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Geomorphology Part I
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1. Interior of The Earth .................................... 3
1.1 The study of the earth’s interior is essential ...3
1.2 Direct Sources of information about the
interior ...........................................................................4
1.3 Indirect Sources of information about the
interior ...........................................................................4
1.4 Seismic waves ......................................................5
How are earthquake waves produced? ......6
1.5 Types of Seismic waves or earthquake waves 6
Body waves ......................................................6
Surface waves (L-Waves) ...............................7
How do seismic waves help in
understanding the earth’s interior? ............8
1.6 The internal structure of the Earth ...................9
The Crust ........................................................10
Lithosphere ....................................................11
The Mantle ....................................................11
Asthenosphere ..............................................11
The Outer Core..............................................11
The Inner Core ..............................................12
Seismic Discontinuities ................................12
2. Earth’s Magnetic Field.................................12
2.1 Dynamo theory: Generation of Earth’s
Magnetic Field and Sustaining it ..............................12
2.2 Magnetic poles...................................................13
2.3 Geomagnetic reversal .......................................13
Normal and Reversed field ..........................13
The current location of the Magnetic Poles
.........................................................................14
2.4 Compass ..............................................................14
Magnetic declination ...................................14
Magnetic Inclination or Magnetic Dip .......15
2.5 Geomagnetic poles............................................16
2.6 Magnetosphere .................................................17
Auroras........................................................... 17
Geomagnetic storms .................................... 18
2.7 Van Allen radiation belt.................................... 18
2.8 Magnetic field of other solar system objects 18
3. Geomorphic Movements ........................... 19
3.1 Endogenic Geomorphic Movements .............. 19
The force behind Endogenic Movements . 19
Classification of Endogenic movements ... 20
Diastrophism ................................................. 20
Sudden Movements ..................................... 21
3.2 Exogenic Geomorphic Movements................. 22
The force behind Exogenic Movements ... 22
Denudation.................................................... 22
Weathering.................................................... 23
4. Tectonics ................................................... 26
4.1 Important concepts that tried to explain the
tectonic processes ..................................................... 26
4.2 Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener,
1922) ............................................................................ 28
Forces behind the drifting of continents,
according to Wegener ................................. 28
Evidence in support of Continental Drift .. 28
Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory .... 30
4.3 Seafloor Spreading ............................................ 30
Convection Current Theory......................... 30
Paleomagnetism ........................................... 31
The concept of Sea Floor Spreading .......... 32
Evidence for Seafloor Spreading ................ 32
4.4 Plate Tectonics ................................................... 32
Major tectonic plates ................................... 33
Minor tectonic plates................................... 35
Interaction of Plates..................................... 35
Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics ..... 36
1
 The significance of Plate Tectonics ............37 7. Classification of Mountains ........................ 55
Movement of The Indian Plate ...................37
7.2 Fold Mountains .................................................. 56
Movement .....................................................38
‘Fold’ in geology............................................ 57
4.5 Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor Classification of fold mountains ................. 57
Spreading – Plate Tectonics......................................38 Characteristics of Fold Mountains ............. 58
7.3 Block Mountains ................................................ 59
5. Convergent Boundary .................................39
‘Fault’ in Geology.......................................... 59
5.1 Ocean-Ocean Convergence or The Island-Arc
7.4 Volcanic mountains ........................................... 61
Convergence ...............................................................39
7.5 Significant mountains and mountain ranges 61
Formation of the Philippine Island Arc
Longest Mountain Ranges........................... 61
System ............................................................40
The Andes ...................................................... 62
Formation of the Indonesian Archipelago 41
The Rockies.................................................... 62
Formation of the Caribbean Islands...........42
The Great Dividing Range............................ 64
Formation of Isthmus of Panama ...............43
Transantarctic Mountains ........................... 64
Formation of the Japanese Island Arc .......43
The Ural Mountains ..................................... 64
Explain the formation of thousands of
Atlas Mountains............................................ 64
islands in Indonesian and Philippines
The Himalayas ............................................... 65
archipelagos (20 marks – Mains 2014) ......44
The Alps ......................................................... 65
In spite of extensive volcanism, there is no
Highest mountain peaks.............................. 65
island formation along the divergent
boundary (mid-ocean ridge) .......................45
Geography is the study of
5.2 Continent-Ocean Convergence or The
Cordilleran Convergence...........................................45 1. the physical features of the earth and its at-
Formation of Continental Arcs ...................45 mosphere,
Formation of Fold Mountains (Orogeny) ..46
2. human activity which affects and is affected
Formation of the Andes ...............................46
by the physical features of the earth and its
5.3 Formation of the Rockies .................................47 atmosphere. (Definition from Oxford Dictionary)
5.4 Continent-Continent Convergence or The • Human activity which affects and is affected by
Himalayan Convergence ...........................................47 the physical features include the distribution of
Formation of the Himalayans and the
populations, distribution of resources and eco-
Tibetan Plateau .............................................47
Formation of Alps, Urals, Appalachians and nomic activities, and changes in the environ-
the Atlas Mountains .....................................49 ment.
Volcanism and Earthquakes in Continent-
Geography, the natural science, is divided into two
Continent Convergence ...............................49
Why are the world’s fold mountain systems main branches:
located along the margins of continents?
1. Physical geography: deals with the study
Bring out the association between the
of processes and patterns in the natural en-
global distribution of Fold Mountains and
the earthquakes and volcanoes. ................49 vironment like the atmosphere, hydro-
sphere, biosphere, and geosphere.
5.5 Continent-Arc Convergence or New Guinea 2. Human geography: deals with the envi-
Convergence ...............................................................50
ronment shaped by human activity.
6. Divergent boundary ....................................50 Physical Geography can be divided into several
6.1 Evolution – Formation of Rift Valleys, Rift sub-fields, as follows:
Lakes, Seas and Oceans .............................................50
6.2 Rift valley lakes ..................................................52 • Geomorphology (‘geo’ meaning earth, ‘mor-
6.3 Great Rift Valley .................................................53 phe’ meaning form and ‘logos’ meaning dis-
East African Rift Valley .................................53 course) is the field concerned with understand-

2
 ing the surface of the Earth and the processes
by which it is shaped.
• Climatology is the study of the climate (weath-
er conditions averaged over a long period).
• Meteorology focuses on weather processes
and short-term forecasting (in contrast with
climatology).
• Oceanography is the branch of physical geog-
raphy that studies the Earth's oceans and seas.
• Hydrology is concerned with the amounts and
quality of water moving and accumulating on
the land surface and in the soils and rocks near
the surface and is typified by the hydrological
cycle.
• Biogeography deals with geographic patterns
of species distribution and the processes that
determine these patterns.
• Environmental geography analyses the spatial
aspects of interactions between humans and
the natural environment. The branch bridges
the divide between human and physical geog-
raphy.
• Geomatics is the field of gathering, storing,
processing, and delivering geographic infor-
mation.
There are many other sub-branches in physical ge-
ography.
1. Interior of The Earth
• Understanding the structure of the earth’s inte-
rior (crust, mantle, core) and various forces
(heat, seismic waves) emanating from it is es-
sential to understand the evolution of the
earth’s surface, its current shape and its future.
1.1 The study of the earth’s inte-
rior is essential
• to understand the earth’s surface
• to understand the geophysical phenomenon
like volcanism, earthquakes, etc.
• to understand the earth’s magnetic field
• to understand the internal structure of various
solar system objects
• to understand the evolution and present com-
position of the atmosphere
• for mineral exploration
Earth’s surface
• Many different geological processes shape the
Earth's surface.
• The forces that cause these processes come
from both above and beneath the Earth's sur-
face.
• Processes that are caused by forces from within
the Earth are endogenous processes (Endo
meaning "in").
• By contrast, exogenous processes (Exo mean-
ing "out") come from forces on or above the
Earth's surface.
• The major geological features of the earth’s sur-
face like mountains, plateaus, lakes are mostly a
result of endogenous processes like folding,
faulting that are driven by forces from inside
the earth.
Geophysical phenomenon like volcanism,
earthquakes
• The forces that cause catastrophic events like
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions come from
deep below the earth’s surface.
• For example, earthquakes occur due to the
movement of the tectonic plates and the energy
required for this movement is supplied by the
conventional currents in the mantle.
• Similarly, volcanism occurs through the vents
and fissures created by the tectonic movements.
Earth’s magnetic field
• Earth’s magnetic field is a result of convection
currents in the outer core of the earth.
• Life on earth would not have been possible if
not for the earth’s magnetic field which protects
the earth’s atmosphere from the harmful solar
wind.
The internal structure of various solar system
objects
• The entire solar system was formed from a sin-
gle nebular cloud, and the process of the for-
mation of every solar system object is believed
to be similar to that of the earth.
3
Evolution and present composition of the at- • Volcanic eruption forms another source of ob-
mosphere taining direct information.

• For life to flourish on the surface of the earth, 1.3 Indirect Sources of infor-
the atmosphere needs to have essential com-
mation about the interior
ponents like oxygen for respiration, CO2 and
other greenhouse gases to maintain the tem-
• Gravitation and the diameter of the earth help
perature on the surface, ozone to protect life
in estimating pressure deep inside.
from ultraviolet radiation and the right atmos-
• Volcanic eruptions and existence of hot springs,
pheric pressure.
geysers etc. point to an interior which is very
• All these components of the earth’s atmosphere
hot.
owe their existence to the volcanic eruptions
that unlock them from the earth’s interior.

Mineral exploration

• Understanding volcanic activity and the nature

of rocks is essential for mineral exploration.
• Most of the minerals like diamonds (form at a
depth of 150-800 km in the mantle) that oc-
cur on the earth’s surface are formed deep be-
low the earth’s surface. They are brought to the
surface by volcanic activity.

1.2 Direct Sources of information

about the interior

• Deep earth mining and drilling reveal the nature

of rocks deep down the surface.
• But as mining and drilling are not practically
possible beyond a certain depth, they don’t re-
veal much information about the earth’s interi-
or.
• Mponeng gold mine (deepest mine in the
world) and TauTona gold mine (second deep-
est mine in the world) in South Africa are deep-
est mines reaching to a depth of only 3.9 km.
• And the deepest drilling is only about 12 km
deep hole bored by the Soviet Union in the
1970s over the Kola Peninsula.
The Kola Peninsula in north-west Russia. (TUBS, from
Wikimedia Commons)
Seismic waves
• They are the most important source available to
understand the layered structure of the earth.
• The velocity of seismic waves changes as they
travel through materials with different elasticity
and density.
• The more elastic and denser the material is,
the higher is the velocity.
• They also undergo refection or refraction
when they come across materials with different
densities.
• Earth’s internal structure can be understood by
analysing the patterns of reflection, refraction

4
 and change in velocity of the seismic waves
when they travel through it.
Meteorites
• Meteorites and Earth are born from the same
nebular cloud. Thus, they are likely to have a
similar internal structure.
• When meteoroids they fall to earth, their outer
layer is burnt during their fall due to extreme
friction and the inner core is exposed.
• The heavy material composition of their cores
confirms the similar composition of the inner
core of the earth.
Gravitation
• The gravitation force differs according to the
mass of material. The uneven distribution of
mass of material within the earth influences this
value. Such a difference is called gravity anom-
aly.
• Gravity anomalies give us information about the
distribution of mass in the crust of the earth.
Magnetic field
• The geodynamo effect helps scientists under-
stand what's happening inside the Earth's core.
Shifts in the magnetic field also provide clues to
the inaccessible iron core.
Sources of earth’s heat
Radioactive decay
• The high temperature below the crust is
attributed to the disintegration of the radio-
active substances.
• The nuclear decay happens primarily in the
crust and the mantle.
• Scientists believe that uranium could become
sufficiently concentrated at the base of Earth’s
mantle to ignite self-sustained nuclear fission,
as in a human-made reactor.
• The new measurements suggest radioactive
decay provides more than half of Earth's to-
tal heat.
Nuclear fusion doesn’t occur inside the earth. For
nuclear fusion to occur there must be far more pres-
sure and temperature inside the earth. The earth is
not massive enough to cause such conditions.
Primordial heat
• The rest is the heat left over from Earth's for-
mation known as the primordial heat.
• Primordial heat is the kinetic energy transferred
to Earth by external impacts of comets and me-
teorites and the subsequent effects (friction
caused by sinking of heavy elements like Fe, ris-
ing light elements like Si) and latent heat of
crystallisation released as the core solidified.
Tidal friction
• The ocean tides are not the only effect of tidal
forces (gravitational influence of the moon and
the sun on earth; tides are explained in ocean-
ography). The solid body of the Earth also bulg-
es slightly in this way.
• The daily flexing of the Earth (both solid body
and the oceans) cause loss of energy of the
Earth's rotation, due to friction.
• This energy goes into heat, leading to miniscule
increase in the Earth's internal temperature.
• The loss of rotational energy means that the
Earth is slowing down in its rotation rate,
currently by about 0.002 seconds per century.
1.4 Seismic waves
• Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other vibra-
tions of the earth and its crust.
• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel
through the Earth's layers and are a result of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma
movement, large landslides and large human-
made explosions.
• The refraction or reflection of seismic waves is
used for research into the structure of the
Earth's interior.
• The terms seismic waves and earthquake waves
are often used interchangeably.
5
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Geomorphology Part II
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1. Volcanism .................................................... 2 1.12 Rocks ...................................................... 21

1.1 Causes of Volcanism ................................. 2
1.2 Lava types ................................................. 2
Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or
Stratovolcanic lava...................................... 2
Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava ................... 3
1.3 Volcanic Landforms .................................. 3
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms..................... 3
Intrusive Volcanic Landforms ..................... 6
1.4 Volcanism Types ....................................... 7
Exhalative (vapour or fumes) ..................... 7
Effusive (Lava outpouring).......................... 8
Explosive (Violent ejection of solid
material) ..................................................... 8
Subaqueous Volcanism............................... 8
1.5 Eruptive Volcanism Types ...................... 10
Hawaiian Eruption .................................... 10
Icelandic Eruptions ................................... 10
Strombolian Eruption ............................... 10
Vulcanian Eruption ................................... 11
Plinian Eruption ........................................ 11
Pelean Eruption ........................................ 13
Igneous Rocks or Primary rocks ............... 21
Sedimentary Rocks or detrital rocks ........ 23
Metamorphic Rocks ................................. 24
2. Earthquakes............................................... 26
2.2 Causes of Earthquakes ........................... 26
2.3 Earthquakes based on the depth of focus
28
Shallow-focus earthquake........................ 28
Deep-focus earthquake ............................ 28
2.4 Distribution of Earthquakes ................... 29
2.5 Richter magnitude scale ......................... 29
2.6 Effects of Earthquakes............................ 32
3. Tsunami ..................................................... 33
3.1 Mechanism of tsunami waves................ 33
3.2 Properties of Tsunami Waves ................ 34
3.3 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami ................... 35
Plate tectonics .......................................... 35
Tsunami waves ......................................... 35
Shifts in Geography .................................. 35

1.6 Hotspot Volcanism ................................. 13 3.4 Warning Systems .................................... 36

Mantle Plumes.......................................... 13
4. Soil erosion and Landforms ........................ 36
1.7 Geysers and Hot Springs ........................ 18
1.8 Extinct, Dormant and Active volcanoes . 18 4.1 Water Erosion......................................... 36
Raindrop erosion or splash erosion ......... 37
1.9 Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Sheet erosion ........................................... 37
across the World ............................................ 19
Rill and gully erosion ................................ 37
Pacific Ring of Fire .................................... 19
Streambank erosion ................................. 37
Other regions ............................................ 19
Landslide .................................................. 38
Mediterranean volcanism ........................ 20
Coastal erosion ......................................... 38
Volcanos in India....................................... 20
Glacial erosion .......................................... 38
1.10 Destructive Effects of Volcanoes............ 20 4.2 Wind Erosion .......................................... 38
1.11 Positive Effects of Volcanoes ................. 21
4.3 Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion . 38
1
 Fluvial Erosional Landforms...................... 38
Drainage systems (drainage patterns) ..... 43
Fluvial Depositional Landforms ................ 47
4.4 Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion.... 49
Sinkhole/Swallow Hole ............................. 50
Polje/Blind Valley...................................... 50
Cavern....................................................... 50
Arch/Natural Bridge ................................. 51
Sinking Creeks/Bogas................................ 51
Stalactite and Stalagmite .......................... 51
Dry Valley/Hanging Valley/Bourne ........... 51
The Karst Cycle of Erosion ........................ 51
4.5 Marine Landforms and Cycle of Erosion 52
Marine Erosional Landforms .................... 52
Marine Depositional Landforms ............... 53
Coastlines ................................................. 54
4.6 Glacial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion . 56
Glacial Erosional Landforms ..................... 56
Glacial Depositional Landforms ................ 57
Glacial Cycle of Erosion............................. 57
4.7 Arid Landforms and Cycle of Erosion ..... 58
Erosional Arid Landforms ......................... 58
Arid Depositional Landforms .................... 60
5. Lakes ..........................................................61
5.1 Classification of Lakes ............................ 61
5.2 Lakes and Man........................................ 63
5.3 Important Lakes on Earth ....................... 64
6. Plateau .......................................................66
6.1 Economic significance of plateaus ......... 66
6.2 Plateau Formation .................................. 67
Thermal expansion ................................... 67
Crustal shortening .................................... 67
Volcanic flood basalts ............................... 67
Others ....................................................... 68
6.3 Plateau Types ......................................... 68
Dissected plateau ..................................... 68
Volcanic plateau ....................................... 68
Others ....................................................... 68
6.4 Major plateaus of the World .................. 68
Others ....................................................... 70
1. Volcanism
• A volcano is a vent or a fissure in the crust from
which lava (molten rock), ash, gases, rock frag-
ments erupt from a magma chamber below the
surface.
• Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of
molten rock, pyroclastics and volcanic gases to
the surface through a vent.
1.1 Causes of Volcanism
• There is a huge temperature difference be-
tween the inner layers and the outer layers of
the earth due to the differential amount of ra-
dioactivity.
• This temperature difference gives rise to con-
vectional currents in the mantle.
• The convection currents in the mantle create
convergent and divergent boundaries (weak
zones).
• At the divergent boundary, molten, semi-
molten and sometimes gaseous material ap-
pears on earth at the first available opportunity.
• The earthquakes here may expose fault zones
through which magma may escape (fissure
type volcano).
• At the convergent boundary, the subduction of
denser plate creates magma at high pressure
which will escape to the surface in the form of
violent eruptions.
1.2 Lava types
• Magma is composed of molten rock and is
stored in the Earth's crust. Lava is magma that
reaches the surface through a volcano vent.
Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or
Stratovolcanic lava
• These lavas are highly viscous with a high
melting point.
• They are light-coloured, of low density, and
have a high percentage of silica.
• They flow slowly and seldom travel far before
solidifying.
• The resultant volcanic cone is therefore strati-
fied (hence the name stratovolcano) and
steep-sided.
• The rapid solidifying of lava in the vent ob-
structs the flow of the out-pouring lava, result-
2
 ing in loud explosions, throwing out many vol- • The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a
canic bombs or pyroclasts. wide diameter and forms a flattened shield or
dome.
• Shield type lava flow is common along the con-
structive boundaries (divergent boundary).

