12

Dry and Starved Bearings

While previous chapters have dealt primarily with bearings supplied with a full film of lubri-
cant, millions of bearings operate dry or with limited lubrication at low loads and low speeds. A
variety of plastics, porous metals, and specially selected materials provide good performance
under conditions of poor or nonexistent lubrication where at least some of the load is carried
by solid-to-solid contact during sliding.
Operating characteristics under dry and starved lubrication unfortunately cannot be defined
easily by clear physical relations and formal mathematical expressions. Instead, empirical cor-
relations based on model tests, laboratory evaluations, and field experience are commonly
used. Final applications should normally be made only after prototype testing or careful com-
parison with past experiences under very similar conditions.
Guidelines for selecting and applying dry and semilubricated bearings follow. Coverage
is then given to starved lubrication. While the focus of this chapter is primarily on journal
bearings, corresponding principles will provide performance characteristics of thrust bearings
when operating with less than full lubrication.

12.1 Dry and Semilubricated Bearings

Plastics, porous bronze and porous iron, carbon-graphite, rubber, and wood are widely used
for bearings operating dry or with boundary lubrication (Booser, 1992; Khonsari and Booser,
2005a). With the availability of new composite materials and broadening experience, use of
this class of bearings has been rapidly growing for design simplicity and to avoid the higher
cost of ball bearings or fluid-film lubrication. Supplementary property information and appli-
cation limits for these types of bearing materials are given in Chapter 4.

Plastics
Most commercial plastics find some use, both dry and lubricated, in slow-speed bearings and at
light loads. The most commonly used thermoplastics are PTFE, nylon, and acetal resins. Ther-
mosetting resins used for bearings include phenolics, polyesters, and polyimides. Table 12.1

Applied Tribology: Bearing Design and Lubrication, Third Edition. Michael M. Khonsari and E. Richard Booser.
© 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Companion Website: www.wiley.com/go/Khonsari/Applied_Tribology_Bearing_Design_and_Lubrication_3rd_Edition
434 Applied Tribology

Table 12.1 Typical operating limits for nonmetallic bearings

Maximum PV limit Maximum pressure, Maximum

Material temperature (◦ C) (MN/(m s) P(MN∕m2 )a speed, V (m/s)

Thermoplastics
Nylon 90 0.90 5 3
Filled 150 0.46 10 —
Acetal 100 0.10 5 3
Filled — 0.28 — —
PTFE 250 0.04 3.4 0.3
Filled 250 0.53 17 5
Fabric — 0.88 400 0.8
Polycarbonate 105 0.03 7 5
Polyurethane 120 — — —
Polysulfone 160 — — —
Thermosetting
Phenolics 120 0.18 41 13
Filled 160 0.53 — —
Polyimides 260 4 — 8
Filled 260 5 — 8
Others
Carbon-graphite 400 0.53 4.1 13
Wood 70 0.42 14 10
Rubber 65 — 0.3 20

a
To convert MN∕m2 to psi, multiply by 145.
Source: Kennedy et al., 2005. Reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis.

compares characteristic limits for the use of plastic bearings with those of carbon-graphite,
wood, and rubber, which are used in similar applications.
The four operating limits listed in Table 12.1 are normally used to help define the useful
range of operation of plastics: (1) maximum temperature above which physical deterioration
or abnormal softening is to be expected; (2) maximum load at low speed, which reflects the
compressive yield strength; (3) a PV load–speed limit at intermediate speeds; and (4) maxi-
mum surface speed when running at light loads, probably limited by melting and other local
distortions at asperities. With a given coefficient of friction, this PV is the product of unit load
P (MPa, psi) multiplied by surface velocity V (m/s, ft/min), which gives a measure of surface
frictional heating and temperature rise. P is simply the total force divided by the bearing area
for a thrust bearing or any two flat surfaces. For a journal bearing, P is taken as the load on the
bearing divided by the projected area: journal diameter D× length of the bearing L. A further
example of the relation of temperature rise to PV follows in Equation (12.3) in the discussion
of porous metal bearings.
PV values also give a measure of wear rate. Many tests have shown that the total volume of
material worn away is approximately proportional to the normal load and the distance traveled
(see Archard Equation 4.4). This gives the relation for wear depth

