Fig. 1. In mapping, we calculate the value of the corresponding
real time, control signals from the knowledge base of virtual state of the control signal. Therefore, the super-

Probability distribution function

1.0
(y1, P0)2 = P{|0〉1, P}
0.8
p(x)
0.6
P(x)
0.6
(y1, P)2 = P{|1〉1, P} 0.2
0
0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
P{|0〉1, P} + P{|1〉1, P} = 1
|1〉1, P |0〉1, P
Control law Virtual Real
1.0 state
0.9 state
0.8 Quantum bit:
0.7 quantum state for kP (ti)
0.6
0.5 1 (y 0 · · |0〉 + y 1 · |1〉 )
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 |kPC1〉 = 1, P 1, P 1, P 1, P
200 600 1000 1400 1800 ti 2
Fig. 3. The process of forming quantum bits (block 2).
position of the quantum system “real state–virtual (between the virtual values of the normalized control
state” has the following form signal); and mixed (between the real and virtual values
of the normalized control signal).
1
|ψ〉 = ------- ( P ( |0〉 ) |0〉 + 1 – P ( |0〉 ) |1〉 ) The first two correlation types are investigated in the
2 correlation theory of stochastic (classical and quantum)
= Quantum bit. processes. The third type is new in the theory of quan-
tum stochastic processes and reflects the effect of inter-
Figure 3 presents the block diagram of the computa- ference of the classical and quantum correlation. This
tional process and formation of the quantum bit for the type of total correlation contains hidden classical corre-
current state of the normalized control system describ- lation in the formed superposition of quantum bits and
ing the gains of the fuzzy PID controller in the structure provides information resource for extracting additional
of the intelligent control system (Table). Next, the type (unobservable) valuable quantum information (see Sec-
of quantum correlation (Fig. 2, block 3) and the corre- tions 3 and 4).
sponding components of the applied type of correlation Figure 5 presents an example of forming the spatial
of the normalized control signals are chosen. For the correlation in quantum fuzzy inference from signals for
considered situation, three types of quantum correla- controlling the gains of two fuzzy PID controllers with
tion are possible (containing valuable quantum infor- a knowledge base designed using the tools of the
mation hidden in the designed knowledge bases): spa- knowledge base optimizer for two different control sit-
tial, temporal, and spatial–temporal. uations. According to Fig. 5, the quantum spatial corre-
Figure 4 presents the three listed types of correlation lation (as a type) is classified in turn into two correla-
between the processes of controlling the gains of two tion types: internal and external. The internal correla-
fuzzy PID controllers. The fundamental distinctive fea- tion is formed by establishing static interrelations
ture, characterizing the relation between the classical between the output signals for controlling the gains of
and quantum correlation types, is the following fact. In the first given fuzzy controller of type KFC1. The exter-
the quantum variant, there is no cross (mixed) correla- nal correlation type characterizes the relation between
tion between the real and virtual states of the normal- the corresponding control signals of the first KFC1 and
ized control signal. Classical correlation in this case second KFC2 fuzzy controllers, where the subscript
manifests itself as a particular case of total quantum “FCl” means fuzzy controller 1 (FC1), and the sub-
correlation. Therefore, the total correlation consists of script “FC2” means fuzzy controller 2 (FC2). In what
the following components: classical (between real val- follows, we present a more detailed description of the
ues of the normalized control signal); quantum notation in Fig. 5.

(‡) (b) (c)
1 |o〉P 1 |1〉P
|kP〉 |kP〉
|1〉P
1 |kP〉
0 |1〉P t 0 |o〉P t
t1 t2 …… ti t1 t2 …… ti
0 |o〉P
1 t
|l〉D 1
|kD〉 t1 t2 … ti … tj |kD〉
0 |o〉D t 0 t
t1 t2 …… ti t1 t2 …… tj
Fig. 4. Types of quantum correlations in the laws for controlling the coefficient gains of a PID controller in on-line: (a) spatial,
(b) temporal, (c) spatial-temporal.
External Internal State of four

correlation correlation quantum bits
|kPFC1〉
K |kFC1
D 〉
FC1
|kIFC1〉
|kPFC2〉
K
FC2 |kD
FC2〉
|kIFC2〉
kP kD kI
Fig. 5. The process of forming the internal and external spatial correlation for new gains kP, kD, and kI.
Note that analogous considerations are valid for the Consider the algorithm of forming the superposition
temporal and spatial–temporal correlations. As a result (Fig. 2, block 4) for calculating the optimal value of,
e.g., the proportional gain of a fuzzy PID controller
of forming these types and forms of quantum correla- (Fig. 2, block 5) using the knowledge bases of two
tion the coordination control between the gains is per- fuzzy controllers from different control situations. The
formed using the corresponding internal and external other gains are obtained using a similar algorithm.
correlations. Therefore, for the particular case of two Figure 6 shows an example of calculating the
fuzzy controllers considered, each quantum superposi- desired set of values of the proportional gain from the
set of combinations
tion state of the chosen gain is described by four quan-
{ k P , k P , k D , k D }.
FC1 FC2 FC1 FC2
tum bits.

FC1 FC2 FC1 FC2
|k P 〉 ⊗ |k P 〉 ⊗ |k D 〉 ⊗ |k D 〉
1 0 1 1 0 1
= ------- ( y 1, P ⋅ |0〉 1, P + y 1, P ⋅ |1〉 1, P ) ⊗ ------- ( y 2, P ⋅ |0〉 2, P + y 2, P ⋅ |1〉 2, P ) ⊗
2 2
1 0 1 1 0 1
⊗ ------- ( y 1, D ⋅ |0〉 1, D + y 1, D ⋅ |1〉 1, D ) ⊗ ------- ( y 2, D ⋅ |0〉 2, D + y 2, D ⋅ |1〉 2, D )
2 2
= --------- ⎛ α 1 ⋅ |0000〉 + α 2 ⋅ |0001〉 + … + α 2n – 1 ⋅ |1110〉 + α 2n ⋅ |1111〉 ⎞

1
n⎝ ⎠
2
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
16 possible states (n = 4)
0 0 0 0
α 1 = y 1, P y 2, P y 1, D y 2, D : probability amplitude
FC1 FC2 FC1 FC2

Fig. 6. An example of calculating the proportional gain kP based on the set { k P , k P , k D , k D } , new kP (the superposition
of four chosen states).
FC1
Here, k P is the applied value of the signals for increase in the robustness level of the new designed
controlling the proportional gain of the knowledge base knowledge base due to the new type of coordination.
of the first fuzzy controller designed for the first fixed The application of entangled states in the three types of
FC2 correlation gives an opportunity to improve the robust-
control situation; k D is the value of the signals for ness level of the designed knowledge base (with the
controlling the differential gain of knowledge base of help of physical properties of entangled states), using
the second fuzzy controller designed for the second the teleportation effect between quantum states in the
control situation (which is essentially different from the formed superposition (see Fig. 1). This approach to
first one in the external conditions of functioning of the designing robust knowledge bases does not have classi-
control object). Applying tensor product between the cal analogues and differs by the pure quantum nature of
Hadamard transforms, we obtain the terms of the form the obtained design effects.
k P ⊗ k D and similar combinations of gains. As can
FC1 FC2
The choice of the priority quantum state in the
be seen from the notation in Fig. 6, there are 16 possible
states describing the combinations of correlations (with superposition under a fixed correlation type (in this
account of their type and form) between the corre- case, spatial) is executed in block 5 in Fig. 2. Consider
sponding gains of the two fuzzy controllers designed a possible approach to the choice of an optimization cri-
for different control situations. terion for extracting the priority state from the superpo-
sition formed in block 4 (Fig. 2) of coded possible
It is worth noting that there is a fundamental specific states of the gains of a fuzzy PID controller. For this
feature of the process of forming and designing a new purpose, we use the concept of ìintelligent quantum
type of robust gains of a fuzzy PID controller by apply- stateî introduced in quantum measurement theory as a
ing the quantum superposition operator. The superposi- state with minimum uncertainty (in the sense of the
tion operation allows one to join different knowledge minimum of the Heisenberg uncertainty inequality)
bases logically and to distinguish the correlation prior- [54, 55]. This concept is also associated with the solu-
ity of particular states in the superposition of knowl- tion of quantum wave equations (of the Schredinger
edge bases with application of various optimization cri- type, etc.), for which the wave packet of the state of a
teria. When using the knowledge base optimizer based quantum system is a coherent state. In this state, the
on soft computing, the formation of an individual uncertainty relation attains the global minimum. The
knowledge base is performed by the random search in definition and calculation of the state in the quantum
the genetic algorithm on a fixed search space. Note that algorithm was given in [25, 26] based on the definition
the random search is performed independently for three of the von Neumann entropy and information Shannon
gains in the fuzzy PID controller. This means that other
entropy in this quantum state. By [10, 26], the ìintelli-
sets of gains that have the equivalent total control effect
may exist. gent quantum stateî in the quantum algorithm is the
minimum of the difference between the information
New types and forms of quantum correlation allow Shannon entropy of the quantum state and the physical
one to perform coordinated control of gains by using von Neumann entropy of the quantum state
only the physical resources of the employed correlation
form. This results in compression and elimination (|Quantum state〉) = min(HSh – SνN), (5.1)
(reduction) of redundant information in the indepen-
dent laws of controlling the gains, extraction of the where HSh and SνN are the Shannon and von Neumann
most valuable information, and, as a consequence, in an entropies, respectively. According to the laws of quan-