Volcano (Medium69.Cette William Crochot, via

Wikimedia Commons)
1.3 Volcanic Landforms

• Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that they
form a lava plug at the crater like that of Mt.
Pelée in Martinique (an island in the Lesser An-
tilles, Caribbean Islands).
• Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along the de-
structive boundaries (convergent boundaries).
• Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive
and intrusive landforms based on whether
magma cools within the crust or above the
crust.
• Rocks formed by cooling of magma within the
crust are called Plutonic rocks.
• Rocks formed by cooling of lava above the sur-
face are called Igneous rocks.
• In general, the term ‘Igneous rocks’ is used to
refer all rocks of volcanic origin.

Lava Plug at the crater

Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava

• These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000 °C and

are highly fluid.
• They are dark coloured basalt, rich in iron
and magnesium but poor in silica.
• They flow out of volcanic vent quietly and are
not very explosive.
Extrusive and Intrusive volcanic landforms
• Due to their high fluidity, they flow readily with
a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour.
Extrusive Volcanic Landforms
• They affect extensive areas, spreading out as
thin sheets over great distances before they
solidify.

3
• Extrusive landforms are formed from material
thrown out to the surface during volcanic activi-
ty.
• The materials thrown out include lava flows, py-
roclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash, dust and
gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur
compounds and minor amounts of chlorine,
hydrogen and argon.
Conical Vent and Fissure Vent
Fissure vent
• A fissure vent (volcanic fissure) is a narrow, line-
ar volcanic vent through which lava erupts,
usually without any explosive activity.
• The vent is often a few meters wide and may be
many kilometres long.
• Fissure vents are common in basaltic volcan-
ism (shield type volcanoes).
Conical vent
• A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent
through which magma flows out violently.
• Conical vents are common in andesitic volcan-
ism (composite or stratovolcano).
Mid-Ocean Ridges
• The system of mid-ocean ridges stretches for
more than 70,000 km across all the ocean ba-
sins.
• The central portion of the mid-ocean ridges ex-
periences frequent eruptions.
• The lava is basaltic (less silica and hence less
viscous) and causes the spreading of the
seafloor.
Composite Type Volcanic Landforms
• They are conical or central type volcanic land-
forms.
• Along with andesitic lava, large quantities of
pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to
the surface.
• Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic material
accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings
leading to the formation of layers, and this
makes the mounts appear as a composite vol-
cano or a stratovolcano (divided into layers).
• The highest and most common volcanoes have
composite cones.
• Mount Stromboli (the Lighthouse of the
Mediterranean), Mount Vesuvius, Mount Fuji
are examples.
Shield Type Volcanic Landforms
• The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most familiar
examples.
• These volcanoes are mostly made up of basal-
tic lava (very fluid).
• These volcanoes are not steep.
• They become explosive if somehow water gets
into the vent; otherwise, they are less explosive.
• Example: Hawaiian volcanoes Mauna Loa (ac-
tive shield volcano) and Mauna Kea
(dormant shield volcano).
Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms (Lava Plat-
eaus)
• Sometimes, a very thin magma escapes through
cracks and fissures in the earth's surface and
4
 flows after intervals for a long time, spreading
over a vast area, finally producing a layered,
undulating (wave-like), flat surface.
• Example: Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, Snake
Basin, Icelandic Shield, Canadian Shield.
Crater
• A crater is an inverted cone-shaped vent
through which the magma flows out. When the
volcano is not active the crater appears as a
bowl-shaped depression.
The crater of Mount Fuji, Japan
• When water from rain or melted snow gets ac-
cumulated in the crater, it becomes a crater
lake.
Caldera
• In some volcanoes, the magma chamber below
the surface may be emptied after volcanic erup-
tions.
• The volcanic material above the chamber col-
lapses into the empty magma chamber, and the
collapsed surface appears like a large cauldron-
like hollow (tub shaped) called the caldera.
• When water from rain or melted snow gets ac-
cumulated in the caldera, it becomes a caldera
lake (in general, the caldera lakes are also called
crater lakes).
• Due to their unstable environments, some
crater lakes exist only intermittently. Caldera
lakes, in contrast, can be quite large and long-
lasting.
• For example, Lake Toba (Indonesia) formed
after its supervolcanic eruption around 75,000
years ago. It is the largest crater lake in the
world.
• Mount Mazama (Cascade Volcanic Arc, USA)
collapsed into a caldera, which was filled with
water to form Crater Lake (the literal name of
the lake formed by the collapse of Mount
Mazama is ‘Crater Lake’!).
Caldera lake of Mount Mazama
A crater lake, in general, could be of volcanic
origin (volcanic crater lake, volcanic caldera
lake) or due to a meteorite impact (meteor
5
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Climatology Part I
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1. Latitudes and Longitudes ............................. 2
1.1 Latitude or Parallel ................................... 3
Important parallels of latitudes ................... 3
Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth ............. 3
1.2 Longitude or Meridian.............................. 3
Longitude and Time ..................................... 4
Standard Time and Time Zones ................... 4
Indian Standard Time .................................. 4
The International Date Line ......................... 4
1.3 Comparison: Latitude vs Longitude.......... 7
2. Motions of the earth .................................... 7
2.1 Rotation of Earth ...................................... 7
Shape of the earth ....................................... 8
2.2 Revolution ................................................ 9
Solstice......................................................... 9
Equinox ...................................................... 10
Perihelion and Aphelion ............................ 11
Eclipse ........................................................ 12
3. Atmosphere................................................16
3.1 Evolution of Earth’s atmosphere ........... 16
3.2 Composition of Atmosphere .................. 17
Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere ....... 17
Important constituents of the atmosphere
................................................................... 18
3.3 Structure of Atmosphere ....................... 19
Troposphere .............................................. 19
Stratosphere .............................................. 20 5.
Mesosphere ............................................... 21
Thermosphere ........................................... 21
Exosphere .................................................. 22
3.4 Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere........ 22
4. Temperature Distribution on Earth .............23
4.1 Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy ........... 23
Radiation ................................................... 23
Conduction ................................................ 24
Convection ................................................ 24
4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature
Distribution .................................................... 24
The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of
the Sun’s Rays ........................................... 24
Duration of Sunshine................................. 24
Transparency of Atmosphere.................... 24
Albedo ....................................................... 25
Land-Sea Differential................................. 25
Prevailing Winds........................................ 25
Aspects of Slope ........................................ 25
Ocean Currents ......................................... 25
Altitude...................................................... 25
Earth’s Distance form Sun ......................... 26
4.3 The Mean Annual Temperature
Distribution .................................................... 26
General characteristics of isotherms ........ 26
General Temperature Distribution............ 26
Seasonal Temperature Distribution .......... 27
4.4 Latitudinal Heat Balance ........................ 28
4.5 Heat Budget............................................ 29
4.6 Vertical Distribution of Temperature ..... 30
Latent Heat of Condensation .................... 30
Lapse Rate ................................................. 31
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR)........................ 31
Temperature Inversion ............................. 34
Pressure Systems and Wind Systems .......... 36
5.1 Atmospheric pressure ............................ 36
5.2 Atmospheric pressure cells .................... 36
5.3 Isobars .................................................... 37
Closed Isobars or Closed Pressure centres 37
5.4 Vertical Variation of Pressure ................ 37
1
 5.5 Factors affecting Wind Movement ........ 37
Pressure Gradient Force ............................ 37
Buoyant force ............................................ 38
Frictional Force .......................................... 38
Coriolis force.............................................. 38
Centripetal Acceleration ............................ 39
5.6 Horizontal Distribution of Pressure........ 40
Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’
................................................................... 40
Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse
Latitudes .................................................... 41
Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt ..................... 42
Polar High-Pressure Belt ............................ 42
Factors Controlling Pressure Systems ....... 42
Pressure belts in July ................................. 43
Pressure belts in January ........................... 43
5.7 Pressure systems and General Circulation
43
Hadley Cell ................................................. 43
Ferrel Cell................................................... 44
Polar Cell .................................................... 44
5.8 Classification of Winds ........................... 44
Primary winds or Prevailing Winds or
Planetary Winds ........................................ 44
Secondary or Periodic Winds..................... 45
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze...................... 45
Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze ......... 46
Tertiary or Local Winds.............................. 46
6. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle) .................47
6.1 Water Vapour in Atmosphere ................ 48
Humidity .................................................... 48
6.2 Evaporation ............................................ 49
Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation....... 49
6.3 Condensation ......................................... 50
Processes of Cooling for Producing
Condensation............................................. 50
6.4 Forms of Condensation .......................... 51
Dew............................................................ 51
White Frost ................................................ 51
Fog ............................................................. 51
Mist ............................................................ 52
Smog .......................................................... 52
Clouds ........................................................ 55
6.5 Precipitation ........................................... 57
6.6 Types of Rainfall ..................................... 57
Convectional Rainfall ................................. 57
Orographic Rainfall .................................... 58
Frontal Rainfall .......................................... 58
Cyclonic Rain ............................................. 58
Monsoonal Rainfall ................................... 59
World Distribution of Rainfall ................... 59
7. Thunderstorm ............................................ 60
Stage 1: Cumulus stage ............................. 60
Stage 2: Mature stage ............................... 60
Stage 3: Dissipating stage.......................... 61
7.2 Types of Thunderstorms ........................ 61
Thermal thunderstorm.............................. 61
Orographic thunderstorm ......................... 61
Frontal thunderstorm ............................... 61
Single-cell thunderstorm (Isolated
thunderstorm) ........................................... 61
A multi-cell thunderstorm ......................... 61
A supercell thunderstorm ......................... 61
7.3 Tornado .................................................. 62
Formation .................................................. 62
Waterspout ............................................... 62
Distribution of tornadoes .......................... 62
7.4 Lightning and thunder ............................ 63
Thunder ..................................................... 63
Lightning from cloud to Earth ................... 63
Lightning deaths ........................................ 64
7.5 Hailstorm ................................................ 64
Favourable conditions for hail formation . 64
Formation of hail ....................................... 64
7.6 Hazards posed by thunderstorms and
associated phenomenon ............................... 65
1. Latitudes and Longitudes
• Latitudes and Longitudes (coordinate system)
are imaginary lines used to determine the loca-
tion of a place on earth.
• Example: The location of New Delhi is 28° N Lat-
itude, 77° E Longitude.
2
 Latitude (ϕ) and longitude (λ) are defined on a
perspective spherical modal (Wikipedia)
1.1 Latitude or Parallel
• Latitude is the angular distance of a place north
or south of the equator measured in degrees
from the centre of the earth.
• As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles,
the linear distance of a degree of latitude at
the pole is a little longer than that at the
equator.
• For example, at the equator linear distance of a
degree of latitude is 110.57 km (68.7 miles), at
45° it is 111.13 km (69 miles), and at the poles,
it is 111.7 km (69.4 miles). The average is taken
as 111 km (69 miles).
Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth
• The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least
once a year on all latitudes in between the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat
and is called the torrid zone.
• The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any
latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays
goes on decreasing towards the poles.
• As such, the areas bounded by the Tropic of
Cancer and the Arctic circle, and the Tropic of
Capricorn and the Antarctic circle, have moder-
Important parallels of latitudes
• Besides the equator (0°), the north pole (90°
N) and the south pole (90° S), there are four
important parallels of latitudes:
1. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the
northern hemisphere.
2. The Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the
southern hemisphere.
3. The Arctic circle (66½° N) in the northern
hemisphere.
4. The Antarctic circle is (66½° S) in the
southern hemisphere.
Latitudinal Heat zones of the earth
ate temperatures. These are, therefore, called
temperate zones.
• Areas lying beyond the Arctic circle and the
Antarctic circle are very cold. Here the sun does
not rise much above the horizon. Therefore, its
rays are always slanting. These are, therefore,
called frigid zones.
1.2 Longitude or Meridian
• Longitude is an angular distance of a place east
or west of the Prime (First) Meridian meas-
ured in degrees from the centre of the earth.
3
• On the globe, longitude is shown as a series of
semi-circles that run from pole to pole passing
through the equator. Such lines are also called
meridians.
• It was decided in 1884 to choose the meridian
which passes through the Royal Astronomical
Observatory at Greenwich, near London, as
the zero meridian or prime meridian.
• All other meridians radiate eastwards and
westwards of the prime meridian up to 180°.
• Unlike the parallels of latitude, the meridians of
longitude are of equal length.
• The meridians of longitude have one very im-
portant function; they determine local time in
relation to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT),
which is sometimes referred to as World Time.
Longitude and Time
• Since the earth makes one complete rotation of
360° in one day or 24 hours, it passes through
15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
• The earth rotates from west to east, so every
15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced
by 1 hour.
• Conversely, if we go westwards by 15°, local
time is retarded by 1 hour.
• Thus, the places east of Greenwich gain time,
whereas places west of Greenwich lose time.
• A traveller going eastwards gains time from
Greenwich until he reaches the meridian 180° E
when he will be 12 hours ahead of GMT
(GMT+12).
• Similarly, in going westwards, he loses 12 hours
when he reaches 180° W. There is thus a total
difference of 24 hours or a whole day between
the two sides of the 180° meridian.
180° E and 180° W correspond to the same longi-
tude. The difference is the direction of travel.
Standard Time and Time Zones
• Standard Time is the time corresponding to a
certain longitude or longitudes as chosen by a
country.
• Most countries adopt their standard time from
the central meridian of their countries. E.g. IST
corresponds to the time at 82.5° E longitude.
• In countries that have a very large longitudinal
extent (large east-west span), such as Canada,
USA, Russia, it would be inconvenient to have a
single time zone. So, such countries have multi-
ple time zones.
• For example, Russia has nine time zones, and
Canada and USA have six time zones each.
Indian Standard Time
• Indian Standard Time (IST) is taken as the time
at 82.5° E longitude (passing close to the east
of Prayagraj or Allahabad). Which means, IST
is 5 hours 30 mins ahead of GMT (IST =
GMT+5:30).
Longitudinal extent of India
Chaibagaan Time
• One hundred fifty years ago, British colonialists
introduced “Chaibagaan time” or “Bagaan time”,
a schedule observed by tea planters, which was
one hour ahead of IST.
• This was done to improve productivity by
optimising the usage of daytime.
• After Independence, Assam, along with the rest
of India, has been following IST.
• The administration of the Indian state of Assam
put forward a proposal to change its time zone
back to Chaibagaan time to conserve energy
and improve productivity.
• Indian government refused to accept such a
proposal.
The International Date Line
• The International Date Line (IDL) an imaginary
line that passes through the Pacific Ocean.
4
 Time Zones and International Date Line

The Island Groups of Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia

5
 Climatology for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

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Climatology Part II
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1. Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................................................. 3

1.1 Conditions necessary for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone ............................................................... 3
Good Source of Latent Heat ................................................................................................................................... 4
Coriolis Force .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
Low-level Disturbances........................................................................................................................................... 5
Temperature Contrast Between Air Masses .......................................................................................................... 5
Wind Shear ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
Upper Air Disturbance ............................................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Convective Cyclogenesis (Development of Tropical Cyclones) ................................................................ 6
Mechanism – Early stage ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Mechanism – Mature stage .................................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................. 9
Regional names for Tropical Cyclones .................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Path of Tropical Cyclones ....................................................................................................................... 10
Which sector of the cyclone experiences strongest winds? ................................................................................ 10
1.5 Why only a fewer cyclones form over the Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of Bengal? ................ 10
1.6 Tropical Cyclone Scale ............................................................................................................................ 11
Tropical Cyclone Scale by Indian Meteorological Department ............................................................................ 12
1.7 Damage associated with Tropical Cyclones ........................................................................................... 12
Floods ................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Wind ..................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Storm surge .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
States Vulnerable to Cyclones .............................................................................................................................. 14
1.8 Positive effects of Tropical Cyclones ...................................................................................................... 14
1.9 Naming of Cyclones ................................................................................................................................ 14
Northern Indian Ocean Region ............................................................................................................................. 15
1.10Warning of Tropical Cyclones................................................................................................................. 15
4-stage IMD warning system for tropical cyclones .............................................................................................. 15

2. Jet streams ......................................................................................................................................... 16

2.1 Explanation of Jet Streams ..................................................................................................................... 16
Geostrophic Wind ................................................................................................................................................. 16
Upper tropospheric westerlies ............................................................................................................................. 17

1
 High velocity ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Meandering .......................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Permanent jet streams ........................................................................................................................... 18
Subtropical jet stream (STJ) .................................................................................................................................. 18
Polar front jet (PFJ) ............................................................................................................................................... 18
2.3 Temporary jet streams ........................................................................................................................... 19
The Somali Jet ....................................................................................................................................................... 19
The Tropical Easterly Jet or African Easterly Jet ................................................................................................... 19
2.4 Influence of Jet Streams on Weather..................................................................................................... 19
Jet Streams and Weather in Temperate Regions ................................................................................................. 19
2.5 Jet Streams and Aviation ........................................................................................................................ 20

3. Temperate Cyclones ........................................................................................................................... 21

3.1 Air Masses .............................................................................................................................................. 21
Source regions ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
Conditions for the formation of Air Masses ......................................................................................................... 21
Air masses based on Source Regions.................................................................................................................... 21
Influence of Air Masses on World Weather ......................................................................................................... 22
3.2 Fronts ..................................................................................................................................................... 23
Front Formation.................................................................................................................................................... 23
Classification of Fronts ......................................................................................................................................... 23
3.3 Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones .................................................................................. 26
Polar Front Theory ................................................................................................................................................ 26
Seasonal Occurrence of Temperate Cyclones ...................................................................................................... 27
Distribution of Temperate Cyclones ..................................................................................................................... 27
Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones ................................................................................................................ 27

4. Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones ― Comparison .................................................................. 28

5. Polar Vortex ....................................................................................................................................... 30
5.1 Polar Vortex Cold Wave ......................................................................................................................... 30
How it slips............................................................................................................................................................ 30
5.2 Polar Vortex and Ozone Depletion at South Pole .................................................................................. 31
Ozone depletion ................................................................................................................................................... 31

6. El Nino ................................................................................................................................................ 33
6.1 Normal Conditions ................................................................................................................................. 33
Walker circulation (Normal Years) ....................................................................................................................... 33
6.2 During El Nino year................................................................................................................................. 33
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)..................................................................................................................... 34
Effects of El Nino................................................................................................................................................... 34
El Nino impact on Indian Monsoons..................................................................................................................... 35
Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is same in India) .................................................................. 35
6.3 El Niño Modoki ....................................................................................................................................... 36
6.4 La Nina .................................................................................................................................................... 36
Effects of La Nina .................................................................................................................................................. 36

7. Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate ...................................................................................... 37

2
 7.2 A – Tropical Humid Climates .................................................................................................................. 38
Tropical Wet Climate (Af: A – Tropical, f – no dry season) ................................................................................... 39
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am: A – Tropical, m – monsoon).............................................................................. 42
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw: A – Tropical, w – dry winter) ..................................................... 46
7.3 B – Dry Climate ....................................................................................................................................... 48
Hot Desert Climate (BWh: B – Dry, W – Desert, h – low latitude)........................................................................ 48
Mid-Latitude Desert Climate (BWk: B – Dry, W – Desert, k – high latitude) ........................................................ 49
Steppe or Temperate Grassland Climate (BSk: B – Dry, S – Steppe, k – high latitude) ........................................ 51
7.4 C – Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates....................................................................................... 55
Mediterranean Climate (Cs: C – Warm Temperate, s – Dry summer) ................................................................. 55
Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate (Cfa) .................................................................................................. 57
British Type Climate or Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate (Cf) ............................................................... 60
7.5 D – Cold Snow-forest Climates ............................................................................................................... 64
Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate (Dfc: f – no dry season, c – cold summer)......................................................... 64
Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate (Dfc) ................................................................ 67
7.6 E – Cold Climates .................................................................................................................................... 70
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate .............................................................................................. 70
7.7 Questions ............................................................................................................................................... 71
Previous prelims questions................................................................................................................................... 71
Descriptive questions ........................................................................................................................................... 73

✓ a closed low-level atmospheric circula-

1. Tropical Cyclones tion (winds converging from all directions
― cyclonic circulation),
• Tropical cyclones originate over oceans in trop- ✓ strong winds (squalls ― a sudden violent
ical areas in late summers. gust of wind), and
• They are rapidly rotating violent storms charac- ✓ a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms
terised by that produce very heavy rain (torrential
✓ a closed low-pressure centre with steep rainfall).
pressure gradients (category 1 cyclones • The low-pressure at the centre is responsible for
have a barometric pressure of greater than the wind speeds.
980 millibars; category 5 cyclones can have • The closed air circulation (cyclonic circulation) is
central barometric pressure of less than a result of rapid upward movement of hot
920 millibars), moist air which is subjected to Coriolis force.

