RESPONSES, RECEPTORS, NEURONES & SYNAPSES

CHEAT SHEET
Responses Control of the Heart Rate Neurones & The Resting Potential
• All multicellular organisms need to respond to changes in their • Cardiac muscle is myogenic, meaning it can contract and relax • A myelinated motor neurone:
environment (stimuli) in order to survive without receiving signals from the nervous system • The resting potential is the
• Tropisms are a directional growth response in plants, in which the • The sinoatrial node (SAN) sends out difference in electrical charge
direction of the response is determined by the direction of the regular waves of electrical activity across the membrane while the
external stimulus
• Plants respond to directional stimuli using specific growth factors, to the left & right atrial wall causing neurone is at rest
which move to regions where they are needed from growing regions contraction. The electrical waves are • The sodium-potassium pump
• Indoleacetic acid (IAA) causes elongation of shoot cells, while then passed onto the atrioventricular uses ATP to pump 3 sodium
it also inhibits root cell elongation in order to cause positive node (AVN), then to the bundle of His, (Na+) ions out of the cell and 2
geotropism & phototropism. with a slight delay. The bundle of His potassium (K+) ions into the cell.
• In phototropism, IAA diffuses to the shaded side. splits into the Purkyne tissue, causing The membrane is permeable to K+ but impermeable to Na+ ions.
In geotropism, IAA diffuses to the lower side. contraction of the left & right ventricles These factors allow an electrochemical gradient to be set up,
• Taxis is the movement of an animal towards from the bottom up. with the cell negatively charged at -70mV.
or away from a stimulus • The rate at which the SAN fires is controlled unconsciously by
• In kinesis animals change the rate the medulla oblongata in the autonomic nervous system
of movement (turning or speed) in order to move towards
favourable conditions Stimulus Receptor Effect Transmission of Action Potentials
• Taxis & kinesis are simple responses that can maintain a mobile High Baroreceptors Medulla sends impulses along • Action potential are transmitted in non-myelinated axons
organism in a favourable environment. blood in the aorta & parasympathetic neurones, using because when a depolarisation happens, it causes voltage-
• Reflexes are rapid responses that don’t require pressure carotid arteries acetylcholine to reduce the heart rate gated sodium channels to open further down the axon. By
conscious thought. the time the depolarisation has spread, part of the axon is
• Reflexes can quickly protect the body from Medulla sends impulses along
repolarising
harm, as it does not involve many synapses, they Low blood sympathetic neurones, using • In myelinated axons, action potentials only occur at the nodes
use simple mechanisms and are localized to the pressure noradrenaline to increase the heart of Ranvier, with charge diffusing along the cell where myelin is
part of the body where they occur rate present (saltatory conduction).
High Chemoreceptors • Factors affecting transmission speed:
Medulla sends impulses along
Receptors blood O2,
pH or low
in the aorta,
carotid arteries
parasympathetic neurones, using Faster Slower
• Sensory receptors are specialised cells in the nervous system that acetylcholine to reduce the heart rate Myelination Myelinated Unmyelinated
Co2 & medulla
detect physical stimuli and convert them into electrical signals (the Medulla sends impulses along Axon Diameter Wider Narrower
generator potential) Low blood
• Sensory receptors tend to be specific to one type of stimulus sympathetic neurones, using Warmer
O2, pH or Temperature Colder
because they have specialised structures that are specific to one noradrenaline to increase the heart (Until Denaturing)
high Co2
type of physical property rate
• Pacinian corpuscles detect changes in pressure
in the skin.
• Increases in pressure cause a deformation of Action Potentials Cholinergic Synapse
the lamellae of the Pacinian corpuscle, opening • Structure of a synapse:
stretch-mediated sodium channels in the • When the neurone receives an • At a cholinergic synapse (acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter),
membrane. Sodium ions enter the sensory neuron, impulse from sensory receptors, an action potential arrives at the pre-synaptic knob,
causing a generator potential which can trigger an action potential sodium channels on the dendrites depolarising the membrane and causes voltage-gated
open, leading to the movement calcium ion channels to open. The influx of Ca2+ ions causes
of Na+ ions into the cell causing the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the membrane, releasing
Photoreceptors depolarisation. If this depolarisation
reaches the threshold potential it
the neurotransmitter into
the synaptic cleft. The
• The retina contains photoreceptors activates voltage-gated sodium neurotransmitter diffuses and
which detect light - rods and cones. channels causing an action potential. binds receptors on the post
Rod cells Cone cells After Voltage-gated sodium ion synaptic membrane, causing an
channels close, and voltage-gated potassium channels open, action potential.
Provide black and white vision Provide colour vision
causing Repolarisation as K+ ions leave the cell. Outward • Acetylcholinesterase breaks
Comparing the responses from diffusion of K+ ions causes hyperpolarisation and the voltage-
More sensitive to low light intensities down acetyl choline in the cleft.
each type of cone receptor allows gated potassium channels close. Finally, the Sodium-potassium
than cones
for colour vision
• The synapses can be excitatory if
pump returns the cell to the resting membrane potential. the neurotransmitter opens Na+
Use the pigment rhodopsin to detect Use the pigment iodopsin to detect
• Action potentials are an all or nothing response because channels or inhibitory if the neurotransmitter opens chloride or
light light
More abundant than cone cells Fewer numbers than rod cells
once the threshold is reached each action potential always potassium channels causing hyperpolarisation.
depolarises the axon to the same voltage by voltage-gated • Spatial summation is when action potentials from multiple
Located more towards the periphery Concentrated at the fovea. Fewer at
of the retina. Not present at the fovea the periphery of the retina
sodium channels. presynaptic neurones are added together in a post-synaptic
• The refractory period is the period in an action potential where neurone
Multiple rod cells connect to a single Cone cells connect to their own the axon can’t be depolarised to initiate a new action potential.
bipolar cell bipolar cell • Temporal summation is when multiple action potentials from
It limits the frequency of action potentials and ensures action a single presynaptic neurone are added together in a post-
Provide poor visual acuity Provide good visual acuity potential are discrete & only travel in one direction. synaptic neurone over time.

snaprevise.co.uk