tum information theory, we have the following inequal- Using the standard decoding procedure (inner prod-
ity: uct of vectors in a Hilbert space) and choosing the scal-
ing coefficients for the output values of the designed
HSh ≥ SνN Ú.Â., (|Quantum state〉) ≥ 0. gains (Fig. 2, block 6), the iterative operation of the
Remark 8. We recall that the squared probability quantum algorithm of quantum fuzzy inference is per-
amplitude of a state in quantum mechanics is equal to formed. The presented model of the quantum algorithm
the classical probability of the event that the quantum for quantum fuzzy inference allows one to solve classi-
system is located in a given state (the Bohr postulate, cal problems of designing knowledge bases of fuzzy
which have several variants of thorough substantiation controllers in the structures of intelligent control sys-
[57]). tems that have no analogues among the families of ran-
domized classical algorithms and are characterized by
From the point of view of quantum information the- polynomial computational complexity (BQP computa-
ory, it is well known that a pure quantum state is char- tional complexity class).
acterized by the zero value of the von Neumann
entropy. Therefore, in the considered quantum algo-
rithm, the ìintelligent stateî takes place for the mini- 5.4. Quantum Information Resource in the Quantum
mum of the Shannon information entropy of the quan- Fuzzy Inference Algorithm
tum state. In turn, the desired minimum is attained
under the maximum of the probability state (by the def- The algorithm for finding, extracting and coding
inition of the information Shannon entropy of the quan- additional valuable information from two fuzzy PID
∑
controllers (designed with the help of the knowledge
tum state HSh = – i p i ln p i , , i.e., the global minimum base optimizer) based on the quantum fuzzy inference
is observed for the probability maximum pi). Since pi is algorithm is described briefly in the Appendix and in
the corresponding probability amplitude squared by the detail in [3–5, 10]. The basic stages and the structure of
definition, the maximum principle for the probability the quantum fuzzy inference algorithm were presented
amplitude in the correlated state can be taken as the cri- in Subsection 5.3. Here, we give the structure of the
terion for the choice of the priority intelligent correla- information resource of the quantum fuzzy inference
tion (coherent) state in the superposition of possible algorithm from the point of view of quantum informa-
candidates. tion theory [8, 10, 45] (Section 4).
Thus, the calculation of amplitudes of quantum As was shown in Section 3, the process of optimal
states in the superposition of states with mixed forms of extraction of valuable information from the set of
quantum correlation (block 5 in Fig. 2) and the choice knowledge bases obtained based on the soft computing
of the maximum one among them is realized by the technique is based on the following four facts in quan-
model of a quantum oracle possessing (by the definition tum information theory [4, 10]: (1) there is an efficient
of a quantum oracle) necessary information about the algorithm of quantum data compression; (2) there
desired solution. Figure 7 shows the block diagram of exists a coupled representation of quantum and classi-
this algorithm. cal information in the quantum state; (3) total correla-
FC1 FC2 FC1 FC2

|k P 〉 ⊗ |k P 〉 ⊗ |k D 〉 ⊗ |k D 〉 Quantum superposition state
Classical
⎛ state ⎞---
1 ⎜ ⎟
= --------- ⎜ α 1 ⋅ |0000〉 + α 2 ⋅ |0001〉 + … + α 2n – 1 ⋅ |1110〉 + α 2n ⋅ |1111〉 ⎟---
n⎜ ⎟---
2
⎝ quantum probability ⎠
correlation amplitude
16 states (n = 4)
0 0 0 0
Interference α 1 = y 1, P y 2, P y 1, D y 2, D
Oracle
0 0 0 1
max α 2 = y 1, P y 2, P y 1, D y 2, D
α k ⋅ |a 1 a 2 a 3 a 4〉

Chosen 1 1 1 1
state α 16 = y 1, P y 2, P y 1, D y 2, D
Fig. 7. The choice of quantum state according to the principle of maximum of probability amplitude (minimum of Shannon infor-
mation entropy).

Delay time (for temporal

correlation): t_corr/sampletime
Main menu of QFI

Set of KB
Correlation of KB (432)
kPFC0
KB optimizer based on quantum computing
kDFC0 kPnew
Histogram
kIFC0 kDnew
Quantum fuzzy inference
kInew
Robust KB
kPFC2
kDFC2
Scaling
kIFC2 coefficients
max kP(D, I)
Description of the correlation type
Fig. 8. The main menu of QFI with the use of quantum optimizer of KB.
tion in the quantum state is a mix of classical and quan- of redundant information in classical control signals. In
tum correlations; and (4) there is hidden (observable, the next sections of the paper, we consider the applica-
i.e., accessible for extraction) classical correlation in tion of this information resource to the structure of the
the quantum state [40–48]. quantum fuzzy inference algorithm.
The quantum fuzzy inference algorithm employs the
listed four facts as follows: classical information is 6. SOFTWARE TOOLKIT AND SPECIFIC
compressed by coding in the computational basis {|0〉, FEATURES OF THE DESIGN OF ROBUST
|1〉}, and the quantum correlation between different KNOWLEDGE BASES FOR SELF-ORGANIZING
computational bases of the designed knowledge bases FUZZY CONTROLLERS WITH APPLICATION OF
is formed; the total information and correlation are sep- QUANTUM FUZZY INFERENCE
arated and coupled into classical and quantum compo-
nents using the Hadamard transform (facts 2 and 3); In subsection 5.3, we considered a particular quan-
and the extraction of the hidden information in the tum algorithm for quantum fuzzy inference, which can
quantum state is provided, and the operation of reduc- be implemented on a conventional computer in the
tion of redundant information in the classical control form of quantum algorithmic gates in accordance with
signal is performed (fact 4), applying the criterion of the design technology developed in [23]. In this section,
maximum of the corresponding probability amplitude. the structure of the quantum algorithmic gates software
Therefore, the listed facts provide a background of the product developed for implementation of quantum
information resource of the quantum fuzzy inference fuzzy inference on a conventional computer is pre-
algorithm and give the opportunity to extract additional sented. Figure 8 shows that main program menu of
amount of valuable quantum information from individ- quantum fuzzy inference, in which all blocks of quan-
ual robust knowledge bases, as well as to use it for tum fuzzy inference and quantum algorithm are pre-
designing robust control processes with an improved sented by program windows reflecting clearly the oper-
intelligent level. The ground of the applied effect is ation of quantum fuzzy inference in a graphical form.
given by the procedures of compression and reduction Figure 9 presents an example of the structure, the main

Self-organizing
quantum FC
FC1
QFI
FC2 Adjustment
of a self-organized KB
in on-line
Reference
(Y) + PID Controlled (X)
signal controller + + plant
–
Real physical CP
or a model of CP
m(t)
Noise
Z –1 Sensor system
Delay
Unpredicted control time
situations
Fig. 9. Principle structure of a self-organizing ICS in unpredicted control situations.
stages for forming and designing a robust knowledge It is also worth recalling that the correct definition of
base of fuzzy controller from two knowledge bases of an optimal form of fuzzy inference, the type and quan-
fuzzy controllers obtained by the tools of the knowl- tity of production rules used and the membership func-
edge base optimizer. This figure also specifies possible tions of linguistic variables in knowledge bases and
sources of unpredicted control situations. Figure 19 data bases for the employed fuzzy controllers is a cen-
shows the block diagram of the simulation of the quan- tral and most complex problem in the design of robust
tum algorithm in quantum fuzzy inference imple- knowledge bases. It is this problem that is solved opti-
mented in Simulink. In this section, we consider the mally at the first stage of the design technology by the
operation of the quantum algorithm stage-by-stage and knowledge base optimizer for a fixed control situation.
give a detailed description of the specific features of A signal of physical measurements of the dynamical
blocks of quantum fuzzy inference (Fig. 10) presented behavior of the controlled object or the results of simu-
in the form of a block diagram in Figs. 2 and 9. lation data (called the teaching signal (TS)) can be the
input for the knowledge base optimizer. To design the
(teaching signal) (or an estimate of the fitness function
6.1. Input Signals in Quantum Fuzzy Inference of the genetic algorithm), we apply a stochastic model-
ing system in order to extract knowledge from the
The design of the set of source knowledge bases for dynamic behavior of the controlled object based on the
fuzzy controllers based on the knowledge base opti- corresponding physical or mathematical model.
mizer with the use of the soft computing technique is A detailed description of the structure and functional
the first stage of operation of the mentioned tools (see features of the knowledge base optimizer was presented
the “QFI” window in the menu of Fig. 8). At the struc- in [1, 2]. The stochastic simulation system based of the
tural level [1, 7], the knowledge base optimizer is method of nonlinear forming filters and a solution of
regarded as a new flexible software product for imple- the Fokker–Planck–Kolmogorov equation was addi-
menting computational intelligence, which is used effi- tionally described in [7].
ciently in designing optimal structures and the required Thus, robust individual knowledge bases were
robustness level of knowledge bases in fuzzy control- designed for a fixed control situation. The output sig-
lers. In the structure of the knowledge base optimizer, a nals from the designed knowledge bases are input in
chain of logically interrelated genetic algorithms with on-line in the form of signals for controlling the coeffi-
fitness functions in the form of information–thermody- cient schedule of the PID controllers employed to the
namic cost functions of control for rough optimization quantum fuzzy inference block as the current reaction
of the structure of knowledge bases is given. A standard to a new control error. In this case, another information
learning algorithm based on the error backpropagation about the physical structure of the employed fuzzy con-
method is used for fine adjustment of the parameters of troller and its knowledge base, as well as what produc-
membership functions in knowledge bases. tion rules have fired in the unpredicted control situa-

