Universality of

Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of

Universality of Quantum Gates CNOT and Single

Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation
Controled Operations
Universality of Two Level
Gates
Markus Schmassmann
A Discrete Set of
Universal
Operations
QSIT-Course
ETH Zürich Summary

Literature

17. Oktober 2007

 Universality of
Outline Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
Basics and Definitions CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation
Controled Operations

Universality of CNOT and Single Qbit Unitaries Universality of Two Level

Gates

Decompositon of Single Qbit Operation A Discrete Set of

Universal
Controled Operations Operations

Universality of Two Level Gates Summary

Literature

A Discrete Set of Universal Operations

 Universality of
Outline Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
Basics and Definitions CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation
Controled Operations

Universality of CNOT and Single Qbit Unitaries Universality of Two Level

Gates

Decompositon of Single Qbit Operation A Discrete Set of

Universal
Controled Operations Operations

Universality of Two Level Gates Summary

Literature

A Discrete Set of Universal Operations

 Universality of
Outline Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
Basics and Definitions CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation
Controled Operations

Universality of CNOT and Single Qbit Unitaries Universality of Two Level

Gates

Decompositon of Single Qbit Operation A Discrete Set of

Universal
Controled Operations Operations

Universality of Two Level Gates Summary

Literature

A Discrete Set of Universal Operations

 Universality of
Basics and Definitions (I) Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
CNOT and Single
Definition
      Qbit Unitaries
0 1 0 −i 1 0 Decompositon of Single

X = Y = Z = Qbit Operation

1 0 i 0 0 −1 Controled Operations
Universality of Two Level
    Gates
1 0 1 1
1= H = √1 A Discrete Set of
0 1 2 1 −1 Universal
    Operations
1 0 1 0 Summary
S= T =
0 i 0 eiπ/4 Literature
√
H = (X + Z )/ 2 S = T2
 Universality of
Basics and Definitions (II) Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

RX (θ) = e−iθ/2·X = cos (θ/2) · I − i sin (θ/2) · X Universality of

CNOT and Single
−iθ/2·Y Qbit Unitaries
RY (θ) = e = cos (θ/2) · I − i sin (θ/2) · Y Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation
−iθ/2·Z Controled Operations
RZ (θ) = e = cos (θ/2) · I − i sin (θ/2) · Z Universality of Two Level
Gates

A Discrete Set of
Universal
Operations
Rn̂ (θ) = e−iθ/2·n̂·~σ Summary

= cos (θ/2) · I − i sin (θ/2) · (nX X + nY Y + nZ Z ) Literature

XYX = −Y XRY (θ)X = RY (−θ)

XZX = −Z XRZ (θ)X = RZ (−θ)
 Universality of
X-Y decomposition of a single qbit gate Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions
Theorem Universality of
X-Y decomposition of a single qbit gate CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
∀U ∈ C2×2 unitary ∃α, β γ, δ ∈ R: Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation

U = eiα RZ (β)RY (γ)RZ (δ) Controled Operations

Universality of Two Level
Gates

Proof. A Discrete Set of

Universal
U can be written as Operations

U
 =i(α−β/2−δ/2) Summary

cos(γ/2) ei(α−β/2+δ/2) sin(γ/2)


e Literature

ei(α+β/2−δ/2) sin(γ/2) ei(α+β/2+δ/2) cos(γ/2)

also true for any two non-parallel rotation axis
Rn̂ (θ), Rm̂ (θ) n̂ 6k m̂
 Universality of
X-Y decomposition of a single qbit gate Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions
Theorem Universality of
X-Y decomposition of a single qbit gate CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
∀U ∈ C2×2 unitary ∃α, β γ, δ ∈ R: Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation

U = eiα RZ (β)RY (γ)RZ (δ) Controled Operations

Universality of Two Level
Gates

Proof. A Discrete Set of

Universal
U can be written as Operations

U
 =i(α−β/2−δ/2) Summary

cos(γ/2) ei(α−β/2+δ/2) sin(γ/2)


e Literature

ei(α+β/2−δ/2) sin(γ/2) ei(α+β/2+δ/2) cos(γ/2)

also true for any two non-parallel rotation axis
Rn̂ (θ), Rm̂ (θ) n̂ 6k m̂
 Universality of
Corrollary of decomposition Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Corollary Universality of
CNOT and Single
∀U ∈ C2×2 unitary ∃α ∈ R∃A, B, C ∈ C2×2 unitary: Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single

ABC = I, U = eiα AXBXC Qbit Operation

Controled Operations
Universality of Two Level
Gates
Proof.   A Discrete Set of
A = RZ (β)RY (γ/2), B = RY (−γ/2)RZ − δ+β
2 , Universal
  Operations

