Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HIGHER SECONDARY
SECOND YEAR
HISTORY
VOLUME - II
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
(ii)
(iii)
CONTENTS
HISTORY
(iv)
Learning Objectives
To understand
The economic situation in India at the time of Independence
India as a socialist, democratic nation and what this signified
Steps taken to improve agriculture and the rural economy
a) Land reforms, and assessment of their effectiveness
b) Technological development through the Green Revolution
c) Rural development programmes
d) Rural employment schemes
Industrial Development
a) Strategy and rationale of investment in heavy industry
b) The role of the state and government controls on private industry and consumption
through industrial regulation policies and legislation
c) The role of the public sector
d) Liberalisation and after
Five Year Plans in India
Education - The progress in literacy and expansion of school education
Science and Technology: Growth of institutions of scientific research and technology in
the country
for these units. However, the sector was great admirer of the success of the Soviet Union
relatively small and did not offer a significant in achieving rapid development, and thus the
potential for employing the surplus labour from ideology on which this strategy is based is often
the agricultural sector. In fact, the industry referred to as “Nehruvian Socialism”.
sector only accounted for 13% of the total
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1950. Most Agricultural Policy
manufactured consumer goods were imported. At the time of Independence, agriculture in
The Indian offices of major foreign companies India was beset with many problems. In general,
were involved only in marketing and sales, and productivity was low. The total production of
not in manufacturing. food grains was not enough to feed the country,
Thus, the new government of India was so that a large quantity of food grains had to be
faced with the mammoth task of developing the imported. Nearly 80 percent of the population
economy, improving conditions in agriculture, depended on agriculture for their livelihood.
widening the manufacturing sector, increasing This automatically reduced the income of each
employment and reducing poverty. person to very low levels. This is a situation
described as ‘disguised unemployment’. That is,
Socialistic Pattern of Society even if many people shifted to other occupations,
Economic development can be achieved in total production levels would remain the same,
many ways. One option would be to follow the because this surplus population was not really
free enterprise, capitalist path; the other was to required to sustain the activity, and was, in
follow the socialist path. India chose the latter. effect, unemployed. Given the high level of
In fact, the Preamble to the Indian Constitution, poverty among the rural population, most of
cited in the previous lesson, stated them were heavily indebted to moneylenders.
unambiguously that India would be “a sovereign, The backwardness of agriculture could
socialist, secular democratic republic”. The be attributed to two factors: institutional and
objectives of this socialist pattern of development technological. Institutional factors refer to the
were: the reduction of inequalities, elimination social and economic relations that prevailed,
of exploitation, and prevention of concentration particularly between the land-owning classes
of wealth. Social justice meant that all citizens and the cultivating classes. Technological factors
would have an equal opportunity to education relate to use of better seeds, improved methods
and employment. This essentially entailed the of cultivation, use of chemical fertilizers,
active participation of the state in the process of use of machinery like tractors and harvester
development. combines, and provision of irrigation. The
In agriculture, social government decided to tackle the institutional
and economic justice was drawbacks first and began a programme of
to be achieved through a land reforms to improve the conditions in
process of land reforms agriculture. The basic assumption was that such
which would empower the measures would improve the efficiency of land
cultivator. In industry, the use or productivity, apart from empowering the
state would play an active peasants by creating a socially just system.
role by setting up major
industries under the public 9.1 Land Reforms and
Jawaharlal Nehru sector. These were to be
achieved through a comprehensive process of
Rural Reconstruction
planning under Five Year Plans. These strategies Under the Constitution of India, agriculture
had been borrowed from the Soviet experience was a ‘state subject’, that is, each state had to
of rapid economic development. Nehru was a pass laws relating to land reforms individually.
Thus, while the basic form of Assam and Bombay had introduced such
land reforms was common legislation. West Bengal, where the Permanent
among all the states, there Settlement was first introduced, the act was
was no uniformity in the passed only in 1955. Land taken away from the
specific terms of land reform zamindars was distributed among the tenants.
legislation among the states. The provincial legislatures also recommended
the amount of compensation to be paid to the
(a) Zamindari Abolition zamindars.
Abolition of Zamindari was part of the Zamindars in various parts of the country
manifesto of the Indian National Congress challenged the constitutionality of the zamindari
party even before Independence. abolition laws in court. The government then
What was Zamindari and who were the passed two amendments to the Constitution,
zamindars? Zamindar referred to the class of the First Amendment in 1951 and the Fourth
landowners who had been designated during Amendment in 1955, which pre-empted the
British rule as the intermediaries who paid right of zamindars to question the takeover of
the land revenue to the government under a their land or the value of the compensation.
Permanent Settlement. They collected rent from Finally, zamindari abolition was completed
peasants cultivating their land and were obliged by 1956, and was possibly the most successful
to remit a fixed amount to the government as
of the land reforms. About 30 lakh tenants
land taxes. There was no legal limit to these
and sharecroppers gained ownership of 62
demands, and zamindars generally extorted
lakh hectares of land. The total compensation
high rents from the cultivators leaving them
actually paid to the zamindars amounted to
impoverished. In public opinion, these
`16,420 lakhs (which amounted to only about
zamindars were considered to be a decadent,
one-fourth of the total compensation amount
extravagant and unproductive class who were
due).
living on unearned income. Abolishing their
privileges and restoring land to the cultivators In sum, however, the reform only achieved
was therefore a prime objective of the a very small part of the original objective. Many
government. zamindars were able to evict their tenants and
take over their land claiming that this land was
Three systems of revenue collection had under their ‘personal cultivation’. Thus, while
been introduced by the British. In Bengal the institution of zamindari was dismantled,
and most of north India, the Permanent many landowners continued in possession of
Settlement placed the responsibility of vast tracts of land.
paying land revenue on the rentier class of
zamindars. In south India, the cultivators (b) Tenancy Reform
paid the land revenue demand directly to
Nearly half of the total cultivated land in
the government under the system known
India was under tenancy. Tenancy refers to an
as ‘ryotwari’ (‘ryot’ means cultivator). The
third system, found in very small pockets arrangement under which land was taken on
of the country, was ‘mahalwari’ where the lease from landowners by cultivators under
village was collectively responsible for specific terms. Not all tenants were landless
paying the land revenue. peasants. Many small landowners who wanted
to cultivate additional land leased out land from
Most provinces in India had enacted laws other landowners. Some richer landowners also
abolishing the zamindari system even before took additional land for cultivation on lease. In
the Constitution was framed. By 1949, Uttar general, the rent was paid in kind, as a share of
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Madras, the produce from the land.
3 Envisioning a New Socio-Economic Order
It was common for large landowners to land could be resumed by the landlord any time.
lease out the land to tenants. Usually these When tenancy reform laws were announced
tenancy arrangements continued for long many landowners claimed to have taken back
periods of time. The rents received by the their land for ‘personal cultivation’ and that
landowners generally amounted to about 50% tenants were only being employed as labour to
or more of the produce from the land, which work the land. Tenancy reform was bound to be
was very high. Tenancy was a customary ineffectual in the absence of a comprehensive
practice and agreements were rarely recorded. and enforceable land ceiling programme.
Thus, tenants of long-standing were almost
never deprived of tenancy rights. However, Land reform measures initiated in Kerala
tenants could also be evicted at short notice, and West Bengal met with reasonable success.
and tenants therefore always lived under some While abolition of landlordism was remarkably
uncertainty. successful, conferment of ownership rights to
Tenancy reform was undertaken with two tenants had mixed results.
objectives. One was to empower the cultivators (c) Land Ceiling
by protecting them against the landowners.
The other was to improve the efficiency of land Land ceiling refers to the maximum
use, based on the assumption that tenancy was amount of land that could be legally owned by
inefficient. Landowners rarely had any incentive individuals. Laws were passed after the 1950s
to invest in improving the land, and were to enforce it. In Tamilnadu it was implemented
interested only in deriving an income from their first in 1961. Until 1972, there was a ceiling on
land. Tenants, who had no ownership rights and the extent of land that a ‘landholder’ could own.
were liable to pay high rents, had neither the After 1972, the unit was changed to a ‘family’.
incentive nor surplus money to invest in land.
This meant that the landowners could claim
Tenancy reform legislation was aimed at
that each member of the family owned a part
achieving three ends:
of the land which would be much less than the
(i) to regulate the rent;
prescribed limit under the ceiling.
(ii) to secure the rights of the tenant;
Deciding the extent of land under land
(iii) to confer ownership rights on the tenants
by expropriating the land of the land ceiling was a complex exercise, since land was not
owners. of uniform quality. Distinctions had to be made
Legislation was passed in the states between irrigated and unirrigated dry land, and
regulating the rent at one-fourth to one- single crop and double crop producing land. At the
third of the produce. But this could never be same time, exemptions from the Act were granted
implemented successfully. The agricultural to certain categories of land such as orchards,
sector had a surplus of labour whereas land horticultural land, grazing land, land belonging
was a resource in short supply. Price controls to religious and charitable trusts, and sugarcane
did not work in a situation when the demand
plantations. These exemptions were also used to
exceeded the supply. All that happened was that
rent rates were pushed under the table without evade the land cieling acts and reported cases of
any official record. manipulation of land records adversely impacted
Laws to secure the rights of the tenant the otherwise laudable initiative.
and to make tenancy heritable were equally Ultimately, only about 65 lakh hectares of
unsuccessful. Tenancy agreements were made land was taken over as surplus land. This was
orally, and were unrecorded. The tenant thus distributed to about 55 lakh tenants–an average
always had to live with the uncertainty that their of a little over 1 hectare per tenant.
Envisioning a New Socio-Economic Order 4
Vinoba Bhave
Many important industries and services areas to reduce regional disparities in industrial
were nationalised. These included coal mines, and economic development. BHEL was first
petroleum companies, banking and insurance set up in Bhopal, and later in Tiruchirappalli,
services. Private entrants have been allowed Hyderabad and Haridwar. Steel plants were set
into some of these activities only in recent years. up in the relatively backward belt of Orissa,
Bihar and West Bengal. Public sector enterprises
(b) Public Sector
also contributed to the national exchequer
There were only five public sector because their profits accrued in part to the
enterprises in India in 1951. By 2012, this central government. Thus the growth of the
number had increased to 225. The capital public sector served many economic and social
investment increased from `29 crores in 1951 purposes, in addition to creating industrial
to 7.3 lakh crores in 2012. The setting up of capacity in the country.
public sector enterprises in heavy industry
was again dictated by two considerations.
First, at the ideological level, the government
was committed to a socialistic pattern of
development which involved a high degree of
state control over the economy. But at a more
practical level, the government had to take
over the responsibility for the establishment of
heavy industrial units which required a very BHEL, Tiruchirappalli
high level of investment. These were known as
(c) Crisis in Public Sector
“long gestation” projects, that is, it would take
many years before such units would be able to Industrial Units
start production. By 1991 it was clear that public sector
enterprises were facing severe problems. While
In the 1950s, the private sector did not have
on the whole they were showing a profit,
the resources or the willingness to enter into
nearly half of the profit was contributed by the
such investment. Steel plants in Bhilai, Rourkela,
petroleum units. Many were making continuous
Durgapur and Bokaro, engineering plants like
losses. Part of the problem lay in the expansion
Bharat Heavy Electricals (BHEL) and Hindustan
of the public sector into non-strategic areas like
Machine Tools were all set up in the 1950s in
tourism, hotels, consumer goods (for instance,
collaboration with Britain, Germany and Russia
in the 1970s, television sets were produced only
which provided the technical support.
by public sector companies) and so on.
Units which did not have to be located near There were many factors which
raw material sources were set up in backward contributed to the performance of public
sector enterprises. Difference of opinions were
expressed regarding the decision on location
of those enterprises. Delays in construction
resulted in cost overrun, so that the units were
overcapitalized. Administrative prices were
not always economical and did not make sense
when the intermediate goods produced in the
public sector were used as inputs in the private
sector. Public sector units were also overstaffed,
though the technology of heavy industries did
not require so many workers. This increased the
Steel Plant, Bokaro operating cost of the units. Recognising all these
problems, the government began a programme However, neither the advocates of a free
of disinvestment of the loss-making and non- economy nor leftist economists are happy with the
strategic units in 1991. level of liberalisation. The former want more free
In spite of all the shortcomings, the play of market forces to eradicate imbalances and
strategy of industrialisation by concentrating checks to progress which are still in place. Some
on building up long-term industrial capacity economists expressed their concern regarding
through the establishment of heavy industries abdication of state responsibility of ensuring and
has been successful in making India into a promoting social justice and welfare by allowing
modern, industrial economy. free play to private sector.
industry, and the share of There are positive and negative assessments
agriculture in total outlay of the performance of planning in India.
hovered between 20 and
Achievements
24%. By the Eleventh
1. The expansion of the economy
Plan it had come down
to less than 20%. The 2.
The significant growth in national and
Second Plan (1956–61), per capita income
commonly referred to as 3. Increase in industrial production
P.C. Mahalanobis the Mahalanobis Plan, 4. Increased use of modern inputs in agriculture
stressed the development and increase in agricultural production
of heavy industry for achieving economic
5. A more diversified economy.
growth. The share of industry in Plan outlay
was only 6% in the First Plan, and increased to
9.5 Education, Science and
about 24% after the Second Plan. But the share
Technology
has been declining since the Sixth Plan, perhaps
because the major investments in the public (a) Education
sector had been completed. The allocation for Education and health constitute the social
power development was very low in the first sectors, and the status of education and health
four plans and this created a huge shortage of indicators are yardsticks for assessing the level
power in the country. of social development in a country. Literacy
The first two Plans had set fairly modest levels have increased in India from 18.3%
targets of growth at about 4%, which economists in 1951 to 74% in 2011. Female literacy still
described as the “Hindu rate of growth”. These lags behind the male literacy rate at 65% as
growth rates were achieved so that the first two compared to 82% among men. There has been
Plans were considered to have been successful. a great increase in the number of schools from
The targets in subsequent plans were not the primary to senior high school level and in
achieved due to a variety of factors. From the the growth of institutions of higher learning.
Fourth Plan (1969–74) the emphasis was on In 2014 - 15 there were 12.72 lakh primary and
poverty alleviation, so that social objectives upper primary schools, 2.45 lakh secondary and
were introduced into the planning exercise. higher secondary schools, 38,498 colleges and
The targeted growth rates were reached from 43 Central Universities, 316 State Universities,
the Sixth Plan onwards. 122 Deemed Universities and 181 State Private
The economy was liberalised during Universities in the country.
the Eighth Five Year Plan (1992–97). Since Children dropping out of school mostly
then, the growth rates have been in excess belonged to the poorer families in rural and
of 7% (except for a slowdown in the Ninth urban areas. The drop-out rate is particularly
Plan).There has been considerable emphasis high among girl children. There are great
on growth with justice, and inclusive and inter-regional variations in the drop-out and
sustainable growth. enrolment rates, so that backward states and
regions have the poorest record on school
Twelve five year plans have education. Various initiatives are being taken
been made between 1951 and by the government to such as Sarva Shiksha
2017. Twelfth Five Year Plan
Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha
(2012-2017) was the last plan. In
Abhiyan (RMSA) and the recently integrated
2015, the Planning Commission
was wound up and replaced by the NITI Aayog. scheme of Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan to redress
the issue of dropouts.
11 Envisioning a New Socio-Economic Order
12. When was Tata Institute of Fundamental IV. Answer the following in detail
Research established? 1.
Highlight the measures adopted by the
(a) 1905 (b) 1921 Government of India towards rural
reconstruction.
(c) 1945 (d) 1957
2.
Land reforms failed in their intended
13. How many public sector enterprises were
objectives. Explain why.
functioning in India in 1951?
3.
Assess the educational progress made in
(a) 5 (b) 7 (c) 6 (d) 225
independent India.
II. Write brief answers 4. Assess the achievements of the first two Five-
Year plans.
1.
Give an account of the conditions of the
Indian economy at the time of independence. 5.
Examine the development of institutions
of scientific research and technology after
2. What were the immediate tasks before the new
India’s independence.
government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru?
3. What do you understand by the Socialistic V. Activity
Pattern of Society?
1. Deliberations on the impact of the policy,
4. Point out the two important considerations both positive and negative, of liberalisation,
that determined the setting up of public globalisation and privatisation may be held
sector enterprises in the wake of India’s in classes.
independence.
5. Write about the Bhoodan movement. REFERENCES
GLOSSARY
ஆங்கிலேய அரசின்
zamindari a system of landholding and tax நில வருவாய்
system collection in British India. வசூலிக்கும் ஒரு
முறை
Learning Objectives
To acquaint ourselves with
Renaissance in Italy and its spread to western Europe
The discovery of new land and sea routes
Commercial revolution and its Impact
Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation
Rise of new monarchies and the emergence of Nation-States in Western Europe
Introduction
of development, however, the Renaissance
Three great events of the fifteenth and became more than a mere revival of classical
sixteenth centuries – the Renaissance, the learning. It included an impressive record of
geographical discoveries and the Reformation new achievements in art, literature, science,
– mark a transition from the Middle Ages to philosophy, education, religion, and politics.
the Modern. The essence of Renaissance was Renaissance incorporated a number of
the centrality given to the human and the ideas. Notable among them were humanism,
natural, with religion relegated to subordinate scepticism, individualism, and secularism.
place. Renaissance had a profound impact on A unique aspect of the Renaissance was the
the making of the modern world. It stimulated contribution made not by monks and nobles,
the geographical imagination of Europe. The but by laypersons.
success of Columbus encouraged overseas
Causes of Renaissance
enterprise enormously. Reformation, a revolt
against the Catholic Church, transformed the (i)
New experiences during the Crusades
religious map and marked a major turning point [religious wars aimed at recovering the
in attitudes to religion. Attempts to consolidate Holy Land from Muslim rule], the rise
a monarchy and to make it absolute resulted in of independent trading cities like Venice,
Spain, France, and England evolving as nation Florence, Genoa, Lisbon, Paris, London,
states. Antwerp, Hamburg and Nuremberg,
with many visiting travellers, and the
10.1 Renaissance in Italy
establishment of universities at Paris
and its Spread in (France), Oxford (England), and Bologno
Western Europe (Italy) provided the necessary preliminary
Significance of Renaissance conditions for the birth of renaissance.
The word Renaissance, of Latin origin, (ii)
Philosophical discussion, which had
means rebirth or revival. It signifies the begun as early as the eleventh century,
sudden revival of interest in the classical continued to produce great minds. The
learning of Greece and Rome. In the course most prominent among them in the
17
Raphael (1483–1520)
Raphael’s famous
work is Madonna and
Child, where Virgin
Mary and child Jesus
are portrayed. Raphael
painted the library walls
of Pope Julius II with
various religious themes.
Raphael
One such theme was
Last Supper School of Athens that highlighted the classical
influence on the renaissance art. He painted
Baptist to the Christ Child. He painted Last
himself along with the paintings of Leonardo
Supper (Jesus’s final meal
and Michelangelo.
with the apostles before
his crucifixon) for the Science and Technology
Dominican monastery During the fifteenth
in Milan. Mona Lisa, his to the seventeenth
most famous portrait, is centuries, science also
believed to be the image developed rapidly
of Lisa Gherardini, wife leading to a Scientific
of a wealthy merchant Mona Lisa
Revolution. Scientists
from Florence, Francesco of this period had to
del Giocondo, who commissioned it. antagonise the Church,
Nicolas Copernicus
for the Church did not like
Michelangelo (1475–1564) people to think and experiment, and question
god.
