Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34 – 45

www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

A topographic fingerprint to distinguish alluvial

fan formative processes
H.X. Volker a,b , T.A. Wasklewicz a,⁎, M.A. Ellis a,c
a
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA
b
Fugro West, Inc., Ventura, CA 93003-7778, USA
c
Center for Earthquake Research and Information, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA
Received 30 May 2006; received in revised form 19 October 2006; accepted 19 October 2006
Available online 29 November 2006

Abstract

We demonstrate here a topographic fingerprint, derived from a 1 m high-resolution elevation model (DEM), developed from
Airborne Laser Swath Mapping (ALSM) that distinguishes between formative processes from surface form in alluvial fans
generated through relatively dry debris flows (DF) and those surfaces formed primarily by fluvial sediment transport (MF). We
selected alluvial fans with primarily Holocene age surficial deposits along the eastern side of Death Valley, California. Fans were
initially classified in the field into DF and MF types, largely on the basis of sedimentological characteristics and surface
morphometry. Trend surface analyses were performed on DEMs of the individual fans in order to remove the long-wavelength
trends (both profile and planimetric). From the residual data, we found that high-resolution surface data distinguishes process
information in two ways; 1) local-relief increases as a function of length-scale, especially at length scales less than 40–60 m, and 2)
local-relief is significantly higher for debris-flow dominated fans than for fluvially dominated fans. This fingerprint, which is
directly related to the dominant surface processes, is unavailable from standard 30 m resolution data, providing significant support
for the acquisition of high-quality high-resolution data. This fingerprint can be used to help calibrate numerical simulations of
alluvial fan development, and has the potential for similar applications to distinguish between processes of similar landforms on
other planetary bodies within our solar system.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Geomorphometry; LiDAR; GIS; Death Valley

1. Introduction are time-integrated surfaces generated by multiple

A long-standing goal in geomorphology is to use
form to reveal process (Horton, 1945; Ashmore et al.,
1992; Ferguson et al., 1992; Lane, 1998; Knighton and
Nanson, 2000). This is not an easy task, as landscapes
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 901 678 4452; fax: +1 901 678 2178.
E-mail address: twsklwcz@memphis.edu (T.A. Wasklewicz).
0169-555X/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.10.008
processes, each coupled to the other or to boundary
conditions, and each with response times that likely
depend on boundary conditions. The alluvial fan
literature is replete of studies employing digital
elevation data that portray fan surface topography to
distinguish formative processes. Here we use local
relief as a function of length-scale, r(l), derived from
one-meter planimetric resolution elevation data, to
 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45
distinguish between debris and mixed-flow alluvial
fans in Death Valley, Basin and Range Province,
California (Fig. 1).
The relative contribution of any particular process to
the development of alluvial fans, as with every other
landscape, is likely to change over time. This is par-
ticularly so for modern landscapes, many of which have
been exposed to significant changes in climate through-
out the Quaternary period. The compound stratigraphy
of alluvial fans present clear evidence to support dif-
ferent formative processes dominate at various times
(e.g., Ritter et al., 2000; Ortega-Ramírez et al., 2004). We
minimize this issue by examining surficial deposits from
Fig. 1. Location of study area within Death Valley National Park
(DVNP), California (CA), USA. Shaded-relief of topography along the
Black Mountain range-front is shown using both the high-resolution,
ALSM-derived DEM and the 30 m USGS NED DEM. BW is the
Badwater fan and CC is the Copper Canyon fan. Outline of Fig. 3 is
shown by the thicker white box.
35
relatively young fans along the eastern flank of Death
Valley. The lack of lake sediments and shorelines on
these surfaces indicates the fan surface developed after
the drawdown of pluvial Lake Manly (Hooke, 1972;
Smith, 1976; Li et al., 1996), which likely occurred
∼ 12 ka (Anderson and Wells, 2003).
While the relative age of the fan surficial units is
constrained to the Holocene, differences in the age of the
surficial depositional units are evident in the various
degrees of varnish rubification and pavement develop-
ment. Furthermore, the timing of depositional and ero-
sional processes among the fans in the current population
is not synchronized, such that not all fan surfaces have
developed at the same time or from the same regional or
local storm events during the Holocene. Some of the fans
may also possess an internal core of material that dates to
the pre-Holocene, but this has not been adequately tested
to date. The current study provides an analysis of the
recent fan surface and we do not attempt to trace the
complex continuum of processes that have likely
changed throughout the evolution of the fan as a whole.
Alluvial fans in the Basin and Range are widely
recognized as either debris-flow dominated (DF),
fluvially dominated, or a mixture of debris-flows and
ephemeral stream flow (termed mixed-flow fans (MF),
largely on the basis of their sedimentary characteristics
(Beatty, 1963; Hooke, 1967; Bull, 1968; Whipple and
Dunne, 1992; Blair and McPherson, 1999). Debris flows
leave characteristic topographies across alluvial fans:
long and often sinuous channels bordered by prominent
levees and in some instances terminated by a snout of
relatively coarse sediment (Whipple and Dunne, 1992)
(Fig. 2a). By contrast, fluvially dominated surfaces
contain rectangular channels and generally smoother,
flatter interfluves (likely a result of secondary processes
as explained in Blair and McPherson, 1994a) (Fig. 2b).
The fluvially dominated fans display a greater proportion
of well-sorted fine sediments. Physical models, in com-
bination with field analyses, corroborate variations in fan
surface topography are a function of water content within
the sediment-laden flows that both build and incise these
surfaces (Hooke, 1968). The MF fans contain a
combination of the aforementioned sedimentary and
topographic characteristics. The aforementioned differ-
ences and our field observations lead us to hypothesize
that fan topography contains information indicative of
the processes associated with fan development.
A variety of DEM values and analyses in geomorphic
research have been applied to acquire information on
surface topography variability. For example, landslide
studies have generated various measures of topographic
roughness to automatically delineate landslides within
36 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45