Hê1 Gains
Input of the FC1
SCoptimizer based K1
FIS Output
Quantum
Weights algorithm of QFI
1 K–FC1
In1 Gains
of the FC2 Out1 1
Hê2 K–FC2 Out1
Input
SCoptimizer based K2
FIS Output
Quantum Computing Block
Weights
SCoptimizer S-Function FC2

Ground
Fig. 10. The block diagram of the simulation of the quantum algorithm of QFI in Simulink.
tion, are not required for the operation of the quantum object and the presence of a time delay in the channel
algorithm in quantum fuzzy inference. for measuring the control error). Using the mentioned
four facts from quantum information theory, quantum
fuzzy inference extracts valuable hidden information
6.2. Basic Operators in Quantum Fuzzy Inference from knowledge bases of the two designed fuzzy con-
(by the Example of Superposition of the Input Signals) trollers. From the point of view of quantum information
As was shown in Subsection 5.2 the quantum algo- theory, in this case, for the sake of quantum correlation,
rithm in the quantum fuzzy inference block (Fig. 1) is the data exchange between the knowledge bases of the
based structurally on the main quantum operators of two fuzzy controllers is obtained in the communication
quantum algorithm theory: superposition of classical channel formed using different forms of quantum cor-
states formed at the output of the knowledge base opti- relation (Sections 3 and 4). The noted effect of data
mizer; the operator for forming entangled states (quan- exchange is a pure quantum effect and is impossible at
tum oracle), interference, as well as classical irrevers- the classical level of description of design processes for
ible measurements (see Fig. 7). robust knowledge bases of fuzzy controllers.
Remark 9. Let us recall that the employed knowl- In this paper, as a particular example we consider a
edge bases of two fuzzy controllers were designed in an simple case of quantum fuzzy inference presented in
off-line mode for a given goal and different control sit- Fig. 1 (without optimization of the choice of the form
uations (under various noise acting on the controlled and type of quantum correlation). The model of simpli-
fied quantum fuzzy inference and its specific features
were also considered in detail in [4, 10]. The input sig-
µ(x) nals in quantum fuzzy inference are converted in the
1.0 superposition state K1(t) ⊗ K2(t), where ⊗ is the tensor
product operation, and K1, 2(t) are the gains of the PID
0.9 controller formed by the knowledge bases of two fuzzy
0.8 controllers (FC0 and FC1). The algorithm for calculat-
ing the superposition of control signals of different
0.7 Membership Large knowledge bases of fuzzy controllers was developed in
0.6
degree [3–5] and is presented in detail in what follows. To
Small
understand the physical essence of the quantum super-
0.5 position of classical states, we discuss the specific fea-
tures of the definition of the quantum superposition
0.4 Membership
degree Classical state and its characteristic distinctions from the classi-
state
0.3 cal state on a fuzzy set of events.
0.2 In fuzzy sets theory, the physical state is mapped
into a linguistic (in the general case, subjective) scale in
0.1 the form of a linguistic variable given by an expert. Fig-
ure 11 shows the situation for the linguistic variables
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 “large” and “small” describing the physical state in the
x form of a numeral measurement 4.23. According to the
definition of fuzzy sets theory, we have a fuzzy state
Fig. 11. Definition of fuzzy state. ìsmallî as 4.23/0.79 and fuzzy state ìlargeî as 4.23/0.21.

Thus, a number is characterized by two linguistic

variables and can be interpreted simultaneously as
ìsmallî with the membership degree 0.79 and ìlargeî
with the membership degree 0.21. In this case, the lin- 1 Classical
state
guistic variable ìlargeî is characterized by the member-
ship function µL, which is defined in terms of the mem- 2
---
Probability amplitude
bership function µS of the linguistic variable ìsmallî in 3 1
|0〉 + 2 |1〉
the form µL = 1 – µS, i.e., involves the negation law. Note
3 te
sta
tum
that the law of excluded middle is not satisfied, and the 1 Quan
fuzzy state itself is non-measurable in view of the 3
absence measurement processes in fuzzy sets theory.
Classical
In quantum mechanics, the quantum superposition state
state consists of two or more classical states with given
probability amplitudes and, physically, is an observable
state (called observable in quantum mechanics) Figure 12 “Large” |0〉 “Small” |1〉
shows the quantum state of superposition of two states
ìlargeî and ìsmall.î Fig. 12. Definition of the superposition quantum state.
The essential distinction of quantum superposition
from a fuzzy state consists in the fact that the result of
measurement of observable (in a given measurement U f |00…0〉 = |s f 〉,
basis) is a single classical state that have the greatest
probability amplitude. All the other states in the super- where |sf〉 determines the superposition state among a
position are not accessible for the observer. The quan- finite number of classical states.
tum superposition state is objective and does not Thus, each operator Uf(i) maps a particular quantum
depend on the observer and is confirmed by many bit from the initial state to the mixed superposition state
experiments in quantum mechanics. Note that in the with a given state probability f(i). The geometrical
quantum superposition, the principle of complementar- interpretation of the operator Uf(i) is the Bloch sphere
ity for numerical values of the states themselves is sat- with rotation about the axis y by the angle
isfied, which includes the law of logical negation as a
particular case. For example, for the quantum state of
θ i = 2 arcsin ( f ( i ) ).
superposition of the “large” |1〉 and “small” |0〉 in the
1
form ------- (|0〉 + 2 |1〉), presented in Fig. 12, we have a Figures 3 and 6 shows the process of designing the
3 quantum superposition state from classical states of
conservation law in the form measurement of the gains of the PID controller accord-
2 ing to the scheme of Fig. 9. For example, if the normal-
p i = ⎛ -------⎞ + ⎛ ---⎞ = 1.
1 2
∑ ized state |0〉 (a coded value of a gain) for the current
2
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ time instant was 0.91, then the probability of this state
i = 1, 2
is 0.8 (see Fig. 3). According to the law of probability
However, in contrast to the fuzzy state considered conservation, the virtual complementary state |01〉 has
above, the linguistic variables ìlargeî and ìsmallî are the probability of revealing 0.2 with the numerical
characterized by different numerical values in the gen- value 0.6 (note that 0.91 + 0.6 ≠ 1 in view of the princi-
eral case. ple of complementarity, rather than applying the logical
In quantum computing theory (see Section 2), the negation law 1 – 0.91 = 0.09).
computations start from the action of the evolution Figure 13 shows the block of designing the quantum
operation Uf of the initial state |00…0〉 in the form of superposition state built-in in the main menu (see Fig. 8).
the unitary Walsh–Hadamard transform Figure 14 presents the initialization of the functions of
quantum fuzzy inference in the developed software
U f = ⊗U f ( i ) , product. Figure 15 presents graphically the result of ini-
where tialization of the process of forming the quantum super-
position state based on the Walsh–Hadamard trans-
⎛ ⎞ form.
U f (i) = ⎜ f (i) – 1 – f (i) ⎟ Applying the Walsh–Hadamard transform, we orga-
⎜ ⎟ nize the process of forming hidden (unobservable)
⎝ 1 – f (i) f (i) ⎠
mixed correlation in the superposition of signals of two
classical knowledge bases of fuzzy controllers; entan-
and f ( i ) determines the probability amplitude of the gled states are simulated by a quantum oracle, which
ith classical state in the quantum superposition. As a can determine the maximum probability amplitude on
result, we have the set of the corresponding classical superposition

Constant
1 +
Virtual
– 1–γ
state
K– 4
|1〉
|1〉
Gain
1 x(P) normalization
|0〉 Y
X
Saturation
P(x) Probability
Current
state kP sqrt 2 amplitude
–K– A1 of the virtual
Gain1 Math state
Function
sqrt 1
normalization A0
3 Math
Function 1
|0〉
Normalization
state Probability
amplitude
Real of the real
state state
Fig. 13. The design of quantum superposition state.
states. Based on the maximum of the probability ampli- of quantum fuzzy inference (see the description of four
tude, the correlation state is extracted with the help of facts from quantum information theory in Section 3).
the interference operator (in the form of the identity From the point of view of quantum information the-
operator) together with the procedure of classical mea- ory, the structure of the quantum algorithm in quantum
surement (observation). Figure 7 illustrates the infor- fuzzy inference plays the role of a quantum filter simul-
mal content of the computational process of the quan- taneously. The knowledge bases consist of logical pro-
tum algorithm in quantum fuzzy inference and the duction rules, which, based on a given control error,
functioning of quantum operators as a whole. form the laws of the coefficient gains schedule in the
employed fuzzy PID controllers. The quantum algo-
6.3. Specific Features of Applying rithm in this case allows one to extract the necessary
Quantum Fuzzy Inference valuable information from the reaction of two (or more)
knowledge bases to an unpredicted control situation by
Let us stress the fundamentally important specific eliminating additional redundant information in the
feature of operation of the quantum algorithm (in the laws of the coefficient gains schedule of the controllers
quantum fuzzy inference model) in the process of employed. The output signal of quantum fuzzy infer-
designing robust laws for controlling the gains based on ence is provided by new laws of the coefficient gains
the designed individual knowledge bases. schedule of the PID controllers (see Fig. 16 in what fol-
A. The robust laws designed by the model of quan- lows). Note that for forming a robust knowledge base in
tum fuzzy inference are determined in a learning mode on-line, any signals of learning can be the input to
based on the output reactions of individual knowledge quantum fuzzy inference obtained from individual
bases (with a fixed set of production rules) to the cur- knowledge bases independently of the applied software
rent unpredicted control situation in the form signals simulation tools (or TS) obtained experimentally) [10].
for controlling coefficient gains schedule of the PID B. At the second stage of design with application of
controller and implement the adaptation process in on- the model of quantum fuzzy inference, we do not need
line. This effect is achieved only by the use of the laws yet to form new production rules. It is sufficient only to
of quantum information theory in the developed structure receive in on-line the reaction of production rules in the