Donatello was
one of the earlier Nicolas Copernicus (1473–1543), a Polish
artists to create a very scientist, propounded the theory that the Sun
realistic and majestic was at the centre of the solar system and all the
painting of David, the planets including the earth revolved around the
Biblical hero in the sun (heliocentric). This was the opposite view of
1460s. He influenced the Church which propagated the earth-centric
Michelangelo di (geocentric) view. Any views that opposed the
Michelangelo Church’s ideas were considered heresy.
Lodovico Buonarroti
Simoni who is considered to be the greatest Copernicus postponed the publication of his
Renaissance sculptor. The Cathedral of St. work on the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres
Peters in Rome, built by the Popes, was almost till the end of his life. Giordano Bruno,
fashioned by Michelangelo. His dome of St. an Italian, was burned in Rome by the Church
Peters, the realistic statue of David, and the in 1600 for insisting that the earth went round
magnificent paintings on the ceilings of the the sun.
Sistine Chapel are outstanding examples of The most important astronomical
Renaissance art. He also sculpted the famous evidence for the heliocentric theory was
Pieta, a statue of the Virgin Mary, grieving furnished by the great of astronomer Galileo
over the body of dead Christ. It was carved Galilei (1564–1642). With a telescope, he
out of a single marble stone from Carrera in discovered the satellites of Jupiter, the rings
Central Italy. of Saturn and the spots on the sun. He was
made the professor of tragedy, jealousy, and deceit. His comedy plays
Medicine and Maths by include As You Like It, The Taming of the Shrew,
the Medici family at the and A Midsummer Night’s Dream while Othello,
University of Padua Hamlet, King Lear and Romeo and Juliet are
(University of Republic examples of tragedies. His plays, performed in
of Venice). He made the Globe theatre in London were popular. The
efforts to make science plays had a profound impact on the English
stay detached from language, and when Britain became an empire
Galileo Galilei
religion. He accepted the after the industrial revolution his plays spread
views of Copernicus who propounded the across the world.
heliocentric theory. He was tried for heresy Francis Bacon is considered the father
by the Church and was kept under house of empiricism. He argued that inductive
arrest. reasoning (an approach to logical thinking that
Among the involves making generalisations based on
prominent men of specific details and is the opposite of deductive
science in the sixteenth reasoning) is the base for scientific knowledge.
century William Harvey His most important work is Novum Organum,
(1578-1657) was one a philosophical work written in Latin. It deals
who finally proved the with methodical observation of facts as a
circulation of the blood means of studying and interpreting natural
in the human body. phenomena.
William Harvey
Spread of Renaissance in Western 10.2 Discovery of New Sea
Europe Routes to the East
Renaissance in England The Turkish conquests
The renaissance had and the fall of Constantinople
its impact not only in provided stimulus to the
Italy but in many parts European maritime nations
of Europe including to find a sea route to the East
France and Germany. so that they did not have to
It left a deep imprint depend on the old land routes
on England. The rule controlled by the Ottomans. These efforts
of Elizabeth I (1558– eventually resulted in the great geographical
Elizabeth I discoveries which revealed to Europeans the
1603) came to be called
the Elizabethan Age. The Elizabethan Age existence of a New World on the other side of
produced many scholars during the English the Atlantic Ocean.
Renaissance. Notable among them were William Multiple factors lead to the
Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Francis exploration of sea
Bacon. Christopher Marlowe was an English
(a)
D uring the Crusades, the knights
playwright, whose important works include
(warriors) returned with many types
Dido, The Queen of Carthage, and Tamburlaine
of goods from the East. The Europeans
the Great.
liked the eastern products, mainly
The greatest writer in English was William the spices, which were used as food
Shakespeare. Born at Stratford upon Avon, preservatives in the West. Till that time
he wrote 38 plays and many poems involving Arabs controlled the land-bound and
various human emotions namely love, anger, maritime trade with the Asian countries
After a voyage of two months and nine days in Portuguese Navigator Pedro
1492 he came to a land which he believed to be Cabral
India. But it was really a new continent, America. In 1500 Pedro Cabral
He returned to Spain with gold, cotton, strange sailed westward and
beasts and two wild-eyed painted “Indians” to discovered Brazil. Pedro
be baptised. They were called Indians because, Cabral named the island
to the end of his days, he believed that the land as “Island of the True
he had discovered was India. Cross”. Brazil became
Portugal’s colony and
Vasco da Gama
its subsequent history is Pedro Cabral
The success of dealt with in Unit XI.
Columbus prompted
Cabral sailed to India, following the route
Vasco da Gama to start
of Vasco da Gama, and reached Kozhikode.
his historic voyage
Initially the zamorin ruler was well disposed
(1497) to the eastern
towards the Portuguese and allowed Cabral
part. He set sail with
to build a fort and carry on trade. However,
four ships from Lisbon
disputes soon arose with the Arab traders and
and reached the island
Vasco da Gama a large Arab force attacked the trading post
of Mozambique. Later he
and killed many Portuguese soldiers. Cabral
travelled further south and reached Kapad, a
retaliated with reinforcements from Portugal.
beach near Kozhikode, Kerala. By reaching a
He captured 10 Aran vessels and executed their
part of India, he opened avenues for direct trade
crews. He then left for Cochin (now Kochi),
with India. This voyage led to the colonisation
further south, where he was warmly received
of a few regions in India. One such region was
and permitted to trade. After establishing a port
Goa.
at Cannanore (now Kannur) Cabral returned
Papal Bull (1493) on January 16, 1501, with six shiploads of spices
to Portugal. On his way, however, two ships
The Spanish kings were apprehensive
failed, and Cabral finally reached Portugal with
about the Portuguese venture into sea voyages.
four ships on June 23, 1501.
They requested Pope Alexander VI to find
a solution. In 1493, the Pope issued a Papal Voyage of Magellan
Bull (proclamation). The proclamation drew
Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese sailor
a north–south line from pole to pole, passing
got Spanish support to
around 320 miles west of the Cape Verde islands.
explore the world. With
It declared that any new discoveries west of the
five ships he sailed out
line belonged to Spain. Portugal was not happy
of Seville westward in
with the arrangement. The following year (1494)
1519. He found a strait at
it struck an agreement with Spain, signing
the tip of South America
the Treaty of Tordesillas. This arrangement
and named it the Strait
respected the concept of a north–south line of
of Magellan. From there
demarcation, but shifted it to 1,185 miles west of
the crew reached the Magellan
the Cape Verde islands, and acknowledged that
Great South Sea. As the
everything discovered east of it would belong
sea remained calm, he called it Pacific Ocean
to Portugal. Six years later, in April 1500, this
(Pacifico means peaceful in Spanish). In the
turned out to Portugal’s advantage, when Pedro
voyage, Magellan lost two of his ships and many
Álvares Cabral landed on the east coast of Brazil,
of the crew due to disease. Magellan himself
and was able to claim it for Portugal.
was killed in the Philippie Isles. Finally, a single
12th_History_EM_Unit_10_V2.indd 24
GREENLAND
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NORTH Lisbon N
AMERICA AI
SP
Seville
Bahama Palos PACIFIC OCEAN
ATLANTIC
M
PACIFIC OCEAN Islands
A
X
OCEAN
INDIA
IC
https://t.me/UPSC_PDF
O
Cape Verde
AFRICA
Islands Goa
Kozhikode Philippines
Islands
Malindi
https://telegram.me/CivilServices_UPSC
Mombassa INDIAN
SOUTH OCEAN
AMERICA Mozambique
AUSTRALIA
Magellan’s
strait Columbus
Spain Portugal
Vasco da Gama
Magellan
Not to Scale
Cabot
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)
Papal Bull (1493)
26-09-2019 14:34:43
https://t.me/UPSC_PDF
ship, the Vittoria (or Victoria) with 18 sailors Due to the rising competition from
returned to Seville in 1522. Vittoria was the first England, there was conflict between Spain and
ship that ever circumnavigated the world. England. Francis Drake annexed California
Turks, French, English, and Germans region for the English, despite protests from
had not yet realised the significance of the Spain. This led to war between the two nations.
new sea routes to Asia. They were yet to In 1588 King Philip II of Spain sent an armada or
understand the political importance of the Spanish fleet of 130 vessels and 31,000 soldiers
European discovery of America. Hernan to invade England. However, the English with
Cortes, a Spanish Conquistador, with a their easily manoeuvrable fleet easily destroyed
mere handful of men conquered the Empire
the Spanish Armada. This marked the rise of
of Mexico for Spain. Pizarro crossed the
the British as an important power in modern
Isthmus of Panama (1530) and subjugated
world.
another country Peru, destroying the Inca
Empire in south America.
10.3 Commercial
Other Important European Revolution
Expeditions
The Renaissance and the Reformation
Following in the footsteps of the
were accompanied by fundamental economic
Portuguese and the Spanish seafarers, other
changes. The series of economic changes,
European countries started exploring the
making the transition from the semi-static,
world. John Cabot, an Italian explorer, was
commissioned by England to find new lands localised, non-profit economy of the late
across the globe. On his voyage he saw Canada Middle Ages to the dynamic, world-wide,
and made it an English colony. Giovanni capitalistic regime of the fourteenth and
da Verrazano, another Italian, explored the succeeding centuries is known as the
lands for the French. He annexed provinces Commercial Revolution. This Revolution was
for the French in eastern Canada. An English gradual.
explorer named Henry Hudson wanted to find The causes of the beginning of
the passage from North America to the Pacific the Revolution were (a) the capture of
Ocean. Though he failed in his initiative, he Mediterranean trade by the Italian cities; (b)
explored the region which now bears his name
the development of a flourishing trade between
– Hudson River.
Italian cities and the merchants of Hanseatic
Catastrophic Impact of Spanish Arms: League (a merchant guild) in northern
Although the Aztecs had superior numbers, Europe; (c) introduction of coins such as
with firearms and steel blades at his disposal, the duca of Venice and the florin of Florence;
just one Spaniard could annihilate dozens or (d) the accumulation of surplus earned out
even hundreds of opponents: “On a sudden, of trading, shipping and mining enterprises;
they speared and thrust people into shreds,” (e) the demand for war materials and the
wrote one indigenous chronicler, a witness to encouragement given by the new monarchs
the terrifying impact of European arms. “Others to the development of commerce in order to
were beheaded in one swipe... Others tried to create more taxable wealth. The combination
run in vain from the butchery, their innards of these factors along with the stimulus given
falling from them and entangling their very
by the voyages resulting in Spanish and
feet.” A smallpox epidemic outbreak weakened
Portuguese merchants to discover a new route
the Aztec while giving Cortes time to regroup,
to the Orient, independent of Italian control,
resume fighting and finally emerge victorious.
paved the way for Commercial Revolution.
25 Modern World: The Age of Reason
authorities increased beyond measure. The appeared in any of them. The peasantry saw
kings and people of Europe were, however, the Church as an oppressive landowner. Many
beginning to feel the heavy hand of the Church. of the princes were casting their covetous eyes
There were occasional instances of defiance and on the vast properties of the Church.
disobedience of Papal authority. The Church The People behind the Reformation
created the Inquisition to treat this new heresy
Movement
with violence. The Inquisition dubbed the
people who questioned the activities of the The reformation
Church as heretics and women as witches. movement had a few
pioneers. Erasmus was
The revolt against the absolute power of
a protester of many
the church was called Protestant because it
Church practices and
protested against the dogmas of the Roman
teachings. His well
Catholic Church. The movement is called the
known work, The Praise
Reformation. It was a popular revolt against
of Folly (1511), made John Wycliffe
corruption as well as the authoritarianism of the
fun of theologians and
Church. In response the loyal Roman Church
monks. Others like him who worked towards
men made some attempts to reform the Church
reform two centuries before him were John
of its abuses from within. This phase of reform
Wycliffe and John Hus. They preached the
movement came to be known as Counter-
gospel in the language of the people, and not
Reformation which once again acted against the
in Latin. John Wycliffe, an English clergyman,
protest sternly.
was famous as the first translator of the Bible
Causes for the Reformation into English. He managed to escape the anger
Movement of Rome during his life time, but in 1415,
after thirty-one years of his death, a Church
Corruption of Church authorities Council ordered that his bones should be dug
The practice of sale of indulgence up and burnt. And this was faithfully carried
(absolving one’s sin by getting papal pardon out.
through payment of money), nepotism, and
Though the bones of Wycliffe could be
simony (sale of church posts for money) came
burnt, his views could not easily be suppressed.
under attack. The indulgence emptied the
The event reached Bohemia, and influenced
pockets of poor as they had to spend money
John Huss. Huss, the head of the Prague
to get papal pardon for their sins. Some
University, was excommunicated by the Pope
Popes such as Alexander VI, Julius II and
for his views. As he was popular in his town
Leo X quarrelled with the rulers on the above
he escaped harm. Promising a safe conduct
practices. There was an instance of Albert of
by the Emperor, he was invited to Constance
Mainz becoming the archbishop by paying
(Konstanz) in Switzerland, where a Church
money to Pope Leo X. The Pope was said to
Council was in session. He was pressurised to
have collected it saying that half of the money
confess his error. When he refused, in spite
would be used for St. Peter’s Basilica.
of their promise for his safety, he was burnt
Members of the great merchant families alive.
such as the Medicis became Popes in order
to increase their own wealth and expected The reformation movement was
to pass the wealth on to illegitimate sons. popularised by three reformers at three
Inexperienced youths were appointed to different places. Martin Luther at Wittenberg,
lucrative bishoprics. Clergymen received Huldrych Zwingli at Zurich, and John Calvin
incomes from several churches but never at Geneva.
Martin Luther (1483–1546) was a civil war in Germany. In the end the
Martin Luther, a Christian priest, rose northern Germany became Protestant, while
in revolt in Germany against Rome. After a the southern state remained catholic.
visit to Rome he became disgusted with the
corruption and luxury of the Church. He wrote Zwingli (1484–1531)
ninety-five complaints against the Roman Huldrych Zwingli started a similar
Church known as ‘95 Theses’ and nailed it movement in Switzerland. He was influenced
on the door of the church at Wittenberg. He by the Dutch humanist Erasmus. He did not
made a few moderate suggestions to reform agree with some of Luther’s viewpoints. Zwingli
the church. The role of printing press was a believed that Christ lives in the heart of the
key factor in making his ideas widespread. believer and not in the bread and wine. He
He argued that Bible alone is supreme and had written sixty-seven articles outlining the
not the Pope and Bishops. He believed that reformist views against the Catholic Church.
only two main rituals, namely, baptism and Zwingli opposed the
Holy Communion are accepted by the Bible. celibacy of the monks
Salvation, he said, could be attained by one’s and construction of
belief in Lord only. In this way the Protestant monasteries, indulgence,
revolt began. Luther translated the Bible into fasting and pilgrimage.
German and Lutheran Protestants laid down Efforts made to bring
certain rules and regulations. They did not Luther and Zwingli
accept the authority of Pope. They had their together for a stronger
Protestant movement Zwingli
own churches, administrative set-up and they
believed in the supremacy of Bible alone. The failed.
rules for priests were relaxed by which they
Holy Communion (also known as
were permitted to lead a married life.
the Eucharist) is a religious ceremony
performed in church by Catholics. Catholic
Christians partake of Holy Communion
in remembrance of the sacrifices made by
Jesus. They accept bread and wine which are
believed to symbolise (transubstantiation)
the body and blood of Jesus Christ.
city of Geneva. He strived hard to establish an household and in churches. Women were
organised society based on biblical teachings. encouraged to read the Bible and bring
Calvinism became popular even during his up the children in Protestant methods.
lifetime. It became widespread in other parts This led to the increase in literacy level
of Europe as Huguenots in France, Puritans in of women.
England and Presbyterians in Scotland. (d) P
ower of Kings: The reformation
movement gave more power to some
The English Reformation
rulers such as Henry VIII, who became
The Reformation in England was started the head of both the state and the Church.
not by theologians but by the king. It was Henry
(e) R
ace for colonies: Both the Protestants
VIII who separated the state from the Church.
and the Catholics wanted to convert
Though he was a devout catholic in the initial
people from other parts of the world to
years, due to his personal needs (a divorce
their own religious beliefs. The Spanish
from his wife Queen Catherine of Aragon for
conquest in South America was followed
a remarriage to another woman, Ann Boleyn),
by Jesuit priests (a new sect of Roman
he favoured the Protestants. He passed the Act
Catholics created to spread Catholicism).
of Supremacy, 1534, and severed England’s
The Puritans, Catholics and Anglicans set
connection with Rome. He established the
up their churches in the thirteen British
Anglican Church and ordered the confiscation
colonies of North America.
of Church property, including all the lands
of abbeys and monasteries. This Protestant (f) S
pread of Christianity: The availability
movement led to the Puritan movement in of gold and silver from the colonies made
various parts of England and her colonies. the European nations to send explorers in
the guise of missionaries to various parts
Effects of the Reformation of the world. “First the missionary, then
(a) D
ivisions in the European nations: the gun boat, then the land grabbing” _
The schism in the church led to the that was the sequence of events people of
division of religious practices in the the succeeding generation had to contend
same country. North Germany became with.
Lutheran while South Germany remained Catholic Counter Reformation
Catholic. England became Protestant
The Society of Jesus
while Scotland and the people of Ireland
became devout Catholics. The Catholic
religion watched the
(b) L
iteracy: The printing press encouraged rise of the Protestant
the printing of various religious movement with caution
teachings of reformation movement and and concern. Just
also reading of the same by common about the time Martin
people. People were encouraged to read Luther was gaining in
and understand the Bible. The use of popularity, a new Church
vernacular language in preaching and the Ignatius of Loyola
order was started by a
translation of Bible in regional languages Spaniard, Ignatius of Loyola in Paris, France,
opened a new avenue to reach ordinary on 15 August 1534, when he and six university
people. students pledged to keep vows of chastity,
(c) S
tatus of Women: Due to the opposition poverty, and obedience and to make a pilgrimage
of celibacy in churches, the pastors of the to Jerusalem. One of the students was Francis
Protestant churches became married men. Xavier, who later became a missionary to India
This strengthened the role of women in and Japan. This society aimed at training people
29 Modern World: The Age of Reason
for efficient and dedicated service of the Roman the Church such as sale of indulgence, nepotism
Church and the Pope. It used education as a and absenteeism of the Bishops (who did not
tool to teach the Catholic religion to the masses. visit their dioceses). It insisted on the study of
They set up various educational institutions to catechism, an instruction on the sacraments. It
promote the Catholic religion. Society of Jesus supported the image worship of Jesus and Mary
succeeded in producing efficient and faithful in all churches. Due to the Council of Trent, the
followers of the Church. These priests, known Catholic religion became better organised.
as the Jesuits, helped in raising the standard of Inquisition
the Church in Europe.