Fig. 2. A detailed view of some of the DF (a) and MF (b) fan surface features and stratigraphic units. Debris flows, which typically have coarser
sediment loads, leave characteristic topographies across alluvial fans such as the channels bordered by prominent levees. These features are found
consistently along the length of the debris flow fans (Staley et al., 2006). By contrast, wetter sediment-laden flow surfaces are intermixed with
rectangular channels and generally smoother, flatter interfluves. Stratigraphically, the MF fans display a greater proportion of well-sorted fine
sediments, as viewed along incised channels by the authors.

mountainous landscapes and to generate mechanical
inferences on the recent behavior of landslides (McKean
and Roering, 2004). Surface roughness has also been
applied to the identification of landslide topographic
elements and to correlate these elements with material
properties and localized landslide motions (Glenn et al.,
2006). Another approach to interpreting topographic
variability is a comparison of relative- or local-relief.
Previous research has shown topographic relief in
mountainous terrain is often associated with tectonic
 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45 37

Fig. 3. A detailed view of the shaded relief derived from the ALSM high-resolution DEM of two of the fan types (DF6 is a debris flow fan and MF6 is
a mixed-flow fan). Note the detail that can be readily observed in the fan and range-front morphology.

processes as opposed to climatically induced isostatic
uplift (Whipple et al., 1999). At a more localized scale,
Oguchi (1997) verified a negative correlation between
drainage density and relative relief (the maximum height
dispersion normalized by its length or area) and
considered it to be a general characteristic of Japanese
mountains. The relationship remains relatively constant
when zero-order streams are added to the data analyses.
Oguchi (1997) attributed the correlation to spatial
variations in hillslope processes, whereby mass wasting
in the zero-order streams promote the varying relations
between drainage density and relative relief. However,
none of these analytical approaches have been applied to
alluvial fans to extract a process-oriented topographic
signature. We show here the rate of change of local-
relief derived from a high-resolution DEM enables fan
surfaces to be objectively classified and linked to a
predominant formative process at a much shorter length-
scale than in previous studies.
2. Methods
2.1. Derivation of the digital elevation model (DEM)
A one-meter DEM was derived from airborne laser
swath mapping (ALSM) (Shrestha et al., 1999),
generated by the National Science Foundation funded
National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping (NCALM)
within the University of Florida's Geosensing Systems
Engineering Program. The data were acquired over a
three day period: 5/29/03, 5/30/03, and 6/02/03 from
heights ranging from 300 to 1100 m above ground-level.
38 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45

The variations in altitude during the data acquisition

reflect a change in topography from the fan into the
drainage basin as well as variability in surface
topography along the length of the mountain front.
The laser scanning was completed with a scan angle of
20° (1/2 Field Of View), a scan frequency of 28 Hz and a
pulse rate of 33,333 Hz.
The data were referenced to the North American
Datum of 1983 (NAD83) horizontal and the Geodetic
Reference System 1980 (GRS80) ellipsoid heights
vertical datums. Laser shots were collected along
separate flight strips (swaths) that overlapped at greater
than 30%. Post-processing of the ALSM data was
conducted at NCALM in late summer and early fall of
2003. Grid nodes were obtained through the application
of Kriging to the combined overlapping swaths of laser
shots to produce a best estimate elevation on a one-
meter grid. The vertical precision is ± 10 cm, while the
vertical resolution is b 0.01 m (Shrestha et al., 1999).
Data were converted to UTM zone 11 coordinates, and
analyses were conducted from one-meter raster grids in
ESRI ArcInfo and MATLAB.