Indices = [456]
File of patterns:
{[E dE IE] [kP kD kI]}
Calculation of the probability Inversion

distribution operation
P(x) x(P)
Fig. 14. The initialization of QFI functions: Matlab function (initQFI.m).
employed FC fuzzy controller to the current unpre- using quantum fuzzy inference in problems of control-
dicted control situation in the form of the output signals ling a plant with weakly formalized structure and a
for controlling the coefficient gains schedule of the large dimension of the phase space of controlled param-
fuzzy PID controller. In this case, to provide the opera- eters. Let us illustrate the efficiency of application of
tion of the model of quantum fuzzy inference, the quantum fuzzy inference by a particular example.
knowledge of particular production rules fired in the
knowledge base is not required, which gives a big
advantage, which is expressed the form of an opportu- 7. RESULTS OF SIMULATION
nity of designing control processes with the required OF THE OPERATION OF A SELF-ORGANIZING
robustness level in on-line. Note that the achievement FUZZY CONTROLLER WITH APPLICATION
OF QUANTUM FUZZY INFERENCE
of the required robustness level in an unpredicted con-
IN UNPREDICTED CONTROL SITUATIONS
trol situation essentially depends in a number of cases
on the quality and quantity of the employed individual Consider practical application of the developed
knowledge base. model of quantum fuzzy inference for forming pro-
cesses of the controlling coefficient gains schedule of a
Thus, the quantum algorithm in the model of quan- fuzzy PID controller depending on the type and form of
tum fuzzy inference is a physical prototype of produc- quantum correlation. This approach is applied to simu-
tion rules, implements a virtual robust knowledge base lating robust knowledge bases for fuzzy controllers in
for a fuzzy PID controller in a program way (for the the structures of intelligent control systems for essen-
current unpredicted control situation), and is a prob- tially nonlinear controlled object. Models of controlled
lem-independent toolkit. The presented facts give an objects have different forms of dynamic instability and
opportunity to use experimental data of the teaching function in various unpredicted control situations. Fig-
signal without designing a mathematical model of the ure 16 shows the block diagram of the simulation of a
controlled object. This approach offers the challenge of self-organizing fuzzy controller in Simulink.

Quantum
transformation
operators
0.5
0
Quantum
–0.5 superposition
operation
|0〉
|1〉
|1〉 |0〉
0.3
0.5
0.2
0 0.1
0
–0.5 –0.1
–0.2
|0〉
|1〉 –0.3
|1〉 |0〉 0〉
|00 01〉 |
|0 10〉 |11 111〉
|0 11〉 |
|10 101〉 〉
0
|0 00〉 |
|1 01〉 |01 011〉 〉
0
|1 10〉 |
|00 001〉 〉
0
|1 11〉 0〉
|1
0.5
Tensor
0 product
–0.5
|0〉
|1〉
|1〉 |0〉
Fig. 15. The preparation of the superposition state based on the Walsh–Hadamard transform and tensor product.
In accordance with the quantum algorithm in quan- in the formed superpositions; note that for each time
tum fuzzy inference, the following operations were per- instant, control laws for three types of correlations were
formed at the first stage: the normalization of data of determined with application of the procedures of
two knowledge bases (TS0 and TS1); coding of states decoding and scaling of the gains of the fuzzy PID con-
and statistical processing in order to form an integral troller in on-line mode. Consider the important problem
law of probability distribution; formation of the super- of extracting quantum information from classical states
position of the corresponding coded control signals for of the designed control laws based on the choice of a
three types of quantum correlation, spatial, temporal, type of quantum correlation using the results of com-
and spatial–temporal. parative analysis of their effect on the control robust-
Then, according to the next step of the quantum ness.
algorithm, amplitudes are calculated and the maximum Example 15. The effect of types of quantum correla-
amplitude of the probabilities of quantum states are tion on the form of processes of the controlling coeffi-
determined (the actions of the oracle and interference) cient gains schedule of a fuzzy PID controller. By

Limited control
force
QFI block
12:34 Time Model of a controlled

In1 Out1 plant
Digital Clock to Workspace2
Control Force Limit DX simoutDX
Quantum Fuzzy Inference Benchmaik dynamic system
Control Number to Workspace
controlled el: X simoutX
0 FAST_MODE1
to Workspace1
Reference Signal K U
Reference control Controlled
Ref dSc simoutErr
signal PID controller External
X Error To Workspace7 Noise
PID controller Terminator2
Gain1 External Noise
Measurement signal 1 r4_1t200.mat

Derivative
delay
du/dt 1
x Sensor time delay Selector
1
s U(E) U
g1t200.mat 0.01
Selektor1
Sensor noise Noise Gain
Parametric measurement
noise
Control
error
Fig. 16. The block diagram of simulation of a self-organizing FC in Simulink.
Fig. 4, we have three types of quantum correlation, spa- Figure 17a shows the laws for the controlling coef-
tial, temporal, and spatial–temporal. As the initial ficient gains schedule of two fuzzy PID controllers
knowledge bases, we use signals for the controlling designed for the following situations of control in the
coefficient gains schedule of two fuzzy PID controllers learning mode (off-line) on the teaching signal from the
designed by the knowledge base optimizer (see the knowledge base optimizer: (i) under the action of the
results of simulation of the corresponding control sig- Gaussian noise on the controlled object (teaching situ-
nals in [7] and example 17 in what follows). ation TS0); and (ii) in the condition of the action of the
Rayleigh noise on the controlled object (teaching situ-
ation TS1).
7.1. Sensitivity of Designed Control laws were obtained based on the simulation
Individual Knowledge Bases block diagram presented in Fig. 16. All the characteris-
tics of the random noise were described in [1, 7], and,
First of all, we consider the sensitivity of the in this section, they are used as the initial data. The
designed knowledge bases on the teaching situations) noise has the same correlation function
to the variation of the conditions of a control situation
α
R ( τ ) = σ exp { –α τ } ⎛ cos ωτ + ---- sin ω τ ⎞ ,
2
based on simulation schemes of Figs. 9 and 16. As
⎝ ω ⎠
models of a controlled object, model (7.1) described
above was used. The sensitivity of a knowledge base but differs in the functions of probability distribution
determines the reaction of the controlled object to an (Fig. 18). The form and parameters of the forming fil-
unpredicted control situation. These two information ters are presented in [1, 7]. The effect of the noise form
sources together give a physical resource for extracting on the variation of the law of the controlling coefficient
additional hidden quantum information in classical gains schedule for the second situation is considered in
states of the variation of the coefficient gains of the PID Fig. 17b (the effect of the Gaussian noise in the control
controller. situation TS1, when the knowledge base for the fuzzy

(‡)
KPgain
60
40
20
0
KDgain
60
40
20
0
KIgain
60 TS1 : FC1
TS0 : FC0
40
20
(b)
KPgain
60
40
20
0
KDgain
60
40
20
0
KIgain
60 TS0 : FC1
TS0 : FC0
40
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, s
Fig. 17. The effect of the form of noise on the laws of processes of controlling the coefficient gains of fuzzy PID controllers.

Gaussian noise
4
–2
–4
Raileigh noise
4
–2
–4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time, s
Fig. 18. The form of random noise, Gaussian noise (at the top) and Rayleigh noise (at the bottom) with the same correlation func-
tions.
controller was designed based on the Rayleigh noise). simulation and investigation of the robust control in
Figures 17a and 17b specify the typical changes of the example 17. Consider the design of a self-organizing
laws of the controlling coefficient gains schedule for robust fuzzy controller based on the application of
the situation TS1 under the change of the type of ran- quantum fuzzy inference for a nonlinear controlled
dom noise. object in unpredicted control situations.
Example 16. Robust intelligent control of a nonlin-
7.2. Simulation of the Types of Quantum Correlation ear controlled object (with essential dissipation and
and Control Laws local instability). The motion equations of the con-
trolled object and the formation of the control force are
Figure 19 shows the results of simulation of the laws considered together with the thermodynamic condi-
of the controlling coefficient gains schedule of the tions in the following form:
fuzzy PID control based on the software support and
tools (Fig. 8, the menu for the choice of the correlation
ẋ + [ 2β + aẋ + k 1 x – 1 ]ẋ + kx = ξ ( t ) + u ( t );
2 2
type) for the chosen three types of quantum correlation
and the block diagram in Fig. 16. dS (7.1)
--------x = [ 2β + aẋ + k 1 x – 1 ]ẋẋ,
2 2
The analysis of simulation results in Fig. 19 dt
obtained using quantum fuzzy inference reveals the
strict trend of forming simple (for software–hardware where ξ(t) describes random perturbations with a given
implementation) laws of the controlling coefficient density function of the probability distribution; u(t)
gains schedule of the fuzzy PID controller for all three specifies the desired optimal control force; and Sx rep-
types of quantum correlation. The efficiency and choice resents the entropy production in the controlled object.
of the final control law is determined by the chosen cri-
terion of optimal control and dynamic behavior of the The physical (rheological) model for (7.1) is the
controlled object (see example 17 in what follows). electromechanical part of the suspension of a moving
object (vehicle, motor cycle, railway carriage, etc.)
Figure 20 presents the result of comparison of the with essentially nonlinear dissipation for improvement
control quality for the three investigated types of quan- of the effect of damping the oscillations, which is
tum correlation according to the criterion of minimum described by the generalized Duffing–Van der Pol (Hal-
control error. The quantum temporal correlation pro- 2
vides the best control quality and is used in the further mos–Render) equation. Under the condition 2β + a ẋ +

(‡)
KPgain
60
40
20
0
KDgain
60
40
20
0
KIgain TS0 : FC0
60 FC1
QF1 spatial
40
20
(b)
KPgain
60
40
20
0
KDgain
60
40
20
0
KIgain TS0 : FC0
60 FC1
QF1 temp
40
20 1
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, s
Fig. 19. The effect of types of quantum correlations on the form of laws for controlling the coefficient gains of fuzzy PID controller.