1.1 Conditions necessary for the

Formation of a Tropical Cyclone

• Large sea surface with temperature higher

than 27° C.
• Presence of the Coriolis force enough to
create a cyclonic vortex.
• A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or
Closed Isobars in a Tropical Cyclone low-level-cyclonic circulation.
• Low wind shear.
• Upper-level divergence.

3
Good Source of Latent Heat ➔ more air comes in to fill the gap ➔ new moisture
is available for condensation ➔ latent heat of
• Ocean waters having temperatures of 27° C and condensation is released. The cycle repeats as long
depth of warm water extending for 60-70 m as there is enough supply of moisture.
deep supply enough moisture, and hence la-
tent heat of condensation, to generate and
drive a tropical storm.
• Thick layer of warm water ensures that the deep
convection currents within the water do not
churn and mix the cooler water below with the
warmer water near the surface.

Why tropical cyclones form mostly on the

western margins of the oceans?

• Because of warm ocean currents (easterly

trade winds drag ocean waters towards west)
that flow from east towards west forming a
thick layer of warm water with temperatures
greater than 27°C.

Why are tropical cyclones very rare on the

eastern margins of the oceans?

• The cold currents lower the surface tempera-

tures of the eastern parts of the tropical oceans
making them unfit for the breeding of cyclonic
storms.
Exceptional case: During strong El Nino years,
strong hurricanes occur in the eastern Pacific. This is
due to the accumulation of warm waters in the east-
ern Pacific due to weak Walker Cell.
Why do tropical cyclones weaken on land-
fall?
Coriolis Force
• The Coriolis force is zero at the equator, but
it increases with latitude.
• Coriolis force at 5° latitude is significant enough
to create a storm (cyclonic vortex).
• About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity occurs
between 10° and 20° latitude.
• The cyclonic circulation is anti-clockwise
(counterclockwise) in the northern hemi-
sphere and clockwise in the southern hemi-
sphere.

• On landfall, the storm is cut-off from adequate
moisture supply and hence it is deprived of la-
tent heat of condensation. Thus, the storm dis-
sipates (weakens or dies off) on landfall.
Rising of humid air parcel ➔ ambient pressure on
the air parcel decreases with altitude ➔ adiabatic
lapse rate (fall in temperature of air parcel) ➔
condensation of moisture in air parcel due to low
temperature ➔ latent heat of condensation is
released in the process ➔ air parcel is heated further
due to the release of latent heat of condensation and
becomes less denser ➔ air parcel is further uplifted
Why cyclones occur mostly in late summers?
1. Due to high specific heat of water, and mixing,
the ocean waters in northern hemisphere at-
tain maximum temperatures in August (in
contract continents attain maximum tempera-
tures in June-July).
2. Whirling motion (cyclonic vortex) is enhanced
when the doldrums (region within ITCZ) over
oceans are farthest from the equator (Coriolis
force increases with distance from the equa-
tor).

4
Why do 'tropical cyclones' winds rotate
counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemi-
sphere?
• As the earth's rotation sets up an apparent
force (called the Coriolis force) that pulls the
winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
(and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere).
• So, when a low-pressure starts to form over
north of the equator, the surface winds will flow
inward trying to fill in the low and will be de-
flected to the right, and a counter-clockwise
rotation will be initiated.
• The opposite (a deflection to the left and a
clockwise rotation) will occur south of the equa-
tor.
Coriolis force is too tiny to effect rotation in water
that is going down the drains of sinks and toilets.
The rotation in those will be determined by the ge-
ometry of the container and the original motion of
the water.
Low-level Disturbances
• Low-level disturbance is a low-pressure trough
(an extended region of low-pressure) that
moves from east to west in the form of easterly
wave disturbances in the Inter-Tropical Con-
vergence Zone (ITCZ).
A disturbance is a persistent group of thunderstorms
with heavy rains and strong wind gusts.
Easterly wave disturbances: it is a convective
trough (thermal origin) ― a persistent group of
thunderstorms travelling together in east to west di-
rection (westward traveling disturbances) under the
influence of trade winds.
Easterly wave disturbances
• Easterly wave disturbances act as seedling cir-
culations (birthplace) for a large number of
tropical cyclones. However, not all disturbances
develop into cyclones.
Temperature Contrast Between Air
Masses
• The convergence of air masses of different
temperatures results in instability causing low-
level disturbances which are a prerequisite for
the origin and growth of violent tropical storms.
• Trade winds from both the hemispheres meet
along the inter-tropical front (ITCZ). Tempera-
ture contrasts between these air masses must
exist when the ITCZ is farthest from the equator
so that the low-level disturbances can intensify
into a depression (intensifying low-pressure
cell).
Wind Shear
• Wind Shear is the difference between wind
speeds at different altitudes.
• Tropical cyclones develop when the wind is uni-
form.
Why is convective cyclogenesis (tropical
cyclogenesis) confined to tropics?
• Because of weak vertical wind shear, cyclone
formation processes are limited to latitude
equatorward of the subtropical jet stream.
• In the temperate regions, wind shear is high
due to westerlies, and this inhibits convective
cyclogenesis.
Why there are very few Tropical Cyclones
during southwest monsoon season?
Large vertical wind shear
• The southwest monsoon is characterized by the
presence of strong westerly winds (south-west
monsoon winds) in the lower troposphere (be-
low 3 km) and strong easterly winds in the up-
per troposphere (above 9 km). This results in
large vertical wind shear. Strong vertical
wind shear inhibits cyclone development.
5
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Oceanography
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1. Ocean Relief ................................................ 3
1.1 Major Ocean Relief Features .................... 3
Continental Shelf ........................................ 3
Continental Slope ....................................... 4
Continental Rise.......................................... 4
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain .................. 5
1.2 Minor Ocean Relief Features.................... 5
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches ........................ 5
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges .. 5
Abyssal Hills ................................................ 5
Submarine Canyons .................................... 6
Atoll ............................................................ 6
Bank, Shoal and Reef .................................. 7
2. Major Oceans and Seas ................................ 7
2.1 Oceans of the World by Size .................... 7
2.2 The Pacific Ocean ..................................... 7
4.
2.3 The Atlantic Ocean ................................... 8
2.4 The Indian Ocean ..................................... 9
2.5 Marginal Seas ......................................... 11
Human Impact on marginal seas .............. 11
Biomass Production and Primary
Productivity .............................................. 12
Water Circulation in Marginal Seas .......... 15
2.6 Bays, gulfs, and Straits............................ 15
Bays........................................................... 15
Gulfs .......................................................... 16
Straits ........................................................ 17
Isthmus ..................................................... 17
3. Ocean Movements......................................17 5.
3.1 Ocean Currents....................................... 17
Primary Forces Responsible for Ocean
Currents .................................................... 18
Secondary Forces Responsible for Ocean
Currents.................................................... 18
Types of Ocean Currents .......................... 18
Pacific Ocean Currents ............................. 19
Phytoplankton and Fishing ....................... 20
Atlantic Ocean Currents ........................... 21
Indian Ocean Currents ............................. 23
Effects of Ocean Currents ........................ 25
Desert Formation and Ocean Currents .... 25
3.2 Tides ....................................................... 26
Tidal Bulge: Why there are two tidal
bulges? ..................................................... 26
Types of Tides........................................... 27
Importance of Tides ................................. 30
Characteristics of Tides ............................ 30
Tidal bore ................................................. 31
Impact of Tidal Bore ................................. 31
Temperature Distribution of Oceans .......... 32
4.1 Source of Heat in Oceans ....................... 32
4.2 Factors Affecting Temperature
Distribution of Oceans................................... 32
4.3 Vertical Temperature Distribution of
Oceans ........................................................... 33
Thermocline ............................................. 33
Three-Layer System .................................. 34
4.4 Horizontal Temperature Distribution..... 34
4.5 General behaviour.................................. 35
4.6 Range of Ocean Temperature ................ 35
Sunspot .................................................... 35
Ocean Salinity ............................................ 36
5.2 Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity ............ 36
Horizontal distribution of salinity ............ 36
1
 5.3 Vertical Distribution of Salinity .............. 37
6. Coral Reefs .................................................37
6.1 Coral Reef Relief Features ...................... 38
Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)..................... 38
Barrier Reefs ............................................. 38
Atolls ......................................................... 39
6.2 Development of Major Coral Reef Types 39
6.3 Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth ......... 39
Distribution of Coral Reefs ....................... 40
6.4 Corals and Zooxanthellae ....................... 40
Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals and
Zooxanthellae ........................................... 40
6.5 Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching 40
Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching ........ 41
Spatial and temporal range of coral reef
bleaching .................................................. 42
7. Resources from the Ocean ..........................42
7.1 Ocean Deposits....................................... 43
Terrigenous Deposits ............................... 43
Pelagic Deposits ....................................... 43
7.2 Mineral Resources .................................. 43
Mineral deposits found on continental
shelves and slopes.................................... 43
Mineral deposits found on deep sea floor
.................................................................. 45
7.3 Energy Resources ................................... 47
7.4 Fresh Water ............................................ 47
7.5 Biotic Resources ..................................... 47
7.6 United Nations International Conferences
on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) ................... 48
Territorial waters ..................................... 48
Contiguous Zone or Pursuit Zone ............. 48
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) ................ 49
High Seas .................................................. 49
Land Disputes in South China Sea: Parcel
Islands and Spratly Islands ....................... 49

World Water Day – March 22 • The water in the depressions merged to give
rise to mighty oceans.
Water on the Earth’s surface • During the Hadean Eon, the atmospheric pres-
sure was 27 times greater than it is today and
Reservoir Volume (Million % of the
hence even at a surface temperature of close to
Cubic km) Total
200° C water remained liquid in the oceans.
Oceans 1,370 97.25
• Over time, both temperature and atmospheric
Icecaps and Glaciers 29 2.05
Groundwater 9.5 0.68
pressure dropped, and water continues to stay
Lakes 0.125 0.01 as liquid in the oceans.
Soil Moisture 0.065 0.005
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001
Streams and Rivers 0.0017 0.0001
Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004
• Water on earth in liquid form came into exist-
ence in Hadean Eon (4,540 – 4,000 mya).
• During the Hadean Eon, temperature on earth
was extremely hot, and much of the Earth was
molten.
• Volcanic outgassing created the primordial
atmosphere which consisted of various gases
along with water vapour.
• Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the for-
mation of a solid crust.
• The water vapour condensed to form rain and
rainwater gradually filled the depressions on the
newly solidified crust.

2
 Ocean Relief Features

• Continental Shelves cover 7.5% of the total area

1. Ocean Relief
• Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcan-
ic, erosional and depositional processes and
their interactions.
• Ocean relief controls the motion of seawater.
• The oceanic movement in the form of currents,
in turn, causes many variations in both oceans
and atmosphere.
• The bottom relief of oceans also influences nav-
igation and fishing.
of the oceans.
• Shallow seas and gulfs are found along the
continental shelves.
• The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope,
called the shelf break.
• Examples of continental shelves: Continental
Shelf of South-East Asia (Sunda Plate), Grand
Banks around Newfoundland, Submerged
region between Australia and New Guinea, etc.
Formation

Ocean relief features are divided into major and • The shelf is formed mainly due to
minor relief features: 1. submergence of a part of a continent
2. relative rise in sea level
1.1 Major Ocean Relief Features 3. Sedimentary deposits brought down by
rivers, glaciers
Four major divisions in the ocean relief are: • There are various types of shelves based on dif-
ferent sediments of terrestrial origin —
1. the continental shelf, 1. glaciated shelf (e.g. Shelf Surrounding
2. the continental slope, Greenland),
3. the continental rise, 2. coral reef shelf (e.g. Queensland, Aus-
4. the Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain. tralia),
3. shelf of a large river (e.g. Shelf around
Continental Shelf Nile Delta),
4. shelf with dendritic valleys (e.g. shelf at
• Continental Shelf is the gently sloping (gradi- the Mouth of Hudson River)
ent of 1° or less) seaward extension of a con- 5. shelf along young mountain ranges (e.g.
tinental plate. Shelves between Hawaiian Islands).

3

Various types of shelves
Width and depth of continental shelves
• Continental shelves have an average width of
70-80 km.
• The shelves are almost absent or very narrow
along a convergent boundary. E.g. coasts of
Chile.
• The width of continental shelf of eastern coast
of USA varies between 100-300 km.
• Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean is the largest
in the world and stretches up to 1,500 km from
the coast.
Width of various continental shelves
• Continental shelves may be as shallow as 30 m
in some areas while in some areas it is as deep
as 600 m.
Importance of continental shelves
• 20% of the world production of petroleum and
gas comes from shelves.
• Continental shelves form the richest fishing
grounds. E.g. Grand Banks around Newfound-
land.
Grand Banks, the richest fishing grounds on earth
• Marine food comes almost entirely from conti-
nental shelves.
• They are sites for placer deposits and phos-
phorites (explained in Ocean Resources).
Continental Slope
• The gradient of the slope region varies between
2-5°.
• The continental slope connects the continental
shelf and the ocean basins.
• The depth of the slope region varies between
200 and 3,000 m.
• The seaward edge of the continental slope loses
gradient at this depth and gives rise to conti-
nental rise.
• The continental slope boundary indicates the
end of the continents.
• Canyons and trenches are observed in this re-
gion.
Continental Rise
• The continental slope gradually loses its steep-
ness with depth.
• When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5°
and 1°, it is referred to as the continental rise.
• With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtual-
ly flat and merges with the abyssal plain.
4