2.2. Classification and definition of alluvial fans Fig. 4. Geomorphological and geological characteristics of fans
and source basins. (a) Plot of drainage basin-area vs. fan-area for each
Twenty-nine alluvial fans exposed contiguously of 29 alluvial fans along the Black Mtn. range-front (see Fig. 1).
Triangle symbols are DF fans, circles are MF. These data are consis-
along the range-front for which we had high-resolution
tent with Death Valley fans reported by Hooke (1968), shown by the
topographic data (Fig. 1) were selected for the study. broad gray line, and with data from other sets of alluvial fans: 1–2,
Each fan was classified as either debris flow (DF) or Bull, 1964; 3–5, Hooke, 1968. The relationship of the fan area
mixed flow (MF) (Figs. 2 and 3) using a field-based (Af; km2) in the current study with the drainage basin area (Ad; km2) is
criteria described below. The general morphometric defined as Af = − 1.94 A0.95
f . (b) A ternary compositional plot for the
three most dominant lithologies in the drainage basin, which are
characteristics of the fan classes are specified in Table 1.
metamorphic (predominantly) schists (Xmi), Volcanic (intermediate
Surficial features and sedimentological characteris- and felsic) lava flows and tuffs (Tar), and intrusive (primarily) gabbro
tics were recorded and photo-documented during field and diorite (Tws) (Workman et al., 2002), provided as a general
observations of all twenty-nine alluvial fans. The indicator of the drainage basin geology. Note that the single DF symbol
observations and documentation served as a framework at 100% Xmi corresponds to 17 occurrences of this fan-class (denoted
by the number 17 in the ternary diagram); the two occurrences of MF
for classifying the two fan groups. In particular, deposits
at 100% Xmi plot within the same range as the occurrences of DF
along incised channels were examined in accordance also lie underneath the triangles. DF and MF symbols marked with
with previous studies in Death Valley and adjacent areas an asterisk correspond to fans that are identified by a topographic
in the Mojave Desert (Blair and McPherson, 1992, fingerprint that does not match the initial classification (see text for
1994a). Surface forms used in the classification of detailed explanation).
debris flow fans included; levees, sieve deposits, lobes,
snouts, and debris plugs, as observed by Whipple and Dunne (1992) and Hooke (1987) (Fig. 2a). Forms
associated with fluvially derived fan surfaces included;
Table 1 terraces, interfluves, islands, and rectilinear channel
The average morphometric statistics for the two fan classes (MF — banks (Blair and McPherson, 1994a,b) (Fig. 2b). The
mixed-flow fans; DF — debris flow fans) sedimentological distinctions were based largely on
Fan Fan length Fan width Fan area Fan slope DBA particle imbrication (Iverson, 1997) and matrix sup-
class (m) (m) (km2) (°) (km2) ported clasts (Blair and McPherson, 1994b), both
MF 816.57 977.83 0.90 5.73 10.02 indicative of debris flow deposition as well as the
DF 244.36 198.89 0.08 15.05 0.60 upward fining of particles, which is indicative of fluvial
DBA is the drainage basin area of the fans. deposition (Blair and McPherson, 1992, 1994a).
 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45 39

Fig. 5. A graphical portrayal of the local relief calculation derived from a series of hypothetical numbers. Each 1-m cell value is replaced with r(l).
The r(l) was calculated at each of the following length scales: 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 50, 75, and 100-m, using the maximum amount of relief in the
window (white box) divided by the total relief of the fan. The grey boxes to the right of the window represent the next series of raster cells to be
measured during the moving window process used to generate the local relief values.