KPgain (c)
60
40
20
0
KDgain
60
40
20
0
KIgain TS0 : FC0
60 FC1
QF1 spatio temporal
40
20 1
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, s
Fig. 19. Contd.
k1x2 ≤ 1, the system is locally unstable, and the entropy A. Consider the following teaching situations.
dS Teaching situation for designing the knowledge
production rate is negative, i.e., --------x ≤ 0. base of fuzzy controller 1, FC1. As the source parame-
dt
ters of system (7.1), we take β = 0.5; α = 0.3; k1 = 0.2,
System (7.1) demonstrates different dynamic and k = 5 and the initial conditions equal to x0; ẋ 0 = 2.5,
behavior when the structural parameters are changed. If 0.1, the reference signal xref = 0, the range of variation
β = 0.5 (the other parameters, e.g., α = 0.3; k1 = 0.2, and of the gains [0, 10], and the external perturbation is a
k = 5), then the system is asymptotically stable; when random action with the Rayleigh law of probability dis-
β = -1 (the other parameters are the same as above), the tribution. This control situation is denoted by TS1.
system locally unstable and has a self-oscillation Teaching situation for designing the knowledge
regime. Dynamic system (7.1) is characterized in the base of fuzzy controller 2, FC2. As the source parame-
phase portrait by a domain of attraction (strange attrac- ters of system (7.1), we take β = –1; α = 0.3; kl = 0.2, and
tor). k = 5, the initial conditions equal to x0; ẋ 0 = 2.5, 0.1, the
Figure 21 shows free and forced oscillations, as well reference signal xref = -1, the range of variation of the
as the corresponding phase portraits of the considered gains [0, 10], and the external perturbation (as in TS1)
system under the specified parameters. Note the spe- is a random action with the Rayleigh law of probability
cific feature of the control conditions of the controlled distribution. This control situation is denoted by TS2.
object. For small oscillations, system (7.1) is locally The knowledge bases for these teaching situations
unstable, which present problems in designing a robust (TS1 and TS2) were designed in [1, 7]. A random signal
control for this system under the reference signal (con- affecting system (7.1) with the Rayleigh law of proba-
bility distribution was simulated (see Fig. 18) with the
trol goal) of type x = 0 and the presence of small ran- help of the nonlinear forming filter described in [7].
dom perturbations. Figures 22a and 22b present the Using the tools of the knowledge base optimizer and a
entropy production and entropy production rate in the teaching signal obtained by stochastic simulation with
dynamic behavior of the controlled object (free-oscilla- the genetic algorithm from [7], for the given teaching
tion mode) depending on the variation of the parameter situations, we designed knowledge base 1 (KB1) and
β in (7.1). knowledge base 2 (KB2) for fuzzy controller 1 (FC1)

Integral error2 teaching situation, we take the situation TS1. In this

3.5 case, the cost function of the control in the form of con-
trol error minimum is regarded as the fitness function of
the genetic algorithm with the search space for the
3.0 gains (0, 5). To design a knowledge base in this control
∫
situation, three input variables {e, ė , e dt }, describing
2.5 the dynamic behavior of the control error and three out-
put variables {kp, kd, ki}, representing the gains of the
designed fuzzy PID controller, are given.
2.0
In the knowledge base optimizer, the process of
TS1:QF1 SP designing knowledge bases yielded the following char-
1.5 QF1SPTMP acteristics: (1) the number of membership functions for
QF1TMP each output linguistic variable (7, 9, 9) (determined
optimally by GA1), respectively; (2) the total number
1.0 of production fuzzy rules 7 × 9 × 9 = 567; (3) the opti-
mal number of production rules chosen for the knowl-
edge base according to the criterion of frequency of
0.5 inquiries from the knowledge base was 20; and (4) the
optimal number of production rules selected by GA2
was 20.
Figure 24 presents the optimal form of the member-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time, s ship function for the third output variable kI (the gain of
the integral error).
For the comparison, we present in Fig. 25 the results
Fig. 20. The comparison of the control quality according to of operation of FNN of type AFM. For each linguistic
the minimum control error criterion for three types of quan- variable, we have five membership functions given
tum correlation (in learning situation).
manually, the total number of production fuzzy rules
was 125, and the number of activated rules was also
and fuzzy controller 2 (FC2) under the action of the 125. In the AFM, the number and form of the member-
Rayleigh noise that approximated optimally the refer- ship function are determined by an expert, while, in the
ence signal (from the point of view of the taken fitness knowledge base optimizer, all design operations are
function and the given control situations for the con- automated in an optimal way based on a genetic algo-
trolled object). rithm. The analysis of results has shown that the struc-
ture of the knowledge base with the specified parame-
The specific features of designing a knowledge base ters designed based on the knowledge base optimizer
based on the knowledge base optimizer. For more com- provides a higher robustness level for the fuzzy control-
plete understanding of the results of simulation and ler compared with the FNN (125 rules) and a PID con-
design of fuzzy controllers, we note certain specific troller with constant parameters (5, 5, 5).
features of the software support of the knowledge base B. Let us formulate the following control problems:
optimizer (described preliminarily in Section 5) and the
technical characteristics of the knowledge base of fuzzy (1) steer the controlled object from the initial state
controller designed based on it, and we also compare x0, ẋ 0 = 2.5, 0.1 to a final state (representing the refer-
these results with the results of design obtained using ence signal (RS)) under external noise acting on the
the FNN tools of type AFM. controlled object and under the presence of variations
of the parameters of the model of the controlled object
Figure 23 presents the general structure of the sim- and control goals (RS);
ulation of the main blocks of the fuzzy controller and (2) estimate the sensitivity and robustness level of
shows the structure of the main blocks of the software the designed fuzzy controllers (1, 2) and compare with
support of the design of knowledge bases. Figure 23c the conventional PID controller and the self-organizing
shows an example of a block for fuzzy inference using controller with a database obtained based on the appli-
the Sugeno model built-in in the knowledge base opti- cation of quantum fuzzy inference in an unpredicted
mizer. Structurally, the knowledge base optimizer has a control situation.
program interface with Matlab and is connected by a Figure 26 presents the results of simulation of con-
program of the quantum fuzzy inference block via the trol processes in the specified conditions for the situa-
built-in interface (see Fig. 8). tion TS2, which is unpredicted for FC1 (the parameter
Let us discuss in short the process of designing the of the structure of the controlled object and the control
teaching signal of optimal control as an output signal of goal were essentially changed). The simulation results
the knowledge base in the fuzzy controller. As the are analyzed in what follows. Figure 27a present the

x (‡) Dx (b)
2.5 4
beta = 0.5 beta = 0.5
2.0 beta = –1 beta = –1
3
1.5 2
1.0
1
0.5
0
0
–1
–0.5
–1.0 –2
–1.5 –3
–2.0 –4
2.5 (c) 4 (d)

beta = 0.5 beta = 0.5
2.0 beta = –1 beta = –1
3
1.5
2
1.0
0.5 1
0 0
–0.5 –1
–1.0
–2
–1.5
–2.0 –3
–2.5 –4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 –2.5 –2.0 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Time, s X
Fig. 21. The dynamic behavior of the CP: (a) free oscillations; (b) the phase portrait of free oscillations; (c) forced oscillations; and
(d) the phase portrait of forced oscillations.
Rayleigh noise used in simulation, and Fig. 27b shows object, the coefficient gains of the self-organizing PID
the laws for controlling the gains obtained by using controller have constant values).
quantum fuzzy inference, when the reactions of the
knowledge bases of the two fuzzy controllers FC(1, 2) Figure 28 presents the values of generalized entro-
pies of the system “CO + FC” calculated in accordance
to unpredicted control situation are used. with (7.1). According to [1, 6, 7], the necessary rela-
C. Analysis of the simulation results and physical tions between the qualitative and quantitative defini-
interpretation of the self-organization process in fuzzy tions of the Lyapunov stability, controllability, and
controllers. Figure 26a reflects the main advantages robustness of control processes of a given controlled
and the operation of the self-organization principle. At object are correctly established. Before the achieve-
ment of the control goal (the reference control signal
the stage of the transient process, the self-organizing
equal –1 in this case) the process of self-learning the
fuzzy controller qualitatively follows along the trajec- fuzzy controller and extraction of valuable information
tory of the conventional PID controller, but with a from the results of reactions of the two Fuzzy control-
reduced integral gain (see Fig. 27b). Because of this, lers to an unpredicted control situation in on-line with
the resource expenditure in the form of useful work of the help of quantum correlation is implemented. Since
the PID controller is reduced (the value of the produced quantum correlation contains information about the
entropy). At this stage, the motion of the controlled current values of the corresponding gains, the self-orga-
object itself is used (at the stage of the transient process nizing fuzzy controller uses for achievement of the con-
up to the reaching the control goal by the controlled trol goal the advantage of performance of the FC2 and

Sp
20
15
10
beta = 0.1
beta = 0.5
5 beta = –0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
dSp Second thermodynamic law

