4th class Control process and dynamic Dr.

Arkan Jasim Hadi

Lecture 3
CHAPTER 4
RESPONSE OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS
Before we discuss a complete control system, it is necessary to become familiar with the responses
of some of the simple, basic systems that often are the building blocks of a control system.
4.1 TRANSFER FUNCTION: MERCURY THERMOMETER. We develop the transfer
function for a first-order system by considering the unsteady-state behaviour of an ordinary
mercury-in-glass thermometer. A cross-sectional view of the bulb is shown in Fig. 4–1 a
Consider the thermometer to be located in a flowing stream of fluid for which the temperature x
varies with time. Our problem is to calculate the response or the time variation of the thermometer
reading y for a particular change in x. (In order that the result of the analysis of the thermometer
be general and therefore applicable to other first-order systems, the symbols x and y have been
selected to represent surrounding temperature and thermometer reading, respectively.)
The following assumptions will be used in this analysis:
1. All the resistance to heat transfer resides in the film surrounding the bulb (i.e., the resistance
offered by the glass and mercury is neglected).
2. All the thermal capacity is in the mercury. Furthermore, at any instant the mercury assumes
a uniform temperature throughout.

y
reading

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

(Making these first two assumptions is often referred to as the lumping of parameters because all the
resistance is “lumped” into one location and all the capacitance into another. As shown in the analysis,
these assumptions make it possible to represent the dynamics of the system by an ordinary differential
equation. If such assumptions were not made, the analysis would lead to a partial differential equation, and
the representation would be referred to as a distributed-parameter system. See the difference between the
actual temperature and lumped temperature profiles in Fig. 4–1b.)

3. The glass wall containing the mercury does not expand or contract during the transient
response. (In an actual thermometer, the expansion of the wall has an additional effect on
the response of the thermometer reading. The glass initially expands and the cavity
containing the mercury grows, resulting in a mercury reading that initially falls. Once the
mercury warms and expands, the reading increases. This is an example of an inverse
response. Inverse responses will be discussed in greater detail later.

It is assumed that the thermometer is initially at steady state. This means that, before time 0, there
is no change in temperature with time. At time 0, the thermometer will be subjected to some change
in the surrounding temperature x (t). By applying the unsteady-state energy balance

We get the result

Where
A surface area of bulb for heat transfer, ft2
C heat capacity of mercury, Btu/(lbm · °F)
m mass of mercury in bulb, lbm
t time, h
h film coefficient of heat transfer, Btu/(ft2 · h · °F)

Our analysis has resulted in Eq. (4.1), which is a first-order differential equation. Before we solve
this equation by means of the Laplace transform, deviation variables will be introduced into Eq.
(4.1). The reason for these new variables will soon become apparent. Prior to the change in x, the
thermometer is at steady state and the derivative dy/dt is zero. For the steady-state condition, Eq.
(4.1) may be written

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

The subscript s is used to indicate that the variable is the steady-state value. Equation (4.2) simply
states that ys = xs, or the thermometer reads the true, bath temperature.
Subtracting Eq. (4.2) from Eq. (4.1) gives

Notice that d ( y - ys)/ dt = dy / dt because ys is a constant.

If we define the deviation variables to be the differences between the variables and their steady-
state values
X=x-xs
Y=y-ys
then Eq. (4.3) becomes

If we let mC/hA = 𝜏 , Eq. (4.4) becomes

The parameter 𝜏 is called the time constant of the system and has the units of time. From above,
we have

Remember, in Eq. (4.5), X is the input to the system (the bath temperature) and Y is the output
from the system (the indicated thermometer temperature).
Taking the Laplace transform of Eq. (4.5) gives

The Laplace transform of the differential equation results in an equation that is free of initial
conditions because the initial values of X and Y are zero. Since we start from steady state, Y (0)
must be zero,

And X(0) is zero for the same reason. In control system engineering, we are primarily concerned
with the deviations of system variables from their steady-state values. The use of deviation
variables is, therefore, natural as well as convenient.
Rearranging Eq. (4.6) as a ratio of Y (s) to X (s) gives