We mapped the fan outlines by deriving stream
networks and by noting that higher order streams are
often found at the margins of coalescing fan surfaces.
This is particularly useful in cases where multiple fans
comprised a bajada complex. The edge of each fan in the
bajada complexes was demarcated by the top bank of
the higher order stream incising between two adjacent
fans. Additionally, slope, aspect, and curvature grids
were used to lend further information to support our
decision making process in separating fans from the
bajada complex. This was necessary when hydrological
networks did not completely define the extent of the
entire fan surface. For example, convexity–concavity
variation can help delimit the top bank of the high-order
streams between adjacent fans.
The contributing drainage areas were delineated
(from the 30-m USGS NED DEM) in ArcGIS for each
fan surface. The general relationship between drainage
area and fan area was assessed from these data. Our
findings concur with previous results identified by
investigators of similar fans in arid settings (Bull, 1964;
Hooke, 1968; Hooke and Rohrer, 1979; Leece, 1991;
Whipple and Trayler, 1996) (Fig. 4). This similarity
provides a level of confidence that our method of
defining fans is accurate and/or at least consistent with
earlier cited methodologies.
40 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45

Fig. 6. The series of steps required to remove the broad-scale slope trends and subsequently permit us to analyze only the local-relief differences in the
fan surfaces. First, second, and third order polynomial surfaces were investigated to assess the output from each. The first and third order surfaces
were rejected as they respectively did not remove the slope trend or convoluted the surface. A second order polynomial surface provided the best
approximation of the fan surface, while removing the planimetric and profile trends.
 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45 41

2.3. Derivation of local-relief these characteristics is quantified by the relatively low

rate of increase in MF fans of r(l) values.
Local-relief r(l), defined here as the maximum Interestingly, there are apparent exceptions to the
difference in elevation within a square window of general result described above. Two MF fans exhibit r(l)
length l. Each 1-m grid cell was assigned an r(l) value values that place them unambiguously in the DF group
based on the maximum relief value within the window. (Fig. 7a), and likewise, one DF fan lies within the MF
Relief values were normalized by the total relief of the grouping (Fig. 7a). We re-examined these anomalous
fan (Fig. 5). For each of the fans, r(l) was derived at fans to see if we had overlooked evidence in their initial
different length-scales (increasing window size) and classification or to find an alternative interpretation for
maintained a 1 m cell size at the varying length-scales. the inconsistent r(l) values identified in these three fans
An initial assessment of r(l) as a function of length-scale (one DF and two MF).
found it was dominated by the slope of the fan surface, Active faults have generated relatively high-relief
especially at length-scales that approached the size of scarps across some of the fan surfaces, but notably not
the fan. We performed a trend-surface analysis (using
standard ESRI ArcInfo routines) of each fan in order to
define and remove the long-wavelength shape of the fan
(Fig. 6). For each fan, this process resulted in the
removal of a second-order (quadratic) polynomial
surface that best fit the original fan surface (Borrough
and McDonnell, 1998) (Fig. 6). The trend surface
removal allowed us to examine the topographic
variability of the fan surface in a standardized manner
without including global trends (e.g., the removal slope
trends in both the planimetric and profile directions).
The residual surface was used in subsequent analyses.