3
2 dS
≥0
dt
1
–1
Local instability
–2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, s
Fig. 22. The thermodynamic interpretation of the local instability phenomenon.
the aperiodic character of the dynamic behavior of the Despite the paradoxical fact that the FC1 itself does not
FC1. As a consequence, improved control quality is achieve the control goal in this situation (see Fig. 21),
ensured. and the use of the FC2 results in overshoot and the
Recall that for the considered case, the FC2 was locally unstable motion of the controlled object (see
trained on the control situation TS2, and for the FC1, Fig. 23), the self-organizing FC fuzzy controller with
the situation TS2 is unpredicted (the parameter of the application of quantum fuzzy inference coped with the
structure of the controlled object and the control goal control problem successfully.
were changed essentially). Therefore, using quantum We pose the problem whether this effect of applica-
correlation, we exercise coordination between the cor- tion of quantum fuzzy inference retains in more com-
responding control laws. Because of this effect, the plex (than on teaching situations) unpredicted control
self-learning fuzzy controller extracted valuable infor- situations. To answer the posed question, we consider a
mation about the overshoot of the FC2 and the reaction more complex unpredicted (for the FC1 and FC2 simul-
of the FC1 to an unpredicted control situation, used the taneously) control situation.
data on performance of the FC2 in the laws for control-
ling the coefficient gains (Fig. 26a), and passed to the To create a new unpredicted control situation, we
self-adaptation regime saving the advantage of the ape- introduce the following new forming parameters in the
riodic process of the FC1 (achievement of the control block diagram in Fig. 16: (1) control reference signal
goal without overshoot). We stress that the FC1 itself (goal) xref = 0; (2) the Rayleigh external noise
does not achieve the control goal in this situation (Fig. 27a); (3) a new parameter β = -0.1 in the model of
(Fig. 21), while the FC2 is overshot and is locally the controlled object; (4) a constraint on the control
unstable (Fig. 28). force u ≤ |10|[N]; (5) a Gaussian random noise (Fig. 18)
Example 17. Robust control in an unpredicted con- with the gain equal to 0.02; and (6) a time delay of the
trol situation. In example 16, the evaluation of robust- control error signal equal to 0.0125 s. The other param-
ness of the intelligent control system on teaching situa- eters of the controlled object remain the same. Thus, the
tions, when one of the situations, the TS2, was unpre- unpredicted control situation contains noise in the sen-
dicted for the first fuzzy controller (the parameter β (in sor system, a delay for the FC1 and FC2 in information
the structure of the controlled object) and the control about the control error, and jump changes of the param-
goal changed essentially), trained on the TS1 situation. eter in the structure of the unpredicted.

(a)
1 2 3 4
(b)
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Fig. 23. The structure of the software support of designing KBs in a FC. (a) The structure of the designed FC: 1, the input port,
2, fuzzifier, 3, fuzzy inference and a defuzzifier block, 4, the output port; (b) fuzzifier; (c) fuzzy inference block.

(c)
Generation of production rules

of the form “If A, then B”
Fig. 23. Contd.
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Fig. 24. The optimal form of the membership function for describing the third output linguistic variable.
Figure 29 shows the result of simulation of the integral generalized entropy in the system “CO + fuzzy
dynamic behavior of control error, and Fig. 30 presents PID controller”.
the result of simulation of the integral squared control Analysis of the results presented has shown that
error. The obtained control laws for variation of the both the FC1 and FC2 do not cope with the control
coefficient gains and control force for given physical problem posed and have large resource expenditures. In
contrast to these fuzzy controllers, using quantum
constraints are presented in Figs. 31 and 32, respec- fuzzy inference, the self-organizing fuzzy controller
tively. Figure 33 reflects the resource loss of the intelli- extracted from the dynamic behavior of the controlled
gent control system in the form of the increasing of the object, the FC1, and FC2 valuable hidden quantum

–6.97 –2.82 1.33 5.48 9.63 –0.15 2.45 5.04 7.64 10.24 –1.25 0.01 1.27 2.53 3.79
–2.82 0.33 3.47 6.62 9.76 –1.09 –0.76 –0.44 –0.12 0.21 –2.5 –1.8 –1.1 –0.4 0.3
Fig. 25. An example of the choice of a membership function in FNN.
(‡) x (b)
x 2.5
2.5 PD
PD Smart (Witty) Free FC1
FC1 2.0 solution oscillations QFC
2.0 QFC FC2
1.5
FC2
1.5 1.0 Wise solution
Extraction
0.5 on QFI
1.0 of valuable
information 0
0.5
–0.5
0 –1.0
–0.5 –1.5
PID controller (10, 10, 10)
–2.0
–1.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time, s
–1.5
Self-adaptation
–2.0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Time, s Self-learning Self-organization
Fig. 26. The results of simulation of robust control for a nonlinear CP with a self-organizing FC in an unpredicted control situation:
(a) formation of the learning process for an intelligent FC; (b) formation of the self-adaptation process of an intelligent FC.

(a) KPgain (b)

Noise
5 12
Rayleigh noise
10
4
8
6
3 KDgain
10 FC2
FC1
2 QF1
5
1
KIgain
0
10
–1 5
–2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time, s Time, s
Fig. 27. The forms of a random process with a Rayleigh probability distribution function (a) and of laws for controlling the coeffi-
cient gains of a fuzzy PID controller (b).
Generalized entropy
15
(a) PID
10 FCI
QFI
5 FC2
0
–5 Locally unstable state
–10
Integral generalized entropy
8
6 (b)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time, s
Fig. 28. The dynamic behavior of the generalized entropies (CO + FC): (a) temporal generalized entropy; (b) the accumulated value
of the generalized entropy.

x (‡) Integral error2

2.5 10
2.0 9 R1 : FC1
R1 : FC1 FC2
FC2 8 QFC
1.5 QFC 7
REF
6
1.0
5
0.5 4
0 3
2
–0.5 1
–1.0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 160 180

Control error Time, s
1.0 (b)
R1 : FC1 Fig. 30. Robustness evaluation in a new control situation:
FC2 the integral and squared control errors.
0.5 QFC
0
information and achieved the control goal with the least
resource loss. Thus, in complex unpredicted control sit-
–0.5 uations, the effect of application of the model of quan-
Control error tum fuzzy inference retains, which is the answer to the
–1.0 0.8 posed question.
0.4
0.2
–1.5 0 We stress that examples 17 and 18 only illustrate the
–0.2 capabilities of application of the developed model of
–0.4
–2.0 –0.6 quantum fuzzy inference in problems of designing
–0.8
0 110 120 130 140 150 160 intelligent control systems with an improved robustness
–2.5 level in unpredicted control situations. More detailed
Noise
analysis of the efficiency of application of the model of
5 (c) quantum fuzzy inference requires an independent dis-
cussion and is not considered in this paper.
Rayleigh noise
4 Note only the top-priority problems of the investiga-
tion of the efficiency of application of the developed
3 model of quantum fuzzy inference, such as controlled
objects with global dynamic instability, with various
2 types of instability in parts of the generalized coordi-
nates (with local and global instability), different com-
1
binations of internal and external noise, variation of the
0 parameters of the structure of the controlled object, an
estimate of resource loss, complexity of processing and
–1
physical implementation of control laws, as well as
many other related problems. The simulation results
–2 have shown the advantage of quantum control strate-
gies based on quantum fuzzy inference, which allow
–3 one to design a universal robust fuzzy controller from
0 20 40 60 80 120 140 100 160 180 200 two non-robust fuzzy controllers (1, 2) with simple
Time, s laws for controlling the coefficient gains of a PID con-
troller.
Thus, the self-organization process can be divided
Fig. 29. The evaluation of robustness in a new control situ- conditionally into complementary self-learning and
ation: (a) system motion; (b) control error; and (c) Rayleigh self-adaptation processes, improving the robustness
noise. level of intelligent control processes in on-line.

KPgain
60
40
20
0
KDgain
60
40
20
0
KIgain
60 R1 : FC1
FC2
40 QFC
20 1
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time, s
Fig. 31. Robustness evaluation in a new control situation: self-organization of laws for controlling the coefficient gains of a quantum
fuzzy PID controller.
Control force
10 Integrated Generalized entropy
R1 : FC1
FC2 70
QFC
9
60
R1 : FC1
FC2
7 50 QFC
5 40
30
4
20
2
10
0 5 10 15 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Time, s Time, s
Fig. 32. Robustness evaluation in a new control situation: Fig. 33. Robustness evaluation in a new control situation:
control force. integral generalized entropy.