Shelf, Slope and Rise (Wikipedia)
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain
• Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of the
ocean basins.
• These are the flattest and smoothest regions of
the world because of terrigenous (marine sed-
iment eroded from the land) and shallow wa-
ter sediments that buries the irregular topog-
raphy.
• It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
• The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.
• These plains are covered with fine-grained sed-
iments like clay and silt.
1.2 Minor Ocean Relief Features
• Ridges (along a divergent boundary),
• Abyssal Hills (submerged volcanic mountains):
Seamounts and Guyots,
• Trenches (along a convergent boundary),
• Canyons (erosional landform),
• Island arcs (formed due to volcanism along a
convergent boundary or hotspot volcanism),
• Atolls and Coral reefs.
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches
• The trenches are relatively steep-sided, narrow
basins (Depressions).
• These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans.
• They are of tectonic origin and are formed dur-
ing ocean-ocean convergence and ocean-
continent convergence.
• They are some 3-5 km deeper than the sur-
rounding ocean floor.
• The trenches lie along the fringes of the
deep-sea plain at the bases of continental
slopes and along island arcs.
• The trenches run parallel to the bordering
fold mountains or the island chains.
• The trenches are very common in the Pacific
Ocean and form an almost continuous ring
along the western and eastern margins of the
Pacific.
• The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in
the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench with, a
depth of more than 11 kilometres.
• Trenches are associated with active volcanoes
and strong earthquakes (like in Japan).
• Majority of the trenches are in the Pacific Ocean
followed by the Atlantic Ocean and Indian
Ocean.
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine
Ridges
• A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains
of mountains separated by a large depression
(divergent boundary).
• The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as
2,500 m and some even reach above the
ocean’s surface.
• Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these
ridges form the largest mountain systems on
earth.
Mid Ocean Ridge
• The ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gen-
tly sloping or in the form of steep-sided narrow
mountains.
Abyssal Hills
5
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Print Friendly PDF
1. India as a Geographical Unit................................3
1.2 India's Frontiers ......................................................4
1.3 Major Physical Divisions of India ............................6
2. Rock System .......................................................7
2.1 Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian Rocks) 7
Archaean Gneisses and Schists (4 billion years
old) ....................................................................7
Dharwar System (1 to 4 billion years old) .........9
Purana Rock System (600 to 1400 million years
old) ....................................................................9
2.2 Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic) .......................9
Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) ..........10
2.3 Aryan Rock System ...............................................10
Gondwana System ...........................................10
Jurassic System ................................................10
Deccan Trap .....................................................10
Tertiary System ................................................11
3. Himalayan Ranges ............................................ 11
3.2 Shiwalik Range ......................................................11
Formation (Formation of Himalayas explained
in C-C Convergence) ........................................12
3.3 The Lesser Himalayas or The Middle Himalayas or
The Himachal ................................................................12
Important Ranges in the Lesser Himalayas .....12
3.4 The Greater Himalaya...........................................13
Passes in the Greater Himalayas .....................14
3.5 The Trans Himalayas .............................................14
Ranges in The Trans Himalayas .......................14
3.6 Purvanchal or Eastern Hills ...................................16
3.7 Himalayas – Regional Divisions ............................15
Punjab Himalayas ............................................16
Western Himalayas..........................................17
Central Himalayas ............................................18
Eastern Himalayas ...........................................18
3.8 Important Valleys in the Himalayas ......................18
Karewas ...........................................................19
3.9 Snow in the Himalayas – Snowline....................... 19
3.10 Glaciers in the Himalayas ..................................... 19
3.11 The significance of the Himalayas ........................ 20
3.12 Major Passes in Himalayas and Indian Sub-
continent ...................................................................... 21
4. Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain ..................... 24
4.1 The formation of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain
25
4.2 Features of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain .... 26
Divisions of Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain27
Regional Divisions of the Great Plains ............. 28
The significance of the Plain ............................ 29
5. Peninsular Plateau ............................................ 30
5.1 Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau ............ 30
Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau ................. 30
Central Highland.............................................. 30
Bundelkhand Upland ....................................... 30
Malwa Plateau ................................................ 32
Baghelkhand .................................................... 32
Chotanagpur Plateau ...................................... 32
Meghalaya Plateau .......................................... 32
Deccan Plateau ................................................ 34
5.2 Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau .................. 35
Aravalli Range.................................................. 35
Vindhyan Range .............................................. 35
Satpura Range ................................................. 35
Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris) .................. 36
Eastern Ghats .................................................. 36
The significance of the Peninsular Plateau ..... 37
6. Coastline of India .............................................. 37
6.1 East Coast of India ................................................ 38
6.2 West Coast of India .............................................. 38
6.3 Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence ........ 38
6.4 Western Coastal Plains of India............................ 39
Kutch and Kathiawar region ............................ 39
Gujarat Plain .................................................... 39
Konkan Plain .................................................... 39
1
 Karnataka Coastal Plain ...................................39 2.
Kerala Plain ......................................................39
6.5 Eastern Coastal Plains of India..............................40
Utkal Plain........................................................40
Andhra Plain ....................................................40
Tamil Nadu Plain ..............................................40
6.6 The significance of the Coastal Plains ...................40
7. Indian Islands ................................................... 41
7.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands ..............................41
7.2 Lakshadweep Islands ............................................42
7.3 New Moore Island ................................................42
8. Drainage Systems of India ................................. 43
8.2 Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the sea
43
8.3 Major River System or Drainage Systems in India 44
8.4 Indus River System ...............................................45
Indus River .......................................................45
Jhelum River ....................................................48
Chenab River ...................................................49
Ravi River .........................................................49
Beas River ........................................................49
Sutlej River.......................................................49
8.5 Ganga River System ..............................................49
Ganga River .....................................................51
Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga ...............51
3.
Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River ........53
8.6 Brahmaputra River System ...................................54
8.7 Peninsular River System or Peninsular Drainage ..56
Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage ..............56
Comparison: Himalayan River System &
Peninsular River System ..................................57
East Flowing Peninsular Rivers ........................58
West Flowing Rivers of Peninsular India .........67
Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage .....................74
4.
1. Indian Monsoons .............................................. 74
1.2 Mechanism of Indian Monsoons – Based on
Modern Theories ..........................................................76
March to May ..................................................76
Indian Monsoons – Role of ITCZ (Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone) ..........................................82
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Jet Stream
Theory .............................................................83
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Role of Sub-
Tropical Jet Stream (STJ)..................................84
Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical Easterly Jet
(TEJ) (African Easterly Jet) ...............................88
Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet .....................89
Indian Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet .............89
Indian Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean Dipole
.........................................................................90
Indian Climate .................................................. 91
2.1 Features of Indian Climate ................................... 91
Rainfall ............................................................ 91
Temperature ................................................... 91
2.2 Factors Influencing Indian Climate ....................... 92
Latitudinal location ......................................... 92
Distance from the Sea ..................................... 92
Himalayas ........................................................ 92
Physiography ................................................... 92
Monsoon Winds .............................................. 93
Upper Air Circulation ....................................... 93
Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances . 94
El-Nino, La Nina and ENSO .............................. 94
2.3 Indian Climate – Seasons ..................................... 94
Winter Season in India .................................... 94
Summer Season in India .................................. 96
Rainy Season – South West Monsoon Season 99
North East Monsoon Season – Retreating
Monsoon Season ........................................... 102
Annual Rainfall (South West Monsoons +
Retreating Monsoons)................................... 105
2.4 Climatic Regions of India .................................... 106
Stamp's Classification of Climatic Regions of
India .............................................................. 106
Koppen’s Classification of Climatic Regions of
India .............................................................. 107
Natural Vegetation of India ............................. 108
3.1 Classification of Natural Vegetation of India...... 108
A. Moist Tropical Forests ............................... 109
B. Dry Tropical Forests .................................. 111
C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests .................. 112
D. Montane Temperate Forests .................... 113
E. Alpine Forests ............................................ 114
Biogeography – Soils ....................................... 114
4.1 Soil Types: Sandy, Clayey & Loamy .................... 114
4.2 Soil Profile (Soil Horizon) .................................... 115
4.3 Factors that influence soil formation in Indian
Conditions ................................................................... 116
Parent Material ............................................. 116
Relief ............................................................. 117
Climate .......................................................... 117
Natural Vegetation ........................................ 118
4.4 Major Soil Groups of India ................................. 118
Alluvial Soils................................................... 118
Black Soils ...................................................... 119
Red Soils ........................................................ 120
Laterite – Lateritic Soils ................................. 120
Forest – Mountain Soils ................................ 121
Arid – Desert Soils ......................................... 121
Saline – Alkaline Soils .................................... 122
Peaty – Marshy Soils ..................................... 123
2
 1. India as a Geographical Unit

Location: Indira Col and NJ9842

• The southernmost point of the country is the

Pygmalion Point, or Indira Point is located at
6° 45' N latitude.
• North-south extent from Indira Col in Kashmir
to Kanyakumari is 3,214 km.
• East-west width from the Rann of Kutch to Aru-
Map of Jammu and Kashmir showing the occupied nachal Pradesh is 2,933 km.
regions
East-West Extent (~30°) 68° 7' East to 97° 25' East longitude

South-North Extent of mainland India (Including POK) 8° 4' North to 37° 6' North latitude
(~29°)

South-North Extent of India (Including POK and the 6° 45' North to 37° 6' North latitude
Andaman and Nicobar Islands) (~31°)

Top 10 Largest Countries in the World by Area

Rank Country Capital City Continent Area (km2)
1 Russia Moscow Europe 1,70,98,242
2 Canada Ottawa North America 99,84,670
3 USA Washington DC North America 98,26,675
4 China Beijing Asia 95,96,961
5 Brazil Brasilia South America 85,14,877
6 Australia Canberra Oceania 77,41,220
7 India New Delhi Asia 32,87,263
8 Argentina Buenos Aires South America 27,80,400
9 Kazakhstan Astana Asia 27,24,900
10 Algeria Algiers Africa 23,81,741

3
 • Although winter night temperatures are low, yet
clear skies and intense insolation raise the day
temperatures to a tropical level.

Cultural Geographical Reasons

• Settlements, diseases, agricultural and primary
economic activities are all tropical in nature.

It is primarily because of the Himalayas that India is

a predominantly tropical country.

1.2 India's Frontiers

Locational Extent of India Data from the Ministry of Home Affairs (Depart-
ment of Border Management)
• With an area of 32,87,263 km2, India is the
seventh largest country in the world. • India has 15106.7 Km of land border running
• India accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the through 17 States.
total surface area of the world. • Indian has a coastline of 7516.6 Km (6100 km
• The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 In-
of the country dividing it into two latitudinal dian islands) touching 13 States and Union
halves. Territories (UTs).
• The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer is • Barring Telangana, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattis-
near twice the area which lies to the south of it. garh, Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, all other
• South of 22° north latitude, the country tapers States in the country have one or more interna-
off over 800 km into the Indian Ocean as a pen- tional borders or a coastline and can be
insula. regarded as frontline States from the point of
• East-West time difference is nearly 2 hrs. (A dif- view of border management.
ference of 1° longitude will make a difference of • India's longest border is with Bangladesh
4 minutes in time. ~30 x 4 = ~120 minutes or while the shortest border is with Afghanistan.
~2 hours). • The length of India’s land borders with neigh-
bouring countries is given in the table below.
India, Tropical or Temperate Country?
Neighbour Length of the border (in Km)
• The temperate part (north of Tropic of Cancer)
is twice the area of the tropical part. 1) Bangladesh 4,096.7
• But India has always been treated as a tropical 2) China 3,488
country for two different reasons – physical and 3) Pakistan 3,323
cultural. 4) Nepal 1,751
5) Myanmar 1,643
Physical Geographical (Climatic) Reasons 6) Bhutan 699
• The country is separated from the rest of Asia 7) Afghanistan 106
by the Himalayas. 15,106.7
• The tropical monsoons dominate its climate.
• Himalayas blocks the cold temperate air mass- Border with China
es.
• This is the second longest border of India,
next only to its border with Bangladesh.

4
• Five Indian states, namely Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh touch the Indian boundary
with China.
• The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into
three sectors namely: (i) the Western sector, (ii)
the Middle sector, and (iii) the Eastern sector.
The Western Sector
• Separates Jammu and Kashmir state of India
from the Xinjiang province of China.
• The western sector boundary is largely the out-
come of the British policy towards the state of
Jammu and Kashmir.
• China claims the Aksai Chin, the Changmo
valley, Pangong Tso and the Sponggar Tso
area of north-east Ladakh.
• China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit area in
North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963 by Paki-
stan).
The Middle Sector
• Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Ut-
tarakhand touch this border.
The Eastern Sector
• The 1,140 km long boundary between India and
China runs from the eastern limit of Bhutan to a
point near Diphu pass (Talu-Pass) at the tri-
junction of India, Tibet and Myanmar.
Diphu Pass is a mountain pass around the area of
the disputed tri-point borders of India, China, and
Myanmar.
It is Talu pass on the Burmese side, and Diphu pass
on the Indian (Tibetan) side.
• This line is usually referred to as the Mc Mahon
Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon, then foreign
secretary of British India, who negotiated the
boundary agreement between Great Britain and
Tibet at Shimla accord in 1913-14.
The India-Nepal Boundary
• Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim touch
the Nepalese border with India.
• The border is a porous one with an unrestricted
movement of goods and people between Indi-
an and Nepal.
• Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border runs in
the east-west direction almost along the foothill
of the Shiwalik Range.
The Indo-Pakistan Boundary
• The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result of the
partition of the country in 1947 under the Rad-
cliffe award of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the
chairman.
• Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the major
disputed regions.
Creeks in the Kutch Region
The India-Bangladesh Border
• India's 4,096 km long border with Bangladesh is
the longest.
• This boundary has been determined under the
Radcliffe Award which divided the erstwhile
province of Bengal into two parts.
India-Myanmar Boundary
5
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Economic Geography Part I

Distribution of key natural resources across India and the World
Print-Friendly PDF

1. Iron ............................................................. 3 Bituminous Coal (black coal) .................... 13

Anthracite Coal (Semi-metallic lustre) ..... 13
1.2 Types of Iron Ore............................................. 3
Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal (Thermal
Magnetite (Fe3O4) ....................................... 4
Coal) ......................................................... 13
Haematite (Fe2O3)....................................... 5
Limonite ...................................................... 5 2.3 Distribution of Coal in India .......................... 14
Gondwana Coal (formed 250 million years
1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across the World .......... 5
ago)........................................................... 14
Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia........... 5
Tertiary Coal (formed 60 – 15 million years
Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang, Si-
ago)........................................................... 15
kiang, Shandog Peninsula ........................... 5
State-wise coal reserves and coal
Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales,
production in India ................................... 16
Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine ....................... 6
The demand of coal, production, supply
Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region,
and import of coal in India ....................... 16
Magnitogorsk.............................................. 6
Why does India import coal although it has
Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes
enough reserves? ..................................... 16
(Mesabi Region), Labrador ......................... 7
Major Coalfields in India .......................... 17
Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira,
Measures taken by the government to
Minas Geriais .............................................. 7
boost production...................................... 17
Iron Ore in Australia: Pilbara Region,
Koolyanobbing, Iron Duke, Iron Knob ........ 8 2.4 Distribution of Coal across the World .......... 18
Largest iron ore producers ......................... 8 Global Coal Reserves ................................ 19
Largest iron ore reserves ............................ 9 Top coal producers and consumers in the
world ........................................................ 19
1.4 Iron Ore Distribution in India .......................... 9
Hematite reserves ...................................... 9
3. Petroleum and Mineral Oil ......................... 19
Magnetite reserves..................................... 9
Iron Ore Production in India ..................... 10 3.1 Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil ..... 19
Conditions for Formation of Petroleum and
2. Coal ............................................................11 Mineral Oil................................................ 19
2.1 Formation of Coal ......................................... 11 3.2 Distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil in
Stages of coal formation........................... 12 India ...................................................................... 21
Extent of Oil Bearing Strata in India ......... 21
2.2 Classification of coal...................................... 12
On-shore Oil Production in India.............. 22
Peat........................................................... 12
Off-Shore Oil Production in India ............. 22
Lignite (brown coal) .................................. 13

1
 State-wise crude oil and natural gas
production trends ..................................... 24
Share of major fuels in Power Generation
in India ...................................................... 24
India’s Oil Imports .................................... 24
Oil Refiners in India .................................. 24
Crude Oil Pipelines ................................... 25
3.3 World distribution of Petroleum and Mineral
Oil 28
Supergiants ............................................... 28
Countries with The Largest Proven Oil
Reserves.................................................... 28
World’s Top Producers, Consumers and
Exporters of Oil ......................................... 30
OPEC – Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries .................................. 30
4. Natural gas .................................................30
4.2 Distribution of Natural Gas across Indian and
the World .............................................................. 31
Top natural gas producers, consumers, and
countries with highest reserves ............... 31
4.3 Petroleum and Gas Value Chain.................... 32
5. Unconventional Gas Reservoirs ...................32
5.1 Coalbed Methane.......................................... 33
Coalbed Methane in India ........................ 33
5.2 Shale Gas ....................................................... 34
Extraction of Shale Gas ............................. 34
Shale Gas Reserves across India and the
World ........................................................ 35
Shale Gas Extraction Issues in India – If US
can then why can’t India?......................... 35
5.3 Tight Gas ....................................................... 36
6. Bauxite .......................................................37
6.1 Bauxite Distribution in India ......................... 37
6.2 Bauxite Distribution across the World .......... 38
7. Lead & Zinc .................................................39
7.1 Lead ............................................................... 39
7.2 Zinc ................................................................ 39
7.3 Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores – India and
World .................................................................... 39
7.4 Pyrites ........................................................... 40
8. Gold and Silver ...........................................41
8.1 Gold ............................................................... 41
Gold Reserves and Production in India .... 41
World’s Gold Reserves and Gold Production
.................................................................. 41
8.2 Silver ............................................................. 42
Silver Reserves and Production – India &
World........................................................ 42
9. Ores of Metals used in Alloys ..................... 43
9.1 Manganese ................................................... 43
Manganese ore distribution in India ........ 43
Manganese ore distribution across the
World........................................................ 44
9.2 Tungsten ....................................................... 44
Distribution of Wolfram in India and across
the World ................................................. 44
9.3 Copper .......................................................... 45
Copper Ore Distribution and Production in
India.......................................................... 45
Distribution of Copper Ore and Production
Across the World ...................................... 45
9.4 Nickel ............................................................ 46
Distribution of Nickel in India and World. 46
9.5 Molybdenum ................................................ 47
9.6 Chromite ....................................................... 47
Chromite Distribution across India and
World........................................................ 47
9.7 Cobalt ............................................................ 48
Distribution of Cobalt Reserves across India
and the World .......................................... 48
10. Strategic Minerals ...................................... 48
10.1 Lithium .......................................................... 49
KABIL Set up to Ensure Supply of Critical
Minerals ................................................... 49
11. Non Metallic: Graphite and Diamond ......... 49
11.1 Graphite ........................................................ 50
Distribution of Graphite across India and
World........................................................ 50
11.2 Diamonds ...................................................... 51
Distribution of Diamond Bearing rocks and
gravels in India ......................................... 51
Diamonds Across the World..................... 51
Differences Between Graphite and
Diamond ................................................... 52
2
12. Non Metallic: Limestone, Dolomite and
Magnesite .........................................................52
12.1 Limestone ...................................................... 52
Distribution of Limestone in India ............ 53
12.2 Dolomite........................................................ 54
12.3 Magnesite ..................................................... 54
13. Other Non-Metallic Mineral Resources .......55
• It allows us to understand an area's economy
and its economic relationship with other areas
around the world.
• It helps us understand the reasons and methods
of development of a region or lack of develop-
ment thereof.
• It helps us find solutions to economic develop-
mental challenges.

13.1 Mica............................................................... 55 GS1 Syllabus:

13.2 Asbestos ........................................................ 55
13.3 Kyanite .......................................................... 55 1. Distribution of key natural resources
Sillimanite ................................................. 55 across the world (including South Asia
13.4 Gypsum ......................................................... 56 and the Indian sub-continent); {Economic
Geography Part I}
14. Atomic Minerals .........................................56 2. factors responsible for the location of
primary, secondary, and tertiary sector
14.1 Uranium ........................................................ 56
industries in various parts of the world
Uranium Reserves and Production across
the World.................................................. 56 (including India). {Economic Geography
Uranium in India ....................................... 57 Part II}

14.2 Thorium ......................................................... 58 GS3 Syllabus:

Thorium Distribution ................................ 59
1. Major crops cropping patterns in various
parts of the country, different types of ir-
Economic Geography rigation and irrigation systems storage.
{Indian Agriculture}
• Economic geography is the study of patterns of
2. Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Air-
humans’ economic activities ranging from pro-
ports, Railways etc. {Will be covered as a
duction to consumption of various goods and
separate topic}
services across the world.
• By ‘human economic activities’ we mean, pro- Natural Resources Classification
duction, location, distribution, consumption, ex- Biotic Abiotic
change of resources, spatial organization of Renewable (Non- Non-renewable (Con-
economic activities, etc. conventional): bio- ventional): coal, oil, iron,
• Different subject matters of economic geogra- mass, solar energy, wind etc.
phy include the distribution of mineral re- energy, etc.
sources, location of industries, economies of Metallic: Iron, copper, Non-metallic: graphite,
agglomeration (economies of urbanization), tin, zinc, uranium (heavy diamond, mica, lime-
transportation, international trade, the relation- metal), etc. stone, etc.
ship between the environment and the econo- Renewable and Non-renewable energy resources
my, etc. will be covered as a part of General Science and
Importance of studying economic geography: Science and Technology.

1. Iron

1.2 Types of Iron Ore • Based on the amount of ore and iron content,
iron ore is classified into various types.
3
• Magnetite (Fe3O4) and Haematite (Fe2O3) are Magnetite (Fe3O4)
fine quality ores.
• Limonite, siderite, etc. are inferior ores that have • Magnetite has excellent magnetic qualities,
their own unique characteristics. hence the name.

4
• It is black in colour and has very high content
of Iron – upto 72 per cent (best quality iron
ore).
• Magnetite has higher iron content than hema-
tite (60-70 per cent); therefore, its quality is
higher.
• However, unlike haematite ore, magnetite ore is
not found in high grades.
• That is, while hematite ore generally contains
large concentrations of hematite, magnetite ore
generally holds low concentrations of magnet-
ite.
• Hence the ore needs to be beneficiated (treat
to improve its properties) for magnetite recov-
ery.
• End products (e.g. steel) made from magnetite
ore are typically of higher quality than those
made from hematite ore. That’s because mag-
netite has fewer impurities than hematite.
• Magnetite with less iron content (25% to 30%)
is known as Taconite.
• A naturally magnetized content of magnetite is
called lodestone.
• Distribution of magnetite ore in India: Dharwad
and Cuddapah systems – Karnataka (73%),
Andhra Pradesh (14%), Tamil Nadu (5%), Ra-
jasthan (5%), etc.
• Limonite mines are open cast mines; hence
mining is easy and cheap.
• Distribution: Damuda series in Raniganj coal
field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar
Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.
Siderite (FeCO3)
• It is iron carbonate ore of inferior quality with
less than 40 per cent iron content.
• It contains many impurities and hence mining,
in many places, is economically unviable.
• However, one good quality of the ore is that it
doesn’t contain sulphur or phosphorus.
• And also, it is self-fluxing due to the presence
of lime.
1.3 Iron Ore Distribution Across
the World
Iron ore in Africa: Transvaal, Liberia

Haematite (Fe2O3)

• Reddish ore with naturally high iron content –

60 to 70 per cent.
• Because of its high iron content, hematite ore
can be used in steel production without bene-
faction.
• Hematite is the most abundantly available ore
in India.
• Distribution: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra
and Goa.