Special Church courts were established to
The measures adopted by the Roman give punishment to the heretics. They used many
Church, largely on account of the threat posed methods to make the heretics confess, which
by the Protestant revolt, included the removal ranged from recantation, flogging to burning
of abuses from the church, reiteration of the at the stake. Roman Inquisition was set up to
power of Pope, and rebuilding the faith in seven deal with the Protestants. Witch-hunt became a
sacraments (Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist common practice. Women, usually widowed or
or Holy Communion, Reconciliation or single, were called witches and blamed for crop
Confession, Anointing of the Sick, Ordination failures, diseases etc. They were captured and
or Holy Orders, and Marriage).This movement put to death. It has been estimated that about
is known as Counter Reformation. Three major 110,000 people in Europe were put on trial and
events that mark the Counter Reformation 60,000 put to death in the Inquisition.
are: Council of Trent, the Inquisition, and the
founding of new religious schools to popularise Effects of Counter Reformation
Catholic religion. Due to the Counter Reformation, Europe
was divided along religious lines. Wars broke
Council of Trent (1545–1563)
out within the countries and with the countries
professing faith in different denomination. The
Thirty-Years’War fought between 1618 and 1648
at various provinces of Holy Roman Empire was
an example of this division. Protestant churches
were austere, while the Catholic churches
became more ornamental. Both the religious
communities used education as a tool to spread
their religious and spiritual ideas.
10.5 Rise of New Monarchies/
Nation-States
In the age of feudalism, the kings entered
Council of Trent into agreement with the nobility for the
provision of arms and ammunition during
Pope Paul III appointed the cardinals to war with enemies. In return the kings offered
reform the Catholic Church. The Council of them knighthood and tax free lands. The ‘fief ’
Trent met three times in eighteen years and was a land given to the nobles as tax free for
emphasised faith in the Bible and the teachings services rendered to the kings. This relationship
at Church along with adherence to the seven helped both the parties. This feudal lord–vassal
sacraments for salvation. The celibacy of the relationship began to decline leading to the
priests and the supremacy of the Pope were emergence of new powerful monarchies during
upheld. The council also removed the abuses in this period of Renaissance and Reformation.
Modern World: The Age of Reason 30
name.) In this civil war, Henry Tudor emerged There was what is called the Hundred Years’
victorious and he started a new line of monarchy War between England and France from early in
in England. He assumed the title Henry VII the fourteenth century to the middle of the
and entered into matrimonial alliance with fifteenth century. In this war, the French king
Elizabeth of York family. This made England to Charles VII was helped by Joan of Arc, a young
emerge as a nation-state. girl who fought courageously and won the battle
Henry VII decided to remove the threat of at Orleans. Joan of Arc was given the title Maid
the nobles to his rule. The nobles maintained of Orleans. However, she was captured by the
private armies with special insignia called livery English and tried by the court for her claim that
and maintenance. On becoming the king, Henry she was guided by heavenly voices. She was
abolished this practice. He took the support of condemned as a witch and burnt at the stakes in
the merchant class and a few minority nobles to 1430. (In 1920, the Catholic Church conferred
pass laws in the parliament. He created a special sainthood on her.)
court in the Star Chamber to put the rebellious After the death of
nobles on trial. The kingdom collected money Joan of Arc, the French
as fine from the nobles that increased the royal continued the Hundred
revenue. The parliament gave the king right to Years’ War and emerged
collect taxes too. Henry VII, who ruled between victorious. Having
1485 and 1509, established a firm control over got the English out of
the kingdom. his country, Louis XI,
son of Charles VII,
Livery was the system of giving badges Louis XI
turned to Burgundy. This
or uniform to the followers of nobles. troublesome vassal was finally brought under
Maintenance was the system of protecting control and Burgundy became part of France in
the interests of the followers by the nobles. about 1483. France became a strong centralised
Star Chamber was the court of law monarchy. Louis XI strengthened and unified
created by Henry VII to try cases related to France. For the first time in the history of
the property of the nobles. It is named after France, a permanent army was created for the
the stars painted on the ceiling of a room in monarch without relying on the support from
Westminster Palace, where the proceedings the nobles. His Royal Council had more lawyers
of the court were conducted. than nobles, thus undermining the influence of
the nobles in the royal affairs.
The king strengthened his ties with Scotland
by giving his elder daughter in marriage to the
Summary
Scottish prince. He maintained matrimonial
relationship with the Spain too by making his Renaissance of Italy and its spread to
son marry the princess of Spain. western Europe are discussed.
11. Which of the following statement/s is/are (c) A is correct but R is wrong
correct? (d) A is wrong but R is correct
Statement I: Italians managed to preserve
the belief that they were 16.
Which one of the following ships was
descendants of the ancient returned after the death of Magellan?
Vikings.
(a) Santa Maria (b) Pinta
Statement II:
The hazard of sea voyages
(c) Nina (d) Vittoria
was reduced by the use of
firearms and canon. 17. Who conquered Mexico for Spain?
Statement III:
The eagerness to spread (a) Pedro Cabral (b) Columbus
religion (Christianity) also (c) Hernan Cortes (d) James Cook
acted as an impetus to the
exploration of new lands. 18. When was the Act of Supremacy passed by
Henry VIII in England ?
Statement IV:
Ferdinand Magellan sailed
westward and discovered (a) 1519 (b) 1532 (c) 1533 (d) 1534
Brazil 19. A
ssertion (A): The Black Death weakened
(a) I, II & III (b) II & III the position of the church as it could not
explain the causes for the Black Death.
(c) I & III (d) All are correct.
Reason (R): The authority of Pope came to
12. Which one of the following was not the work be increasingly challenged.
of Leonardo da Vinci?
(a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
(a) Virgin of the Rocks (b) Last Supper
(b) Both A and R are correct. R does not
(c) Mona Lisa (d) Madonna and Child explain A
13. The Cathedral of St. Peters in Rome, built by (c) A is correct but R is wrong
the Popes, was fashioned by
(d) A is wrong but R is correct
(a) Donatello (b) Raphael
20.
Who was the ruler of Germany
(c) Leonardo da Vinci (d) Michelangelo excommunicated by Gregory VII?
14. Which one of the following is not correctly (a) Henry VII (b) Henry VIII
matched?
(c ) Henry II (d) Henry IV
(a) Marlowe - Dido
(b) Shakespeare - King Lear II. Write Short answers
(c) Francis Bacon - Novum Organum 1. How did Erasmus pave the way for
(d) Roger Bacon - Decameron Reformation?
2. Write about the Medici family in Florence.
15. A
ssertion (A): The Turkish conquests and 3. What do you know of the Papal Bull of 1493?
the fall of Constantinople provided stimulus 4. What was the significant outcome of Spanish
to find a sea route to the East. Armeda?
Reason (R): As the demands for the products 5. Point out the outcome of Diet of Worms.
from the East increased, the European states 6. What purpose did the Star Chamber serve
wanted to control sea-borne trade. and why was it called so ?
(a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A 7. Why did feudalism fail in the later stage of the
Middle Ages?
(b) Both A and R are correct. R does not 8. Explain Holy Communion or Eucharist.
explain A
Modern World: The Age of Reason 34
9. W
hat did the Inquisition do in Spain? 2. In an outline world map, mark the routes
10. Why was the conflict between families of Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Magellan
York and Lancastrian called War of Roses? passed through.
How did the war come to an end? 3. Let students watch the videos on Renaissance
11. H ighlight the work of the Council of Trent. art in You tube.
12. W hy is Joan of Arc remembered in history? 4. They may also watch some of the films/videos
on genocides of Europeans on indigenous
III. W
rite brief answers peoples in America.
1. Why did Italy become the birthplace of
Renaissance? REFERENCES
2. Highlight the literary accomplishments of
England during the Renaissance. Peter Burke. The Italian Renaissance.
3. What were the achievements of Italian and Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010.
English explorers? Cameron Euan. Early Modern Europe.
4. Bring out the negative outcome of Commercial Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Revolution.
5. Assess the part played by John Calvin in E. H. Gombrich. A Little History of the
organising the Protestant movement in Genoa. World. London: Yale University Press, 2008.
6. Discuss the contribution of Society of Jesus to Stephen J.Lee Aspects of European History
the counter-reformation movement in Europe. 1494–1789. London: Routledge, 1978.
7. Write about the voyage of Columbus in 1492.
Edward McNall Burns, Western Civilizations,
8. Describe the voyage of Portuguese sailor
Vol. 2, New York: W.W. Norton, 1973.
Pedro Cabral in India.
GLOSSARY
scepticism
doubt about the truth of something, சமய நம்பிக்கையின்மை, எதிலும்
disbelief அவநம்பிக்கையாக இருத்தல்
வெறுப்புத் தருகிற,
irksome irritating, teasing
த�ொந்தரவூட்டுகிற
ICT CORNER
Modern World: The Age of Reason
Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step - 2 Select any geographical region (ex. Europe) and select a time period
(ex.1400-1600 A.D)
Step - 3 Scroll down and click to see the gallery of Renaissance art
UNIT
The Age of Revolutions
11
Learning Objectives
Acquainting ourselves with
The causes, course and effects of American War of Independence
French Revolution, its causes, course and its impact in Europe and across
the world Q.R.Code
Revolution in Latin America
The beginning of Industrial revolution in England and later in Germany
and the USA
Hampshire
New
etts
s
achu
k
Yor
New
Mass
Pennsylvania Rhode Island
Connecticut
New Jersey
Virginia Delaware
Mary Land
Mayflower ship
North Carolina
Life in the Thirteen Colonies
A T L A N T I C
The colonies varied much in character South Carolina
O C E A N
and the manner in which they had been
acquired. They were divided into south and Georgia
Exchequer in Britain, brought this act into force in another colony or in England. The fourth
and hence came to be called Townshend Act. intolerable Act, a replica of the Quartering Act,
Boston Massacre which was abolished, permitted the requisition of
unoccupied buildings to house British troops. The
In 1770, Lord North, the new prime
Intolerable Acts (1774), also known as Coercive
minister of England, abolished taxes on
Acts, evoked a wave of outrage in colonies.
products except tea. This was retained to assert
that the British Parliament had a right to tax the Quebec Act
colonies directly as well as indirectly. When the The Quebec Act passed by the British
British forces marched on the streets of Boston, government in 1774 awarded the territory
Americans criticised the British. This angered between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to the
the British forces who fired against the people. province of Quebec. The colonial governments
This Boston Massacre brought to light the of New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia were
aggressive and autocratic nature of the British angered by the unilateral assignment of the
government. Ohio lands to Quebec, which had been granted
Boston Tea Party (1773) to them in their royal charters. By permitting
French Civil Law and the Roman Catholic
In the wake of the Boston Massacre, around
religion in the newly carved out area, Britain
100 activists dressed like Native Americans,
also provoked the protestant colonies.
boarded the three ships carrying tea and threw
342 boxes into sea at Boston. This incident came The Intolerable Acts of 1774 became the
to be called the Boston Tea Party. justification for convening the First Continental
The British Parliament retaliated with Congress at Philadelphia. The representatives
severity. General Gage was appointed Governor of all the colonies, except that of Georgia,
of Massachusetts and troops were dispatched demanded the repeal of the Intolerable Acts.
with instructions to bring the colony to heel. The Congress decided to boycott the British
goods until then. They sent a representation
with an olive branch (peace proposal) to the
British King George III. This was known as
the Olive Branch Petition. The king however
refused to buy peace.
Outbreak of War
In the meantime,
in 1775, at Lexington
in Massachusetts,
the farmers fought
Boston Tea Party the British and then
Intolerable Acts (1774) marched on Boston
to besiege the British
Angered by the Boston Tea Party, the British
garrison at Bunker Hill.
parliament passed the Boston Port Bill. The Boston
On 4 July 1776, all the Thomas Jefferson
harbour was closed until the colonists paid for all
thirteen colonies declared
the tea thrown into sea. Then the Parliament passed
independence from Britain. The declaration
the Massachusetts Government Act, replacing the
of independence was essentially the work of
elective local council, and enhancing the powers
Thomas Jefferson which marked the beginning
of the military governor Gage. The third measure,
of the history of an independent country called
the Administration of Justice Act allowed British
the United States of America.
officials charged with capital offenses to be tried
41 The Age of Revolutions
Constitution Making
The National Constituent Assembly
prepared the constitution. On 26 August 1789 the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
was adopted. It subordinated the monarchy
to the rule of law and defined individual and
collective rights. It maintained that no person
shall be accused, arrested or imprisoned except
Women’s March on Versailles
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of War against Austria and Prussia
the Citizen has a preamble and 17 articles.
While the king agreed to the constitutional
The first article contains the statement: “Men
monarchy on one hand, on the other he was
are born and remain free and equal in rights.”
secretly appealing for help from Austria and
The purpose of “political association,” as the
Prussia. The neighbouring kingdoms were
Declaration states, should be the preservation
watching the developments in France with
of these rights, detailed as liberty, security to
concern. They feared that the rise of common
property, and resistance to oppression. It also
people might bring to an end the rule of
declares that both sovereignty and law should
come from the “general will.” It protects monarchs and so they sent their troops to
the freedom of speech and of religion and France to contain the revolution. Meanwhile
insists on equal treatment before the law. It the National Assembly declared war against
also asserts that taxes should be paid by all Austria and Prussia. On hearing this, people
citizens in accordance with their means. The from various parts of France united to fight the
Declaration served as the preamble to the foreign forces. A group of people from the place
Constitution of 1791. of Marseilles proceeded to Paris by singing the
Marseillaise song.
The Directory
Execution of Louis XVI
The allies who had overthrown Robespierre
Against a background of growing hunger did not stay long in power. Those who hated
in the towns and countryside alike, there the revolution began to take over the streets
were demands from the Parisians to control of Paris, attacking anyone who tried to defend
prices, to maintain grain supplies to feed the revolutionary ideals. There were two risings
people and to take action against hoarders in April and May 1795. But they were crushed
and speculators. Instead of initiating steps to by forces loyal to the new political group called
meet the just demands of the Parisian masses, Thermidorians. Emigres began to return to the
the Convention used the army to attack the country and boast that the monarchy would be
agitating masses. The army suffered a series of restored soon.
defeats as its commander deserted to the enemy.
Emigres: Persons who leave their own
Disillusioned peasants in the Vendee region in
country in order to settle in another for
the west of France joined a monarchist rising. political reasons. In the present context, the
Finally moderates and royalists (29 May 1793) nobles who fled France in the years following
together seized control of Lyons, where silk the French Revolution came to be called
industry was thriving and wealthy merchants émigrés.
from Germany and Italy had settled.
The Age of Revolutions 48
In October 1795 the royalists staged a rising judiciary became prominent, and kept
of their own in Paris. The army led by a rising a check and balance on each other. It
officer and one-time Jacobin named Napoleon removed the concentration of power
Bonaparte came to their assistance. Fearful under a single authority.
of bloodshed, the Thermidorians agreed to
concentrate power in the hands of a Directory All over Europe, the French Revolution
of five men. In four years, under one pretext gave the hope to the people to end the
or another, Napoleon gained power. In 1799 despotic rule and establish an egalitarian
Napoleon staged a coup which in effect gave society
him dictatorial power. In 1804 Napoleon made
the Pope crown him as the Emperor of France. 11.3 Revolution in Latin
The French revolutionaries may have been America
defeated, but much of the revolution’s heritage The regions of Latin America were
survived to shape the modern world. conquered by the Spanish in the sixteenth
century. The Portuguese and the French also
Impact of French Revolution
had their presence there. The political power
The French revolution created a deep of the South American cultures such as the
impact, not only in France but also all Incas and the Aztecs was destroyed by these
over Europe, and even inspired anti- colonial powers. The colonizers (conquistadores)
colonial intellectuals and movements brought to an end the local religious beliefs and
across the world in the nineteenth and introduced Catholic religion. The colonial rule
early twentieth centuries. in Latin America was brutal and was marked
by widespread genocide and decimation of the
The French revolution brought to an end
indigenous population. The native people were
the rule of Louis XVI in France.
made to work as slave labourers in the farm
It reduced social inequality. The privileges lands as well as the mines of the colonial masters
given to certain sections of the society who exported goods such as sugar, coffee, gold
based on birth were curtailed. and silver to European nations.
VENEZUELA NA E
YA AM
IN
COLOMBIA
GU R
SU FRENCH
GUYANA ATLANTIC Within two months
OCEAN
isolated fighting broke
ECUADOR
out between European
whites and mulattoes.
BRAZIL
PERU All of them expected the Vincent Ogé
BOLIVIA black slaves to continue
PA
R
working, suffering and dying as if nothing had
PACIFIC AG
UA
OCEAN Y
CHI
Venezuela and New Granada in that year re-conquered Venezuela and most
(now Columbia) of New Granada. Yet another invasion led by
Inspired by the Haitian revolution, slaves Bolívar in 1816 failed.
in Venezuela rose in rebellion in the 1790s. The following year (1817) a larger and
Creoles (persons of mixed European and black revitalised independence movement emerged,
descent) wanted an expansion of the free trade winning the struggle in the north and taking
that was benefiting their plantation economy. it into the Andean highlands. Bolivar emerged
At the same time, however, they feared that the as a strong military and political force after the
removal of Spanish control might bring about a struggles. At this point a group of llaneros (cow
revolution that would destroy their own power. boys) of mixed ethnicity led by Jose Antonia
Therefore, they formed the strong loyalist Paez joined the struggle and contributed
faction in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. decisively to the patriots’ military victories in
In 1808 Napoleon had made his brother 1818–19. After leading his army up the face
Joseph the king of Spain after the abdication of of the eastern Andes, Bolívar dealt a crushing
the weak king Charles IV in favour of his son defeat to his enemies in the Battle of Boyaca.
Ferdinand. Napoleon had them both
imprisoned. With Charles and Ferdinand
removed from the scene, the Empire was
without a stable government for six years. The
political crisis in Spain provided the opportunity
for the assertion of its colonies. Soon the rebels
as patriots organised revolutionary
governments that introduced some social and
economic reforms in 1810.
In Venezuela the
patriots led by Simon
Bolivar openly declared Battle of Boyaca
a break with Spain Consolidating victory in the north proved
the following year. difficult. A congress that Bolívar convened in
The earthquake that Angostura in 1819 named Bolivar as president
wreaked particular of Gran Colombia, a union of what are today
destruction in patriot- Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador.
held areas in 1812 Simon Bolivar But the sharp divisions prevailing in the region
provided the pretext for ultimately dashed Bolívar’s hopes of uniting
loyalist forces to crush the patriots’ army, and the former Spanish colonies into a single new
drive Bolivar and others to seek refuge in New nation as United States of Latin America.