Wd = k(PV )t (12.1)
Dry and Starved Bearings 435

Table 12.2 Wear factors for plastic bearingsa

Wear factor, Kinetic friction

k (10−15 m3 ∕N m) coefficient
Material No filler Filledb No filler Filledb

Nylon 6,6 4.0 0.24c 0.61 0.18c

PTFE 400 0.14d 0.05 0.09d
Acetal resin 1.3 0.49 0.21 0.34
Polycarbonate 50 3.6 0.38 0.22
Polyester 4.2 1.8 0.25 0.27
Poly(phenylene oxide) 60 4.6 0.39 0.27
Polysulfone 30 3.2 0.37 0.22
Polyurethane 6.8 3.6 0.37 0.34
a
See Blanchet, 1997 and Polymer Corp., 1992.
b
With 30 wt.% glass fiber unless otherwise noted.
c
Twenty percent PTFE.
d
Fifteen percent glass fiber.

where t is the operating time in seconds. Representative values of wear factor k are given in
Table 12.2 for operation with low-carbon steel (generally Rc hardness of 20 with 12–16 μ in.
surface finish) at room temperature.

Example 12.1 How much radial wear will be experienced by a nylon bushing supporting a
10 mm shaft running at 900 rpm (0.47 m/s) under 0.5 × 106 N∕m2 (70 psi) load?
The PV of 0.235 × 106 N∕m2 .m∕s (6510 psi fpm) and k = 0.24 × 10−15 m2 ∕N for filled
nylon in Table 12.2 gives a wear rate of

Ẇ d = kPV = (0.24 × 10−15 )(0.235 × 106 )(0.47) = 5.64 × 10−11 m∕s

In 1000 h, wear depth then becomes

(1000 ⋅ 60 ⋅ 60) s times 5.64 × 10−11 = 0.00020 m (0.20 mm)

Increased ambient temperature reduces the tolerable temperature rise related to the PV. Gen-
erally, the PV limit drops by 70% as ambient temperature approaches the limiting temperatures
in Table 12.1 (Polymer Corp., 1992). Shaft hardness above about 50 Rc usually provides min-
imum wear. Wear rate increases with soft stainless steel by a factor of up to 5 and by up to
20- to 50-fold with soft aluminum alloys (Theberge, 1970). Shaft surface roughness in the 12–
16 μ in. range is usually optimum; adhesion appears to promote higher wear at a finer finish;
abrasion appears to promote more wear for rougher surfaces.
Since wear rates calculated from k values represent only very broad estimates, prototype
tests are highly desirable for any planned application with no more than moderate acceleration
by employing somewhat higher than expected loads and surface speeds. As a broad general-
ization for unlubricated conditions near the maximum allowable PV, an estimated wear rate
of approximately 0.020–0.040 in./1000 h of running can occur with thermoplastic bearings,
compared to 0.080–0.160 with acetal (Polymer Corp., 1992).
436 Applied Tribology

Added fillers can reduce wear factor k by a factor of 10–1000 or more (Blanchet, 1997).
Common fillers include inorganic powders such as clay, glass fibers, graphite, molybdenum
disulfide, and powdered metal. Silicone fluid at a concentration of about 2% is also beneficial
as an internally available lubricant for reducing the friction and wear of plastics. The wear
rate of polymer composites is strongly dependent on the loading level of the filler (Blanchet,
1997). Dependence of composite wear rate kc on matrix volume fraction xm and filler volume
fraction xf is typically related by an inverse rule of mixtures:

1 x x
= m+ f (12.2)
kc km kf

where km and kf are the wear factors of the matrix and filler, respectively. For a given system,
values of km and kf can be determined from Equation (12.2) from wear data at any two different
loading levels (one of which may be the unfilled case). At high filler volume fractions (xf >
0.35), particulates may not be well dispersed. Increasing weak particle-to-particle interfaces
may eventually result in an increased wear rate with increasing volume fraction, deviating
from the pattern predicted by Equation (12.2).