Remark 10. From the point of view of quantum APPENDIX

game theory, this effect demonstrates the “Parrondo Consider the effect of extracting hidden quantum
paradox”. Namely, in a game situation (in an unpre- information from the point of view of quantum infor-
dicted control situation) between two classical fuzzy mation theory. Without loss of generality, we distin-
controllers (1, 2) (players A and B, respectively), which guish the simple situation of one-way data exchange
are not winners when classical strategies are used in under certain amount of hidden (unobservable) classi-
various control situations, with the help of a quantum cal correlation in the quantum state (Section 4).
decision-making strategy based on quantum fuzzy
inference, we can form a winner from them in the form We interpret the process of data exchange between
of a new self-organizing fuzzy controller. A similar two knowledge bases (as the process of data transmis-
effect was also described in [4, 58, 59]. sion via a quantum communication channel) in the
form of a game situation admitting data exchange
The considered example illustrates the efficiency of between players A and B in a space of dimension d = 2n.
the methodology of quantum computing for solving According to the quantum mechanics laws, with the
classical problems that are algorithmically unsolvable help of a density matrix ρ, an initial quantum state gen-
in the theory and practice of intelligent fuzzy control erated by two classical states (KB0 and KB1) is
developed in [60–64]. described. The initial matrix ρ is regarded as a start
information resource and is distributed between sub-
systems A (KB0) and B (KB1) in the space of dimen-
CONCLUSIONS sion d
d–1 1
∑ ∑ ( |k〉 〈k| ⊗ |t〉 〈t| )

In this paper, we presented the main ideas of quan- 1
ρ = ------ ⊗ ( U t |k〉 〈k|U t ) B .
T
tum computing and quantum information theory as A
2d
applied to the development of the strategy and methods k = 0t = 0
of designing a robust knowledge base based on quan- Here, the quantum operators U0 = I and U1 steer the ini-
tum fuzzy inference. Quantum fuzzy inference can be tial computational basis in the unified basis of the form
efficiently implemented on a personal computer of a
standard configuration. The necessity of applying a new 〈 i U 1 k〉 = 1/ a ∀i, k.
type of computational intelligence (quantum soft com-
puting) for efficient solution of classical control prob- In the case of one-way data exchange, the player A has
lems that are unsolvable algorithmically, such as complete information about the state of the player B,
robustness of control, was shown. A description of the which, in turn, chooses the state |k〉 in a random way
software toolkit of the processes of designing robust from a state space of dimension d in two possible ran-
knowledge bases for intelligent control systems based dom computational bases. The information resource of
on quantum fuzzy inference was given. the state ρ is used according to the following algorithm.
The player A form a random sample of length n bits and
The robustness of intelligent fuzzy controllers was sends it to the player B in the state |k〉 or H⊗n|k〉, depend-
demonstrated by an example of a self-organizing intel- ing on the random choice of the bit t = 0 or 1. Here, as
ligent control system for a locally unstable and essen- above H is the Hadamard transform. The player A sends
tially nonlinear controlled object. Based on the results a bit t to the player Ç without possibility of further
of simulation of the laws for controlling the coefficient observation of the correlation formed in the state Ç. It
gains of fuzzy PID controllers obtained with the help of was established experimentally that the application of
the quantum fuzzy inference model, a new principle for the Hadamard transform and the measurement of a unit
designing robust structures of intelligent control sys- quantum bit is sufficient for preparing the state ρ and
tems can be formulated: design of a fuzzy controller extracting later the unobservable correlation in the new
that is simple in structure and easy to be implemented state ρ'. We denote by ρ and ρ' the states before and
with an improved intelligent level (wise controller after the operations of message exchange ρ' = Λ(ρ). The
[3−5]) for efficient control of complex controlled initial correlation in the state ρ, small value and amount
objects (objects). According to the examples presented, of information contained in it are determined as
the intelligent control allows one to achieve the control (l) 1
goal in unpredicted control situations with guaranty I Cl ( ρ ) = --- log d.
and minimal resource expenditure, which, in essence, 2
reflects at the informal level the definition of purposeful The amount of information in the final state after a
activity of intelligent control systems. complete measurement MA in the one-way data
exchange is (Sections 3 and 4)
Thus, the efficiency and necessity to apply quantum
computing and control algorithms was shown not only (l)
I Cl ( ρ' ) = I Cl ( ρ ) = log d + 1,
for quantum systems (Feinmanís proposal), but also for
classical controlled objects, which confirms the results i.e., the amount of information accessible for extracting
of [23, 53, 58–64]. increases. This effect cannot be described at the classi-

cal level, since it has pure quantum nature. Note that the mation Design Technologies, Milan: Note del Polo
states that have this property are not necessarily entan- (Ricerca), Universita degli Studi di Milano 78–86
gled and the corresponding data transmission channel (2005).
can be implemented using the Hadamard transform 11. M. L. Chiara Dalla, R. Guintini, and R. Greechie, et al.,
[45]. Therefore, using the Hadamard transform and the Reasoning in Quantum Theory: Sharp and Unsharp
quantum correlation effect as a physical carrier of mes- Quantum Logic, (Kluwer, Amsterdam, 2004).
sage transfer between a finite number of designed 12. A. K. Pati, “General Impossible Operations in Quantum
knowledge bases, we can increase the information con- Information,” Phys. Review A66 (6) (2002).
tained in the initial quantum state by taking into 13. D. Zhou, B. Zeng, and L. You, “Quantum Information
account the existing hidden classical correlation. Cannot Be Split into Complementary Parts,” Physics
Letters A352 (1/2) (2006).
14. E. Kashefi, A. Kent, V. Vedral, et al., “Comparison of
REFERENCES Quantum Oracles,” Phys. Review A65 (5) (2002).
1. 1. L. V. Litvintseva, S. S. Ulyanov, K. Takahashi, et al., 15. A. J. Bessen, “The Power of Various Real-Valued Quan-
ìIntelligent Robust Control Design Based on New Types tum Queries,” J. of Complexity 20 (5) (2004).
of Computation, Pt. 1. New Soft Computing Technology 16. A. Atici, Comparative Computational Strength of Quan-
of KB-design of Smart Control Simulation for Nonlinear tum Oracles arXiv: quant-ph/0312107v1,.2003.
Dynamic Systemsî Note del Polo (Ricerca) Universita 17. H. Azuma, A Quantum Algorithm for Examining Oracles
degli Studi di Milano, 60 (Milan University, Milan, arXiv: quant-ph/0408013v1.2004.
2004).
18. K. Iwama, A. Kawachi, R. Raymond, et al., l. Robust
2. S. A. Panfilov, L. V. Litvintseva, S. V. Ulyanov, et al., quantum algorithms for oracle identification arXiv:
ìSoft Computing Optimizer for Intelligent Control Sys- quant-ph/0411204v1.2004.
tems Design: the Structure and Applications,” J. Sys-
temics, Cybernetics and Informatics 1 (5) (2003). 19. A. Wojcik and R. W. Chhajlany, Quantum-Classical
Correspondence in the Oracle Model of Computation
3. S. V. Ulyanov and L. V. Litvintseva, “Design of Self- arXiv: quant-ph/0506248v1.2005.
Organized Intelligent Control Systems Based on Quan-
tum Fuzzy Inference: Intelligent System of Systems 20. I. V. Bargatin, B. A. Grishanin, and V. N. Zadkov,
Engineering Approach,” in Proceedings of IEEE Inter- “Entangled Quantum States of Atomic Systems,” Usp.
national Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics Fiz. Nauk 171 (6) (2001).
(SMC’, 2005), Hawaii, USA, 2005, pp. 3835–3840. 21. R. Jozsa and N. Linden, “On the Role of Entanglement
4. S. V. Ulyanov, L. V. Litvintseva, S. S. Ulyanov, et al., in Quantum Computational Speed-Up,” in Proceedings
“Self-Organization Principle and Robust Wise Control R. Soc. Lond. 459 (2036) (2003).
Design Based on Quantum Fuzzy Inference,” in Pro- 22. G. Vidal, “Efficient Classical Simulation of Slightly
ceedings of International Conference ICSCCW’ (2005), Entangled Quantum Computation,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 91
Antalya, Turkey, 2005. (14) (2003).
5. L. V. Litvintseva, S. V. Ulyanov, K. Takahashi, et al., 23. S. V. Ulyanov, “System and Method for Control Using
“Design of Self-Organized Robust Wise Control Sys- Quantum Soft Computing,” US patent, No. 6, 578,018.
tems Based on Quantum Fuzzy Inference,” in Proceed- 24. D. N. Klyshko, “Basic Concepts of Quantum Physics
ings of World Automation Congress WAC'2006: Soft from the Operational Point of View,” Usp. Fiz. Nauk 168
Computing with Industrial Applications (ISSCIí2006), (9) (1998).
Budapest, Hungary, 2006. 25. A. Khrennikov, “Representation of the Kolmogorov
6. I. Kurawaki, L. V. Litvintseva, I. S. Ul’yanov, et al., Model Having All Distinguishing Features of Quantum
“Design of Robust Knowledge Bases of Fuzzy Control- Probabilistic Model,” Phys. Lett. A316 (3) (2003).
lers for Intelligent Control of Substantially Nonlinear 26. F. Ghisi and S. V. Ulyanov, “The Information Role of
Dynamic Systems. I. Application of Soft Computing,” Entanglement and Interference in Shor Quantum Algo-
Izv. Ross. Akad. Nauk, Teor. Sist. Upr., No. 4, (2004) rithm Gate Dynamics,” J. Modern Optics 47 (12) (2000).
[Comp. Syst. Sci. 43 (4), 615–632 (2004)].
27. P. Selinger, “Towards a Quantum Programming Lan-
7. L. V. Litvintseva, S. V. Ul’yanov, and S. S. Ul’yanov, guage,” Math. Structures Comp. Sci. 14 (4) (2004).
“Design of Robust Knowledge Bases of Fuzzy Control-
lers for Intelligent Control of Substantially Nonlinear 28. O. Brunet and Ph. Jorrand, “Dynamic Quantum Logic
Dynamic Systems. II. Soft Computing Optimizer and for Quantum Programs,” Internat. J. Quantum Informa-
Intelligent Control Systems,” Izv. Ross. Akad. Nauk, tion 2 (1), 45–54 (2005).
Teor. Sist. Upr., No. 5, (2006) [Comp. Syst. Sci. 45 (5), 29. T. Altenkirch and J. Grattage, An Algebra of Pure Quan-
744–771 (2006)]. tum Programming arXiv: quant-ph/0506012v1.2005.
8. M. A. Nielsen and I. L. Chuang, Quantum Computation 30. Y. Feng, R. Duan, Z. Ji, et al., Semantics of Purely Quan-
and Quantum Information (Univ. Press, UK, Cambridge, tum Programming Language arXiv: quant-
2000). ph/0507043v2.2005.
9. D. C. Marinescu and G. M. Marinescu, Approaching 31. W. Mauerer, Semantics and Simulation of Communica-
Quantum Computing (Prentice Hall, 2005). tion in Quantum Programming arXiv: quant-
10. S. V. Ulyanov, L. V. Litvintseva, I. S. Ulyanov, et al., ph/0511145v1.2005.
Quantum Information and Quantum Computational 32. P. Zuliani, “Compiling Quantum Programs,” Acta Infor-
Intelligence: Backgrounds and Applied Toolkit of Infor- matica 41 (7/8) (2005).