C = RZ δ−β2 , Summary
  Literature
XBX = XRY (−γ/2)XXRZ − δ+β 2 X =
 
RY (γ/2)RZ δ+β 2
 Universality of
Operations controled by one Qbit Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

  Basics and
1 0 0 0 Definitions
 0 1 0 0  Universality of
CNOT =  0
= CNOT and Single
0 0 1  Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single
0 0 1 0 Qbit Operation
Controled Operations
  Universality of Two Level
1 0 0 0 Gates

 0 A Discrete Set of
1 0 0  Universal
Cphase = 
 0 iα
= = Operations
0 e 0 
0 0 0 eiα Summary

Literature

 
1 0
controled U = = =
0 U
 Universality of
Operations controled by several Qbits Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries

, where V 2 = U
Decompositon of Single
= Qbit Operation
Controled Operations
Universality of Two Level
Gates

A Discrete Set of
Universal
=   , Operations

1 0 Summary
where S = T 2, T = iπ/4 .
0 e Literature

Expansion to more control Qbits is tedious, but not

difficult.
 Universality of
Universality of Two Level Gates Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann
Theorem
Basics and
Two level gates are universal. Definitions

∀U ∈ C3×3 unitary ∃Ui ∈ C3×3 : Ui = Ui0 ⊗ 1, Ui0 ∈ C2×2 Universality of

CNOT and Single
unitary U = U1† U2† U3† Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation

Proof.
 
Controled Operations
Universality of Two Level

a b c Gates

A Discrete Set of
U =  d e f , Universal
Operations
g h j
 ∗ b∗
 Summary
√ a2 2
√ 0
 |a| b+|b| |a|2 +|b|2 Literature

√ −a

b 6= 0: U1 =  √ 2
 0 
|a| +|b|2 |a|2 +|b|2 
0 0 1
 0
a b0 c 0


U1 U =  0 0 e f 0 
g 0 h0 j 0
 Universality of
Proof contd. Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Proof. Basics and

contd. Definitions
a0∗ c 0∗
 
√ 0 √ Universality of
|a0 |2 +|c 0 |2 |a0 |2 +|c 0 |2 CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
c0 =
 
6 0 U2 =  0 1 0  Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation
c0 −a0
 
√ 0 √ Controled Operations

|a0 |2 +|c 0 |2 |a0 |2 +|c 0 |2 Universality of Two Level

Gates

b00 c 00
 
1 A Discrete Set of
U2 U1 U =  0 e00 f 00 , but U2 U1 U are unitary Universal
Operations
0 h00 j 00 Summary
 
1 0 0 Literature

⇒ d 00 = g 00 = 0 U3 =  0 e00∗ f 00∗ 
0 h00∗ j 00∗
⇒ U3 U2 U1 U = I ⇒ U = U1† U2† U3†

for higher dimensions similar processes

 Universality of
Unitaries of Higher Dimensions Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
CNOT and Single
QN d(d−1) Qbit Unitaries
U ∈ Cd×d ⇒ U = j=1 (Uj0 ⊗ 1d−2 ), Uj0 ∈ C2×2 , N ≤ 2 Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation

∃U ∈ Cd×d : N ≥ (d − 1) Controled Operations

Universality of Two Level
2πi Gates

ex: Ujk = δjk e pi , where pj is the j th prime number. A Discrete Set of

Universal
With one single qbit gate and CNOTs an arbitrary Operations
two-level unitary operation on a state of n qbits can be Summary
implemented, where the CNOTs are used to shuffle. Literature
 Universality of
Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
Therefore CNOTs and unitary single Qbit operations form Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation

an universal set of quantum computing. Controled Operations

Universality of Two Level

Unfortunately, for most single Qbit operations exists no Gates

A Discrete Set of
straightforward method of error correction. Universal
Operations

Summary

Literature
 Universality of
Approximation of Unitaries Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definition Definitions

Universality of
CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
error E(U, V ) := max ||(U − V ) |ψi || Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation
|ψi Controled Operations
Universality of Two Level
Gates

Pm A Discrete Set of
E(Um Um−1 . . . U1 , Vm Vm−1 . . . V1 ) ≤ j=1 E(Uj , Vj ) Universal
Operations