Limonite Iron Ore in China: Manchuria, Sinkiang,

Si-kiang, Shandog Peninsula
• Limonite is inferior iron ore that is yellowish in
colour with 40 to 60 per cent iron content.

5
Iron Ore in Europe: Ruhr, South Whales, Krivoy Rog, Bilbao, Lorraine

Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region, Magnitogorsk

6
Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes (Mesabi Region), Labrador

Iron Ore in South America: Carajas, Itabira, Minas Geriais

7
• The main concentration of Sillimanite is found
in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh.
• Orissa is the largest producer of sillimanite in
India. Ganjam is an important sillimanite pro-
ducing district.
• Kerala is the second largest producing state.
13.4 Gypsum
• Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium.
• It is a white opaque or transparent mineral.
• It occurs in sedimentary formations such as
limestones, sandstones and shales.
14. Atomic Minerals
• Uranium, Plutonium and Thorium are the
main atomic minerals.
• Other atomic minerals are beryllium, lithium
and zirconium.
• Zirconium is found along the Kerala coast & in
alluvial rocks of Ranchi & Hazaribagh districts of
Jharkhand.
• India has sufficient reserves of beryllium to
meet her requirement of atomic power genera-
tion.
14.1 Uranium
• Uranium is a silvery-grey metallic radioactive
chemical element.
• It is only naturally formed in supernova explo-
sions.
• Uranium, thorium, and potassium are the
main elements contributing to natural terrestrial
radioactivity.
• Uranium has the chemical symbol U and atomic
number 92.
Uranium Reserves and Production across the World
World’s Uranium (U) Reserves (TT)
Country Reserves as of 2015
1. Australia 1780 23%
2. Kazakhstan 941 12%
• It is mainly used in making ammonia sulphate
fertilizer and in cement industry.
• It makes upto 4-5 per cent of cement.
• It is applied in agriculture for conserving mois-
ture in the soil and for aiding nitrogen absorp-
tion.
• Rajasthan is by far the largest producer of gyp-
sum in India (99 per cent of the total production
of India).
• The main deposits occur in Jodhpur, Nagaur
and Bikaner.
• The remaining gypsum is produced by Tamil
Nadu (Tiruchirapalli district), Jammu and Kash-
mir.
• Plutonium has occurred naturally, but except for
trace quantities it is now not found in the
Earth's crust.
• Plutonium is formed in nuclear power reactors
from uranium-238 by neutron capture.
• The most common plutonium isotope formed in
a typical nuclear reactor is the fissile Pu-239.
• Pu-239 is the principal fuel in a fast neutron
reactor.
• Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are 238U
(99.27%) and 235U (0.72%).
• All uranium isotopes are radioactive and fis-
sionable.
• But only 235U is fissile (will support a neutron-
mediated chain reaction).
• Traces of Uranium are found everywhere.
• Commercial extraction is possible only in loca-
tions where the proportion of Uranium is ade-
quate.
World’s Uranium (U) Production (TT) in 2017
Country/Region Production
1. Kazakhstan 23.3 39.2%
2. Canada 13.1 22.1%
56
3. Canada 703 9% 3. Australia 5.8 9.9%
4. Namiba 463 6% 4. Namibia 4.2 7.1%
India 139 2% India 0.4 0.7%
Total 7641 TT World 59 TT
• Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in South- Uranium in India
ern Australia are important mines in Australia.
• High-grade deposits are only found in the Ath- • Monazite sands comprises the largest source
abasca Basin region of Canada. of uranium.
• The Chu-Sarysu basin in central Kazakhstan • Monazite sands occur on east and west coasts
alone accounts for most of the country's urani- and in some places in Bihar.
um resources

• But the largest concentration of monazite sand
is on the Kerala coast.
• Over 15,200 tonnes of uranium is estimated to
be contained in monazite.
• Some uranium is found in the copper mines of
Udaipur in Rajasthan.
• Uranium deposits occur in Jaduguda in
Singhbhum Thrust Belt and Hazaribagh dis-
tricts of Jharkhand, Gaya district of Bihar,
Cuddapah basin of Andhra Pradesh, Araval-
lis, & Mahadek basin of Meghalaya.
• Singhbhum Copper belt is known for a number
of copper deposits with associated nickel, mo-
lybdenum, bismuth, gold, silver etc.
• The state of Andhra Pradesh is the largest pro-
ducer of uranium in India.
• Tummalapalle village located in the Kadapa
(Cuddapah) district of Andhra Pradesh is
considered as one of the largest uranium re-
serves in India.
57
• India has no significant reserves of Uranium. All
14.2 Thorium
needs are met through imports.
• India imports thousands of tonnes of uranium
• Thorium is a chemical element with symbol Th
from Russia, Kazakhstan, France, and Uzbeki-
and atomic number 90.
stan.
• Uranium and thorium are the only radioactive
• India is trying hard to import uranium from
elements that occur naturally in large quanti-
Australia and Canada.
ties.
• However, there are some concerns regarding
• Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known
nuclear proliferation and other related issues.
isotopes are unstable, with the seven naturally

58
 occurring ones (thorium-227, 228, 229, 230, • The other mineral carrying thorium is thoria-
231, 232, and 234). nite.
• Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of tho- • Thorium is predicted to be able to replace ura-
rium and accounts for nearly all natural thorium, nium as nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors, but on-
with the other five natural isotopes occurring ly a few thorium reactors have yet been com-
only in traces. pleted.
• The known reserves of thorium in India are es-
Thorium Distribution timated to be between 457,000 and 508,000
tonnes.
• Thorium is estimated to be about three to four • Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Raja-
times more abundant than uranium in the sthan are the main producers.
Earth's crust and is chiefly refined from mona- • United States, Australia, and India have par-
zite sands. ticularly large reserves of thorium.
• Monazite contains 2.5% thorium and is scat-
tered along the Kerala Coast.
World’s Thorium Reserves (2011) India’s Thorium Reserves (2016)
Country Reserves in TT State Reserves
1. India 963 1. Andhra Pradesh 31%
2. United States 440 2. Tamil Nadu 21%
3. Australia 300 3. Odisha 20%
4. Canada 100 4. Kerala 16%
5. South Africa 35 5. West Bengal 10%

Related topics:
• Nuclear Fission, Components of Nuclear Reactor, Types of Nuclear Reactors
• India’s Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme

59
Economic Geography for General Studies UPSC Civil Services Exam by Pmfias.com

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Economic Geography Part II (Industrial Locational Factors Part I)

Factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector
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1. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sectors .................................................................................................................... 5

1.1. Primary Activities .................................................................................................................................................. 5

1.1.1 Hunting and Gathering.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.2 Pastoralism.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.1.3 Commercial Livestock Rearing ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1.5 Plantation Agriculture ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
1.1.6 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation ........................................................................................................................................................................ 8
1.1.7 Mixed Farming .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1.8 Dairy Farming ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
1.1.9 Mediterranean Agriculture ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1.10 Market Gardening and Horticulture ........................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1.11 Co-operative Farming ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1.12 Collective Farming .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
1.1.13 Mining .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
1.2. Secondary Activities ............................................................................................................................................ 10
1.2.1 Modern Manufacturing Industry .................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Classification of Manufacturing Industries ................................................................................................................................................................. 11
1.2.3 Foot Loose Industries .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.2.4 Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions ................................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.2.5 Concept of High Technology Industry ......................................................................................................................................................................... 13
1.3. Tertiary Activities................................................................................................................................................. 13
1.3.1 Types of tertiary activities .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
1.3.2 Transportation ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14
1.3.3 Tourism...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 15
1.4. Quaternary Activities ........................................................................................................................................... 16
1.4.1 The Quaternary Sector ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 16
1.4.2 Quinary Activities .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16

1
 1.4.3 Outsourcing ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
1.5. Some of the factors influencing locations of various sectors (industries) ..................................................... 17
1.5.1 Historical Factors ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
1.5.2 Access to Raw Materials ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
1.5.3 Access to energy sources .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
1.5.4 Access to Market ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
1.5.5 Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities ..................................................................................................................................... 18
1.5.6 Supply of cheap labour and skilled workforce ......................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.5.7 Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries ...................................................................................................................... 18
1.5.8 Industrial inertia ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
1.5.9 Government Policy ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
1.6. Questions .............................................................................................................................................................. 19

2. Iron and Steel Industry ................................................................................................................................................ 20

2.1. Smelting of Iron Ore............................................................................................................................................ 20

2.1.2 What exactly happens in a blast furnace? .................................................................................................................................................................. 21
2.2. Factors that influence the location of Iron and Steel Industry ........................................................................ 22
2.2.1 Raw Material ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.2.2 Transportation: Near coastal areas for cheaper raw material imports ........................................................................................................... 26
2.2.3 Transport Cost Minimization............................................................................................................................................................................................ 26
2.2.4 Access to markets: Mini Steel plants ............................................................................................................................................................................ 26
2.2.5 Economies of Linkages and Agglomerations: Duluth-Detroit-Cleveland-Pittsburgh .............................................................................. 27
2.2.6 Competition ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 28
2.2.7 Technology .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
2.2.8 Quality of ore, economies of scale, Cheap labour .................................................................................................................................................. 28
2.2.9 Industrial Inertia..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
2.2.10 Rules and regulations .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
2.2.11 Strategic reasons ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 29
2.2.12 Government policies ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
2.2.13 Distribution of Iron and Steel Industry .................................................................................................................................................................. 29

3. Cotton Textile Industry ............................................................................................................................................... 30

3.1. Factors that affect the location of the cotton textile industry ........................................................................ 31
3.2. Cotton Textile Manufacturing Regions of the World ....................................................................................... 32
3.2.1 Factors responsible for the Localization of the British Cotton Textile Industry .......................................................................................... 32
3.2.2 Factors responsible for the Localization of the American Cotton Textile Industry ................................................................................... 35
3.2.3 Factors responsible for the Localization of the Japanese Cotton Textile Industry .................................................................................... 37
3.2.4 Factors responsible for the Localization of the German Cotton Textile Industry. ..................................................................................... 38
3.2.5 Factors responsible for the Localization of Russian Cotton Textile Industry ............................................................................................... 39
3.2.6 Factors responsible for the Localization of the Chinese Cotton Textile Industry ...................................................................................... 40
3.3. Cotton Textile Industry in India ......................................................................................................................... 41
3.3.2 Factors responsible for the Localization of the Cotton Textile Industry in India ....................................................................................... 42
3.3.3 Issues Faced by the Cotton Textile Industry in India ............................................................................................................................................. 44
3.4. Top cotton producers, importers and exporters .............................................................................................. 45

4. Woollen Textile Industry ............................................................................................................................................. 45

4.1. Factors that affect commercial wool production ............................................................................................. 45

4.1.1 Major wool producing regions........................................................................................................................................................................................ 46

2
4.2. Factors that affect the location of the woollen textile industry ...................................................................... 46
4.2.1 Despite the added cost of transportation, the wool exports from southern to northern hemisphere remain competitive.
Explain. 47
4.2.2 U.K. – The Rise and Fall ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 47
4.3. Indian Woollen Textile Industry ......................................................................................................................... 48
4.3.1 Punjab ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 49
4.3.2 Others ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 49
4.3.3 Problems of Indian woollen textile industry .............................................................................................................................................................. 49

5. Jute Textile Industry .................................................................................................................................................... 49

5.1. Factors responsible for the concentration of Jute Industry in the Hooghly Basin ........................................ 49
5.2. Issues faced by the jute industry ........................................................................................................................ 50
5.3. Future positives for the jute industry ................................................................................................................ 51
5.4. Top jute producing, exporting and importing countries ................................................................................. 51

6. Silk Textile Industry ..................................................................................................................................................... 51

6.1. Silk Industry in India ........................................................................................................................................... 52

6.1.1 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Karnataka .................................................................................................. 52
6.1.2 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Varanasi ..................................................................................................... 53
6.1.3 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Kanchipuram ........................................................................................... 54
6.1.4 Factors Responsible for the Localization of Silk Industry in Jammu and Kashmir .................................................................................... 54
6.1.5 Issues faced by Indian Silk Industry .............................................................................................................................................................................. 55
6.2. Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in China ........................................................... 55
6.3. Silk Industry Outside India and China ............................................................................................................... 55
6.3.1 Japan .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
6.3.2 The U.S....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
6.3.3 Europe........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 56

7. Sugar Industry ............................................................................................................................................................. 57

7.1. Major Factors that influence the location of sugar industry ........................................................................... 58
7.2. Major Sugar Producers........................................................................................................................................ 58
7.2.1 The rise and fall of Cuban Sugar Industry .................................................................................................................................................................. 59
7.3. Sugar Industry in Peninsular India vs Sugar Industry in North India ............................................................. 60
7.3.2 Mains Question ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
7.4. Challenges faced by the sugar industry in India ............................................................................................... 61

8. Tea Industry ................................................................................................................................................................. 62

8.2. Factors that determine the location of the tea industry .................................................................................. 62
8.3. Major tea producing areas in India .................................................................................................................... 63
8.3.1 Tea industry of the Darjeeling district .......................................................................................................................................................................... 63
8.3.2 Tea industry of the Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills of TN, Kerala, and Karnataka ................................................................................... 64
8.4. The rise and fall of the British Tea Industry ...................................................................................................... 64
8.5. Tea Industry in China .......................................................................................................................................... 65

9. Coffee Industry ............................................................................................................................................................ 65

9.2. Factors that determine the location of coffee industry ................................................................................... 65

9.3. Coffee Industry in Brazil ..................................................................................................................................... 66

3
9.4. Coffee Industry in Nilgiris ................................................................................................................................... 67

10. Rubber Industry ........................................................................................................................................................... 67

10.1. Natural Rubber .................................................................................................................................................... 67

10.1.1 Evolution of the natural rubber industry ............................................................................................................................................................... 68
10.2. Synthetic Rubber ................................................................................................................................................. 69
10.2.1 Evolution of the synthetic rubber industry ........................................................................................................................................................... 69
10.3. Tyre Manufacturing ............................................................................................................................................. 69
10.4. Southeast Asian vs South American Natural Rubber Industry ........................................................................ 70

11. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry ......................................................................................................................... 72

11.1. Lumbering Industry in the Temperate Regions vs Lumbering Industry in the Tropical Regions ................. 72
11.2. Factors affecting the location of the sawmills (lumbering) industry .............................................................. 74
11.3. Factors affecting the location of paper pulp industry ..................................................................................... 75
11.4. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in Canada ............................................................................................... 76
11.5. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in Russia ................................................................................................. 77
11.5.1 What are the challenges faced by Russia in exploiting its vast Siberian Taiga forests?.................................................................... 77
11.6. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in U.S.A. .................................................................................................. 78
11.7. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in other regions ..................................................................................... 78
11.8. Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in India ................................................................................................... 79
11.8.1 Paper Industry in India .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 79
11.8.2 Problems of Indian Paper Industry .......................................................................................................................................................................... 80
11.9. International lumber, pulp and paper imports and exports ............................................................................ 81

12. Commercial Marine Fishing Industry ......................................................................................................................... 81

12.1. Marine Capture Fisheries .................................................................................................................................... 81

12.2. Factors that create the most fertile marine fishing grounds ........................................................................... 83
12.3. Factors that determine the location of the commercial fishing industry ....................................................... 83
12.4. The major commercial marine fishing grounds of the world .......................................................................... 85
12.4.1 North-East Atlantic Region ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 85
12.4.2 North-West Atlantic Region ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 85
12.4.3 North-West Pacific Region .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 86
12.4.4 China, India and South-East Asia .............................................................................................................................................................................. 87
12.4.5 Southern Hemisphere (Peru and Chile Coast) .................................................................................................................................................... 88
12.4.6 Commercial marine fishing is little developed in the southern hemisphere. Explain ........................................................................ 89
12.4.7 Commercial marine fishing is little developed in the tropics. Explain ...................................................................................................... 89

4
 1. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sectors

• Economic activities are broadly grouped into
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary
activities.
1.1. Primary Activities
• Primary activities are directly dependent on
the environment as these refer to utilisation of
earth’s resources such as land, water, vegeta-
tion, building materials, minerals, etc.
• It thus includes hunting, gathering, pastoral ac-
tivities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, mining,
quarrying, etc.
• Industries that are involved in primary economic
activities are called as primary industries.
1.1.1 Hunting and Gathering
tralia and the interior parts of Southeast
Asia.
• They use various parts of the plants, e.g., the
bark is used for quinine, tanin extract and tree
trunk yield rubber, gums and resins.
• The chewing gum after the flavour is gone is
called Chicle — it is made from the juice of za-
pota tree.
• In modern times some gathering is market-
oriented and has become commercial.
• However, synthetic products often of better
quality and at lower prices have replaced many
items supplied by the gatherers in tropical for-
ests.
• However, synthetic products often of better

• Gathering is practised in regions with harsh cli- quality and at lower prices have replaced many

matic conditions. items supplied by the gatherers in tropical for-

• It involves primitive societies that extract from ests.

both plants and animals to satisfy their basic

needs.
• The yield per person is meagre and little, or no
surplus is produced.
• Gathering is practised in:
✓ high latitude zones which include northern
Canada, northern Eurasia and southern
Chile.
✓ Low latitude zones such as the Amazon Ba-
sin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Aus-
Image Source: NROER

1.1.2 Pastoralism

• At some stage in history, as hunting was unsus-

Nomadic Herding (pastoral nomadism)
tainable, humans began the domestication of
animals. • Nomadic herding is a primitive subsistence ac-
• People living in different climatic conditions se- tivity.
lected and domesticated animals found in those
regions.