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

The expression on the right side of Eq. (4.7) is called the transfer function of the system. It is the
ratio of the Laplace transform of the deviation in thermometer reading (output) to the Laplace
transform of the deviation in the surrounding temperature (input). In examining other physical
systems, we usually attempt to obtain a transfer function.
Any physical system for which the relation between Laplace transforms of input and output
deviation variables is of the form given by Eq. (4.7) is called a first-order system. Synonyms for
first-order systems are first-order lag and single exponential stage. The naming of all these terms
is motivated by the fact that Eq. (4.7) results from a first-order, linear differential equation, Eq.
(4.5).
To summarize the procedure for determining the transfer function for a process:
Step 1. Write the appropriate balance equations (usually mass or energy balances for a chemical
process).
Step 2. Linearize terms if necessary (details on this step are given in Chap. 5).
Step 3. Place balance equations in deviation variable form.
Step 4. Laplace-transform the linear balance equations.
Step 5. Solve the resulting transformed equations for the transfer function, the output divided by
the input.
Standard Form for First-Order Transfer Functions
The general form for a first-order system is

where y is the output variable and x ( t) is the input forcing function. The initial conditions are

Eq. (4.8) becomes

Transforming Eq. (4.9), we obtain

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

and rearranging, we obtain the standard first-order transfer function

The important characteristics of the standard form are as follows:

 The denominator must be of the form 𝜏𝑠 + 1.
 The coefficient of the s term in the denominator is the system time constant 𝜏.
 The numerator is the steady-state gain Kp .
Example 4.1. Place the following transfer function in standard first-order form, and identify the
time constant and the steady state gain.

Rearranging to standard form, we get

Thus, the time constant is 3, and the steady-state gain is 6. The physical significance of the steady-
state gain becomes clear if we let X (s) = 1/ s, the unit-step function. Then Y(s) is given by

The ultimate value of Y (t) is

Thus the steady-state gain Kp is the steady-state value that the system attains after being disturbed
by a unit-step input. It can be obtained by setting s= 0 in the transfer function.
PROPERTIES OF TRANSFER FUNCTIONS. In general, a transfer function relates two
variables in a physical process; one of these is the cause (forcing function or input variable), and
the other is the effect (response or output variable). In terms of the example of the mercury
thermometer, the surrounding temperature is the cause or input, whereas the thermometer reading
is the effect or output. We may write

where G (s) symbol for transfer function

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

X (s) transform of forcing function or input, in deviation form

Y (s) transform of response or output, in deviation form

The transfer function completely describes the dynamic characteristics of the system. If we select
a particular input variation X (t) for which the transform is X (s), the response of the system is
simply

By taking the inverse of Y (s), we get Y (t), the response of the system.
The transfer function results from a linear differential equation; therefore, the principle of
superposition is applicable. This means that the transformed response of a system with transfer
function G (s) to a forcing function

where X1 and X2 are particular forcing functions and a1 and a2 are constants, is

where Y1(s) and Y2(s) are the responses to X1 and X2 alone, respectively. For example, the response
of the mercury thermometer to a sudden change in surrounding temperature of 10°F is simply
twice the response to a sudden change of 5°F in surrounding temperature.

The functional relationship contained in a transfer function is often expressed by a block diagram
representation, as shown in Fig. 4–2.
The arrow entering the box is the forcing function or input
variable, and the arrow leaving the box is the response or output
variable. The transfer function is placed inside the box. We state
that the transfer function G (s) in the box “operates” on the input
function X (s) to produce an output function Y (s). The usefulness
of the block diagram will be appreciated in Chap. 8, when a
complete control system containing several blocks is analysed.

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

4.3 FORCING FUNCTIONS

1. Step Input
A sudden change in a process variable can be approximated by a step change of magnitude,
A:

where u ( t) is the unit-step function defined in Chap. 2. A

graphical representation is shown in Fig. 4–3. The transform of
this function is X(s) = A/s. A step function can be approximated
very closely in practice. For example, a step change in flow rate
can be obtained by the sudden opening of a valve.

The step change occurs at an arbitrary time denoted as t = 0

2. IMPULSE FUNCTION. Mathematically, the impulse function of magnitude A is

defined as

where 𝛿(t) is the unit-impulse function. A graphical representation

of this function, before the limit is taken, is shown in Fig. 4–4. The
true impulse function, obtained by letting b → 0 in Fig. 4–4, has
a Laplace transform of A.