Proof. Summary

E(U2 U1 , V2 V1 ) = ||(U2 U1 − V2 V1 ) |ψi || Literature

= ||(U2 U1 − V2 U1 ) |ψi + (V2 U1 − V2 V1 ) |ψi ||

≤ ||(U2 U1 − V2 U1 ) |ψi || + ||(V2 U1 − V2 V1 ) |ψi ||
≤ E(U2 , V2 ) + E(U1 , V1 )
further by induction
 Universality of
Standard Set of universal Gates Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions
Hadamard H, phase S, CNOT , π/8 = T , where π/8
Universality of
could be replaced by Toffoli. CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
T = RZ (π/4), HTH = RX (π/4) up to a global phase. Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation
Controled Operations

exp (−iπ/8 · Z ) exp (−iπ/8 · X ) Universality of Two Level

Gates
 π π  π π  A Discrete Set of
= cos I − i sin Z cos I − i sin X Universal
8  8π 8 8 Operations

2 π π  π Summary
= cos I − i cos (X + Z ) + sin Y sin
8 8 8 8 Literature

=Rn̂ (θ),

where n̂ = cos π8 , sin π8 , cos π8 and cos 2θ = cos2 π8 .

 Universality of
Multiples of irrational Angles Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
√ CNOT and Single
θ 2+2
cos =
2 cos2 π8 = 4 ⇒ θ
2π ∈/ Q, Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single

therefore any Rn̂ (α) can be arbitrary close approximated. Qbit Operation
Controled Operations

HRn̂ (α)H = Rm̂ (α), where m̂ = cos π8 , − sin π8 , cos π8 .

Universality of Two Level
Gates

∀U ∈ C2×2 unitary ∃α, β γ, δ ∈ R: A Discrete Set of

Universal
U = eiα Rn̂ (β)Rm̂ (γ)Rn̂ (δ) Operations

Finally, ∀U ∈ C2×2 unitary, ∀ε > 0∃n1 , n2 , n3 ∈ N : Summary

E (U, Rn̂ (θ)n1 HRn̂ (θ)n2 HRn̂ (θ)n3 ) < ε. Literature

 Universality of
Universality of Generic qbit Gates Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Definition Basics and

n n Definitions
A “generic” qbit gate is a U ∈ C2 ×2 with eigenvalues
Universality of
θ θ
eiθ1 , eiθ2 , eiθ2n : ∀j, k πj ∈
/ Q θkj ∈
/ Q. CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single
∀n ∈ NU n has eigenvalues einθ1 , einθ2 , einθ2n , Qbit Operation
Controled Operations

each n defines therefore a point on
a 2k -torus. Universality of Two Level

Gates

If U = eiA ∀λ ∈ R∀ε∃n : E U n , eiλA < ε. A Discrete Set of

Universal
By switching leads we can get another “generic” qbit gate Operations
U = PUP 0 , where might be P = SWAP. Summary

It can easily been shown, that eiλA have a closed Lie

Literature

Algebra.
U 0 = eiB , B = PAP −1 ;
by explicit computation can be shown, that the complete
Lie-Algebra of U(4) can be computed by successives
commutation, starting by A and B.
 Universality of
Efficiency of Approximation Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Theorem Universality of
CNOT and Single
Solovay-Kitaev theorem: Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single
Any quantum circuit containing m CNOT s and single qbit Qbit Operation
Controled Operations

gates can be approximatet to an accuracy ε using only Universality of Two Level

Gates

O m logc (m/ε) gates from a discrete set, where

A Discrete Set of
Universal
c = lim δ→0 2 + δ. Operations
δ>0
n n Summary
On one hand ∀U ∈ C2 ×2 : O n2 4n logc (n2 4n /ε)


Literature
operations are sufficient, on the other hand
n n
∃U ∈ C2 ×2 : Ω (2n log(1/ε)/ log(n)) operations are
required for implementing a V : E(U, V ) ≤ ε.
 Universality of
Summary Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
Decompositon of Single
I CNOTs and unitary single Qbit operations form an Qbit Operation
Controled Operations

universal set for quantum computing. Universality of Two Level

Gates

I Unitary single Qbit operations can be approximated A Discrete Set of

Universal
to an arbitrary precision by a finite set of gates. Operations

Summary
I This approximation cannot always be done efficiently.
Literature
 Universality of
Literature Quantum Gates

Markus
Schmassmann

Basics and
Definitions

Universality of
CNOT and Single
Qbit Unitaries
I Michael A. Nielsen, Isaac L. Chuang: Decompositon of Single
Qbit Operation

Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, Controled Operations

Universality of Two Level
Gates
Chapter 4: Quantum circuits
A Discrete Set of
I John Preskill: Lecture Notes for Universal
Operations
Quantum Information and Computation, Summary
Chapter 6.2.3: Universal quantum gates Literature