5
• They move from place to place along with their
livestock, depending on the availability of pas-
tures & water.
• A wide variety of animals is kept in different re-
gions.
• In tropical Africa, cattle are the most important
livestock, while in Sahara and Asiatic deserts,
sheep, goats and camel are reared.
• In the mountainous areas of Tibet and Andes,
yak and llamas and in the Arctic and sub-Arctic
regions, reindeer are the most important ani-
mals.
• Pastoral nomadism is associated with three im-
portant regions.
• The core region extends from the Atlantic
shores of North Africa eastwards across the
Arabian Peninsula into Mongolia and Central
China.
• The second region extends over the tundra re-
gion of Eurasia.
• In the southern hemisphere there are small are-
as in South-west Africa and on the island of
Madagascar.
Image Source: NROER
• The process of migration from plain areas to
pastures on mountains during summers and
again from mountain pastures to plain areas
during winters is known as transhumance.
• In mountain regions, such as Himalayas, Guj-
jars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate
from plains to the mountains in summers and
6
to the plains from the high altitude pastures in
winters.
• The number of pastoral nomads has been de-
creasing due to the imposition of political
boundaries.
1.1.3 Commercial Livestock Rearing
• Commercial livestock rearing is more organised
and capital intensive.
• Commercial livestock ranching is associated
with western cultures and is practised on per-
manent ranches.
• These ranches (a large farm where cattle are
bred) cover large areas and are divided into a
number of parcels, which are fenced to regulate
the grazing.
• When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals
are moved to another parcel.
• This is a specialised activity in which only one
type of animal is reared.
• Essential animals include sheep, cattle, goats
and horses.
• Meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and
packed scientifically and exported world mar-
kets.
• Rearing of animals in ranching is organised on a
scientific basis.
• The main emphasis is on breeding, genetic im-
provement, disease control and health care of
the animals.
Image Source: NROER
• New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay
and the United States of America are im-
portant countries where commercial livestock
rearing is practised.
1.1.4 Subsistence Agriculture
• In subsistence agriculture, almost all the pro-
duction is consumed locally with little or noth-
ing left for trade.
• Farmyard manure is used to maintain the fertili-
ty of the soil.
• In this type of agriculture, the yield per unit
area is high but per labour productivity is
low.
Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by
crops other than paddy
• Due to the difference in relief, climate, soil, etc.

• Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive it is not practical to grow paddy in parts of

Subsistence Agriculture are the two types. monsoon Asia.

• Wheat, soyabean, barley & sorghum are grown
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture
in northern China, North Korea and North Ja-

• Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting pan.

cultivation is widely practised by many tribes in • In India wheat is grown in plains and millets are

the tropics. grown in dry parts of western and southern In-

• The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and the dia.

ashes add to the fertility of the soil. • Most of the characteristics are similar to that of

• Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slash and wet paddy cultivation except that irrigation is

burn agriculture. often used.

• It is prevalent in the tropical region in different

names, e.g. Jhuming in Northeastern states of
India, Milpa in Central America and Mexico and
Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

• This type of agriculture is largely found in

densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
• There are two types of intensive subsistence
agriculture. Image Source: NROER
Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by
1.1.5 Plantation Agriculture
wet paddy cultivation
• Plantation agriculture was introduced by the
• Landholdings are very small due to the high
Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics.
density of population.
• Plantations are mainly profit-oriented large
• Farmers work with the help of family labour
scale production systems.
leading to intensive use of land.
• E.g. tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, palm,
• Use of machinery is limited, and most of the
sugarcane, banana & pineapple.
agricultural operations are done by manual la-
• The characteristic features of this type of farm-
bour.
ing are

7
 ✓ large estates or plantations,
✓ large capital investment,
✓ managerial and technical support,
✓ scientific methods of cultivation,
✓ single crop specialisation,
✓ cheap labour, and
✓ a good system of transportation which
links the estates to the factories and mar-
kets.
• The French established cocoa and coffee plan-
tations in west Africa.
• The British set up large
✓ tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka,
✓ rubber plantations in Malaysia and
✓ sugarcane and banana plantations in West
Indies.
• Spanish and Americans invested heavily in co-
conut and sugarcane plantations in the Philip-
pines.
• The Dutch once had a monopoly over sugar-
cane plantation in Indonesia.
• Some coffee fazendas (large plantations) in
Brazil are still managed by Europeans.
1.1.6 Extensive Commercial Grain Cultiva-
tion
Image Source: NROER
• Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the
interior parts of semi-arid lands of the midlati-
tudes.
8
• Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops
like corn, barley, oats and rye are also grown.
• The size of the farm is very large. Therefore en-
tire operations of cultivation are mechanised.
• There is a low yield per acre but high yield
per person.
• This type of agriculture is best developed in the
Eurasian steppes, the North American Prai-
ries, Pampas of Argentina, Velds of South Af-
rica, the Australian Downs and the Canter-
bury Plains of New Zealand.
1.1.7 Mixed Farming
• This form of agriculture is found in the highly
developed parts of the world, e.g. North-
western Europe, Eastern North America, and
the temperate latitudes of Southern continents.
• Mixed farms are moderate in size & the crops
grown are wheat, barley, oats, maize, fodder
& root crops.
Image Source: NROER
• Animal husbandry is an essential component
of mixed farming.
• Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry pro-
vide the primary income along with crops.
• Crop rotation and intercropping play an es-
sential role in maintaining soil fertility.
• Mixed farming is characterised by high capital
expenditure on farm machinery and building,
extensive use of chemical fertilisers and
 green manures and also by the skill and exper- 1.1.9 Mediterranean Agriculture
tise of the farmers.
• Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialised
1.1.8 Dairy Farming commercial agriculture.
• It is practised in the countries on either side of
• Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of
the Mediterranean Sea, southern California,
rearing of milch animals.
central Chile, southwestern parts of South Africa
• It is highly capital intensive.
and south and southwestern parts of Australia.
• Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feed-
• This region is an important supplier of citrus
ing and milking machines add to the cost of
fruits.
dairy farming.
• Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality
• Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding,
of the Mediterranean region.
health care and veterinary services.
• Best quality wines in the world are produced
• It is highly labour intensive as it involves rig-
from high-quality grapes in various countries of
orous care in feeding and milking.
this region.
• There is no offseason during the year as in the
• The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and
case of crop raising.
currants. This region also produces olives and
• It is practised near urban centres which pro-
figs.
vide a neighbourhood market for fresh milk &
• The advantage of Mediterranean agriculture is
dairy products.
that more valuable crops such as fruits and
• The development of transportation, refrigera-
vegetables are grown in winters when there is a
tion, pasteurisation and other preservation pro-
great demand in European and North American
cesses have increased the duration of storage of
markets.
various dairy products.
• There are three main regions of commercial 1.1.10 Market Gardening and Horticulture
dairy farming.
• The largest is North Western Europe the sec- • Market gardening and horticulture specialise in

ond is Canada, and the third belt includes the cultivation of high-value crops such as veg-

South Eastern Australia, New Zealand and etables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban

Tasmania. markets.
• Farms are small and are located where there are
good transportation links with the urban cen-
tre.
• It is both labour and capital intensive and lays
emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV seeds,
fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses and artifi-
cial heating in colder regions.
• This type of agriculture is well developed in
densely populated industrial districts of north-
west Europe, northeastern United States of
Image Source: NROER America and the Mediterranean regions.

9
• The farming where farmers specialise in vegeta-
bles only is known as truck farming.
• The distance of truck farms from the market is
governed by the distance that a truck can cover
overnight.
• The modern development in the industrial re-
gions of Western Europe & North America is
factory farming.
• Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing,
is done in stalls and pens.
• They fed on manufactured feedstuff and care-
fully supervised against diseases.
• This requires heavy capital investment, veteri-
nary services and heating and lighting.
1.1.11 Co-operative Farming
• A group of farmers form a co-operative society
voluntarily for more efficient and profitable
farming.
• Individual farms remain intact, and farming is a
matter of cooperative initiative.
• Co-operative societies help farmers, to procure
all valuable inputs of farming, sell the products
at the most favourable terms and assist in the
processing of quality products at cheaper rates.
• The co-operative movement has been success-
ful in many western European countries like
Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, It-
aly etc.
1.1.12 Collective Farming
• It is based on social ownership of the means of
production and collective labour.
• Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was
introduced in erstwhile USSR to improve upon
the inefficiency of the previous methods of ag-
riculture and to boost agricultural production
for self-sufficiency.
• The farmers used to pool in all their resources
like land, livestock and labour.
10
• They were allowed to retain very small plots to
grow crops in order to meet their daily re-
quirements.
1.1.13 Mining
• The actual development of mining began with
the industrial revolution.
• Mining is of two types: surface mining (open-
cast mining) and underground mining.
• Surface mining is the easiest and the cheapest
way of mining minerals that occur close to the
surface.
• The output is both large and rapid.
• When the ore lies deep below the surface, the
underground mining (shaft method) has to be
used.
• In this method, underground galleries from ver-
tical shafts radiate to reach the minerals.
• Minerals are extracted and transported to the
surface through these passages.
• It requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage
vehicles, ventilation system for safety and effi-
ciency.
• This method is risky — poisonous gases, fires,
floods, and caving lead to fatal accidents.
• The developed economies are retreating from
mining, processing and refining stages of pro-
duction due to high labour costs, while the de-
veloping countries with large labour force are
becoming more important.
• Several countries of Africa and Asia have over
fifty per cent of the earnings from minerals
alone.
1.2. Secondary Activities
• Secondary activities transform raw materials
into valuable products by the processes of pro-
cessing, manufacturing, and construction.
• In each of these processes, the common charac-
teristics are the application of power, mass
 production of identical products and special- Technological Innovation
ised labour in factory settings for the produc-
• Technological innovations through research and
tion of commodities.
development strategy are an important aspect
1.2.1 Modern Manufacturing Industry of modern manufacturing for quality control,
eliminating waste and inefficiency, and combat-
• Modern large scale manufacturing undertakes
ing pollution.
mass production of standardised parts by each
worker or robot performing only one task re- Organisational Structure and Stratification
peatedly.
• Modern manufacturing is characterised by:
Mechanisation 1. a complex machine technology
2. extreme specialisation and division of labour
• Mechanisation refers to using gadgets which
for producing more goods with less effort,
accomplish tasks.
and low costs
• Automation (manufacturing without the aid of
3. vast capital
human thinking) is the advanced stage of
4. large organisations
mechanisation.
5. executive bureaucracy.
1.2.2 Classification of Manufacturing Industries

Industries based on Size • Accordingly, industries may be classified into

• The amount of capital invested, number of em-
ployees, and volume of production determine
the size of industry.
household or cottage, small-scale and large-
scale.
Household industries or cottage manufacturing

11
• It is the smallest manufacturing unit.
• The artisans use local raw materials and simple
tools to produce everyday goods in their homes
with the help of their family members or part-
time labour.
• Finished products may be for consumption in
the same household or, for sale in local markets.
• Some common everyday products produced in
this sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs,
fabrics, mats, tools, furniture, leather, pottery,
bricks from clays, etc.
• Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver and
bronze.
Small Scale Manufacturing
• Small scale manufacturing is distinguished from
household industries by its production tech-
niques and place of manufacture (a workshop
outside the home/cottage of the producer).
• This type of manufacturing uses local raw mate-
rial, simple power-driven machines and semi-
skilled labour.
• It provides employment and raises local pur-
chasing power.
• Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia
and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive
small scale manufacturing in order to provide
employment to their population.
Large Scale Manufacturing
• Large scale manufacturing involves a large mar-
ket, various raw materials, enormous energy,
specialised workers, advanced technology, as-
sembly-line mass production and large capital.
• This kind of manufacturing developed in the
last 200 years, in the United Kingdom, north-
eastern U.S.A. and Europe. Now it has diffused
to almost all over the world.
• On the basis of the system of large scale manu-
facturing, the world’s major industrial regions
12
may be grouped under two broad types, name-
ly
1. traditional large-scale industrial regions
which are thickly clustered in a few more
developed countries.
2. high-technology large scale industrial re-
gions which have diffused to less developed
countries.
Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials
• On the basis of the raw materials used, the in-
dustries are classified as: (a) agro-based; (b)
mineral based; (c) chemical-based; (d) forest-
based: and (e) animal-based.
• Major agro-processing industries are food pro-
cessing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages
(tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats and
textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
• Agro-processing includes canning, producing
cream, fruit processing and confectionery.
• Timber for the furniture industry, wood, bam-
boo and grass for the paper industry, lac for lac
industries come from forests.
• Leather for the leather industry and wool for
woollen textiles are obtained from animals.
Industries Based on Output/Product
• The industries whose products are used as raw
material to make other goods are called basic
industries.
• E.g. Iron and steel, copper smelting and alu-
minium smelting industries.
• The consumer goods industries produced
goods which are consumed by consumers di-
rectly.
• E.g. industries producing bread, tea, soaps, pa-
per, etc. are consumer goods or non-basic in-
dustries.
1.2.3 Foot Loose Industries
• However, domestic production is simply not enough to satisfy the demand of Indian jute mills.
• The constant increase in rice cropped area in the delta region further complicates the situation.
• India imports significant quantities of jute fibre from Bangladesh to meet the shortfall.
• Antiquated technology and machinery, shortage of power and industrial sickness affect production.
• Newly established factories in Bangladesh are posing a tough competition.
• Adoption of synthetic alternatives (polythene, nylon) has resulted in the decline of demand for jute.

5.3. Future positives for the jute industry

• Emerging environment consciousness can turn the fortunes of jute as it meets all the standards of safe
packaging (natural, renewable, biodegradable).
• Some advanced countries are already switching to jute.
• The main buyers of Indian jute products are the USA, EU, Canada, Russia, etc.

5.4. Top jute producing, exporting and importing countries

• Top producers of jute: India and Bangladesh.

• Top consumers of jute: India, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
• Top exporters of jute: Bangladesh and India.
• Top importers of jute: Pakistan and India.

6. Silk Textile Industry

• Silk is a fibre made up two different proteins – 4. Silk yarn: the silk filaments are woven to-
sericin and fibroin. gether to form a thread. These threads are
• A layer of sericin surrounds the fibroin core often plied together to form a yarn.
(80% of silk fibre).
• The pigments in the sericin layer impart colour
to the silk.
• Silk is used to make silk fabric, parachutes,
teeth braces (Italy) and fishing nets around
the world.
• Sericulture is the process of breeding silkworms
and extracting silk from them.
• The production of mulberry silk involves the fol-
lowing processes.
1. Moriculture: the cultivation of mulberry
leaves.
2. Silkworm rearing: promoting the growth of
the silkworm by feeding mulberry leaves.
3. Silk reeling: the extraction of silk filaments
from the silkworm cocoons.

51
• Mulberry plant that can be grown under var- • Wild Silks ― Tussar (creamy), Eri (coppery) and
ied climatic conditions ranging from temper- Muga Silk (golden) ― are secreted by wild
ate to tropical. silkworms.
• The pant grows well in slightly acidic soils that • India is the only country producing all known
receive an annual rainfall ranging from 60 to commercial varieties of silk.
250 cm. • Mulberry silk (80 per cent of the country's total
• Today, China accounts for over 70% of the silk; Eri silk is second) is of superior quality and
global silk production and 90% of the is produced in the states of Karnataka, Andhra
world's silk exports. Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jam-
• India is a distant second with 18% of the mu and Kasmir.
world's silk production. • Wild silks are mostly produced in the forests of
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Bi-
6.1. Silk Industry in India
har, Odisha, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and
• There are mainly four types of silk varieties pro- Nagaland.
duced by different species of silkworms. • Muga silk (golden silk) is exclusively obtained
• Mulberry silk (white) is secreted by the cater- from the Brahmaputra valley of Assam.
pillar of Bombyx mori which feeds on mulberry • Assam has received a geographical indication
leaves. (GI) for the production of Muga silk.
State Production of silk in Silk producing regions
Tonnes (2016-17)
1. Karnataka 9571 31.5 % Mulberry silk in Mysuru (Ramanagara), Kolar, Bengaluru
Rural (Devanahalli) and Chikkaballapura districts in the Old
Mysore region
2. Andhra Pradesh 5971 19.7 % Anantapur, Chittoor Districts (Rayalaseema region)
3. Assam 3810 12.6 % Muga silk in Brahmaputra Valley region
4. Jharkhand 2631 8.7 % Tussar (tasar) silk in Singhbhum District
5. West Bengal 2565 8.5 % Murshidabad and Birbhum district
6. Tamil Nadu 1914 6.3 % Coimbatore, Dharmapuri and Salem district
Total 30348
• Important centres of silk industry are • Varanasi, Kanchipuram, Murshidabad (W.B.),
✓ Mysore in Karnataka; Dharmavaram (Anantapur District) in Andhra
✓ Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh; Pradesh and Bhagalpur in Bihar are famous for
✓ Dharmavaram, Pochampalli, Venkatagiri, silk sarees.
Narainpet in Andhra Pradesh; • There is a massive demand for these sarees in
✓ Kashmir division; the local market.
✓ Bhagalpur in Bihar and • Silk and silk products are exported to USA, U.K.,
✓ Murshidabad in West Bengal. Kuwait, Russia, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Singapore,
and UAE.
6.1.1 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Karnataka

52
• Silk textile industry in Karnataka is concentrated in the Old Mysore regions and Belagavi district.
Historical aspects • Tipu Sultan was the first to import silk cocoons from China in the 18th century.
• He sent craftsman to Bengal to learn sericulture.
• More impetus was provided by the demand for Mysore silk for the manufacturing of
parachutes during WW II.
Raw material • Karnataka is the largest raw silk producing state in India.
• It produces only mulberry silk and accounts for over 50 per cent of India's mulberry silk.
• Sericulture is concentrated around Mysuru (Ramanagara), Kolar, Bengaluru Rural (De-
vanahalli) and Chikkaballapura districts in the Old Mysore region.
Labour • Cheap labour is readily available.
Technology • The Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (CSRTI) is located in Mysore.
• The institute has developed many high yielding varieties of mulberry and silkworms.
• GOI has set a goal of making the nation self-sufficient in bivoltine silk, a high-grade
variety made with silkworms that lay two batches of eggs per year.
• In response, the Japan International Cooperation Agency has provided technical co-
operation to the country since 1991.
• Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu saw the widespread adoption of bivoltine
production techniques since then.
Water • Cauvery and Arkavathi rivers provide water for washing, bleaching and dyeing.
Market • The crepe silk saris (made of pure silk interwoven with gold zari threads) have market
throughout India.
• Silk and silk fabric produced in Karnataka are exported to famous silk saree making
centres like Varanasi, Kanchipuram, Bhagalpur, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.
Government • Mysore Silk, crafted under the aegis of the Karnataka Silk Industries Corporation, now
support has the additional distinction of a GI tag.

6.1.2 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Varanasi

• Banarasi silk sarees are famous for intricate weaving and craftsmanship with a tinge of Mughal and Indian
cultures.
• The sarees are worked on both handlooms (85% of the silk consumption) and power looms.
Historical aspects • The Mughals heavily patronized the Banarasi silk industry.
• Muslim craftsman are involved in weaving silk sarees in Banarasi since the Mughal era.
Labour • Highly skilled Muslim craftsman (Muslim weaver community known by the name of An-
sari) are involved in weaving silk sarees in Banarasi since the Mughal era.
Raw material • Silk is obtained from Karnataka. (Silk Industry is not a weight losing industry)
• Fine quality silk is also imported from China.
• Zari thread (thread made of fine gold or silver) is obtained from Gujarat
Water • Varanasi is located on the left bank of the Ganges (provides water for washing and dye-
ing of silk).
Market • Banarasi saris are very popular all across India.

53
Government • In 2009, weaver associations in Uttar Pradesh secured Geographical Indication (GI)
recognition rights for the 'Banaras Brocades and Sarees'.
• This means, saree or brocade made in the six districts of Uttar Pradesh, that is Varana-
si, Mirzapur, Chandauli, Bhadohi, Jaunpur and Azamgarh districts, can be legally
sold under the name of Banaras saree and brocade.