Porous Metal Bearings

Porous metal bearings made of compressed and sintered powders of bronze, iron, and alu-
minum alloys are very common because of their simplicity, self-contained lubrication, and
low cost. Millions of these bearings for shaft sizes ranging from about 1.6 to 150 mm are
produced daily for small electric motors, household appliances, machine tools, automotive
accessories, farm and construction equipment, and business machines (Morgan, 1984; Cusano,
1994). Material standards for porous metal bearings are given by ASTM B328, B438, B439,
B612, and B782 and in the standards of the Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF, 1991–
1992).
Production consists of five primary steps (Cusano, 1994): (1) metal powders are uniformly
blended, sometimes with a solid lubricant; (2) this blend is compacted in dies at room tem-
perature under high pressure; (3) the compact is sintered below the melting point of the base
metal to bond the metal particles metallurgically; (4) the sintered bearings are repressed with
sizing tools for improved dimensional accuracy and surface finish; and (5) oil is introduced
into the interconnecting pores.
Traditional powder metal bearings consist of 90% copper and 10% tin (Table 12.3). Porous
iron bearings are used for lower cost, often with some copper or graphite added for higher load
capacity at low speeds. Up to 40% added 90-10 bronze powder provides many of the charac-
teristics of porous bronze bearings together with the lower cost of iron. Porous aluminum
containing 3–5% copper, tin, and lead finds limited use because of its cooler operation, better
conformability, and lower weight.
The main limitation of porous metal bearings is that they commonly operate with only
boundary or mixed film lubrication. A typical pore volume of 20–30% is commonly impreg-
nated with a VG 68 turbine petroleum oil, although the ISO viscosity grade ranges from 32 to
150. Figure 12.1 provides a general guide for the selection of lower-viscosity oil with increas-
ing shaft surface speed. Synthetic oils such as those listed in Table 12.4 are employed to
meet extreme temperature conditions and other special application requirements. To promote
Dry and Starved Bearings 437

Table 12.3 Operating limits for porous metal bearings

Pressure limit,
P (MN∕m2 )
Nominal Speed limit, PV limit
Porous metal composition (wt%) Static Dynamic V (m/s) (MN/(m s))

Bronze Cu 90, Sn 10 59 28 6.1 1.8a

Iron 52 25 2.0 1.3
Iron–copper Fe 90, Cu 10 140 28 1.1 1.4
Iron–copper–carbon Fe 96, Cu 3, C 0.7 340 56 0.2 2.6
Bronze–iron Fe 60, Cu 36, Sn 4 72 17 4.1 1.2
Aluminum 28 14 6.1 1.8

Note: To convert MN∕m2 to psi, multiply by 145.

a
Approximately equivalent to 50 000 psi ft/min limit often quoted by US suppliers.
Source: Kennedy et al., 2005. Reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis.

oil-film formation, high porosity with its high oil content is used for higher speeds, often with
an oil wick or grease providing a supplementary lubricant supply. Lower porosity with up to
3.5% added graphite is used for lower speeds and oscillating motion where oil-film formation
is difficult.
When received from the manufacturer, a porous metal bearing is about 90% saturated with
oil. If conditions favor hydrodynamic pressure generation in the loaded portion, oil recirculates
from the loaded to the unloaded regions of the bearing, as shown in Figure 12.2. Oil is then
lost by evaporation, creepage, and throw-off radially at the ends of the bearing. The extent
of the oil film drops as the oil content in the pores decreases, as in the typical pattern shown
in Figure 12.3, until asperity contact and finally boundary lubrication exists. Morgan (1984)
suggests that before the oil content falls below 65%, it should be replenished by means of
wicks, oil reservoirs, or oil cups.

With a high ambient temperature,

10 use a higher-viscosity oil 2000

5 1000
Shaft velocity (ft/min)
Shaft velocity (m/s)

500

1 200

0.5 100

50

0.1
10 20 50 100 200
Oil viscosity at 60 °C (cP)

Figure 12.1 Guide to oil viscosity as a function of shaft surface speed. Source: Morgan, 1980. Repro-
duced with permission of Taylor & Francis.
438 Applied Tribology

Table 12.4 Advantages of synthetic lubricants for porous metal bearings

Base fluid Temperature range Advantages Limitations

Polyalphaolefins −40 ◦ C to 179 ◦ C Plastic and elastomer Additive solubility

(−40 ◦ F to 355 ◦ F)
Diesters −54 ◦ C to 204 ◦ C
(−65 ◦ F to 400 ◦ F)
Polyolester −57 ◦ C to 279 ◦ C
(−70 ◦ C to 535 ◦ F)
Silicone −73 ◦ C to 279 ◦ C
(−100 ◦ F to 535 ◦ F)
compatibility, low
evaporation rates
Detergency, price, good
lubricating characteristics
Thermal stability, low
evaporation rates
Chemical resistance, high
viscosity index
Elastomer and plastic
incompatibility
Higher price, elastomer and
plastic incompatibility
Poor lubricity, high price,
generally replaced by
low-viscosity synthetic
hydrocarbons

Source: Cusano, 2007. Reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis.

