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Filipinos initially saw their relationship with the United States as that of two
nations joined in a common struggle against Spain. As allies, Filipinos had
provided the American forces with valuable intelligence and military support.
However, the United States later distanced itself from the interests of the
Filipino insurgents. Aguinaldo was unhappy that the United States would not commit
to paper a statement of support for Philippine independence. Relations deteriorated
and tensions heightened as it became clear that the Americans were in the islands
to stay.
Philippine-American War
Hostilities broke out on February 4, 1899, after two American privates on patrol
killed three Filipino soldiers in San Juan, a Manila suburb. This incident sparked
the Philippine-American War, which would cost far more money and took far more
lives than the Spanish–American War. Some 126,000 American soldiers would be
committed to the conflict; 4,234 Americans died, as did 16,000 Filipino soldiers
who were part of a nationwide guerrilla movement of indeterminate numbers. At least
34,000 Filipinos lost their lives as a direct result of the war, and as many as
200,000 may have died as a result of the cholera epidemic at the war's end.
Atrocities were committed by both sides.
Aguinaldo was captured at Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901 and was brought to
Manila. Convinced of the futility of further resistance, he swore allegiance to the
United States and issued a proclamation calling on his compatriots to lay down
their arms, officially bringing an end to the war. However, sporadic insurgent
resistance continued in various parts of the Philippines, especially in the Muslim
south, until 1913.
The 1920s saw alternating periods of cooperation and confrontation with American
governors-general, depending on how intent the incumbent was on exercising his
powers vis-à-vis the Philippine legislature. Members to the elected legislature
lobbied for immediate and complete independence from the United States. Several
independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C. A civil service was formed and
was gradually taken over by Filipinos, who had effectively gained control by 1918.
Philippine politics during the American territorial era was dominated by the
Nacionalista Party, which was founded in 1907. Although the party's platform called
for "immediate independence", their policy toward the Americans was highly
accommodating. Within the political establishment, the call for independence was
spearheaded by Manuel L. Quezon, who served continuously as Senate president from
1916 until 1935.
Frank Murphy was the last Governor-General of the Philippines (1933-35), and the
first U.S. High Commissioner of the Philippines (1935-36). The change in form was
more than symbolic: it was intended as a manifestation of the transition to
independence.
Commonwealth
In 1933, the United States Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act as a
Philippine Independence Act over President Herbert Hoover's veto. Though the bill
had been drafted with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, it was opposed
by Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon, partially because of provisions
leaving the United States in control of naval bases. Under his influence, the
Philippine legislature rejected the bill. The following year, a revised act known
as the Tydings-McDuffie Act was finally passed. The act provided for the
establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with a ten-year period of
peaceful transition to full independence. The commonwealth would have its own
constitution and be self-governing, though foreign policy would be the
responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required approval of
the United States president.
The Invasion
Japan launched a surprise attack on the Philippines on December 8, 1941, just ten
hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Initial aerial bombardment was followed by
landings of ground troops both north and south of Manila. The defending Philippine
and United States troops were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, who
had been recalled to active duty in the United States Army earlier in the year and
was designated commander of the United States Armed Forces in the Asia-Pacific
region. The aircraft of his command were destroyed; the naval forces were ordered
to leave; and because of the circumstances in the Pacific region, reinforcement and
resupply of his ground forces were impossible. Under the pressure of superior
numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula and to the island of
Corregidor at the entrance to Manila Bay. Manila, declared an open city to prevent
its destruction, was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942.
The Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United States-
Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April 1942 and on Corregidor in May.
Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced
to undertake the infamous "Bataan Death March" to a prison camp 105 kilometers to
the north. It is estimated that as many as 10,000 men, weakened by disease and
malnutrition and treated harshly by their captors, died before reaching their
destination. Quezon and Osmeña had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later
left for the United States, where they set up a government in exile. MacArthur was
ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines.
The occupation
The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government
structure in the Philippines. Although the Japanese had promised independence for
the islands after occupation, they initially organized a Council of State through
which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when they declared the
Philippines an independent republic. Most of the Philippine elite, with a few
notable exceptions, served under the Japanese. Philippine collaboration in
Japanese-sponsored political institutions-which later became a major domestic
political issue-was motivated by several considerations. Among them was the effort
to protect the people from the harshness of Japanese rule (an effort that Quezon
himself had advocated), protection of family and personal interests, and a belief
that Philippine nationalism would be advanced by solidarity with fellow Asians.
Many collaborated to pass information to the Allies. The Japanese-sponsored
republic headed by President José P. Laurel proved to be unpopular.
One major resistance group in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the Huks,
Hukbalahap (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon), or the People's Anti-Japanese Army
organized in early 1942 under the leadership of Luis Taruc, a communist party
member since 1939. The Huks armed some 30,000 people and extended their control
over much of Luzon. Other guerrilla units were attached to the SWPA, and were
active throughout the archipelago.
Note:
The following are information from Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. For sources
and more accurate and detailed information, you may visit their website at
http://www.wikipedia.org/