6.1.3 Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in Kanchipuram

Historical • During the reign of Krishnadevaraya (Vijayanagara Dynasty) two weaving communities from
aspects Andhra Pradesh, the Devangas and the Saligars moved to Kanchipuram and started their
hereditary profession there.
Labour • Highly skilled weavers with generations of experience are available throughout the region.
• The sarees are handwoven.
Raw material • Silk is obtained from Karnataka. Cotton yarn is available in the vicinity.
• Zari thread (thread made of fine gold or silver) is obtained from Gujarat.
Water • Kanchipuram is located close to the left bank of the Palar river.
Market • Kanchipuram saris are worn as bridal & special occasion saris by most South Indian women.
Government • Kanchipuram saris have been recognized as a Geographical indication by GOI.
recognition

6.1.4 Factors Responsible for the Localization of Silk Industry in Jammu and Kashmir

Historical • Jammu and Kashmir was one of the centres of the ancient silk route.
aspects

• The modern silk industry was started in Srinagar in the 1890s under the patronage of Brit-
ish.
Labour • The famous shawl industry of Kashmir which had provided means of livelihood to a sizeable
section of the population had started to decline.
• In order to compensate for this decline, the state took several measures for the develop-
ment of the silk industry.
Raw material • Jammu and Kashmir produces the best quality bivoltine mulberry silk because of condu-
cive climatic conditions.
Technology • Reeling machinery was imported from Europe early on.
Market • Kashmiri Silk Saree has a good market in India.

54
6.1.5 Issues faced by Indian Silk Industry

• India imports a considerable amount of silk (bivoltine mulberry silk) from China as the domestic raw silk
is nowhere near the quality of the Chinese silk. Chinese silk can be easily worked on power looms.
• Domestic raw silk is not of uniform thickness due to poor quality of cocoon, and our producers use obso-
lete reeling machines to make yarn.
• The synthetic fibres (nylon) and artificial silk being less expensive and easy to maintain, have been re-
sponsible for reducing the popularity of silk.
• Investment is had to find as most of the silk industry operates in the unorganized sector at the household
level.

6.2. Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in China

• China has dominated the global silk industry as the world's largest silk producer, exporter, and consumer.
Historical aspects • Silk was discovered around 3500 BC in China. It was a closely guarded secret for centu-
ries.
Labour • Low-cost labour for producing silk are readily available.
• Highly skilled labour force with generations of experience in weaving silk fabric is also
available.
Raw material • China is the world's largest silk producer.
• Chinese silk is of high quality and is easy to be worked on power looms.
• Silk is mainly produced in the south of the Yangtze River Delta (Jiangsu, Zhejiang and
Guangdong provinces).
Climate • China's climate is highly favourable for cultivating multiple varieties of silk.
• Unvoltine (hatch once a year), bivoltine (hatch twice a year) and polyvoltine (hatch
more than twice a year) mulberry silk cocoons are successfully reared.
Economic Link- • Cities such as Hangzhou and Nanjing are well known for their silk industries.
ages • Their proximity to the Shanghai textile industries has been an advantage.
Technology • The Chinese scientists have developed hybrid varieties using European and Japanese
silkworms, which makes it possible to rear silkworms up to seven times a year.
Innovation • In Pearl River valley, additional income is obtained by combining sericulture with fisher-
ies (dead silkworm and their wastes are fed to fishes) for higher income.
Water • Yangtze River provides water for washing, bleaching and dyeing.
Market • India, Europe and the U.S. import a large quantity of Chinese silk and silk fabric.
Government • The Chinese government encourages the formation of silk cooperatives (silk com-
support munes) for greater efficiency.
• It also provides various incentives for the modernization of the industry.
• As the land cost and workforce cost is increasing on the east coast, business is shifting to the west.
• Western parts are more focused on raw silk production due to its natural weather and soil conditions.

6.3. Silk Industry Outside India and China

55
• Sericulture outside India and China was not
successful.
• Several textile industries in Europe import Chi-
nese silk and cotton to cater to the nearby mar-
kets.
6.3.1 Japan
• During the medieval times, poor peasants in
Japan used silk production as a secondary
source of income.
• After the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the port of
Yokohama (South of Tokyo) was developed for
trading silk.
• By the early 20th century, rapidly industrializing
Japan was producing as much as 60% of the
world's raw silk.
• The Japanese silk fabric was in demand in Brit-
ain and the U.S.
• Post-WW II, the continued rise of synthetic fi-
bres (nylon in the U.S.), high labour costs, com-
petition from shipping, automobile & semicon-
ductor industries contributed to the decline of
Japan's silk industry.
• For example, in Toyota in Aichi Prefecture
near Nagoya (previously, Koromo town), the
less profitable silk industry was replaced by
Toyota Motor Corporation's manufacturing
plants.
• The demand for silk fabric in the domestic mar-
ket also fell due to westernization of Japan.
• By 1975, Japan was no longer a net exporter of
silk.
6.3.2 The U.S.
• There was some limited silk production in Vir-
ginia and Georgia from 1600s to 1760s.
• A blight on mulberry trees in the 1840s forced
American factories to switch to importing Chi-
nese raw silk.
• America's silk experiment finally failed as the
comparative advantage of sericulture in the
56
Gulf region (that had suitable climatic condi-
tions) was never higher than that of tobacco
(Virginia), soybean (Virginia) and cotton (Geor-
gia).
6.3.3 Europe
• Sericulture was even introduced in Europe
(France & Italy) in the early 19th century.
• Several epidemics in silkworms across Europe in
the 1840s wiped out most of the sericulture in-
dustry.
• Due to high labour costs, the sericulture indus-
try never took off after the epidemics.
Cotton Textile Industry in Italy (Lombardy and
Prato) and Silk Textile Industry in France (Lyon)
• In the world of high fashion, the "Made in Italy"
and "Made in France" tags have a distinct brand
value.
• Some of the finest fashion designers and textile
companies are based in France and Italy.
• Hence, apparel and other fashion goods with
these tags command a higher price across the
world.
• The Italian and French fabric producers are
closer to high-value markets (Europe, U.S. and
rich royal families in the Middle East), and in the
fast-paced world of high fashion, this matters.
• These factors along with the Chinese capital,
raw material and workforce have given rise to
modern
✓ cotton textile industry in Lombardy and
Prato (Italy) and
✓ silk textile industry in Lyon (France), even
though these regions have no raw material
base.
• To accommodate the Chinese workforce, direct
flights are run between China & Italy (Go Coro-
na Go!).
 7. Sugar Industry

You must first read GS3: Major Crops and Cropping Patterns > Major Cash Crops of India > Sugarcane

• Producing sugar involves the following steps:
1. extracting the juice from the sugarcane (in
tropical regions) or sugar beet (a tuber
crop in the temperate areas ― used as an
alternative to expensive sugar imports from
tropical countries),
2. removing the impurities from the juice,
3. crystallizing the sucrose content in the juice
to obtain raw brown sugar.
4. refining raw sugar to obtain refined white
sugar.
• The production of raw sugar is done in a sugar
mill.
• The refining (removal of impurities) of the raw
sugar is done in a sugar refinery.

Sugar mill Sugar refinery

Inputs • Raw sugarcane, water, power • Brown sugar, water, power
Output • Brown sugar that contains impurities like • White refined sugar
molasses.
• Molasses: provides the raw material for
manufacturing alcohol (ethanol).
• Bagasse (cane residue): used for manufac-

57
 turing paper and also as fuel in the mills.
• Pressmud: used as soil amendment (com-
post) to increase fertility.
Most de- • Sugarcane (and also sugar beet) is bulky, • Brown sugar is neither perishable nor
termining highly perishable and significantly weight weight losing.
locational losing (sugar accounts for only ~10% of • Sugar refining can be done year-round.
factor the bulky sugarcane). • Hence a sugar refinery can be set up near
• Sugar mills can be operated only during or relatively at a distant location (near
the cane harvesting period. ports for export ― Mumbai port, Kol-
• Hence a sugar mill must be located close kata and Haldia ports, etc.) from a sugar
to the cane growing areas. mill.
• Markets are the most determining factor.

7.1. Major Factors that influence the location of sugar industry

Raw material • The quality of sugarcane plays the most important role in production costs.
• Fifty per cent cost of production is accounted for by sugarcane alone.
• Hence the sugarcane mills are confined to the sugarcane growing regions of the tropics
(hot, humid, less windy areas).
Transportation • Sugarcane is highly perishable and significantly weight losing raw material.
• Once the sugarcane is harvested, the cane starts to dry up, and the sucrose content
starts to decline rapidly.
• It is prohibitively expensive to transport sugarcane over long-distances.
• Hence the sugar mills are always located close to the cane growing areas (Hence the cane
is always grown close to the mills ― usually within a 100 km radius).
Water • Sugarcane is a water-intensive crop with a crop season of 12 to 18 months.
• The germination to ripening phase is itself close to a year.
• Hence the availability of water year-round is a critical factor for cane cultivation.
Labour • Sugarcane is not harvested year-round & the crushing season varies from 4 to 8 months.
• Hence the availability of seasonal labour is critical for both harvesting and processing.
• In India, harvesting and milling is done by migrant workers.
Capital • Sugarcane processing is a capital intensive industry. Financial services and policy support
are critical for the industry to remain competitive.
Policy • In India, lack of proper policy support and timely financial services have severely ham-
pered the modernization of the industry.
Power • Power is readily available in the form of bagasse.
• Hence sugar mills can be set up far away from coal and other power sources.
7.2. Major Sugar Producers cal climates with the remaining 20% derived
from sugar beet.
• Approximately 80% of the world's sugar is pro- • In the 2018-2019 crop year, sugar production
duced from sugarcane in tropical and subtropi- was 179 million metric tons (MT).

58
• India (33 MT) became the world's largest sugar
producer in 2018/2019.
• It overtook Brazil (29.5 MT) for the first time in
16 years.
• Brazil, Thailand, Australia, India are the leading
exporters of sugar.
• Uttar Pradesh is the leading sugarcane produc-
ing State.
• Sugar production in U.P. in 2018-19 is estimat-
ed to be around 13.5 MT.
• Sugar production in Maharashtra in 2018-19 is
estimated to be around 11.5 MT.
• In Feb 2020, for better use of surplus sugar
stock, GOI approved an increase in the price of
ethanol to be procured by public sector oil
marketing companies (OMCs) from sugar mills
for blending with petrol.
• The decision will help in further increasing the
ethanol blend levels in petrol from the current
6%.
59
• For 2019/2020, India expects sugar production
to drop to 26%.
• This is because of droughts in 2018 and floods
in 2019 in Maharashtra.
• Sugar mills in India are concentrated in the sug-
arcane growing regions.
• Uttar Pradesh: The western belt includes Mee-
rut, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnor and Mo-
radabad, and the eastern belt includes Gorakh-
pur, Deoria, Basti and Gonda.
• Bihar: extension of the eastern UP belt, which
includes Darbhanga, Saran, Champaran and
Muzaffarpur.
• Maharashtra: Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, Solapur,
Satara, Pune and Nashik districts.
• Tamil Nadu: Coimbatore, Tiruppur, Karur and
Tiruchchirappalli districts.
• Karnataka: Belgaum, Mandya and Mysore dis-
tricts.
• Andhra Pradesh. East Godawari West Godavari,
Krishna, Vishakhapatnam, and Chittoor districts.
7.2.1 The rise and fall of Cuban Sugar In-
dustry
• Cuba is known as the sugar-bowl of the world.
But it is nowhere in the list of top exporters.
The rise
• In the 18th century, Cuba became a prosperous
sugar-producing colony of Spain.
• Just like cotton in the American South, the Cu-
ban sugar industry benefited greatly from slav-
ery.
• Cuba's independence from Spain in 1898 led to
financial and technological investments in the
Cuban sugar economy from the USA.
• The USA remained the biggest importer of Cu-
ban sugar.
• Cuba remained unchallenged as the world's
largest sugar producer until the 1960s.
The fall
• Cuba's sugar production suffered greatly at the
outset of the industrialization drive in 1962.
• The industrial restructuring (formation of collec-
tives) created a severe labour shortage.
• The fragmentation of landholding due to
Castro's policy of redistribution of the confis-
cated American owned plantations among
7.3. Sugar Industry in Peninsular India vs Sugar Industry in North India
North India (Sutlej-Ganga plain from Punjab to Bihar)
• Low yield and productivity.
• High summer temperatures ranging from 30° to
35°C and Loo (dry, scorching wind in May and
June with a desiccating effect) leads to low growth
and fibrous crop.
• In winter months (December and January) the crop
is likely to be damaged by severe cold and frost.
• Hence it must be harvested before frost season.
• Perennial rivers and large scale irrigation facilities.
• The crushing season ranges from 4 to 8 months.
• Has more mills than the south but they are of •
comparatively smaller size and use antiquated
technology.
• The co-operative sugar mills are under the pres- •
sure of undue political & social interferences.
Uttar Pradesh
• Vast alluvial plains with soils rich in lime and pot- •
ash.
• Abundant water for washing and processing.
• Seasonal labour is readily available.
60
workers led to higher production cost per unit
area.
• USA's embargo against Cuba restricted sugar
imports and export of machinery.
• The loss of the single largest market – the USA
– meant that Cuba had to rely heavily on USSR.
• After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991,
the Cuban sugar industry collapsed.
South India (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh)
• The tropical climate gives a higher yield per unit
area as compared to north India.
• No winds like 'loo' during summer.
• Reasonably high temperature during winter.
• Frost-free climate throughout the year.
• High maritime influence = moderate climate = de-
creased crop duration and higher sucrose con-
tent.
• Non-perennial rivers.
• Irrigational facilities have improved over time.
• Yearlong crushing (factories keep running
throughout the year)
Mills are comparatively large and modern.
The co-operative sugar mills are better managed
in the south than in the north.
Maharashtra
The regur soils (black clayey soils) of the Deccan
Plateau are good at soil retention.
• The major sugar belt lies along the river valleys of
Western Maharashtra which is close to the Mum-
bai port.
Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
• Maritime influence (moderate climate) and fertile
soils ― high yield per hectare, higher sucrose con-
 tent, high recovery rate and long crushing season
• As a result of better conditions prevailing in peninsular India, the sugar industry is gradually shifting from
north India to peninsular India.

7.3.2 Mains Question

Mains Practise: South India offers more favour-
able climatic conditions for the growth of sug-
arcane, but the most important sugarcane belt is
in north India. What is the reason for this para-
doxical situation?
• Before World War I, the northern plain area was
mainly used for growing indigo.
• With the introduction of cheap aniline dyes, in-
digo lost its market by the time of WW I.
• Consequently, indigo's place was taken by sug-
arcane cultivation in the north.
Other factors
• Sugarcane needs good irrigational facilities
throughout the year.
• Such facilities were available in the north due to
perennial river systems.
• On the other hand, south has only non-
perennial rivers.
• Also, irrigational facilities were previously non-
existent in most parts of the south.
• In the southern states, sugarcane faces tough
competition from cotton, tobacco, groundnut,
coconut, etc.
• The peninsular sugarcane is not grown in com-
pact blocks (close to mills), as in Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar.
Mains 2013 Question: Do you agree that there is
a growing trend of opening new sugar mills in
the southern states of India? Discuss with justifi-
cation (5 marks) (100 words)
• Previously, north India used to produce about
90 per cent of India's sugar.
• It has now reduced to around 40%.
More sugarcane cultivation = More sugar mills.
61
• Most favourable weather conditions (free from
loo and frost).
• Development of extensive irrigational facilities
in the past few decades.
• Yearlong crushing season. (In the north, the
crushing period is restricted to 4-8 months)
• High maritime influence = moderate climate =
does not reduce sugar content (extremely high
temperature and low rainfall lead to fibrous
crop).
7.4. Challenges faced by the sugar
industry in India
• The Indian sugarcane has low sucrose content
and gives poor yields compared to the global
average.
• The production cost of sugar in India is one of
the highest in the world.
Issues faced by mills
• Since the harvesting can be done only in a par-
ticular season, the crushing is confined to a lim-
ited period, and the sugar factories remain idle
for the rest of the period.
• Most of the machinery used in Indian sugar
mills, particularly those of UP and Bihar are old
and obsolete.
• Due to low profitability, the industry is unwilling
to modernize.
• Low rate of recovery: the average rate of recov-
ery in India is less than 10 per cent compared to
other major sugar-producing countries (14- 16
per cent).
Fluctuating availability of sugarcane for mills
• Sugarcane requires 10 to 18 months to mature.
• This makes it extremely vulnerable to vagaries
of the monsoons.
• Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar con-
tent & deficiency in rainfall produces a fi-
brous crop.
• Two-thirds of the total sugarcane produced in
India is used for making jaggery and khandsari,
and the rest goes to sugar factories.
• Since khandsari industry is free from excise du-
ty, it can offer higher prices of cane to the cane
growers.
• Sugarcane has to compete with several other
crops like cotton, oilseeds, rice, etc.
Government apathy
• GOI imposes high excise duty on sugar exports.
• GOI has made it mandatory to use jute bags
instead of synthetic bags to store 20% of the
produced sugar.
• Through it is done to save the jute industry, it
has turned out into a problem for the sugar in-
dustry as jute bags lead to more spillage.

8. Tea Industry

You must first read GS3: Major Crops and Crop-
ping Patterns > Plantation Crops in India > Tea
& Coffee
Major steps involved in the cultivation and pro-
cessing of tea leaves:
• Plantation: tea plantations are managed as large
estates with a dedicated labour force.
• Pruning: tea plants will grow into a tree if left
undisturbed. Hence, they must be pruned
(trimming away dead or overgrown branches)
for ease of plucking of leaves by women la-
bourers from the ground.
• It also enables the growth of new shoots bear-
ing soft leaves.
• Plucking: hand picking is done by skilled wom-
en labour. Proper picking is essential to main-
tain the quality of the leaves and for enabling
the quick growth of new leaves.
8.2. Factors that determine the location of the tea industry
• Fermentation: The tea leaves are placed in a
controlled humid atmosphere allowing the
leaves to oxidize.
• The duration of exposure to oxygen affects the
degree of fermentation, resulting in darkened
leaves.
• Black tea leaves (consumed with milk in India)
are fermented leaves whereas green tea leaves
(consumed without mixing with milk in coun-
tries like Japan where dairying is absent) are un-
fermented.
• Drying: the leaves are dried with hot air to pre-
vent further fermentation. The flavour, aroma
and character of the tea are controlled at this
stage.
• Auctions: The various grades produced by the
tea estates are tasted and auctioned by traders.
• Blending: The tea leaves are blended at this
stage to create many varieties of tea.

Climate • Tea bush requires warm (20°-30°C), moist (150-300 cm), frost-free climate through the year.
• Tea plantations in India are rarely above 1,800 meters. Above this height, low temperatures
and frost become the detrimental factors.
• Frequent showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender
leaves. E.g. Darjeeling tea.
• High humidity, heavy dew, and morning fog favour rapid development of young leaves.