3. Results

Mean r(l) is higher in most cases for fans constructed

from debris flows than those formed by a combination
of debris flows and fluvial flows (Fig. 7a). The
distinction between MF and DF fans is even more
evident in a comparison of fan groups (Fig. 7b). Here,
the rate of increase of mean r(l) as a function of length-
scale in DF fans is significantly higher than that
observed in MF fans at length-scales below 40–60 m.
This is a significant result and indicates fans generated
from disparate formative processes produce differing
surface complexity.
Greater differences in elevation at both short and
long length-scales on DF fans reflect formative Fig. 7. Plots of normalized local-relief vs. length-scale, r(l) for
processes that contrast those active on MF fans. Debris individual fans (a) and for means of fan classes (b). DF fans are solid
flows, for example, produce lobes, levees, and snouts lines, MF are dashed. The topographic fingerprint is revealed by the
adjacent to channels. The proximity of such features in significantly higher rate of increase in r(l) at relatively short length-
scales (40–60 m) for DF fans than for MF fans. Standard 1 sigma
DF fans relative to MF fans yield higher r(l) values in uncertainties in mean values of r(l) (not shown here for clarity) are
the DF fans. A combination of fluvial erosion and significantly smaller than the ordinate separation distances. The DF
secondary processes in the MF fans leads to a higher and two MF curves marked with asterisks are clearly anomalous, and if
degree of surface dissection and erosion of interfluves. the corresponding fan-classes were reclassified to, respectively, MF
Field observations show a reduction in the elevation of and DF, the quality of the topographic fingerprint would be improved
further still. The anomalous fans are similarly anomalous in their
interfluves, a higher density of small incised channels, lithological composition (Fig. 4, ternary diagram) and in their
small erosional terraces cut into the fan surface by drainage-basin areas (Fig. 8). See text for further explanation of this
fluvial erosion, and an infilling of channels. The sum of variation from the predominant trend.
42 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45
Fig. 8. Plots of drainage-basin size for each of the 29 fans grouped in
the two classes, DF and MF. The anomalous fans identified by the
topographic fingerprint (Fig. 4) are marked by asterisks.
across the previously mentioned anomalous MF fans. In
any case, the relatively small fraction of fan-area
occupied by a fault scarp will not contribute signifi-
cantly to the fan-average value of local relief. There
were also no indications of any anomalous surface
features that would skew the data toward a higher relief
value and therefore, place them within the same range of
localized relief as the DF fans during a subsequent
investigation of these two fans. A reassessment (during
the subsequent field investigation) of the depositional
units exposed along these two fans remains consistent
with our initial MF classification. The two MF fans do
have similar lithology and basin areas to DF fans
(Fig. 8), but as previously stated this link is not
supported by field analyses of the sedimentary struc-
tures and surficial features. Therefore, the two anoma-
lous MF fans are not suitable for the DF or MF fan
classification scheme identified during this study.
A subsequent, more detailed field study of the DF fan
provided evidence of sorted deposits and rectilinear
channels consistent with the other MF fans. Initially, our
rapid assessment did not cover this section of the fan and
hence misidentified this fan as a DF fan. This
reassessment and the low r(l) strongly indicate this fan
is more in line with our definition of a mixed-flow fan.
This is a case that highlights the strength of the topo-
graphic signature from the r(l) values.
4. Discussion
The topographic fingerprint discovered here provides
an objective method of characterizing the dominant
processes that have generated the current alluvial fan
surfaces. In this discussion of fan types, we do not want to
lose sight of the fact that in reality, there exist a spectrum
of fan morphologies that in turn reflect a wide variety of
transport and aggradation events, both in time and space.
We do not want to leave the reader with the impression
that fans are either debris-flow types or mixed-flow types.
We anticipate, for example, that had we been able to
examine alluvial fans in a significantly wetter environ-
ment, or a tropical climate that our results may have
similarly reflected the transport and aggradation events
occurring within this part of the spectrum of alluvial fans.
At this stage, however, it remains remarkable that the DF
and MF fans in this arid setting do appear to objectively
fall into two classes based upon an analysis of the
localized relief of the fans. These two fan classes appear
most simply related to the water-content of sediment-
laden flows that build up and incise the surface.
The role of lithology identified within two alluvial fan
classes cannot be completely ruled out. Lithologic
controls have been previously identified as a factor
leading to differences in fan processes on the west side of
Death Valley (Blair, 1999) as well as at other locations
(Al-Farraj and Harvey, 2005; Wagreich and Strauss,
2005). We identify differences in the dominant rock types
within the two fan classes. However, caution should be
advised in interpreting these data as they are taken from a
very coarse-resolution data set (Workman et al., 2002) and
the ternary diagram generalizes the variability of rock
types present in the drainage basins. When all rock types
in each of the MF drainage basins are considered the
variability of the MF class increases. Several MF basins
have in excess of five rock types present in their drainage
basins, while other MF fans exhibit only three rock types.
A majority of the DF fan drainage basins contain a single
rock type, but two contain at least three rock types. The
relatively coarse-scale geologic map utilized to extract the
geology also further generalizes the patterns identified in
the current study. A more detailed geology map (perhaps
aided by the ALSM data) could provide a more definitive
picture. Furthermore, it must also be stated that other
studies indicate lithology has no control (Harvey, 1988;
Ritter et al., 2000; Hartley et al., 2005) or at best plays an
ambiguous role (Crosta and Frattini, 2004) in fan
development and the spatial variability of formative