Oil circulation

Porous bearing

Housing

Oil supply into gap Oil seep into pores

Oil pressure extent

(New bearing)

Figure 12.2 Mechanism of oil flow in a porous metal bearing. Source: Cusano, 1994. Reproduced with
permission of Taylor & Francis.

100
Percent of oil
in the pores

90
Low speed and low
80 temperature
Low speed and high tem
perature
70 or high speed and low tem
perature
High speed and high temperature
60
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Running time (h)

Figure 12.3 Typical oil loss curves for porous metal bearings. Source: Cusano, 1994. Reproduced with
permission of Taylor & Francis.
Dry and Starved Bearings 439

Table 12.3 gives approximate operating limits for porous metal bearings. Maximum PV val-
ues for sleeve bearings range up to 1.8 MN/(m s)(50 000 psi ft/min). For long-term, continuous
service and for thrust bearings, PV levels should generally not exceed about 20% of these val-
ues. Detailed property and application data are available from manufacturers of porous metal
bearings, from the Metal Powder Industries Association, and from Cusano (1994, 1997).
The coefficient of friction with the usual boundary lubrication depends on load, speed, mate-
rial and lubricant properties, and temperature (Cusano, 1994). Typical values range from 0.05
to 0.15. For operation near the PV limit, a coefficient of friction of about 0.1 is a reasonable
value. Heat generated in the bearing is then proportional to this coefficient of friction f :

EP
EP = fWV; = f PV (12.3)
A
where EP is the heat generated in watts, W is load (N), and V is the surface velocity of the
shaft in m/s. This equation also gives the heat generated per unit of projected bearing area
EP ∕A (and the rise in bearing temperature Tb above its surrounding temperature Ts ) as being
generally proportional to the PV operating factor. That is

Tb − Ts = Kt (fPV) (12.4)

where Kt is heat flow resistance to the surroundings. Morgan (1980) suggested performing
experimental evaluation of Kt by using an electric heater to simulate bearing frictional heating
while measuring bearing temperature with an embedded thermocouple. Values of Kt com-
monly fall in the range of 1.5 × 10−4 to 4 × 10−4 .
Operation under hydrodynamic conditions with the load fully supported by an oil film is
not the usual case for porous metal bearings. Analyses for both copious and starved lubricant
feed are summarized by Cusano (1994, 1997) while considering hydrodynamic action at the
shaft–bearing interface together with permeability of the bearing material.
Porous metal bearings should be mounted with a press fit light enough to give acceptable ID
close in. While low internal running clearance is more likely to cause problems of seizure, mis-
alignment, and high temperature, internal clearances should be kept low for a low noise level
and good bearing life. For small shafts up to about 0.5 in. in diameter, diametrical clearance
is commonly held at 0.0003–0.0012 in. For larger shafts, the ratio of diametrical clearance to
shaft diameter typically ranges from 0.0005 to 0.0015. Shafts should have a surface finish of
0.4 μ m or better and an Rb hardness at least 30 above the hardness of particles making up the
bearing. With a bronze bearing particle hardness of 65 Rb , shaft hardness should then be 95 or
more (Cusano, 1997).

12.2 Partially Starved Oil-Film Bearings

While many bearings depend for normal operation on a relatively thick oil film for complete
separation of moving and stationary surfaces, this frequently involves a smaller lubricant sup-
ply than is needed to be fully flooded. Oil is supplied to many such journal bearings by metered
feed from a centralized system or by self-contained devices such as oil rings, chains, wicks,
disks, pumping holes, and capillary feed. Disks lubricate some thrust bearings; wicks and rings
are generally not used.