33. M. Lalire, Relations Among Quantum Processes: 54. B. N. Petrov, G. M. Ulanov, S. V. Ul’yanov, et al., Con-
Bisimilarity and Congruence arXiv: quant- trol Problems for Relativistic and Quantum Dynamic
ph/0603274v1.2006. Systems (Nauka, Moscow, 1982) [in Russian].
34. A. Tafliovich and E. C. R. Hehner, Quantum Predictive 55. I. I. Gol’denblat and S. V. Ul’yanov, Introduction to the
Programming arXiv: quant-ph/0602156v1.2006. Theory of Relativity and Its Applications to Technologi-
35. S. Ya. Kilin, “Quantum Information,” Usp. Fiz. Nauk cal Innovation (Fizmatgiz, Moscow, 1979) [in Russian].
169 (5) (1999). 56. S. V. Ulyanov, I. Kurawaki, S. A. Panfilov, et al., “L.
36. A. S. Kholevo, Introduction to Quantum Information Information Analysis of Quantum Gates for Simulation
Theory (Nauka, Moscow, 2002) [in Russian]. of Quantum Algorithms on Classical Computers,” in
37. M. Keyl, “Fundamentals of Quantum Information The- Proceedings of International Conference on Quantum
ory,” Physical Reports 369 (5) (2002). Communication, Measurements and Computing
QCM&C'2000, Capri, Italy, 2000.
38. N. J. Cerf and C. Adami, “Negative Entropy and Infor-
mation in Quantum Mechanics,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 79 (26) 57. W. H. Zurek, “Probabilities from Entanglement,î Born’s
(1997). Rule pk = |ψk|2 from Invariance,” Phys. Rev. A71 (5)
(2005).
39. M. Horodecki, J. Oppenheim, and A. Winter, “Partial
Quantum Information,” Nature 436 (7051) (2005). 58. S. V. Ulyanov, L. V. Litvintseva, S. S. Ulyanov, et al., “L.
Computational Intelligence with Quantum Game’s
40. L. Henderson and V. Vedral, “Classical, Quantum and Approach and Robust Decision-Making in Communica-
Total Correlation,” J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 34 (35) tion Information Uncertainty,” in Proceedings of Inter-
(2001). national Conference on Computational Intelligence
41. B. C. Sanctuary, Correlations in Entangled States arXiv: ICCI'2004, Nicosis, North Cypress, 2004, pp. 172–187.
quant-ph/0508238v1.2005. 59. S. V. Ulyanov, K. Takahashi, L. V. Litvintseva, et al.,
42. S. Hamieh, R. Kobes, and H. Zaraket, “Positive-Opera- “Quantum Soft Computing Via Robust Control: Classi-
tor-Valued Measure Optimization of Classical Correla- cal Efficient Simulation of Wise Quantum Control in
tions,” Phys. Rev. A70 (5) (2004). Non-Linear Dynamic Systems Based on Quantum Game
43. S. Hamieh, J. Qi, D. Siminovitch, et al., “L. Extraction Gates,” in Proceedings of 2nd International Conference
of Classical Correlations from a Bipartite Quantum Sys- on Soft Computing and Computing with Words in System
tem,” Phys. Rev. A67 (1) (2003). Analysis, Decision, and Control ICSCWí2003, Antalya,
44. B. Groisman, S. Popescu, and A. Winter, “Quantum, Turkey, 2003, pp. 11–41.
Classical, and Total Amount of Correlations in Quantum 60. S. V. Ulyanov, G. Degli Antoni, K. Yamafuji, et al.,
State,” Phys. Rev. A72 (3) (2005). “Physical Limits and Information Bounds of Micro-
45. D. P. DiVincenzo, M. Horodecki, D. W. Leung, et al., Control. Pt. 2: Quantum Soft Computing and Quantum
“Locking Classical Correlation in Quantum States,” Search Algorithms,” in Proceedings of International
Phys. Rev. Lett. 92 (6) (2004). Symposium on Micro-Machine and Human Science
46. M. Horodecki, P. Horodecki, R. Horodecki, et al., “Local MHS'98, Nagoya, Japan, 1998, pp. 217–224.
Versus Nonlocal Information in Quantum-Information 61. S. V. Ulyanov, I. Kurawaki, L. V. Litvintseva, et al.,
Theory: Formalism and Phenomena,” Phys. Rev. A71 (6) “Applied Quantum Soft Computing for Optimization of
(2005). KB Structures in Fuzzy Controllers: Introduction,” in
47. K. Maruyama, C. Brukner, and V. Vedral, “Thermody- Proceedings of World Congress on Intelligent Systems
namical Cost of Accessing Quantum Information,” J. on Industrial Automation WCIS’, Tashkent, Uzbekistan,
Phys. A: Math. Gen. 38 (32) (2005). 2000, pp. 34–37.
48. M. Christandl and A. Winter, “Uncertainty, Monogamy, 62. S. V. Ulyanov, L. V. Litvintseva, I. Kurawaki, et al.,
and Locking of Quantum Correlations,” IEEE Trans. “Applied Quantum Soft Computing for Global Optimi-
Information Theory 51 (9) (2005). zation and Robust Control Design: Methodological
Approach,” in Proceedings of 4th International Confer-
49. L. B. Levitin, “Conditional Entropy and Information in ence on Applications of Fuzzy Systems and Soft Comput-
Quantum Systems,” Chaos, Solitons and Fractals 10 (10) ing ICAFSí2000, Siegen, Germany, 2000, 190–213.
(1999).
63. S. V. Ulyanov and K. Takahashi, “I. Kurawaki et al.,
50. H. Olivier and W. H. Zurek, “Quantum Discord: A Mea- ìQuantum Soft Computing: Quantum Global Optimiza-
sure of the Quantumness of Correlations,” Phys. Rev. tion and Quantum Learning Processes—Application in
Lett. 88 (1) (2002). AI, Informatics and Intelligent Control Processes,” in
51. W. H. Zurek, “Quantum Discord and Maxwell’s Proceedings of 7th World Multi-Conference on Sys-
Demon,” Phys. Rev. A67 (1) (2003). temics, Cybernetics and Informatics SCIí2003),
52. G. A. Giraldi, R. Portugal, and R. N. Thess, Genetic Orlando, USA, 2003, Vol. 7, pp. 422–427.
Algorithms and Quantum Computation arXiv: cs. 64. S. V. Ulyanov, “Quantum Soft Computing in Control
NE/0403003v1.2004. Process Design: Quantum Genetic Algorithms and
53. S. V. Ulyanov, G. G. Rizzotto, I. Kurawaki, et al., Quantum Neural Network Approaches,” in Proceedings
“Method and Hardware Architecture for Controlling a of World Automation Congress WAC'2004: Soft Comput-
Process or for Processing Data Based on Quantum Soft ing with Industrial Applications ISSCIí2004, Seville,
Computing,” PCT Patent. WO, No. 01/67186. Spain, 2004, Vol. 17, pp. 99–104.

23 JCSS908

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

23 JCSS908

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ISSN 1064-2307, Journal of Computer and Systems Sciences International, 2007, Vol. 46, No. 6, pp. 908–961.

© Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2007.

Quantum Fuzzy Inference for Knowledge Base Design

INTRODUCTION quently, a conventional (based on the principles of a

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

then |0〉 = 1 . . The amplitudes α and β are complex

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

Stability A new level of control quality was Guarantees only necessary

Self-organization solutions of quantum fuzzy possibility of optimal control

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

2 z = 0, 1 ties of the black box (single use of the internal quantum

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

Quantum “wise” operators, selection,

Fig. 1. The structure of the generalized quantum block.

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

b|1〉 can also be measured relative to other computa- ⎜ iθ ⎟

where I(2) is the identical operator in the complex space 2

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

operator ρÄÇ. The reduced density operator for the sys- 3

TrB(ρAB), where the partial trace TrB is the mapping of

(an entangled three-particle state of three quantum bits ⎛ 1 0 0 –1 ⎞

where ρ 00 = |0B0C〉〈0B0C|, ρ 11 = |1B1C〉〈1B1C|; i.e., after

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

– – by “if” (subsystem) Q0 is greater than in the “complete” (com-

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

Classical component Quantum component

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

Classical Quantum component

Example 13. Let a two-particle state ρAB be given.

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

state ρ A (after completion of the measurement Bi over

subsystems, i.e., Then, we have

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

Normalization block Density function of the probability

Quantum fuzzy inference

5 Choice of the state

Scaling C = {CP, CD, CI}

Fig. 2. The functional structure of QFI in real time.

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

Probability distribution function

Fig. 3. The process of forming quantum bits (block 2).

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

(‡) (b) (c)

External Internal State of four

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

= --------- ⎛ α 1 ⋅ |0000〉 + α 2 ⋅ |0001〉 + … + α 2n – 1 ⋅ |1110〉 + α 2n ⋅ |1111〉 ⎞

FC1 FC2 FC1 FC2

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

FC1 FC2 FC1 FC2

JOURNAL OF COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS SCIENCES INTERNATIONAL Vol. 46 No. 6 2007

Delay time (for temporal