Granada (the heart of the viceroyalty). Furthermore, loyalist supporters still held
Bolívar soon returned to Venezuela with a much of Venezuela, parts of the Colombian
new army in 1813 and waged a campaign with Andes, and all of Ecuador. Conditions became
the army’s motto, “Guerra a muerte” (“War to favourable in 1820 troops waiting in Cádiz to be
the death”). The army led by loyalist Jose Tomas sent as part of the crown’s military campaigns
Boves again succeeded in driving Bolívar out revolted. Eventually New Granada and
of his home country. By 1815 independence Venezuela were liberated in 1821. A congress
movements in Venezuela and almost all across held that year in Cúcuta, a Columbian city,
Spanish South America seemed dead. A large chose Bolívar president of a now much more
military expedition sent by Ferdinand VII centralised Gran Colombia.
on the African slave trade, which Portugal Mexico was invaded by the US and France, in
controlled. The size of the slave population the course of the nineteenth century, Britain
– approximately half the total of Brazilian continued to exercise its dominating influence
population in 1800 – also meant that Creoles over countries like Argentina and Chile for a
shied away from political initiatives that might long time to come. In each Latin American
mean a loss of control over their social inferiors. country oligarchic cliques ran rival Liberal and
Therefore, the Portuguese authorities at home Conservative parties and preserved unequal
put an end to the reforms undertaken by Joao social structure characterised by extreme
in Brazil. They wanted Dom Pedro to return privilege to great landowners and grinding
to Portugal. However, Pedro declared Brazil’s poverty to the underprivileged.
independence and decided to stay on. In 1822, In the twentieth century, especially after
Brazil obtained independence from Portugal World War II, South America was a troubled
and it became the only constitutional monarchy continent as USA sought to control it by pliant
in South America with Pedro I becoming its dictatorial governments (often referred to as
first emperor. banana republics).
Other Revolts
11.4 Industrial Revolution
The liberator of
Argentina, San Martin In the aftermath of the French Revolution,
joined the Chilean when Napoleon was holding the entire Europe
liberator Bernardo to ransom, another revolution which was
O’Higgins and both destined to affect the history of mankind was
were able to get taking place in England. This was the Industrial
independence for Chile Revolution. Industrial Revolution refers to the
in 1818 followed by Peru adoption of a system of producing commodities
San Martin
in 1820. Bolivar and San on a large scale in huge factories. This was
Martin met at the port in Ecuador, Guayaquil, opposed to the old system of making goods in
to discuss the future course of actions in the cottages or workshops by the artisans.
Latin America and for a probable unification. The first phase of the Revolution was the
While San Martin wanted European form of appearance of certain important inventions
government with constitutional monarchy in which revolutionised the cotton industry. The
the colonies, Bolivar wanted republican form use of steam helped to abandon the old method
of government. Though they could not reach of smelting iron by means of charcoal. The
any agreement, San Martin retired and allowed coal and iron industries made rapid progress.
Bolivar to take full command. Bolivar could get Then the means of communication made great
independence for all South American colonies strides. Locomotive, the first passenger railway
by 1826. (1830), steam boat and use of electric telegraph
After the independence of all the colonies, (1835) came into existence. In a period of
Bolivar tried to unite all Latin American about a hundred years England was thoroughly
countries under one nation called Gran transformed.
Colombia. However, the rugged geographical
The second Industrial Revolution (between
features with mountains and forests along with
1870 and 1914) witnessed new innovations in
power struggles could not make it a reality.
steel production, petroleum and electricity.
Though most of the Latin American countries
The whole of Europe and North America
declared themselves as republics and were free began to feel the impact of the first Industrial
from Spanish rule, they were still dependent Revolution during this period.
to a greater extent on foreign powers. While
53 The Age of Revolutions
Samuel F.B. Morse’s invention of the The Industrial Revolution solved the
telegraph and Elias Howe’s invention of the problem of production. But not the
sewing machine came before the Civil war. problem of distribution of new wealth
After the Civil war, industrialisation went on at created.
a rapid pace. In 1869, the first transcontinental Machine-made manufactures ruined
railroad was completed to transport people, the handicrafts and rendered tens of
raw materials and manufactures. The invention thousands of artisans and weavers jobless.
of electricity by Thomas Alva Edison (1879)
During the first phase of the Industrial
and telephone by Alexander Graham Bell (1876)
Revolution the introduction of machines
changed the whole world.
meant that able-bodied men were thrown
The Industrial Revolution quickened the out of employment by the cheap labour of
process of the transition of the United States women and children. Moreover, many of
from a rural to an urban society. Young people the factories and mines were dangerous
raised on farms saw greater opportunities in the and unsanitary.
cities and moved there. There was unprecedented
An important outcome of the Industrial
urbanisation and territorial expansion in the
Revolution was the creation of two new
US and, as a result, between 1860 and 1900,
classes: an industrial bourgeoisie and a
fourteen million immigrants came to the
proletariat. To the industrial bourgeoisie
country, providing workers for a wide variety of
most forms of government intervention,
industries.
except protective tariffs and suppression
of strikes, were allergic. They insisted that
Impact of Industrial Revolution
free enterprise was absolutely essential to
If the Renaissance changed people’s vigorous economic growth.
approach to life, the Industrial Revolution The new class of industrial workers did
changed the way they had existed since not simply suffer. Towards the end of
the agrarian times. The mechanisation the Napoleonic Wars, strong waves of
of industry resulted in much greater agitations began. The struggle went through
production and therefore it produced different phases: machine breaking, mass
greater wealth. But this new wealth went demonstrations and formation of collectives
to a small group, the owners of the new (trade unions).
industries.
Peterloo Massacre: In 1819, a year of industrial depression and high food prices, a great
demonstration was organised by the radical leader Henry Hunt. About 60,000 persons attended,
including a large number of women and children. None was armed, and their demonstration
was peaceful. The magistrates, who were alarmed by the size and mood of the crowd, ordered
the Manchester yeomanry (a voluntary cavalry corps) to attack the crowd. More than 700
people were injured and 17 killed. Hunt and the other radical leaders were arrested, tried, and
convicted.
Tolpuddle Prosecution: The Whig government in Britain, alarmed at the growing discontent
of the working-class, arrested six Tolpuddle labourers (1834) for organising the labourers
against the proposed wage cuts. All the six were convicted and sentenced to seven years’
transportation to a penal colony in Australia. The six became martyrs for the cause of labour.
Summary
Colonisation of North America and the beginning of British Imperialism in thirteen American
colonies are traced.
Oppressive taxation measures of Britain and the resistance of colonists leading to the outbreak of
American War of Independence are narrated.
The course and outcome of the War along with the significance of Revolution are assessed.
The structure of state and nature of its governance in France are explored.
The woeful conditions of peasantry, the financial bankruptcy of the French government, and the
revolutionary ideas articulated by the intellectuals of the time leading to the French Revolution
of 1789 are explained.
The formation of National Assembly and its Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen are detailed.
The execution of the French king and the abolition of monarchy, and the work done by the
National Convention dominated by the Jacobins are elaborated.
Reign of Terror let loose by Robespierre and his radical policies and programmes ending his own
execution and the takeover of the government by a five-member Directory ending the Revolution
are explained.
Revolution in the French-controlled Saint-Domingue followed by revolutions in other Latin
American countries like Venezuela, Columbia, Mexico and Brazil are highlighted.
The essential features and causes of Industrial Revolution of England, the machines invented and
the use of steam revolutionising cotton, and iron industries and transport and communication
systems are dealt with.
The Second Industrial Revolution in Western Europe, notably in Germany, and in the US is
explored.
Impact of Industrial Revolution and the incidence of state violence on organised working class
movement in England and America are related.
59 The Age of Revolutions
(d) A
is wrong but R is correct 9.
Which of the following statement/s is/are
Correct?
4. A
ssertion (A): In 1770, England abolished the
taxes on products except tea. Statement I: e peasantry made up the
Th
bulk of French society.
Reason (R): This was retained to assert that
the British Parliament had a right to tax the Statement II: Th
e peasants in France were
colonies directly as well as indirectly. serfs.
(a) Both A and R correct. R explains A 18. The liberator of Argentina was
(b) Both A and R correct. R does not explain A (a) San Martin
(c) A is correct but R is wrong (b) Dom Pedro
(d) A is wrong but R is correct (c) Bernardo O’Higgins
12. Match and choose the correct answer from (d) Marina Morelos
the code given below. 19. city acquired the nickname
(A) Montesquieu 1. Jacobins “Cottonopolis’’.
(B) Voltaire 2. English Philosopher (a) Manchester (b) Lancashire
(C) Reign of Terror 3. The Age of Louis XIV (c) Liverpool (d) Glasgow
20. Match and choose the correct answer from
(D) John Locke 4. The Spirit of Laws
the code given below
(a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 4 3 1 2
(A) Michael Faraday 1. Ark Wright
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 1 4 3 2
(B) Elias Howe 2. Robert Fulton
13. The storming of the Bastille happened on
(C) Water Frame 3. Electricity
(D) Steam Boat 4. Sewing machine
(a) June 5, 1789 (b) July 14, 1789
A B C D
(c) November 11, 1789 (d) May 1, 1789
(a) 1 3 4 2
14. During the French Revolution was (b) 1 4 2 3
dissatisfied with the Declaration of Rights (c) 3 4 1 2
of Man and of the Citizen, as it excluded (d) 3 4 2 1
women.
(a) Olympe de Gouges II. Write brief answers
(b) Mary Antoinette 1. What impact did the European settlement
in North America make on the indigenous
(c) Roget de Lisle
population?
(d) Robespierre
2. What do you know about the Boston Tea Party?
15. The official residence of Louise XVI was 3.
What was the intellectual contribution of
Thomas Paine to the American Revolution?
(a) Versailles (b) Toulon 4.
Point out the importance of the battle of
(c) Marseilles (d) Tuileries Saratoga.
16. was earlier known as Saint- 5. Discuss the three Estates of the ancien regime.
Dominigue 6. Highlight the essence of The Declaration of
(a) Mexico (b) Panama the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
(c) Haiti (d) Havana 7. Outline the contribution of Simon Bolivar to
Latin American independence.
17. The revolution in Mexico was led by
8. Highlight the essential features of Industrial
(a) Simon Bolivar Revolution.
(b) Jose Maria Morelos 9. Why is Samuel Slater considered the father of
(c) Ferdinand de Lesseps American Industrial Revolution?
(d) Miguel Hidalgo 10. What was the background for the Peterloo
Massacre?
61 The Age of Revolutions
III. Write short answers 2. Students may be organised into three groups
1.
Discuss the important provisions of the forming Three Estates of the ancient regime
Treaty of Paris signed in 1783. and hold a mock session of the States-General
convened by Louis XVI in May 1789.
2.
Analyse the significance of American
Revolution. 3.
Students may be exposed to the ruin of
handicrafts in England in the context of
3. Long before the revolution of 1789, there was
introduction of machines and factory
a revolution in the realm of ideas. Explain.
system and be apprised of the corresponding
4. W
hat caused the “September Massacres”? situation in India after the establishment of
5.
Trace the circumstances in which Brazil British colonial rule.
became the first constitutional monarchy in
South America.
REFERENCES
6.
What happened in Germany during the
second phase of Industrial Revolution? William Doyle, The Oxford History of
the French Revolution, Oxford University
IV. Answer the following in detail Press, 1989.
1. Discuss the causes, course and results of the
Edward McNall Burns, Western
American War of Independence
Civilizations, Vols. 1 & 2, New York:
2. Sketch the course of French Revolution from W.W. Norton, eighth edition, 1973.
the storming of Bastille to the execution of
Thomas H. Holloway, A Companion to
Robespierre.
Latin American History, Blackwell, 2011.
3. American Revolution and French Revolution
inspired the revolution in Haiti. Substantiate. Jeremy D. Popkin, A Short History of the
French Revolution, Routledge, 2018.
4.
Why did Industrial revolution start in
England first? What impact did it make on Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
modern society? World, Delhi: Orient Longman, 2007.
Gordon S Wood, The American
V. Activity Revolution: A History, Modern Library,
1.
A debate may be organised on 'Had not 2002.
American Revolution succeeded, what would
Encyclopaedia Britannica
have happened?'
GLOSSARY
UNIT
Europe in Turmoil
12
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge in
The rise of socialist ideas and birth of communism.
Chartist movement in England.
Q.R.Code
Significance of the July (1830) and the February (1848) revolutions in
France.
Role of Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi in the Unification of Italy.
Bismarck’s ‘blood and iron policy’ for the Unification of Germany.
The Long Depression and its Impact in Germany and America, 1873-1896.
N
Prussia A = Parma EUROPE AFTER THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA FINLAND W E
Austrian Empire B = Modena S
EMPIRE
RL
KINGDOM OF
OCEAN English Channel
NET
Saxony POLAND
GERMAN
Paris CONFEDERATION
Bavaria Vienna
Bay of
Biscay KINGDOM SWITZ. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
OF FRANCE Savoy
Lombardy ia
Genoa A B enet
V E
DA
Nice
Black Sea
LM A
PORTUGAL C D PAPAL
O
AT dri
STATES TT
IA ati
OF SPAIN PIR
Se
KINGDOM E
a
65 Europe in Turmoil
Europe in Turmoil 66
parties emerged in Europe: the German Social the six key points that the Chartists believed
Democratic Party in 1875, the Belgian Socialist were necessary to reform the electoral system,
Party in 1879, the Paris Commune, 1871 and the was presented and deliberated in these meetings.
establishment of a socialist party in 1905. The The six key points were:
Second International was founded in Paris in 1. Universal suffrage.
1889 which influenced the socialist movement
2. Voting by ballot, to prevent intimidation.
till the outbreak of the First World War.
3. No property qualification for candidates.
Chartism in England
4. Payment of members elected to the House of
Commons, as it would enable the poor people
to contend for office and contest elections.
5. Equal electoral districts and equal
representation.
6. Annual parliaments.
Panicked by rumours that there would be a
popular uprising, the government sent the army
to the industrial areas. In 1842 the workers
struck work in Lancashire and marched from
factory to factory stopping the work, and
Chartist Movement extending and intensifying their action. In 1848,
in the wake of a wave of revolutions that swept
In England the working class lined up
Europe, subsequent to the February Revolution
behind the Chartist movement. The Chartist
of that year in France, masses of workers
movement was not a riot or revolt. It was an
prepared again for confrontation. The state
organised movement. The impact of 1830
stood firm with the backing of the lower middle
French Revolution in England was the outbreak
of militant labour agitation. Different streams of class. The Chartist leaders also vacillated, when
agitation converged to give rise to the Chartist the 50,000 strong crowd at Kennington, south
movement. The chartists propagated their ideas London, began to melt away. In the meantime
through newspapers such as The Poor Man’s the government arrested most of them and
Guardian, The Charter, The Northern Star and turned half of London into an armed camp.
The Chartist Circular. Its principal paper, the Chartism comprised a mixture of different
Northern Star, founded in 1837, soon equalled groups holding different ideas. Its leaders were
the circulation of the Times. Articles published divided between those who believed in winning
in the Northern Star were read out for the over the existing rulers, and those who believed
illiterates in workshops and pubs in every in overthrowing them. Though Chartism was
industrial area. not successful, its main demands, which were
Hundreds of not conceded in the 1832 Reform Act, were
thousands of workers later incorporated in the Parliamentary Reform
attended mass meetings Acts of 1867 and 1884.
held during 1838–39.
July Revolution (1830)
The People's Charter,
prepared by William On 26 July 1830, the Bourbon king Charles
Lovett of the London X issued four ordinances dissolving the Chamber
Working Men’s of Deputies, suspending freedom of the press,
William Lovett
Association, detailing modifying the electoral laws so that three-fourths
of the electorate lost their votes, and calling for new
69 Europe in Turmoil
Nationalism in southern and made them into nations. Conditions suitable for
eastern Europe the rise of Italy and Germany as nation states
In Europe the countries that first achieved developed only in the nineteenth century with
national unity were France, Spain and England. the spread of nationalism.
Italy which had made rich contributions to art
Unification of Italy
and letters was not part of this political change.
Cities in Italy like Rome, Florence, Venice, Italy before Napoleon’s
Naples and Milan were the capitals of small time was a patchwork
states. Hence she became the prey of powerful of little states and petty
kingdoms. Besides, the age of Renaissance princes. Under Napoleon
was an age of intellectual liberty and certainly Italy had been reduced to
not an age of political liberty. The petty states three political divisions.
of Italy, though enlightened in many ways, This step towards unity
were mostly governed by tyrants, such as the was destroyed by the
Medici in Florence, the cruel Visconti in Milan Congress of Vienna. Eight states were set up
and Caesar Borgia in central Italy. What was and the whole of Northern Italy was handed
true of Italy was true of Germany. The Holy over to the German-speaking Austrians. Italy
Roman Empire was an empire only in name. in the nineteenth century was a ‘patchwork
In practice, Germany contained three of four of about a dozen large states and a number of
hundred separate States. It was their kings who smaller ones.’ Metternich described Italy as “a
saved these countries from feudal anarchy and mere geographical expression.” The empire of
N
UNIFICATION OF ITALY W E
SWITZERLAND S
VENETIA
FRANCE LOMBARDY AUSTRIAN
SAVOY Megenta
Solferino EMPIRE
Turin Milan
PARMA Venice
PIEDMONT ROMAGNA OTTOMAN
Nice Genoa MODENA M
AR EMPIRE
Monaco Florence
C
TUSCANY U HE
KINGDOM OF M S
BR
PIEDMONT IA PAPAL
Corsica Ad
(France) Rome STATES ri ati
c S ea
Ty NA
rrh Naples PLE
en S
Sardinia ian
S
ES
ea
I LI
SIC
O
Ionian Sea
W
Not to Scale
NG
Mediterranean Sea
KI
71 Europe in Turmoil
Piedmont-Sardinia, in the northwest, bordering figures of the unification of Italy. Cavour was
France, played a central role in unifying Italy. considered the brain, Mazzini the soul and
To its east Lombardy and Venetia were under Garibaldi the sword-arm of Italian Unification.
the control of the Austrian Empire. It also
controlled a few smaller states such as Tuscany, Mazzini (1805–1872)
Parma and Modena. The Papal States were Giuseppe Mazzini
located in the middle under the control of the laid the foundations of
Roman Catholic Church. In the south was the the Italian unification.
Kingdom of the two Sicilies or Naples and Sicily Born in Genoa in a
was under the control of a family of Bourbon well-to-do family,
dynasty. he graduated in law.
The Napoleonic rule, for the first time, Attracted to politics
provided Italy with a sense of unity through at a young age, he Mazzini
uniform administration. The nationalistic advocated the freedom
aspirations of the Italians were dashed when the of the Italian nation. He involved himself in the
Congress of Vienna restored the old monarchies insurrectionary activities of the Carbonari for
in the various Italian principalities. The 1820s which he was arrested. He soon gave up the idea
witnessed the mushrooming of several secret of secret plotting and began to believe in open
societies such as the Carbonari, advocating propaganda against monarchy. He believed that
liberal and patriotic ideas. They kept alive the Italy was a great civilisation that could provide
ideas of liberalism and nationalism. Revolts leadership to the rest of the world. He started
broke out in Naples, Piedmont and Lombardy. the Young Italy movement in 1831 with the
However, they were crushed by Austria. aim of an Italian Republic. Exiled for working
for the cause of unification of Italy in 1848,
In the wake of the 1830 Revolution in
when revolts were breaking out all over North
France, similar rebellions broke out in Modena,
Italy, Mazzini returned to Rome. The Pope was
Parma and Papal States which were again
driven away and a republic declared under a
crushed by Austria. In 1848, following the
committee of three, of which Mazzini was a
February Revolution in France, the people
member. But with the failure of 1848 Revolution
again rose in revolt in several Italian states
and the restoration of Rome to Pope with the
including Piedmont-Sardinia, Sicily, Papal
support of the French, Mazzini carried on his
States, Milan and Lombardy and Venetia. As
work by propaganda and preparing for the next
a result liberal constitutions were granted in
programme of action.