processes. The unresolved role of lithology highlights the
degree of the complexity associated with the factors
leading to formative processes. The conflicting findings
also speak to the need to further investigate the role of
lithology, weathering, and sediment transport within the
often-steep fan source areas. These types of studies are
required to help fine-tune the topographic fingerprint and
enhance our understanding of process-form relations in
alluvial fans.
The importance of the ALSM data cannot be
understated in identifying the relationships explained
in the results sections. The topographic signature is
greatly improved by high-resolution elevation data
acquired through the ALSM techniques. It is highly
 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45
unlikely that standard 30 m DEM data would have
produced a similar topographic signature. The length-
scale of many of the features (channels, levees, debris
lobes, debris dams, etc.) identified on the fan surface is
smaller than 30m grid cells (Staley et al., 2006).
Furthermore, the fine-scale topographic signature
would also be lost in an analysis of the 30 m DEM data.
The results from the assessment of local-relief have
broader implications with regard to fan evolution.
Local-relief can be used as a means to evaluate both
physical and numerical models of fan evolution (Hooke,
1967; Coulthard et al., 2002; Clevis et al., 2003). ALSM
and other high-resolution mapping techniques have
made it possible to produce analyses that provide
definitive measures of surface topography. These
quantitative measures of form can be used to test if the
surface topography produced by evolutionary models is
valid. Our assessment of local-relief has provided
evidence topography varies between debris-flow and
mixed-flow fans in Death Valley. Models of fans
generated from varying processes should also reflect
corresponding changes in topography, and if they do
not, the validity of process-form relations in the model
should be questioned. Long term observation of alluvial
fan surfaces through our topographic fingerprint would
also potentially provide evidence for changes in the
dominate mechanism operating on the fan surface,
which could be incorporated into numerical models, for
more accurate representation of landform evolution.
The calibrated models, with more accurate topogra-
phy, would supply precise data for predicting flood and
debris-flow hazards as well as providing better informa-
tion for planning as cities expand into the surrounding
piedmont areas. Detailed topography of alluvial fan data
is required as numerical models attempt to simulate the
nature of and interactions between fan process and form.
These data are critical to understanding channel avulsion
(Field, 2001) and the reactivation of flood prone
surfaces. The results from studies of channel avulsion
can be used to establish the most probable locations for
floods on alluvial fans. Flood losses continue to plague
many cities throughout the world where urban areas have
expanded onto alluvial fans. More knowledge on
process-form relations can lead to better management
practices and inform decision-makers where to allocate
money to protect certain locations at greater risk of
flooding and mass movement hazards.
Furthermore, the quantification of form presented in
this article lends itself to comparisons of geomorphic
forms on other planetary bodies. The authors are not
suggesting the processes identified in the current study
are acting on other planets. To the contrary, at present not
43
enough information exists to determine how long-term
patterns of processes and forms within Death Valley have
varied in comparison with other planets. However, our
results indicate differences in processes are visible in the
surface topography of the alluvial fans in Death Valley. A
similar approach could be applied to other planets (e.g.
Mars) where topographic data are available. A topo-
graphic signature from analyses on other planets might
provide a simple approach to show different topogra-
phies are present and signify different processes have
been acting on the planet. More specifically, the topogra-
phic data could be used to provide quantitative evidence
of water-based vs. mass wasting-based processes.
5. Conclusions
The topographic signature identified in this study has
provided a quantitative method for identification of the
dominate mechanisms operating on alluvial fan surfaces
in Death Valley, California. The use of high-resolution
DEM gathered with Airborne Laser Swath Mapping
techniques was instrumental in unraveling this signature.
The unprecedented spatial resolution of the data permit
us to generate elevation data that revealed the surface
complexity of the alluvial fans. The ability to map the
various surficial features in detail led to quantifiable
measure of surface topography for comparison between
the MF and DF fan classes. The results from the
assessment of relative relief also have broader implica-
tions. Local-relief may be used as a means to evaluate
both physical and numerical models of fan evolution. A
more accurate understanding of the fan surface com-
plexity as it relates to local-relief should provide hazards
specialists with the ability to predict floods and mass
movement events on fans. This is critical as sprawl in
many of the cities throughout the world are pushing
development onto alluvial fans surfaces. Finally, the
methodology applied in the present study may lend itself
to studying geomorphic forms on other planets. A
topographic measure, similar to local-relief, could imply
different processes have acted on other fan-like features
identified on other planetary bodies.
Acknowledgements
This material is based upon work supported by the
National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0239749.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommen-
dations are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
Special thanks go to the National Center for Airborne
Laser Mapping (NCALM) for all of their assistance in
44 H.X. Volker et al. / Geomorphology 88 (2007) 34–45
data collection and post-processing. We would also like
to thank Dennis Staley (USFS, Golden, Colorado) for
his assistance with the trend-surface analyses. We are
very grateful to Roger LeB. Hooke for markedly
improving an earlier version of this manuscript. We
also thank Philip Giles and Vic Baker for their review
comments, which solidified the final product. CERI
contribution number 493.
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