RAMP FUNCTION. This function increases linearly with time and is

described by the equations

The ramp is shown graphically in Fig. 4–5. The transform of the ramp
forcing function is X (s)= b/s2 . We might, for example, desire to ramp
up the temperature of an oven by 10°F/min. This would be an example
of a ramp function.

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

SINUSOIDAL INPUT. This function is represented mathematically by the equations

4.4 step response

Consider the response of this system to a step of magnitude, A:

Substitute into (4-7) and rearrange,

This can be expanded by partial fractions to give

Solving for the constants C1 and C2 by the techniques covered in Chap. 3 gives C1 = A and C2 = -
A. Inserting these constants into Eq. (4.14) and taking the inverse transform give the time response
for Y:

Hereafter, for the sake of brevity, it will be understood that, as in Eq. (4.15), the response is zero
before t = 0. Equation (4.15) is plotted in Fig. 4–7 in terms of the dimensionless quantities Y (t)/A
and t/𝜏. (Note that if we refer to the standard form for a first-order system, Eq. (4.10), Kp =A in
this case. )

Note: Large 𝝉 means a slow response

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

We see that this description of the response given by Eq. (4–15) graphically in Fig. 4–7.
Note: Large 𝝉 means a slow response

Example 4.2. A thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is at a steady-state temperature of
90°F. At time t =0, the thermometer is placed in a temperature bath maintained at 100°F. Determine
the time needed for the thermometer to read 98°F.
(Note: The time constant given in this problem applies to the thermometer when it is located in
the temperature bath. The time constant for the thermometer in air will be considerably different
from that given because of the lower heat transfer coefficient in air.)
In terms of symbols used in this chapter, we have

The ultimate thermometer reading will, of course, be 100°F, and the ultimate value of the deviation
variable Y ( ∞) is 10°F. When the thermometer reads 98°F, Y (t) = 8°F.
Substituting into Eq. (4.12) the appropriate values of Y, A, and 𝜏 gives

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

4.5 IMPULSE RESPONSE

The impulse response of a first-order system will now be developed. Anticipating the use of
superposition, we consider a unit impulse for which the Laplace transform is

Combining this with the transfer function for a first-order system, which is given by Eq. (4.7),
results in

This may be rearranged to

The inverse of Y (s) can be found directly from the table of transforms and can be written in the
form

A plot of this response is shown in Fig. 4–14 in terms of the variables t / 𝜏 and 𝜏 Y (t). The response
to an impulse of magnitude A is obtained, as usual, by multiplying 𝜏 Y (t) from Fig. 4–14 by A/𝜏.

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

4.6 Ramp Response

For a ramp input of x ( t ) bt, where X ( s ) b / s2 , the output is
The output is

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

4.6 SINUSOIDAL RESPONSE

To investigate the response of a first-order system to a sinusoidal forcing function, the example of
the mercury thermometer will be considered again. Consider a thermometer to be in equilibrium
with a temperature bath at temperature Xs. At some time t =0, the bath temperature begins to vary
according to the relationship

where
x temperature of bath
xs temperature of bath before sinusoidal disturbance is applied
A amplitude of variation in temperature
𝜔 radian frequency, rad/time

In anticipation of a simple result, we introduce a deviation variable X which is defined as

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

Example A mercury thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 min is placed in a temperature
bath at 100°F and allowed to come to equilibrium with the bath. At time t = 0, the temperature of
the bath begins to vary sinusoidally about its average temperature of 100°F with an amplitude of
2°F. If the frequency of oscillation is 10/𝜋 cycles/min, plot the ultimate response of the
thermometer reading as a function of time. What is the phase lag? In terms of the symbols used
in this chapter

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

To obtain the lag in terms of time rather than angle, we proceed as follows: A frequency of 10/ 𝜋
cycles/min means that a complete cycle (peak to peak) occurs in (10/ 𝜋 ) 1 min. Since one cycle
is equivalent to 360° and the lag is 63.5°, the time corresponding to this lag is

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4th class Control process and dynamic Dr. Arkan Jasim Hadi

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