Sicily, Piedmont Sardinia and the Papal States.
King Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia, Count Cavour (1810–1861)
under the influence of the Revolution, invaded
Lombardy and Venetia. However, the Austrians Count Cavour was
defeated him with the help of Russian troops. one of those inspired
Charles Albert saved Piedmont-Sardinia from by the idea of Italian
Austrian occupation by taking the blame upon nationalism. In 1847
himself for the war and abdicated in favour he started a newspaper.
of his son Victor Emmanuel II. However, The Italian unification
despite the defeat of Pidemont-Sardinia and movement came to be
the suppression of revolution in various Italian known after the name
of the newspaper as Count Cavour
principalities, liberal and nationalistic ideas
survived. Il Risorgimento. The
Risorgimento (the resurrection of Italian spirit)
Mazzini, Count Camillo di Cavour, and
was an ideological and literary movement that
Giuseppe Garibaldi were the three central
Europe in Turmoil 72
Europe in Turmoil 74
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
N
W E
S
DENMARK LI
BALTIC S EA T
H
Kon i gs b erg
UA
N O RT H S C H L E S WI G
NIA
SEA Danzig EAST
PRUSSIA
HOLSTEIN ECK
LUB WEST
P O M E R A N I A
H ambur g PRUSSIA
ME C K L EN B U R G - Stettin
G
SC H W ER I N
UR
S
Bremen
NB
D
El
N
ba
DE
LA
POSEN vist
OL
H A N O V E R ula
BERLIN RUSSIAN
ER
(POSNANIA)
Hanover
EMPIRE
H
ET
Posen
M ün s t e r B R A N D E N B U R G
oder
N
G E R M A N E M P I R E
Rh
POLAND
in
WESTPHALIA Kassel S
Leipzig I
Cologne Dresden L Breslau
E
Y S
U
N I
O
A
Coblence THURINGIA X A
UM
HESSE A
S
S
A
BELGI
L UX E M B U R G GALICIA
Frankfurt BOHEMIA
A B A V A R I A
IN North German Confederation
E
WURTEMBERG
FRANCE Other German States
CE
Munich
A
ALSA
AUSTRIA
HOHENZOLLERN German Empire’s Boundary in 1871
Not to Scale
SW ITZER LA N D
Europe in Turmoil 76
and children) rose from $380 in 1880 to $564 result the steelworkers ultimately lost the strike.
in 1890. However, the Gilded Age was also an The Pullman Strike of 1894, a national railroad
era of abject poverty and inequality, as millions strike, involving the American Railway Union,
of immigrants – many from impoverished was smashed by armed police and Pinkerton
regions – poured into the United States. The private detectives were hired by the employers
high concentration of wealth in a few hands was to shoot down strikers.
becoming more visible.
Then came the Depression. It was signalled
by the collapse of the Vienna Stock Market in
May 1873. The Depression was world-wide and
lasted till 1896, and is referred to as the Long
Depression. It affected Europe and the US very
much. American railroads became bankrupt.
German shares fell by 60 percent. Agriculture
was most affected, as there was a fall in prices.
Many countries responded by imposing
protective tariffs to prevent competition. Pullman Strike
In Germany, the Socialist Democratic Party
(SDP) emerged as a popular party. However,
Bismarck introduced anti-socialist legislations
to check the growth of socialism. Despite this
support for the party grew. With the repeal of
the anti-socialist laws after 1890, socialist trade
unions were able to function openly. SDP’s share
of Reichstag seats increased from 3 percent in
1887 to 20 percent in 1903.
Panic of 1873 In Britain, in the 1880s, the famous Match
Girls Strike by the women and teenage girls
The Gilded age was also an era of intense
working in Bryant and May Match Factory ended
mass mobilisation of working classes. Socialist
in the victory of strikers. There was also a dock
and labour movements emerged in many
strike (1889) in the port of London. Cardinal
countries as a mass phenomenon. When
Manning intervened and mediated on behalf of the
industrial capitalism was at its peak in the US,
strikers with the dock owners. But, in the 1890s,
nearly 100,000 workers went on strike each year.
In 1892, for example, 1,298 strikes involving
some 164,000 workers took place across the
nation. Trade Unions, aiming at protecting
workers’ wages, hours of labour, and working
conditions, were on the rise.
Capitalists who could not reconcile to the
rise of trade unions launched a counter offensive.
The socialists suffered persecution.The strike
at the Carnegie Steel Company’s Homestead
Steel Works in 1892 culminated in a gun battle
between unionised workers and men hired
by the company to break the strike. The state
supported the company management and as a Match Girls Strike
Europe in Turmoil 78
9.
Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon (a) Denmark and Prussia
Bonaparte, assumed the title __________ (b) Piedmont-Sardinia and Austria
(a) Napoleon II (b) Napoleon III (c) France and Prussia
(c) Duke of Orleans (d) Napoleon IV (d) Austria and Prussia
The author of Code de la Nature is
10. 17. The Franco-Prussian War was triggered by
__________ __________
(a) Charles Fourier (a) Convention of Gastein
(b) Étienne-Gabriel Morally (b) Ems telegram
(c ) Saint Simon (c) The treaty of Prague
Europe in Turmoil 80
81 Europe in Turmoil
GLOSSARY
dogma
a belief especially political or சமயக்கொள்கை, அரசியல்
religious one. க�ோட்பாடு
envisage predict or foresee எதிர்நோக்கு
recourse choice, alternative மாற்று, விருப்பேற்பு
antagonism hostility முரண்பாடு, குர�ோதம்
prophesy prediction, forecast முன்னறிவித்தல், தீர்க்கதரிசனம்
suffrage right to vote, franchise வாக்குரிமை
intimidation frightening, terrorising அச்சுறுத்தல், மிரட்டல்
insurrection revolt, uprising கிளர்ச்சி, கலகம்
resign from one’s office or step
abdicate down from the throne; fail to fulfill பதவி, அரியணை
ப�ோன்றவற்றைத் துற
responsibility
swarmed moved in திரளாக நுழை
make an attack in return for a
retaliate
similar attack பதிலடி க�ொடு
Europe in Turmoil 82
UNIT
Imperialism and its Onslaught
13
Learning Objectives
83
became identical. The Mercantilist period barriers were reduced and the economies
(1600–1700) was a period of accumulation of of western European nations boomed. The
capital that facilitated the industrial revolution capitalism of free competition (based on the
in Europe. The leading powers of the time, principle of free trade without any control
Holland, France and England, became major or regulation by the state) later became the
colonial powers with access to overseas markets. capitalism of monopolies. In the battle of
Yet it was England, accomplishing industrial competition, as Marx observed, little business
revolution first, that emerged as the most was either crushed by big business or merged
powerful country. The export markets for with it to make still larger big business. By the
England existed initially in Europe. But as other middle of the nineteenth century partnerships
countries began to industrialise, the market for and joint-stock companies were giving way to
export of surplus manufactures had to be found trusts, followed by cartels. These powerful trusts
elsewhere. and cartels influenced governments.
these raw materials. The desire for markets and them, leaving a few areas to Germany and
control of the sources of raw materials was a Italy. Britain, France, Russia and Germany also
major factor in the making of imperialism. established “spheres of influence” in China.
After the 1870s, England, along with major Japan took over Korea and Taiwan. France
powers such as France, Belgium, Italy, and conquered Indo-China; the US the Philippines
Germany joined in the scramble for colonies as from Spain, while Britain and Russia agreed to
a market for surplus goods. America’s turn came partition Iran.
in 1898 when it defeated Spain and seized the The attempts to carve out colonies in
Philippines. It is interesting to note that in every Africa, as happened elsewhere, involved them in
case, whether in India or China or Africa, the first bloody battles in which the indigenous people
step towards integration of explored territories lost. New weapons such as breech-loading
was taken by imperial agents or missionaries or rifles and Gatling machine guns gave European
monopolistic trading companies. In less than armies the decisive edge in most of the battles.
twenty years the whole of Central Africa was
(b) M
onopoly Capitalism leading
partitioned and incorporated in the empires of
to full-fledged Imperialism
Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal
and Italy. Monopoly industry brought huge profits
In 1876 barely 10 percent of Africa was to its owners. The result was accumulation
under European rule. By 1900 practically the of surplus money. The captains of industry
whole of Africa was colonised. Britain, France found out that by exporting capital abroad
and Belgium had divided the continent between they could earn increased profits. They
began to invest the surplus money in
Partition of Africa: In 1876 King Leopold II colonies where there was a pressing need for
of Belgium took the lead in exploring and railways, electricity, roads, etc. Apart from
seizing through his International African direct investment, loans were also arranged
Association, a great rubber producing region, from the “mother country”. When England
what is now known as Belgian Congo. In made loans to India for the constructions of
1881 a French expedition occupied Tunis, railways, the rails, engines and other required
to the great displeasure of the Italians who accessories were purchased in England again
had been longing to annex it. In 1891 they at a profit to English manufacturers. Thus
occupied the Ivory Coast, Dahomey in 1892 both investors and manufacturers found it
and Madagascar in 1895. Great Britain, apart in their interests to support colonialism.
from conquering Natal and the Transvaal in This alliance of industry and finance seeking
south Africa, annexed many parts of Africa. profits in markets of goods and capital was
In 1883 Great Britain succeeded in securing the essential characteristic of imperialism.
control over Egypt. The Gold Coast colonies,
Uganda, Zanzibar, part of East Africa, and English economist
Rhodesia became part of the British Empire. John A. Hobson defined
Between 1884 and 1890 Germany acquired Imperialism as follows:
Togoland, the Cameroons, German South- Imperialism is the
West Africa and German East Africa. The endeavour of the great
scramble for territory among the great controllers of industry to
European powers resulted in the completion broaden the channel for
of partition of “The Dark Continent of Africa” the flow of their surplus John A. Hobson
by the end of the century. Only countries such wealth by seeking foreign markets and
as Liberia, Morocco and Abyssinia remained foreign investments to take off the goods and
un-annexed. capital they cannot sell or use at home.
(i) T
he Evolution of the System of (ii) I
nternational Crises between
Alliances 1905 and 1913
The evolution of the system of alliances Morocco
goes back to the 1870s. Its original architect Relying on their understanding with
was Bismarck. Bismarck feared that the French, England (Entente Cordiale, 1904) the French
on losing Alsace and Lorraine, might launch a decided to go ahead with their plan in Morocco.
war of revenge. Therefore he was determined Early in 1905, a French mission arrived at Fez,
to isolate France. His Three Emperors League a city in Morocco, treating it as a part of French
87 Imperialism and its Onslaught
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were turned down by Austria. Britain tried to years the United States gave only moral support
localise the war. On 28 July Austria declared war and (valuable) material aid to Britain and France.
on Serbia and bombarded Belgrade. Even as Russia
Battle of the Frontiers
was mobilising forces to intervene in support of
Western Front, 1914
Serbia, Germany struck first. It declared war on
Belgians could do little in the face of German
Russia and its ally France on 1 August.
invasion except to make a formal protest against
Britain was against involving itself in the War.
the violation of their neutrality. So the burden
But on 3 August, an appeal came from the King
of breaking the advancing German army fell
of Belgium asking for British help. Belgium was
on the French. The French could not stop the
not on the side of the Allies. Yet it was invaded
overwhelming force of invasion. The first German
by Germany. The German violation of Belgian
advance was within twenty miles of Paris. The
neutrality was viewed seriously. It had been the
panicked French government had to move to
age-long policy of Britain that the Belgian coast
Bordeaux.
should not be in the hands of any adjacent Great
Powers, which might use those shores as a basis Eastern Front, 1914
for invasion. So in pursuance of this principle On the Eastern Front, the Russian forces
of national security Britain now decided to penetrated far into East Prussia, In the battle of
fight Germany. On 3 August an ultimatum was Tannenberg Russia suffered heavy losses on account
served on Germany demanding its immediate of the decisive role played by Von Hindenburg.
withdrawal from Belgian soil. On 4 August Britain The German general Hindenburg later began the
and Germany were at war. invasion of Russian Poland. But trapped in a two-
front war, Germany never had sufficient resources
(c) Course of the War to consolidate its victories in the east.
War Spreads Though the wars fought in the Eastern Front
Following Britain’s plunge into the war other turned out to be a disaster for Allies, this caused
nations were quickly drawn into the conflict. distraction and helped to relieve the pressure on
Montenegro joined with the Serbia on 7 August France. In the Battle of the Marne (6–13 September
in fighting Austria. Two weeks later the Japanese 1914), the French succeeded in stopping the
declared war on Germany, with the intention of German advance. By 13 September the Germans
conquering German possessions in the Far East. had been thrust back about fifty miles. Paris was
In October Turkey began the bombardment of thus saved.
Russian ports in the Black Sea. Italy maintained
neutrality until May 1915, but was dragged into Conquest of German Colonies
the war on the side of Triple Entente powers, with One important result of the British command
the promise of Austrian and Turkish territories. of the seas was that the Germans were unable to
send aid to their colonies. So, all of them, except
Central Powers and Allies
German East Africa, were captured during the
The warring nations were grouped into two,
first few months of the war.
namely the Central Powers
and the Axis. The Central Western Front, 1915
Powers consisted of Germany, After the first German effort to annihilate
Austria–Hungary, Turkey and Q.R.Code France had failed, the opposing armies on the
Bulgaria. The nine states that Western Front settled down to trench warfare,
opposed the Central powers digging in along a 650 km front from the English
were: Russia, France, Britain, Channel to Switzerland. Behind a barbed
Italy, the United States, Belgium, Serbia, Romania wire, machine-guns and artillery on each side
and Greece. Most Americans wanted their country confronted the other for almost four years in a war
to remain neutral and therefore in the first three of attrition.
Imperialism and its Onslaught 90
Trench Warfare: The bullets and shells Q Ships and U Boats: During the First World
flying through the air in the battle War Germany's most fearsome weapon was
conditions of First World War compelled the submarine or U-Boat. The Germans
soldiers to burrow into the soil to obtain adopted a strategy to starve Britain by sinking
shelter and survive. Trenches or ditches every ship it could. 880,000 tons of shipping
dug by troops enabled them to protect went to the bottom of the seas in one month
themselves from the effects of shell-fire. The alone. The Q-ships were Britain's answer to
Germans supplied their infantry with deep, the Germany. The British sent more than
well-constructed dug-outs, lit by electric 200 steamers, trawlers, and cargo vessels in
light, and furnished with beds. The typical a disguised form of a cargo ship and pressed
trench system in World War consisted of into action against the U-boat menace. The
two to four trench lines running parallel to idea was to lure the U-boats into attacking
each other. Each trench was dug in a zigzag these decoy ships which would unleash its
manner so that no enemy, standing at one hidden armed force and weaponry.
end, could fire for more than a few yards
down its length. The main lines of trenches
were connected to each other and to the War in Eastern front, 1917
rear by a series of linking trenches through The breakthrough in the east for the
which food, ammunition, fresh troops, Central Powers came with the overthrow of
mail, and orders were delivered. Russia’s Tsarist regime in the February 1917
revolution, allowing Germany to concentrate its
efforts in the west. Soviet Russia wanted peace
Battles of Somme and Verdun,
and consequently it signed the Treaty of Brest-
1916
Litovsk (3 March 1918) with Germany.
Germans thought a protracted battle on
a large scale would wear down the French
The Gallipoli Campaign of 1915–16: Also
morale. So they attacked Verdun, the famous
known as the Dardanelles Campaign, it
fortress in the French line, between February
was an unsuccessful attempt by the Allied
and July 1916. The losses on both sides were
Powers to control the sea route from Europe
terrible. The main burden of taking a principal
to Russia. Lack of sufficient intelligence and
part in the campaign in France, however, fell
knowledge of the terrain, along with fierce
on Great Britain. The British offensive against
Turkish resistance, hampered the success of
Germans occurred near the River Somme.
the invasion. By mid-October, Allied forces
The battle of Verdun, in which two million
had suffered heavy casualties and had made
people took part, along with Battle of Somme,
little headway from their initial landing sites.
however, decided the fortunes of the War in
favour of the Allies.
The Battle of Cambrai: (November–
Jutland, 1916
December 1917) This battle in Cambrai,
At sea, the main battle was fought in May France, was significant for the first use of
1916 off the Jutland peninsula, Denmark. The tanks by the British on a large scale. Germans
battle was inconclusive. The Battle of Jutland were taken completely by surprise when 340
is remembered as the largest naval battle of tanks appeared suddenly.
the First World War. Naval battles ended
when (1916) the German government
America’s Entry into the War
authorised unrestricted submarine warfare to
The intensified submarine campaign brought
combat the Allied naval blockade.
America into the war. The British liner, Lusitania,
was sunk in May 1915 by a German submarine Georges Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France)
with the loss of 128 American lives. President played an important part in the deliberations.
Woodrow Wilson who managed to maintain The peace was based on the Woodrow Wilson’s
American neutrality for nearly two years finally 14-point programme.
yielded to the pressure from the people of America
and declared war against Germany in April 1917. President Wilson’s peace proposals
America’s entry with its enormous resources included: 1. Open covenants openly
made Allied victory a foregone conclusion. arrived at. 2. Freedom of the seas.
3. Removal of economic barriers between
nations. 4. Reduction of armaments.
5. Impartial settlement of colonial claims,
with consideration for the interests of
the peoples involved, 6. Russia should be
allowed to operate whatever government
it wanted and that government should
Lusitania be accepted, supported and welcomed.
7. Restoration of the independence of
Allies Deserting Germany Belgium. 8. Restoration of Alsace and
On 3 November 1918 Emperor Charles, who Lorraine to France. 9. readjustment of Italian
succeeded Francis Joseph, signed an armistice frontiers on lines of nationality. 10. National
which took Austria out of power. But in the last Self-Determination. 11. Restoration of
few weeks of the war, Germany was deserted by Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, with
all its allies. The first to surrender was Bulgaria. outlet to sea for Serbia. 12. Autonomous
The Turks opted for an armistice. Germany was development for the peoples of Turkey,
now left with the impossible task of carrying on with the Straits from the Black Sea to the
the struggle alone. The morale of German troops Mediterranean “permanently opened.”
was low. The blockade of the Allies was causing 13. An independent Poland, inhabited by
enormous distress to the people of Germany. indisputably Polish populations and with
Kaiser abdicated the throne and fled to Holland. In access to the sea. 14. A League of Nations.
the meantime a provisional government headed
by Friedrich Ebert, leader of the socialists in the Faced with a threat of a renewed war,
Reichstag, took steps to conclude negotiations for the German government was forced to agree
an armistice. On 11 November Germany signed to the terms. On 28 June 1919 the peace
the surrender. treaty was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at
(d)Peace Conference in Paris Versailles.
of the soviets. The soviets were dominated by government was in office. Its head was Lenin.