62
 E.g. Darjeeling tea.
Vegetation • Tea is a shade-loving plant and develops more vigorously under shade.
Topography • Waterlogging is detrimental to its roots.
• Hence good soil drainage is a must for tea cultivation.
• The undulating topography of hilly areas with virgin soils is ideal for teal cultivation.
Soil • Virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron content are considered to be the best. E.g. Darjee-
ling tea.
• A relatively large proportion of phosphorus and potash in the soil gives a special flavour
to the tea. E.g. Darjeeling tea.
Capital • Tea cultivation and processing is a capital intensive industry.
• Tea plants take about four years to mature.
• Labour costs have accounted for around 45-60% of the total cost of production.
• In the initial stages, the tea plantations were entirely financed by the British.
• At present, the formal banking sector is playing a crucial role in supporting the organized
tea industry.
Labour • Tea has to be processed within the tea garden to preserve its freshness and quality.
• Everything from fermentation to auctions occur at the tea estate itself.
• Mechanization is not feasible as the tea cultivation is carried out on undulating topogra-
phy of hilly areas.
• This makes tea cultivation a labour-intensive industry that requires abundant, cheap, and
skilled labour at every stage (from plantation to blending).
8.3. Major tea producing areas in In- • The Plantation Act permitted bonded labourers
dia from Bihar & Bengal to work and settle on the
plantations.
• Upper Assam (upper Brahmaputra valley), • Capital: initially, in the 1830s, it was the British
Lower Assam and Darjeeling, Nilgiri Hills of that infused the capital and created a thriving
South India. tea industry in Darjeeling. The tea industry is
now self-reliant.
8.3.1 Tea industry of the Darjeeling district
• Market: Darjeeling tea, because of its distinc-
• Climate: frequent showers, heavy dew, and tive aroma, is highly valued in the international
morning fog improve tea quality. markets.
• Cold winters retard plant growth and result in • Initially, the British had a full monopoly over the
low yield compared to other regions in the NE. Darjeeling tea trade. With India gaining inde-
• Soil: deep clayey soils rich in potash and phos- pendence, the Darjeeling tea thrived in the in-
phorous give the tea a distinctive flavour. ternational market.
• Topography: Less steep hills (low gradients) is • Transport: Kolkata port for exports.
an added advantage. Mains 2014 Question
• Labour: large estates with permanent labour
force thrived since the time of the British. Whereas the British planters had developed tea
gardens all along the Shivaliks and Lesser Hima-
layas from Assam to Himachal Pradesh, in ef-

63
• The small size of the manufacturing units with
obsolete technology makes them uneconomic.
• The cost of imported wood pulp and wastepa-
per is ever increasing.
• The production of paper, paper board and
above all, newsprint has always fallen short of
the demand.
• This has forced the country to resort to heavy
imports. Pulp, paper, paper board, newsprint
and wastepaper are imported from Norway,
Sweden, Canada, etc.
• Effluents released by the paper mills into open
drains and rivers cause severe environmental is-
sues.
11.9. International lumber, pulp and
paper imports and exports
Major exporters of forest products (2018)
• Sawn wood: Russia (20%); Canada (19%); Swe-
den (8%); Germany (6%); Finland (6%); U.S.A.
(5%).
• Pulp for paper: Brazil (24%); Canada (15%);
U.S.A. (11%); Chile (8%); Indonesia (7%); Finland
(6%).
• Recovered paper: U.S.A. (34%); United Kingdom
(8%); Japan (7%); Netherlands (5%); Germany
(5%).
• Paper and paperboard: Germany (12%); U.S.A.
(10%); Finland (9%); Sweden (8%); Canada (6%);
China (4%).
Major importers of forest products (2018)
• Sawn wood: China (25%); U.S.A. (18%); United
Kingdom (5%); Japan (4%); Germany (4%).
• Pulp for paper: China (35%); U.S.A. (9%); Ger-
many (7%); Italy (6%).
• Recovered paper: China (31%); India (12%);
Germany (9%); Indonesia (6%).
• Paper and paperboard: Germany (10%); U.S.A.
(8%); China (5%); Italy (5%); United Kingdom
(4%).
Source

12. Commercial Marine Fishing Industry

• Aquaculture involves cultivating aquatic (freshwater and saltwater) populations (fish, crustaceans, molluscs,
shrimp, crab, etc.) under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is
the harvesting of wild fish (fish, whales, seals, etc.).
• In 2018, an estimated 59.5 million people were engaged in the primary sector of fisheries and aquaculture.
• In total, about 20.5 million people were employed in aquaculture and 39.0 million in fisheries.
• World aquaculture production of farmed aquatic animals has been dominated by Asia (89 per cent share).
• China, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, Bangladesh, etc. are the major aquaculture producers.

12.1. Marine Capture Fisheries

• Commercially, marine fisheries are a lot more important than freshwater (inland) fisheries.
Production of fisheries & aquaculture 2017 2018
Capture
Inland 11.9 12.0
Marine 81.2 84.4
Total capture 93.1 96.4
Aquaculture

81
 Inland 49.6 51.3
Marine 30.0 30.8
Total aquaculture 79.5 82.1
Total world fisheries and aquaculture 172.7 178.5

• China, Indonesia, India, U.S.A., Russia, Peru, Japan, Vietnam, Norway, Denmark, Canada, etc. are the
major marine fishing nations.
• Tropical countries like Indonesia, India, Vietnam, etc. are mostly involved in intensive inshore (near the
shore) fishing by small fishers and small to medium scale fishing trawlers.
• China, U.S.A., Russia, Japan, Norway, Denmark, etc. are focused on both inshore and deep-sea fishing.
• The deep-sea fishing operations are carried out by highly mechanized trawlers.
• Modern canning and refrigeration facilities have greatly helped the fish export trade of these countries.
• Canada, the U.S.A., Greenland, Norway, South Africa and Argentina are the major sealing nations.
• Japan, Norway & Russia are the leading whaling nations. Most of the whaling happens in the North Pacific.
• In recent years, whaling and sealing have decreased due to pressure from conservationists.

82
12.2. Factors that create the most fertile marine fishing grounds

Water temperature • Marine life is best developed in oceans of the high latitudes whose waters are at
temperatures lower than 20 °C.
• This is because the fish feed on minute marine organisms called plankton, and the
plankton multiplies best in colder waters.
• In the tropics, the warmer waters significantly inhibit the growth rate of the
plankton population.
• Hence the temperate and sub-polar seas (seas in the higher latitudes) offer better
fishing grounds compared to the tropics.
Ocean topography • Plankton of all kinds are abundantly available in shallow waters (continental
shelves) where they have access to both sunlight as well as nutrients (brought by
rivers).
• Hence the most exceptional fishing grounds are found above continental shelves in
the higher latitudes.
Ocean water mix- • Plankton need both sunlight and nutrients (such as nitrate and phosphate) to be
ing and upwelling able to photosynthesize.
zones • Sunlight is only available in the uppermost layers.
• During photosynthesis, the nutrients are quickly used up by phytoplankton, so they
are not available for long periods in the upper layers under normal circumstances.
• To escape this problem, the seawater needs to be mixed regularly to bring the nu-
trient-rich deep waters up to the sunlight zone.

Phytoplankton production is highest at high latitudes

• Furthermore, in surroundings where atmospheric temperatures are often colder than
oceanic temperatures, the top layers of the ocean are cooled by the atmosphere.
• This increases the density of the surface waters and causes them to sink and therefore
causes mixing (nutrient-deficient water sinks and nutrient-rich water is upwelled).
• Hence the cold & warm current mixing zones (e.g. Grand Banks) and nutrient-
rich cold water upwelling zones (e.g. upwelling near Peruvian coast) form fertile
fishing grounds.

12.3. Factors that determine the location of the commercial fishing industry

83
Proximity to the • Proximity to the fishing grounds reduces refrigeration and transportation costs.
fishing grounds • However, with the highly mechanized modern trawlers, proximity to the fishing
grounds is no longer a significant factor.
• For example, Japanese trawlers venture into waters as far as Antarctica & Grand Banks.
Climate • The cold climate of the higher latitudes makes refrigeration (preservation and storage
of fish) economical.
• Whereas in tropics, the warmer climate and higher humidity (fungal and bacterial
attacks) make preservation and storage (refrigeration) more expensive.
• Hence the commercial marine fishing industry is less viable in tropics.
Ports • Sheltered inlets and estuarine coasts make ideal sites for fishing ports and villages.
• Both the Atlantic and Pacific coastlines of the middle and high latitudes in the north-
ern hemisphere are very much indented and are backed by strong relief.
• Here, ports exclusively for fishing industry are developed. The fishing ports have all the
necessary infrastructure from processing to canning units.
• Fishing ports make the fishing industry efficient and cost-effective.
Capital • The commercial success of marine fishery depends on the cost optimization with the
help of efficient technology.
• Hence a lot of capital is required for R&D, mechanization and infrastructure.
• Europe, Japan, U.S.A. and Canada have the requisite capital and well established finan-
cial services for the cost-intensive and risky marine fishery industry.
Market • Fish are used as food, and raw material for fertilizers, lubricants, cosmetics, etc.
• Seals and whales are hunted for meat, fur and oil.
• Fish, fish meal, and fish waste are widely used as animal feed and feed for aquacul-
ture and as fertilizer for paddy fields.
• Fish oil represents the richest available source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFAs), which perform a wide range of critical functions for human health.

Fish as a primary food source

• Europe is a net exporter of horticulture products and a net importer of food grains
and meat.
• Fish meat is the most affordable option in many countries like Norway (hilly terrain;
ice-covered land; little scope for agriculture and dairying; most of the population liv-
ing along the coast).
• Just like Norway, Japan has very few dietary alternatives to fish.

Fish as an essential part of the diet

• There is a great demand for fish along the North American coasts which are mostly in-
habited by European settlers.
• With the rapid economic development in Asia since the 1990s, fish is gaining a lot of
importance as an inexpensive alternative to meat in the densely populated coastal re-

84
 gions.

The insignificant market in the southern hemisphere

• On the other hand, commercial fishing is not of prime importance in the southern hem-
isphere (Peru, Falkland Islands are an exception) where cattle rearing and dairying
are more economical options.
• (Cattle rearing in Pampas of South America and Eastern Australia, dairying in New
Zealand and agriculture in South Africa).
Employment • Lack of viable alternate employment opportunities in the primary sector since time im-
memorial has played a significant role in high dependence of Japan and Norway on
the fishing industry.
• Japan has high population pressure, hilly terrain & forests and very little cultivable land.
• Norway is mostly hilly and experiences long, harsh winter months.
• Hence, venturing into deep-sea fishing has remained the most practical and feasible
primary economic activity for these countries.

12.4. The major commercial marine fishing grounds of the world

• The continental shelves of North-East Atlan-
tic, North-West Atlantic and North-West Pa-
cific are the most important global commercial
fishing grounds.
• The continental shelf around the Falkland
Islands and upwelling zones along the Peru-
vian and Chilian coast are other major fishing
regions.
• This explains the abundant fish resources in the
region (Iceland continental shelf & North Sea
continental shelf).
• Fishing is done on a highly organized basis by
Norway, Denmark, Spain, Iceland and the
U.K.
• Fishing goes on all round the year in the shal-
low waters of the North Sea.
• Dogger Bank is the most vigorously exploited
region.

12.4.2 North-West Atlantic Region

• The North-West Atlantic Region extends from

Newfoundland to the New England states of the
U.S.A.
• Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold Labra-
12.4.1 North-East Atlantic Region dor currents and gently sloping continental
shelves makes the region around the Grand
• Colder atmospheric temperatures, and warmer
Banks of Newfoundland the world's largest
oceanic temperatures (influenced by warm
fishing ground.
North Atlantic Drift), cause mixing and nutri-
• The gently sloping continental shelves stretch
ent upwelling in the North-East Atlantic Region.
for over 200 miles south-east of Newfoundland.

85
• Fish of all types and sizes feed and breed here
and support a thriving fishing industry.
• In Newfoundland, the fishing industry employs
almost the entire population.
• All the fishing activities are carried out by highly
mechanized trawlers which can store fish in re-
frigerated chambers for months.
• St. John's, chief port of Newfoundland is the
headquarters of the Grand Banks fishing indus-
tries.
• All processing activities like cutting, gutting,
cleaning, packing (canning) are done at the
ports itself.
• Along with Canada and U.S.A., countries like
Norway, U.K., Portugal, Denmark, Russia and Ja-
pan, also send fishing fleets to the Grand Banks.
12.4.3 North-West Pacific Region
• The North-West Pacific Region extends from
the Bering Sea to the East China Sea.
• China leads in the catch, followed by Russia,
Japan, South and North Koreas.
86
• Within the enclosed seas ― the Sea of
Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea and the
East China Sea ― intensive forms of inshore
(close to the shore) as well as deep-sea fishing
are carried out.
• In the case of inshore fishing, processing (gut-
ting to meat cuts) and canning is done at the
fishing ports.
• In deep-sea fishing, processing happens on the
vessel, and the meat is refrigerated for canning
at the ports.
• Commercial fishing is best developed in Japan,
where the industry is very highly organized.
Pearl Fishery in Japan
• Natural pearls are derived mainly from oysters.
• It was the Japanese that invented cultured
pearls in 1913.
• Young oysters are first collected, and grains of
mother-of-pearl (the inner lining of oyster
shells) are inserted into them. They are then
placed in wire cages and lowered into shallow
coastal waters.
• After about two to five years, these oysters will
be collected, and the artificial pearls will be ex-
tracted.
• Japan is the leader in the production of artificial
pearls.
Why is fishing the dominant primary sector oc-
cupation of Japan?
Fishing is the only reliable primary sector activi-
ty
• The rugged (mountainous) nature of Japan
and parts of mainland eastern Asia support little
agricultural activity (80 per cent land in Japan is
classified as 'non-agricultural'. Around 50% is
covered by forests).
• Japan is not well endowed with natural re-
sources.
• Hence fishing forms a dominant aspect of the • The Japanese fishing trawlers venture far and
primary economy. wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the Atlan-
tic waters.
Geographical advantage
• Advanced financial services, encouraging gov-
• The continental shelves around the islands of ernment policy, an advanced technology at
Japan are rich in plankton, due to the meeting hand, skilled workforce with decades of experi-
of the warm Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio ence in fishing make Japan a leader in the fish-
currents and provide excellent breeding ing industry.
grounds for all kinds of fish.
Whaling

• Hunting and eating whales is a part of Japanese

culture.
• Whale meat consumption became widespread
after World War II when other food was scarce.
• In 2018 Japan withdrew from the Internation-
al Whaling Commission (I.W.C.) for banning
whale hunting.
• This means Japan will no longer hunt whales
in the Antarctic, as it did earlier under the
Cold and warm ocean current mixing zone off Japan
guise of research.
• The indented coastline of Japan provides
• The whaling will be conducted within Japan's
sheltered fishing ports, calm waters and safe
territorial waters and Exclusive Economic Zone.
landing places, ideal for the fishing industry.
• Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing ports 12.4.4 China, India and South-East Asia
with complete refrigeration facilities.
China
Ready market
• China and India are the world's leading pro-
• The scarcity of meat (there is little pasture in
ducers of inland fish and aquaculture.
Japan for livestock farming of any kind)
• When it comes to commercial marine fishing,
popularised fish as the principal item of diet
China was nowhere in the scene until the 1980s.
and the chief protein food of the Japanese and
• Opening up of the economy in the 1980s, the
the Chinese as well.
inflow of foreign capital and the subsequent
• There exists a great demand for fish and fish
rise in income levels has made China one of the
products in the nearby countries where the fish-
major marine (inshore) fishing countries.
ing industry is under-developed.
• It is now far ahead of Japan in marine fish pro-
• The Japanese make use of fish wastes, fish meal
duction.
and seaweeds as fertilizers in their farms.
• However, for China, aquaculture and inland
Capital, technology and infrastructure fisheries are far more important compared to
commercial marine fishing.
• Japan has huge stakes in international fishing
enterprises, and her advanced fishing tech-
niques give her an edge over competitors.
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• Most of China's marine fishing happens in the • However, just like in China, aquaculture and
Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South inland fisheries produce far more fish (70-
China Sea. 80%) than commercial marine fishing.
• From the table, it is clear that aquaculture in • Technological lag and financial constraints have
the dominant form of fisheries in the tropics been the major bottlenecks in the take-off of
and China and in the higher latitudes com- the commercial marine (inshore and deep-sea)
mercial marine fishing is dominant. fishing industry in India.
• By 2030, most of the fish production is going • The case is the same in the South East Asian
to come from aquaculture. nations.
• In South-East Asia, the South China Sea and
India & South East Asia
the Sunda continental shelf are major fishing
• In India, the west coast is more significant for grounds.
fishing than the east coast as the west coast
has a more extensive continental shelf.
World fisheries harvest for 2018
Country Capture Aquaculture Total
Productio in 2018 in Million Tons (MT) 93.7 MT 101.1 MT 199.7 MT
China 17.8 63.7 81.5
Indonesia 6.6 16.6 23.2
India 5.1 5.7 10.8
United States 4.9 0.4 5.4
Russia 4.8 0.2 4.9
Peru 3.8 0.1 3.9
Japan 3.3 1.1 4.3
Vietnam 2.8 3.6 6.4
Norway 2.2 1.3 3.5
12.4.5 Southern Hemisphere (Peru and Chile Water == Good for Fishing.
Coast) El Nino
• Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Warm Ocean
• The continental shelf along the South Ameri-
Water == Fishing industry takes a hit.
can west coast is quite narrow.
• However, the Walker Circulation causes
upwelling off the coasts of Peru, Chile and Ec-
uador.
• This brings nutrient-rich cold water to the
surface, increasing fishing stocks.
• The bulk of the fish caught is not eaten but is
used in the manufacture of fertilizers.
Normal Conditions
Falkland Islands (British overseas territory)
• Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Cold Ocean

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• Off the Argentine coast, the continental shelf is commercial fishing ports are hard to develop in
wide, and the cold Falkland current meets the the tropics.
warm Brazilian current, thus providing fertile
grounds for fishing.
✓ If you purchased these notes from Pmfi-
12.4.6 Commercial marine fishing is little as.com, you have recognized and valued our
developed in the southern hemisphere. Ex-
plain work and have done us a lot of help. We re-
ally appreciate that :)
• Topography: The continents in the southern
✓ If you got these notes from elsewhere, then
hemisphere have very narrow continental
shelves (except for the region around the you can do your bit by making a voluntary
Falkland Islands). contribution from here
• Market: Cattle rearing in Pampas of South https://imjo.in/5Gp8f5. Thank you in ad-
America and Eastern Australia, dairying in New
vance :)
Zealand and agriculture in South Africa means
that the southern hemisphere has more afford-
able alternatives to fish.

12.4.7 Commercial marine fishing is little

developed in the tropics. Explain

• Climate: Warm ocean waters are less favoura-

ble for plankton growth. Warm and humid cli-
mate increases the cost of refrigeration.
• Economies of scale: Fish occur in smaller and
scattered groups which make fishing relatively
expensive.
• Market: Fish are not the primary dietary choice
as the tropics have abundant agricultural re-
sources and cheaper proteinaceous foods like
poultry.
• Export potential: Tropical fish have higher oil
content compared to the proteinaceous
temperate fish.
• Capital: The poor tropical countries do not
stand a chance against their affluent temperate
counterparts in the capital intensive commercial
fishing industry.
• Coastline: Most of the tropics have a straight
coastline, unlike the temperate region where
most of the coast is indented and deep. Hence

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