Mensheviks and the minority Bolsheviks were The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian
undecided. The situation changed with the Communist Party.
arrival of Lenin.
Outcome of the Revolution
Failure of the Provisional Lenin thought the most important factor
Government for the fall of the Provisional government was
Lenin was in Switzerland when the its failure to withdraw from the War. So Lenin
revolution broke out. Lenin wanted continued immediately appealed for peace. Unmindful
revolution. His slogan of ‘All power to the of the harsh terms dictated by the Central
Soviets’ soon won over the workers’ leaders. Powers, Lenin opted for withdrawing from the
Devastated by war time shortages, the people War to concentrate on the formation of a new
were attracted by the slogan of ‘Bread, Peace government. In March 1918 the Treaty of Brest–
and Land.’ Litovsk was signed.
The Provisional government made two
grave mistakes. It postponed a decision on the
demand for the redistribution of land apart from
deciding to continue with the war. Frustrated
peasant soldiers deserted their posts and joined
those who had resorted to land grabbing.
This intensified the rising in Petrograd led by
the Bolsheviks. The government banned the
newspaper Pravda and arrested all Bolsheviks
except Lenin who was in hiding in Finland. Leon
Treaty of Brest–Litovsk
Trotsky was also arrested. Kerensky became
prime minister, leading a new coalition of Influence of the Russian
liberals and moderate Socialists. Faced with an Revolution
attempted coup Kerensky tried to dismiss both
The revolution fired people’s imagination
the government and the Soviet. His attempts
across the world. In many countries, communist
were frustrated by the Soviet and particularly
parties were formed. Soviet Union encouraged
by the Bolsheviks who had by then attained
the colonies to fight for their freedom and gave
popularity.
all out support to them. Debates over key issues,
Pravda is a Russian word meaning land reforms, social welfare, workers’ rights,
“Truth”. It was the official newspaper of the gender equality started taking place in a global
Communist Party of the Soviet Union from context.
1918 to 1991. The rapid progress made by the Soviet
Union in the decades after the revolution
Takeover by the Bolshevik Party inspired backward countries across the world,
under Lenin’s leadership and provided an alternative to capitalism.
In October Lenin persuaded the Bolshevik Illiteracy and poverty were eliminated in record
Central Committee to decide on an immediate time. Industry and agriculture developed
revolution. Trotsky prepared a detailed plan. remarkably, and the Great Depression which
On 7 November key government buildings, affected the entire world made no impact on
including the Winter Palace and the Prime the USSR. Women were given equal rights.
Minister’s headquarters, were seized by armed Industries and banks were nationalised. Land
factory workers and revolutionary troops. was declared as social property and distributed
On 8 November 1917 a new Communist among poor peasants.
Imperialism and its Onslaught 96
of two large German banks. Having lent liberally vanquished nations like Italy and Germany
to banks abroad, the Bank of England too found switched to fascism though movements which
itself in bankruptcy. initially had many of the characteristics of mass
organisations.
Results of the Depression
Despite emergency measures such as (a) Fascism in Italy
cutbacks in expenditure and increased taxation, The first of the nations of Western Europe
the situation did not improve in England. In to turn against the old ruling regime was Italy.
order to counteract this and to protect domestic During World War I Italy mobilised more
markets, each nation adopted a policy of than five and a half million men, of whom
protectionism and devaluation of currency. nearly 700,000 were killed. The financial cost
Devaluation forced creditors to stop lending. of the participation in the War was huge. The
This led to a world-wide credit contraction. country had suffered heavy losses in a war
Thus the defensive measures adopted by various that was unpopular with both socialists and
nations led to an unprecedented decline in pro-Austrian Catholics. The nationalists were
world economic activity. As its effect was deep equally unhappy with the marginal gain in
and prolonged economists and historians call it territory from the Treaty of Versailles. The War
the Great Depression. resulted in inflation with consequent rise in
Reflection in Politics prices, speculation and profiteering. There were
The Depression changed the political frequent protests and strikes. People held the
conditions in several countries. In England, rulers of Italy responsible for the humiliation at
the Labour Party was defeated in the general Versailles.
elections of 1931. In the USA, the Republican Rise of Socialist Organisations
Party, which had taken credit for the boom As hardship increased, socialist ideas began
preceding the Depression, was rejected by the to spread. In 1918 Italian socialists voted to join
people in successive elections for about twenty the Communist International. In the election of
years after the Depression. As we will see below, November 1919 they won about a third of the
the Fascist Parties seized government in Italy seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Radicalism
and Germany. In South America, Argentina, spread even in rural areas. Red Leagues were
Brazil and Chile saw a change of government. organised to break up large estates and to
force landlords to reduce their rents. To the
13.7 (a) Rise of Fascism landowning class fascism was a less dangerous
and Nazism form of radicalism that could save their property
In the aftermath of the First World War, from confiscation.
the issue in most parts of continental Europe The Rise of Mussolini
was whether the government and the economic Benito Mussolini
system should continue under the control (1883–1945), was a
of feudal aristocracies, industrialists and son of a blacksmith.
financiers, or a combination of all of them. But He qualified as an
none of these elite classes had won over the elementary school
masses, especially the peasantry and the labour. master and left for
The masses in the emerging situation saw an further study in
opportunity to overthrow their oppressors. In Switzerland but ended
Russia the bourgeoisie overturned the autocracy up as a journalist with Mussolini
in 1917 and were themselves overturned by the socialist views. He became the editor of Avanti,
Bolsheviks. In Britain the Labour Party handled the leading socialist daily. When the Fascist
the situation by opting for a welfare state. The Party was founded in 1919 Mussolini joined
it immediately. As Fascists stood for authority, In 1938 Parliament was abolished and was
strength and discipline, support came from replaced by a body representing the Fascist Party
industrialists, nationalists, ex-soldiers, the and the corporations. This new arrangement
middle classes and discontented youth. Fascists bolstered Mussolini’s dictatorial control of
resorted to violence freely and their opponents the economy, as well as enabling him to wield
were attacked with knives, cudgels and guns. untrammelled power as head of the administration
The Fascist dictatorship arose out of the and the armed forces. Thus Mussolini destroyed
breakdown of the parliamentary government parliamentary government, trade unions and all
which had proved unable to cope with the democratic institutions.
disorders following the end of the War. The
Mussolini’s Pact with Pope
inability of the Democratic Party leaders to
In order to give respectability to the Fascist
combine and act decisively facilitated Mussolini’s
Party, Mussolini won over the Roman Catholic
triumph. What threatened to become a civil war
Church by recognising the Vatican City as
between the communists and their opponents
an independent state. In return the Church
was ended by the march of the black-shirted
recognised the Kingdom of Italy. The Roman
Fascists on Rome (October 1922). Impressed by
Catholic faith was made the religion of Italy and
the show of force, the King Immanuel III invited
compulsory religious teaching in school was
Mussolini to form a government.
ordered. The Lateran Treaty incorporating the
Fascism: The word Fascism derives above provisions was signed in 1929.
its origin from the Latin fasces, the ax
surrounded by a bundle of rods representing
the authority of the Roman state.
‘Fascism is a form of radical authoritarian
ultra-nationalism, characterised by dictatorial
power, forcible suppression of opposition
and strong regimentation of society and of
the economy, which came to prominence in The Lateran Treaty
early 20th-century Europe’.
Great Depression Years
Fascists under Mussolini In 1929 the United States plunged into
In the 1924 elections, after intimidation of a great financial and commercial slump. The
the electors, the Fascists won 65 per cent of the effect on the rest of the world was grave. By
votes. Matteotti, a socialist leader, who questioned 1931 European trade and finance was totally
the fairness of the elections was murdered. The paralysed. Though the Fascist government in
opposition parties boycotted the Parliament in Italy could boast of achievements during this
protest. Mussolini reacted by banning opposition period in the much publicised public works –
parties and censoring the press. Opposition
new bridges, roads and canals, hospitals and
leaders were killed or imprisoned.
schools – it could not solve the unemployment
Assuming the title of Il Duce (the leader),
problem. By 1935, when the collapse of the
in 1926 Mussolini became a dictator with power
League of Nations had become complete,
to legislate. He passed a law forbidding strikes
and lockouts. Unions and employers were Mussolini in order to have an economic empire
organised into corporations which would settle for Italy invaded Ethiopia. This was useful
wages and working conditions. The greater part to divert attention away from the economic
of the rest of the population was grouped into troubles. Mussolini’s success drew admiration
corporations, according to occupation. These from ruling classes elsewhere in Europe. Among
were then organised into national federations them was a rising figure among nationalist, anti-
and supervised by the Minister of Corporations. Semitic circles in Munich: Adolf Hitler.
Nazi party were declared illegal. The army of the armed forces. By 1938 the Nazi Party had
brown-shirted and jack-booted storm-troopers tightened its control over the army. Hitler’s
was expanded. The Hitler Youth was created, foreign policy aimed at restoring the armed
and the Labour Front set up. Trade unions were strength of Germany and annulling provisions of
abolished, their leaders were arrested and all Versailles Treaty which undermined Germany.
workers were compelled to join the German His deliberate attempts to breach the Treaty of
Labour Front. Strikes were made illegal, wages Versailles (discussed in the next lesson) led to
were fixed by the government, and the Labour the outbreak of Second World War.
Front was used by the Nazis to control industry.
Total state control was extended over the Summary
press, the theatre, the cinema, radio and over
education. � Transition from Mercantilism to Industrial
capitalism and then to financial capitalism
The Nazi Party’s propaganda was led by
culminating in Imperialism is explained.
Joseph Goebbels, who manipulated public
opinion through planned propaganda. He � Markets for selling surplus manufactured
once said, ‘any lie frequently repeated will goods and for obtaining raw materials
ultimately gain belief.’ The Gestapo or Secret leading to search for colonies and the
State Police was formed and run by Himmler, resultant conflict amongst great powers in
who controlled the select bodyguard of Hitler. Europe are discussed.
Defiance of the Treaty of Versailles � The League of Nations and its role in
In August 1934 Hindenburg died and promoting peace are critically examined.
Hitler, apart from being Chancellor, became � Rise of Fascist governments and their
both President and Commander-in-Chief of fallout are described.
16. Assertion (A): The Great Depression which 9. How did the League of Nations resolve the
affected the entire world had made no dispute between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925?
impact on USSR.
10. How did the Lateran Treaty help Mussolini
Reason (R): Land was declared as social in legitimising his authority?
property and distributed among poor
Peasants. 11. What was the Third Reich?
(a) A and R are correct. R explains A. 12. What were the two underground movements
(b) A and R are correct but R does not explain A. which thrived in Germany after the French
(c) A is correct but R is wrong. occupation of Ruhr?
(d) A is wrong. R is correct. III. Write short answers
17. The first Secretary General of the League 1. How did the first Moroccan crisis happen?
of Nations Eric Drummond belonged to
2. How was Trench Warfare fought?
(a) France (b) South Africa 3. What do you know of the fearsome U-boats
(c) Britain (d) USA and Q-ships?
18.
The League of Nations was dissolved in 4.
Highlight the sequence of events after
America’s entry into the War.
(a) 1939 (b) 1941 (c) 1945 (d) 1946 5. Analyse the impact of Russian Revolution on
19. Who designated Hitler as the Chancellor of the world outside Russia.
Germany?
6. Examine the causes and consequences of the
(a) General Ludendorff 1905 Revolution in Russia.
(b) Von Hindenburg
7. Highlight the successful accomplishments of
(c) General Smuts
League of Nations.
(d) Alfred von Bethmann
8.
How did the impact of Great Depression
20. What was the name of journal Mussolini
reflect in politics?
edited?
(a) Avanti (b) Pravda IV. A
nswers the following in
(c) Marxist (d) Mein Kampf detail
II. Write brief answers 1. Enumerate the causes and the consequences
1. Explain the concept of Imperialism as defined of the First World War.
by John A. Hobson. 2. “Marx supplied sparks and Lenin lit the fire”-
2. W
hy did Germany want to isolate France? Elucidate.
2. Teachers to guide the students to locate the � Edward McNall Burns, Western
war fronts and to make a comparison of the Civilizations, vol. 2 (New York:
map of pre-World War I and the redrawn W.W. Norton, 1972).
post-War map. � Richard Overy (ed.) Complete History of the
3. Students to debate on successes and failures World (London: Harper Collins, 2007).
of the League of Nations. � Chris Harman, A People’s History of the
4. Students and teachers are to make use of World (New Delhi: Orient Longman,
videos of Khan Academy in Google on 2007).
Fascism. � H.A. Davies, An Outline History of the World
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
REFERENCES � K.A. Manikumar, A Colonial Economy in
� R.D. Cornwell, World History in the Twentieth the Great Depression: Madras (1929–1937),
Century (London: Longman, 1972). (Hyderabad: Orient Longman, 2003).
GLOSSARY
ammunition
any nuclear, chemical or biological material பேரழிவை ஏற்படுத்தும்
that can be used as a weapon of destruction வெடிப�ொருட்கள்
trawler a fishing boat மீன்பிடிப் படகு
a formal agreement to stop fighting for a
armistice
particular time. தற்காலிகப் ப�ோர் நிறுத்தம்
jackboot
a heavy military boot extending above the முழங்கால் வரையிருக்கும்
knee காலணி
lunatic a person who is mentally ill பித்துப்பிடித்த
annulling abolishing, invalidating ரத்து செய்தல், ஒழித்தல்
ICT CORNER
Imperialism and its Onslaught
Step - 1 Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
Step - 2 Click on ‘map’ to see the events happened in the location and select any
year from the bottom timeline (Ex.1914)
Step - 3 Select the ‘box’ on the map to learn more about the World War I events.
Learning Objectives
Alsace and Lorraine to France and to agree to When Hitler came to power in 1933, a
the temporary occupation by French troops of Disarmament Conference was organised by
the Saar valley. Germany was also compelled to the League of Nations at Geneva. The issue
hand over to Poland large parts of the industrial was the German rearmament plan on a par
area of Silesia. Further Germany was to pay with France. The French refused to agree to
an impossible sum (6600 million pounds) in this proposal, while Britain was willing to
reparation. These terms gave rise to a strong concede Germany’s demand. Hitler’s response
feeling of injustice in Germany and had much do to French refusal was withdrawal of Germany
with the subsequent success of the Nazi Politics. from the conference and from the League of
Italy felt aggrieved as Dalmatia, claimed to be Nations. A plebiscite in Germany showed
predominantly Italian, was incorporated in the enormous support in favour of Hitler’s step.
new state of Yugoslavia. Reduced to the status Encouraged, in March 1935, Hitler announced
of a small republic, Austria was not allowed to Germany’s intention of building up an army by
unite with Germany as the combination would conscription to over half a million men. This
be a threat to France. was the first breach of the Treaty of Versailles.
The League of Nations attended by Britain,
(b) Failure of the League of Nations
France and Italy condemned Germany’s action
The League of Nations, envisaged as an
but took no further steps. Britain even went to
international body to avert another world war,
the extent of negotiating a naval agreement.
turned out to be an alliance of the victors against
According to this agreement, Germany could
the vanquished. The seeds for another war were
build up to 35 per cent of Britain’s naval
sowed ever since the Treaty of Versailles was
strength.
signed.
From 1918 to 1933 a series of conferences
were held to eliminate threats of war. In 1925,
representatives of the chief European powers
met at Locarno, a Swiss town, where Germany
and France agreed to respect the Rhine frontiers,
as established in the Versailles treaty. The next
agreement widely appreciated was the Kellogg–
Briand Pact of 1928. Though the US did not
become a member of the League of Nations, it
participated in this meet. The outcome of this
pact was the pledge of all nations of the world Disarmament Conference, Geneva
to renounce war as “an instrument of national
policy”. But the League of Nations was not Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. Emperor
strong enough to enforce these agreements Haile Selassie of Ethiopia appealed to the League
when some countries defied them. of Nations, but received no help.
the Great Depression and political instability Sudetenland was launched. The British Prime
leading to the resignation of Prime Minister Minister, Neville Chamberlain, after consulting
Edouard Daladier rendered France incapable of the French and the Czechs, eventually agreed
resisting the breach of the Treaty of Versailles to cede to Germany all territories where more
by Germany. than half the inhabitants were German. But
to the warmonger Hitler, this proposition
was unacceptable. He was keen to avoid any
plebiscite in this matter. So he wanted his army
to occupy Sudetenland before such a plebiscite
could take place.
Munich Agreement
The mood in London was in favour of a
war against Hitler. But Chamberlain and his
counterpart in France were bent on buying
peace at any cost – a policy called ‘appeasement’.
A conference was held at Munich where the
Rhineland in German occupation British, French, German and Italian premiers
agreed that the German army should occupy
(iii) Forcible Merger of Austria with Germany the Sudetenland, as demanded by Hitler,
Hitler, an Austrian by birth, had always on 1 October and that parts of Czechoslovakia
wanted Austria to be part of Germany. In should go to Poland and Hungary.
February 1938, Hitler summoned the Austrian
Chancellor Schuschnigg to Berchtesgaden,
a mountain town in the Bavarian Alps, for a
discussion. The Austrian Chancellor was given
a Hobson’s choice – either to legalise Nazi Party
in Austria and integrate Austria’s economy
with that of Germany or face a German
invasion. Austria has lost the support of Italy
with the formation of the Rome–Berlin Axis.
Schuschnigg was therefore left with no choice
but to choose the first option. At the instance
of Hitler, the Austrian Chancellor cancelled the
proposed plebiscite in Austria and formed a
Nazi government there. Thereupon the German
army entered Vienna to take control of the Munich Agreement
country.
(v) Aggression against Czechoslovakia
(iv) Occupation of Sudetenland The Czechs felt betrayed. The new frontiers
Encouraged by the lack of resistance from of Czechoslovakia had been guaranteed by
major European powers, Hitler turned his the four powers at the Munich Conference.
attention towards Czechoslovakia. In June 1938, Chamberlain claimed that the deal had averted
Hitler sent directions to his army about his another massive European war. But using the
intention of invading Sudetenland. A systematic conflict between the Slovaks and the Czechs as
Nazi propaganda that their German subjects an excuse, Hitler sent German forces to occupy
were being subjected to harsh treatment in the conflict zone.
Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies 110
12th_History_EM_Unit_14_V2.indd 111
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Berlin Danzig
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Rhineland
Czechoslovakia
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FRANCE Rome Ma
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OF AMERICA erranea Sicily
Medit KOREA JAPAN
Atlantic Casablanca CHINA Tokyo
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El Alamein Hiroshima Midway
EGYPT
Hawaiian Islan
ds Ocean INDIA Nagasaki
Formosa
https://t.me/UPSC_PDF
BURMA INDOCHINA
Pearl Harbour
PHILIPPINES
ETHIOPIA
MALAYA
SINGAPORE
https://telegram.me/CivilServices_UPSC
Pacific Indian
Guadalcanal
Ocean Ocean
Allied Powers
26-09-2019 14:36:51
https://t.me/UPSC_PDF
specific targets, especially the ports, airfields The War in Asia and the Pacific
and industrial installations. In September 1940, German victories in the Soviet Union
London was bombed – an operation known as prompted Japanese leaders to go on an offensive
the Blitz. By October 1940, night bombing raids in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The decision
on London and other industrial cities became for war with the US was taken in November
routine. However, the German strategy failed 1941. On 7 December Japanese aircraft
because with the aid of the newly developed attacked the Pearl Harbour naval base in the
device ‘radar’ for detecting aircraft while still Hawaiian islands, inflicting severe damages
at a distance, the fighter planes of the Royal to the US Pacific Fleet. Japan then occupied
Air Force (Spitfires and Hurricanes) inflicted English colonial territories in Burma, Malaya,
severe losses on the German bombers. In the Singapore (where the British beat a shameful
Battle of Britain (in the air between July and retreat, leaving the population under the mercy
October 1940), Hitler suffered his first defeat. of the Japanese) and the Dutch possession of
But the U-Boat [a German Submarine] war in East Indies.
the Atlantic was disrupting British trade.
Pearl Harbour Incident and its
Fallout
The Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbour, instead of
crushing the morale of the
American people, galvanised
them into action. Until then
kept out of the war due to
American public opinion, the
United States declared war on Japan, thus making
it an absolute world war. Britain and China
German U - Boat joined the US. Under the Lend-Lease system,
President Roosevelt had already committed
In November 1940, a decision taken by
the US government to aid the opponents of
Germany to invade Russia was deferred due
Fascism, in the context of Italy and Japan joining
to the campaign in the Balkans (April) against
Germany. The direct involvement of the US
Yugoslavia and Greece. On 22 June 1941 the
greatly expanded the resources of the Allies
invasion of Soviet Union commenced. After a
as America brought more vehicles, ships and
series of victories, German forces approached
aircrafts than all the other fighting countries put
Leningrad and Moscow. By 1941 Hitler’s empire
together. In August 1942, US forces commanded
in Europe had reached its zenith.
by MacArthur began to play a prominent role in
German rule everywhere was repressive, the Pacific. The naval battle planned by Admiral
brutal and exploitative. More than seven Yamamoto resulted in a major Japanese defeat.
million Europeans, from France to Russia,
were taken as forced labour to Germany. One
third of Germanys’ war costs was met by tribute
extracted from occupied Europe. Nazi racism
was directed against the Jews, communists and
gypsies. Jews were imprisoned in concentration
camps, and about six million Jews were
murdered in a state-sponsored genocide using
industrial methods of extermination (called the
Holocaust). Pearl Harbour Attack
113 Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies
Peace Making
The Atlantic Charter, a statement issued
by President Roosevelt and Prime Minister
Churchill, formed the basis of the settlement of
peace. Its essential principles were as follows:
1. No territorial changes without the consent
of the people concerned.
Atomic Bomb attack on Japan 2. The right of the people to choose the form
of their government.
Despite the defeat of Germany, the Japanese
generals refused to surrender. Finally, the US 3. All states to enjoy on equal terms access to
on 6 August 1945 dropped an atomic bomb on the trade and raw materials of the world.
Hiroshima and three days later (9 August) on 4. Freedom to travel across the sea without
Nagasaki. In the race to develop the atomic hindrance
bomb, the US had overtaken Germany. Japan 5. Disarmament of all nations that threaten
surrendered immediately, thereby bringing an aggression.
115 Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies
The Communist Party of China not destroy the spirit of resistance. Instead it led
With the death of Yuan Shih-kai during the to an increasing level of class consciousness.
First World War, the country came to be divided By now Sun Yat-sen had established a
by rival Chinese generals backed by different constitutional government. But its position was
powers. Many of the intelligentsia had faith in weak. So he sought USSR’s help to reorganise
US liberalism to end this state of affairs. But they his Kuomintang. USSR sent Michael Borodin
felt let down as the expected did not happen. The to China. As an experienced Communist
frustration was unleashed by millions of people Borodin reorganised the Kuomintang as a
through rallies and demonstration in which centralised mass party and helped to build up
students took prominent part. After the Russian a revolutionary army. The Whampoa Military
Revolution of 1917, the writings and speeches of Academy was founded near Canton, with the
Marx and Lenin became popular amongst the assistance of Soviet officers. Its first director
intellectuals. Interest in Marxism grew as China’s was Chiang Kai-shek. On the staff in charge
emerging industrial working class gained in of political activities was Chou En Lai, as an
strength and demonstrated it through strikes alliance had been formed between the Chinese
and boycotts. In 1918 a Society for the Study Communist Party and the Kuomintang.
of Marxism was formed in Peking University.
Among the students who attended was a young Kuomintang and Chiang Kai-Shek
assistant librarian by the name of Mao Tse-tung. After the death of
A series of strikes rocked China in 1922. Sun Yat-sen in 1925,
About 2,000 seamen in Hong Kong, braving the Kuomintang was
the proclamation of marital law, struck work. It organised on Communist
soon developed into a general strike of 120,000 lines, but it did not adopt
workers forcing the employers to opt for peace. Communist policies.
Clashes between British police and workers in While the Kuomintang
British-owned factories in Hankou culminated was led by Chiang Kai-
Chiang Kai-shek
in a warlord shooting down 35 striking rail Shek, the Communist
workers and executing a union unit secretary. Party was under Mao Tse tung and Chou En
Such repressive measures halted the onward Lai. The Communists increased their influence
march of the working class movement, but did among the workers and peasants, and won
recruits for their army. The Kuomintang
represented the interests of the landlords and
Mao Tse-tung (1893–1976) capitalists.
Mao was born in Hunan in south-east China. Chiang Kai-Shek began his march known
His father was a wealthy peasant, and a as ‘the Northern Expedition’ from Canton,
firm supporter of the Manchu dynasty. Mao and by the end of 1925, he had captured
entered the junior college at Changsha in the Hanko. By March 1927, when the Expedition
year of the revolution (1911). Mao joined the was approaching Shanghai, a general strike
revolutionary army but soon left and enrolled involving 600,000 workers erupted and the
in the Teachers’ Training College in Changsha. unions had taken over the control of the city.
He remained there until 1918, spending Chiang Kai-shek had already cracked down on
long hours in the library. He then moved to the workers’ movement in Canton by arresting
Peking and served as an assistant librarian in a number of communist activists and harassing
Peking University. In the following year Mao the unions. In Shanghai, after allowing the
began his full-fledged political activities as an victorious rebel forces to hand him the city, he
organiser of Hunan and emerged as a staunch treacherously arranged for the criminal gangs
Communist. in collusion with wealthy Chinese merchants
and the representatives of the foreign powers to by Kuomintang forces, by local war lords and
launch a pre-dawn attack on the offices of the by unfriendly tribesmen. The machine gun fire
main left wing unions. The workers’ sentries of Kuomintang contingents and the deafening
were disarmed and their leaders arrested. roar of the river caused horror to the marchers.
Demonstrations were fired on with machine- Of the 100,000 who set out, only 20,000 finally
guns, and thousands of activists died while arrived in northern Sheni late in 1935, after
fighting. At the instance of wealthy merchants crossing nearly 6000 miles. They were soon
and financiers, Chiang Kai-Shek purged all joined by other communist armies, and by 1937
Communists from the Kuomintang Party. In Mao Tse-tung was the ruler of over 10 million
1928 he was successful in capturing Peking. people. Mao organised Workers and Peasants’
Once again there was a central government in Councils in the villages of Shensi and Kansu and
China. But over the next 18 years his government the base for the eventual Communist conquest
became notorious for its corruption and of China was established.
gangsterism.
Japanese Aggression and its
Mao knew that the Kuomintang grip on Fallout
the towns was too strong. So concentrated
The Japanese continued to occupy north
his energies on organizing the peasantry. He
Chinese provinces while developing Manchuria
retreated into the wild mountains on the border
as a military base. Mao believed that Chiang
between the provinces of Kiangsi and Hunan.
Kai-shek was necessary for some time to hold
Here Mao and his comrades stayed for the next
together Kuomintang to fight the Japanese. As
seven years. As the army of Mao was gradually
a consequence of this pragmatic policy, the
growing, despite five extermination campaigns,
attacks on the Communists gradually petered
the Kuomintang was never able to penetrate
out. However, a stronger line was adopted
the mountains successfully. In the new base of
towards Japanese expansion. Yet the Japanese
the communists, they had protection from the
had occupied the whole of the eastern half of
attacks of Chiang Kai-Shek, and an advantage
China during the Second World War, as the
in dealing with constant threat from Japan and
Kuomintang armies fell easily. Chiang Kai-
also the attacks from war lords.
shek’s capital had to be shifted to Chungking.
The Long March 1934 Victory to Communists
With the announcement of the Japanese
surrender in 1945 after the bombing of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, both the groups in China took
immediate steps to occupy the Japanese areas.
In the course of this race, the USA advised
both sides to negotiate. During 1946 General
George Marshall twice negotiated ceasefires,
but both were unsuccessful. The Kuomintang
government controlled
the administration, ports
The Long March and communication
As Chiang Kai-Shek had built a circle of system in view of
fortified posts around the Communist positions, the massive support
Mao wanted to move out of Hunan for safer provided by the USA.
territory. Therefore, the Communist army set out But the Kuomintang
on what came to be known as the Long March in soldiers, mainly drawn
1934. The marchers were continually harassed from the peasants, were Mao
Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies 122
attempted to gain control of the movement. As surrendered to the Japanese in the East Indies
they failed, they left and formed the Indonesian in March 1942. Some opposed the Japanese
Communist Party in 1919. and organised secret resistance. Some led
by Sukarno and Hatta believed that the best
Party Politics method of achieving independence would be
Efforts at delegating powers to the local to support the Japanese. In the last phase of
governments had already been initiated with the war the Japanese decided to negotiate the
the passage of a Decentralisation Law in 1903. terms of independence with the Indonesian
Provincial councils were established in the leaders.
following year. But the Indonesians played no
part in the government. In view of the growing Coming of Independence
nationalist agitation the Dutch government But after Japanese evacuation, in
created a People’s Parliament, Volksraad (1918) accordance with the decisions of the Potsdam
in Weltevreden, Batavia (Jakarta), Java, and Conference, British forces landed in the East
this continued to function until 1942. Indies in September 1945. They released about
During the 1920s, the Communists and 200,000 prisoners of war, mainly Dutch. The
Sarekat Islam vied with each other in Dutch had reoccupied nearly all the East Indian
dominating the nationalist movement. In this islands except Java and Sumatra, ruled by
rivalry for leadership the communists were Sukarno. The Dutch refused to recognise the
successful. They organised strikes which rule of Sukarno. Yet he refused to relinquish
culminated in a big uprising in 1926–27 in his office as President. So the British-occupying
western Java and Sumatra. This was force arranged negotiations which led to
immediately crushed. Thousands were Dutch-Indonesian Agreement. This resulted in
imprisoned and this caused a temporary Dutch recognition of Java and Sumatra as an
setback to the Communist Party. independent republic, leading to the merger
Around this time a young engineer of the rest of the islands to form a federation
named Sukarno organised the Indonesian known as the United States of Indonesia.
Nationalist Party. This third party in the Subsequently, the Dutch attempted to disrupt
country was supported the peace in Indonesia twice, but the pressure of
by the westernised world opinion, led by Jawaharlal Nehru as well
secular middle class. as the UN Security Council, led to a settlement
But in 1931 the police favourable to Indonesia at the end of 1949. A
raided the headquarters round table conference held at The Hague
of this party. Sukarno adopted a constitution for the independent
was imprisoned and the state of Indonesia. In December 1949 Indonesia
party he founded was became an independent state.
dissolved. Sukarno
Dutch Repression and Japanese
Aggression
During the 1930s, in the wake of
the economic depression that resulted in
unemployment, wage cuts and increased
protests, the government resorted to repression
and press censorship to check nationalism.
Sukarno and other nationalist leaders were
languishing in jail until 1942. The Dutch Signing of the Peace Treaty
Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies 124
The Nationalist Party, however, after the Pearl Harbour attack, Japan attacked
continued to demand self-government. The the Philippines. The conquest of the Philippines
leader of the party, Quezon, said, ‘We should by Japan is often considered the worst military
prefer to rule ourselves in Hell to being ruled defeat in United States history. About 23,000
by others in Heaven.’ In the 1930s, during American military personnel were killed or
the Depression years, there were serious captured, while Filipino soldiers killed or
left-wing risings. The Partido Komunista ng captured totalled around 100,000.
Pilipinas (PKP) founded in 1930 was declared
illegal by the U.S. colonial authorities. Yet the
communist pressure persuaded the United
States government to agree to internal self-
government.
The Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (The
Communist Party of the Philippines)
and the Huk Rebellion: Though outlawed
by the American government, the Partido
Komunista ng Pilipinas regained its legality
later and was at the helm of the Hukbalahap,
the People’s Army against the Japanese
Aggression. Hukbalahap was a strong guerrilla
organisation and with the re-conquest of Philippines Independence
the Philippines by the returning American After ending the aggression of Japan, the
forces, the PKP and the communist peasants
US honoured its promise given in the Act. In
(known as Huks) found themselves under
April 1946 elections were held, and on 4 July the
attack by their presumed wartime allies. Huk
Philippines became independent. USA left the
areas were bombarded by government forces
Philippines but provided military training and
and, as a result, the PKP resorted to guerrilla
warfare. At first they adopted it as a defensive financial support against Huks between 1946
posture. But in 1950 the party adopted a and 1954. Throughout the period the country
strategy for the seizure of power. By the mid- was one of the USA’s most loyal allies. The
1950s, however, the “Huk rebellion” had country was one of only three Asian states to
been crushed by the Philippine government, join the US-dominated South East Asian Treaty
assisted by the U.S. Organisation (SEATO) in 1954.
Peace settlement with Axis powers and Manchu dynasty and in establishing
their allies, the establishment of UNO and People’s government are described.
the total outcome of the War are analysed. The Long March of Mao and the subsequent
The woes of Chinese peasants and the open developments leading finally to the
door policy pursued by the Manchu rulers, establishment of communist rule in China
resulting in China being carved out as are elaborated.
spheres of influence by the foreign powers The history of liberation struggles, with
like Britain and France are detailed. particular reference to Indonesia and the
Spread of Christianity and interference of Philippines, is traced.
foreigners in Chinese administration and Japanese occupation of these two regions
Japanese aggression of Chinese territories for more than three years and eventual
whipped up nationalist sentiments of the emergence of nationalist movements
Chinese and prodding them to revolt are leading to the overthrow of the colonial
explained. regimes in Indonesia and the Philippines
Role played by Sun-Yat-sen and Mao-Tse are explored.
Tung in mobilising the Chinese against
EXERCISE
Q.R.Code 4. In which year did Japan invade and seize
I. C
hoose the Manchuria from China?
correct answer (a) 1931 (b) 1932 (c) 1933 (d) 1934
5. emerged as the most powerful
1. Which one of the
Industrial country in continental Europe
following was not the cause for the outbreak
towards the close of nineteenth century.
of Second World War?
(a) France (b) Spain
(a) The unjust nature of the terms of Peace
with Germany (c) Germany (d) Austria
(b) Failure of the League of Nations 6. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles,
a plebiscite was to be held in in
(c) Economic Depression of 1930s
January 1935.
(d) National Liberation Movements in
(a) Sudetenland (b) Rhineland
Colonies
(c) Saar (d) Alsace
2. The Kellogg–Briand Pact was signed in the
year 7. Assertion (A): The methods of warfare
changed during the Second World War.
(a) 1927 (b) 1928 (c) 1929 (d) 1930
Reason (R): Trench warfare had given way
3. Assertion (A): A Disarmament Conference
to aerial bombing.
was organised by the League of Nations at
Geneva. (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
Reason (R): The matter came up for (b) Both A and R are correct. R does not
deliberation was Germany’s rearmament explain A
plan on a par with France. (c) A is correct but R is wrong
(a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A (d) A is wrong but R is correct
(b) Both A and R are correct. R does not 8. In 1939 Germany signed Non-aggression
explain A pact with
(c) A is correct but R is wrong (a) Austria (b) Italy
(d) A is wrong but R is correct (c) Russia (d) Britain
9. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour was 15. Which one of the following was not the
planned by result of the Second World War?
(a) Yamamoto (b) Schuschnigg (a) Second World War was fatal to many
(c) Kaiser William II (d) Hirohito European monarchies.
10. Lend-Lease system introduced by President (b) The Labour Party government in
Roosevelt was helpful in Britain established a welfare state.
(a)
providing additional soldiers to (c) The struggle against Fascism ended in
countries fighting the fascist forces the triumph of Imperialism
(d) The United States and Soviet Russia
(b)
safeguarding the Jews from the
emerged as two super powers in the
murderous attacks of Hitler’s army
world.
(c) expanding the resources of the allies,
16. Which of the following pairs is correct?
supplying arms and ammunition
1) General de Gaulle - France
(d) providing medical services to those
2) Haile Selassie - Ethiopia
wounded in the Second World War.
3) General Badoglio - Japan
11. In August 1942, US forces in the Pacific was
commanded by 4) Admiral Yamamoto - Italy
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) MacArthur
(c) 3 and 4 (d) All are correct
(b) Eisenhower
17. France joined the Second Opium War
(c) General de Gaulle
(a) to help Britain in the war
(d) George Marshall (b) to carve out a separate sphere of
12. The US navy defeated the Japanese navy in influence to France
the Battle of (c) to obtain permission for religious
(a) Britain (b) Guadalcanal activities
(c) El Alamein (d) Midway (d) to establish the French rights to engage
13. German forces suffered their first reverses in opium trade.
at 18. The end of Manchu dynasty came in the
(a) Potsdam (b) El Alamein year
(c) Stalingrad (d) Midway (a) 1908 (b) 1911 (c) 1912 (d) 1916
14. Which one of the following was not a 19. The dispute that led to the Spanish-
declaration of the Potsdam conference? American War in 1898 was on
(a) Cuba (b) the Philippines
(a) East Prussia to be divided into two
parts: northern part going to the Soviet (c) Puerto Rico (d) Batavia
Union, and the southern part to Poland. 20. Assertion (A): On 4 July 1946 the
(b) Poland to receive the former free city of Philippines became independent.
Danzig. Reason (R): Philippines joined the
US-dominated South East Asian Treaty
(c) Germany to be divided into four
occupation zones to be governed by the Organisation.
USSR, Great Britain, the United States (a) Both A and R are correct. R explains A
and France (b) Both A and R are correct. R does not
(d) Trieste was to be divided into Zone A explain A
and Zone B. Zone A went to Italy, while (c) A is correct but R is wrong
zone B was awarded to Yugoslavia. (d) A is wrong but R is correct
Outbreak of World War II and its Impact in Colonies 128
� Encyclopaedia Britannica
GLOSSARY
disarmament reduction of military forces and weapons இராணுவ ஆட்கள் மற்றும் ஆயுதக்
குறைப்பு
crew staff who work on board a ship or aircraft கப்பல்/ விமானப் பணியாளர் குழு
ICT CORNER
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Step - 2 Click on ‘map’ to see the events happened in the location and select any
year from the bottom timeline (Ex.1939)
Step - 3 Select the ‘box’ on the map to learn more about the World War II events.
UNIT
The World after
15 World War II
Learning Objectives
15.2 Cold War
On 16 April 1947 Bernard Baruch, the US
Presidential adviser, in a speech at the State House
Churchill at Fulton
in Columbia, used the term "Cold War," (earlier
The Berlin Blockade and coined by George Orwell, the great English
Formation of East Germany and writer and author of Animal Farm and 1984), to
describe the relations between the United States
West Germany
and the Soviet Union after the Second World
By the Yalta and Potsdam Conference War. A war without weapons, the Cold War was
agreements, Germany, with its capital city Berlin, a war of ideologies.
was divided into four zones, viz., U.S zone, U.K.
Between 1945 and 1991, the Cold War
zone, French zone and USSR zone. By early
defined the foreign policy of the super powers.
1948 all the three western zones were merged
During this period both the powers were in a
together and with the Marshall Plan these zones constant state of military preparedness. The US
registered rapid growth and development. wanted to promote open market for its goods and
USSR’s response was to put pressure on wanted to stop the spread of communism. On the
communications between West Berlin and West other hand USSR wanted to spread communism
Germany. In June 1948 the Russians stopped all and desired to have friendly governments on its
road and rail traffic between West Berlin and borders who shared the same value systems. The
West Germany. The western powers decided to powers adopted six major strategies to achieve
maintain contact with Berlin by air. For nearly their ends: Economic Aid, Military Pacts,
eleven months West Berlin was supplied by air, Propaganda, Espionage, Brinkmanship, and
and vast quantities of supplies were flown in at Surrogate Wars.
immense cost. In May 1949 USSR ended its ban
Cold War Strategies
on land traffic and the crisis ended. The western
powers now went ahead and set up the Federal (a) Economic Aid
Republic of Germany in August 1949 (FRG, Truman Plan
popularly known as West Germany) and USSR In 1945 a civil war broke out in Greece.
set up the German Democratic Republic (GDR, Britain which had supported Greece for
popularly known as East Germany) in October years, now decided to withdraw given its own
1949. If the division of Germany marked the real economic problems. Sometime later trouble
beginnings of the Cold War, the reunification of started in Turkey also, with the communists
Germany in 1990 signalled the end of Cold War. trying to take control. In 1947, Britain told the
The World after World War II 134
United States that it could no longer afford to In the Soviet view, Marshall Plan was little
fight communist insurgencies in Greece and more than a ploy to spread American
Turkey and decided to leave it as of March 31. influence.
United States chose to act. President Harry S.
Molotov Plan
Truman decided to intervene in support of
Greece and Turkey. He committed to provide In response to Marshall Plan, USSR set up
financial and military assistance to those The Cominform (the Communist Information
countries where communism was ascendant. Bureau) in September 1947. This was an
This laid the framework for US policy towards organisation in which all European communist
containing communism, known popularly as parties were represented. It discouraged trade
the Truman Doctrine which dominated until contact between the non-communist countries
the end of the Cold War. and tried to forge ideological and material linkages
with its member countries. In 1949, USSR came
out with its economic package known as Molotov
Plan. Another organisation, known as Comecon
(Council of Mutual Economic Assistance), was
set up to co-ordinate the economic policies of
USSR and its satellite states.
only for consultation, leaving each individual music, literature and art. While the ideology
nation to react individually to internal threats. of capitalism was promoted, communism was
SEATO was not as popular as NATO. With the condemned both as a political ideology and
end of Vietnam War, SEATO was disbanded in a social and economic system by the United
1977. States. In USSR propaganda was designed in
such a way that collective work and collective
leadership within the socialist frame were
encouraged. Democracy and market economy
was dubbed as a façade to mask an exploitative
capitalism.
(d) Espionage
(c) Propaganda
During the Cold War both the US and
the USSR used propaganda as effective tools
to glorify their ideology, while criticising the
opponents values and ideals. Pro-American
values were promoted in film, television, KGB Office
137 The World after World War II
the guiding principles of NAM. The term Recognition of the equality among all
"non-alignment" was coined by V. K. Krishna races and of the equality among all
Menon in 1953 at the United Nations. nations, both large and small.
Based on the Ten Principles of Bandung, Non-intervention or non-interference in
the First Summit of NAM was held at Belgrade, the internal affairs of another country.
the capital of Yugoslavia in 1961. Five members
Respect for the right of every nation
played a prominent role in the foundation of
to defend itself, either individually or
NAM: Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno
collectively, in conformity with the
of Indonesia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt,
Charter of the United Nations.
Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Josip Broz Tito
of Yugoslavia. The objective of NAM was to Non-use of collective defence pacts to
"create an independent path in world politics. benefit the specific interests of any of the
The most important objectives included ending great powers.
of imperialism and colonialism, promotion
of international peace and security and Refraining from acts or threats of
disarmament, ending of racism and racial aggression and use of force against
discrimination.” The statement issued at the the territorial integrity or political
end of the Belgrade conference also deprecated independence of any country. Non-use
military pacts with any great power or the of pressures by any country against other
permission for any super power to build a countries.
military base in its territories. Settlement of all international disputes
by peaceful means, such as negotiation,
conciliation, arbitration or judicial
settlement as well as other peaceful
means of the parties’ own choice, in
conformity with the Charter of the
United Nations.
Promotion of mutual interest and
cooperation.
Respect for justice and international
obligations.
During the Cold War period, NAM acted
as an alternative for the power bloc politics.
First Non-Aligned Conference, Belgrade With the disintegration of Soviet Union, NAM
The following goals and objectives were became irrelevant.
set by the proponents of the Non-Aligned
Movement at the 1955 Bandung Conference: The Panchsheel (five principles), policy
of Nehru, included 1. Mutual respect
Respect of fundamental human rights for each other's territorial integrity and
and of the objectives and principles of the sovereignty, 2. Mutual non-aggression,
Charter of the United Nations. 3. Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs,
Respect for the sovereignty and territorial 4. Equality and mutual benefit, 5. Peaceful
integrity of all nations. co-existence.
UNO Headquarters
The birth of UNO coincided with the
beginning of the Cold War. During this period
Yalta Conference the UNO played an important role in preventing
wars. But in disputes involving the permanent
On 24 October 1945 the UNO came into members of the Security Council the UNO
existence with 51 members. The main organs of was a mute spectator. UN has an army known
the UN are the General Assembly, the Security as the UN Peace-keeping Force. Member states
Council, the Economic contribute soldiers to this force. The UN soldiers
and Social Council, the are referred to as Blue Helmets, because of their
Trusteeship Council, light blue helmets.
the International Court
of Justice, and the Problem of Palestine
UN Secretariat. The
Norwegian Foreign After the Second World War the Jews
Minister, Trygve Lie, demanded a homeland in Palestine. Arabs
was elected the first UN Trygve Lie opposed the demand and the matter was
USSR returning to the Security Council, the called UNEF. The force would not be a fighting
General Assembly at the initiative of US passed force, but a peace force sent with the consent of
the ‘Uniting for Peace’ resolution. This clearly both sides. On December 22 the UN evacuated
set the precedent that if the Security Council British and French troops and Israeli forces
could not reach an agreement to intervene in a withdrew in March 1957. Nasser emerged a
crisis, then the General Assembly should meet victor and a hero for the cause of pan-Arab and
in emergency session and recommend the use Egyptian nationalism.
of armed force if necessary. USSR regarded this
resolution as illegal. The fighting ended with Hungarian Crisis, 1956
the signing of an armistice in July 1953. The war
had increased the importance of the General
Assembly.
Suez Crisis, 1956
Hungarian Revolution
The Hungarian leader Rakosi, appointed
as premier during the regime of Stalin was
Suez Canal dismissed in 1953. It resulted in the election
Suez Canal connects the Red sea with of Imre Nagy as premier. But Nagy enjoyed
the Mediterranean Sea. It was constructed support neither from his government nor from
by Ferdinand de Lesseps, a Frenchman, after the Russians. Rakosi continued to control the
obtaining permission from the Egyptian Pasha. Communist Party. Writers and intellectuals
Soon the ownership passed on to the British. It led the protest, demanding the resignation
was the main link between Asia and Europe. In of Rakosi. Though Rakosi was removed from
July 1956, the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel power in July 1956, the opposition continued.
Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal, which was A rebellion organised by a few intellectuals
until then privately owned by the Anglo-French broke out in Budapest on 23 October. Though
Suez Canal Corporation. On 29 October, the it began as a peaceful demonstration it soon
Israeli army invaded the Sinai Peninsula. The developed into a national rising against Soviet
following day, French and British aircrafts Russia and its puppet regime in Hungary. On 26
bombed Egyptian air bases. On 5 November October the Russians agreed to Nagy becoming
1956, British and French troops landed at the premier again. On his assumption of office he
Egyptian town of Port Said. The issue was started introducing a multiparty system and
taken up by the Security Council but Britain set up a coalition government. Enraged by
and France vetoed the resolution. The General the development, Soviet Russia sent its army
Assembly, at the initiative of the US, which into Hungary on 4 November and crushed the
became apprehensive of Soviet invasion, called rebellion.
for an emergency session and condemned The Hungarian Uprising occurred
the invasion. Israel, Great Britain and France simultaneously with the Anglo-French-Israeli
stopped fighting and decided to withdraw their attack on Egypt in the Suez affair. The matter
forces from Egypt. The General Assembly voted was taken up at the Security Council which
to create a United Nations Emergency Force, decided to demand the immediate withdrawal of
The World after World War II 142
Russian forces from Hungary. Russians vetoed the Israeli border. The UN told Nasser that he
the Security Council resolution and so the same could not ask for UN troop movement. So his
resolution was passed by the Assembly. But choice was to demand the complete withdrawal
nothing came out of the resolution. The failure of of the UN troop. On May 23 Egypt closed the
the United Nations to influence USSR’s actions Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. In early June
in Hungary showed that if a Great Power was Israel attacked Egypt, destroying virtually all of
determined to defy the UNO and had the power Cairo’s air force on the ground.
to do it, the UN was helpless.
Along with the leak of Khrushchev's
secret speech, this had a major impact on the
international communist movement, with large
numbers (especially of writers and intellectuals)
resigning from communist parties across the
world.
Arab–Israeli War
As the United Nations voted to partition
Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab Arab-Israeli War
state in November 1947, conflict broke out
almost immediately between Jews and Arabs At the end of the Six Day War Israel
in Palestine. On the eve of the British forces’ occupied the remaining parts of Palestine,
withdrawal (May 15, 1948), Israel declared the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East
independence. The war came to an end with Jerusalem, plus the Syrian Golan Heights and
the intervention of the UN General Assembly the Egyptian Sinai. Two hundred fifty thousand
passing a resolution affirming the right more Palestinians were forced into exile, and
of Palestinian refugees from the 1947–48 a million more remain under Israeli military
war to return to their homes and to receive occupation even now. While referring to the
compensation for their losses. Israel joined the Palestinians only in the context of refugees,
UN the following year. From the start, when rather than reaffirming their national rights, the
Israel was created, there was little involvement resolution of the UN unequivocally called for
of the UN in making political decisions. UN the withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from the
peacekeepers were stationed on the Israeli– occupied territories. The resolution was drafted
Egyptian border, and the UN Refugee Works largely by the four powers of the Security
Agency (UNRWA) was established to provide Council – the limited reference to Palestinian
help for the refugees until such time as they rights was a reflection of US influence on the
returned home. proceedings.
By 1966 the U.S. providing began to Israel
with advanced planes and missiles. The Cold For years following the 1967 war, the UN
War had come to the Middle East, and the voted repeatedly in favour of an international
UN was out of the scene. Over the next few peace conference, under its own auspices, with
months, tensions increased between Israel and all parties to the conflict (including the Palestine
the surrounding Arab states. In April 1967 Liberation Organisation led by Yasser Arafat) to
there were artillery exchanges between Israel resolve the Israel-Palestine conflict once and for
and Syria. The U.S. Sixth Fleet remained off all. But the U.S. always vetoed it. In the Cold
the Syrian coast. Egyptian President Nasser War context, Moscow and Washington played
symbolically asked the UN to move its troops an increasingly larger role either in escalating or
and observers, then inside Egyptian territory, to containing tension in the region.
143 The World after World War II
N
(Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development) in 1961, adding the USA and
European countries. Japan joined in 1964.
Not to Scale
members. The new procedure increased the The period from the late 1960s to the late
power of European Parliament, which had been 1970s is known as period of détente (temporary
functioning since 1952. Specifically, legislative stoppage of hostility). The period witnessed
proposals that were rejected by the Parliament increased trade and cooperation between the
could be adopted by the Council of Ministers by US and the Soviet Union. The Strategic Arms
a unanimous vote. Limitation Talks (SALT 1972 & 1979) and later
European Union (EU) the Strategic Arms Reduction (START, 1991)
treaties heralded an era of coexistence and
cooperation.
The Third World countries and their (a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
non-alignment movement are detailed. (b) Both A and R are correct; R does not
UNO and its role in resolving global explain A
disputes with focus on Korean War, Suez (c) A is correct and R is wrong
Crisis, Arab-Israeli Wars are dealt with.
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
Evolution of European unity culminating 5
Marshall aid was for the purpose of
in the establishment of European ___________
Economic Community that transformed
into European Union is traced. (a) Economic reconstruction of Europe
(b) Protection of capitalistic enterprises.
The end of the Cold War with the collapse
of Soviet Union is analysed. (c) Establishment of American hegemony in
Europe
(d) forming a military alliance against Soviet
EXERCISE Russia
Q.R.Code 6. Truman doctrine advocated ___________
I. C
hoose the
correct answer (a)
financial aid to stop the spread of
communism
1. By the end of 1947 the only
(b) supply of weapons to the insurgents in
country left out of the Soviet influence in
colonies
eastern Europe was ___________
(c)
interference in internal affairs of east
(a) East Germany (b) Czechoslovakia
European countries
(c) Greece (d) Turkey
(d)
permanent army to UN under US
2. Assertion (A): Stalin criticised Churchill as a Commander
warmonger.
7. Arrange the following in chronological order
Reason (R): Churchill had earlier called for a
1) Warsaw Pact 2) CENTO
western alliance against communism.
3) SEATO 4) NATO
(a) Both A and R are correct; R explains A
(a) 4, 2, 3, 1 (b) 1, 3, 2, 4
(b) Both A and R are correct; R does not
explain A (c) 4, 3, 2, 1 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4
(c) A is correct and R is wrong 8.
The aim of the Baghdad Pact was to
___________
(d) A is wrong and R is correct
(a)
protect England’s leadership in the
3. Th
e term “Cold War” was coined by
Middle East
(a) Bernard Baruch (b) George Orwell
(b) exploit the oil resources in the region
(c) George Kennan (d) Churchill
(c) prevent communist influence
4. Assertion (A): The soviet foreign minister
(d) destabilise the government in Iraq
dubbed the Marshall Plan as "dollar
imperialism". 9. US intervention in Lebanon was opposed by
___________
Reason (R): In the Soviet view, Marshall
Plan was little more than a ploy to spread (a) Turkey (b) Iraq
American influence. (c) India (d) Pakistan
The World after World War II 148
10.
The term “Third World” was coined by Statement II: D
uring the Cold War period,
___________ the UNO played an important
(a) Alfred Sauvy (b) Marshall role in preventing wars.
II. Write brief answers 3. In disputes involving the permanent members
of the Security Council, the UNO was a mute
1. Identify the espionage agencies of USA and
spectator. Elucidate this statement from the
USSR.
cold war period experiences.
2.
Explain the concept of containment of
4. Sketch the political career of Boris Yetlsin,
communism.
focusing on his role in the collapse of Soviet
3. Point out the significance of the “Uniting for Union.
Peace” resolution passed by the UN General
V. Activity
Assembly.
1. On the UNO Day (October 24) students may
4. W
hat do you know about Cominform?
be asked to simulate a session of General
5. Provide examples of Surrogate Wars in the Assembly and debate any of the disputes
cold war era. detailed in this lesson.
6. What was the background to the Hungarian 2. Students may be organised into two groups
Crisis? arguing for and against Capitalism.
7. W
hat was Schuman Plan? 3.
Teachers and students shall explore the
8. O
utline the concept of Perestroika. Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Charter adopted by the UN on 10 December
III. Write short answers 1948.
1. Warsaw Pact was a response of the Soviet
Union to the US controlled NATO-Explain.
REFERENCES
2. Write about the different stages in the final Dan Stone (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of
adoption of UN Charter. Post-War European History, 2012.
3. Trace the background of the formation of Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World
NATO. History, Palgrave Master Series, 2013.
4. G
ive a brief account of Suez Canal Crisis. Peter Calvocoressi, World Politics Since
5. W
hy SEATO was not so popular as NATO? 1945, Longman, 2008.
GLOSSARY
ஒற்றறிதல், வேவுபார்த்தல்,
surveillance; the practice of using ஒற்றர்களைக் க�ொண்டு
espionage spies for close observation of an எதிரியைய�ோ அல்லது எதிரி
enemy or enemy country. நாட்டைய�ோ நெருக்கமாய்
கண்காணித்தல்
the practice of trying to achieve an
advantageous outcome by pushing
brinkmanship
a dangerous event to the brink of ப�ோரில் ஈடுபடா ராஜதந்திரம்
active conflict.
substitute; represent on behalf of
surrogate
others மாற்றாக, பதிலாள்
violent struggle of a group of
insurgency people who refuse to accept their கிளர்ச்சி, ஆட்சியை எதிர்த்து
கிளர்ந்தெழுதல்
government’s power
chaos complete disorder and confusion பெருங்குழப்பம், ஒழுங்கற்ற நிலை
detonate explode வெடி
involving three parties or consisting
tripartite
of three parts முத்தரப்பு
tactic or trick, action intended for சூழ்ச்சி, நிலைமையைச்
ploy turning a situation to one’s own சாதகமாக்கிக் க�ொள்ள எடுக்கும்
advantage நடவடிக்கை
a person who engages in population
demographer
studies. மக்கள்தொகை ஆய்வாளர்
ICT CORNER
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Cold war
M. Murugesan, B.T,
Authors Content Readers
PUMS. Pethavelankottagam,
Prof. Kanakalatha Mukund Dr. T.S. Saravanan Muttupettai, Thiruvarur.
Former Professor Deputy Director
Centre for Economic and Social Studies TNTBESC Layout
Hyderabad. Chennai.
Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
Dr. S. B. Darsana S. Gomathi Manickam Ashok Kumar
Asst. Professor B.T. Asst. in History Selvakumar Manickam
Central University of Tamil Nadu GHSS, Old Perungalathur
Tiruvarur. Kanchipuram District. Artist
Mathan Raj R
Dr. Venkat Ramanujam P. Balamurugan
Arun Kamaraj Palanisamy
Dept. of History P.G. Asst. in History
Madras Christian College, Tambaram, GBHSS, Thammampatti
Madras. Salem District. Wrapper Design
Kathir Arumugam
Prof. K.A. Manikumar V. Velmurugan
Dept. of History B.T. Asst. in History In-House QC
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University GHSS, Vellalagundam
Tirunelveli. Salem District. Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
Rajesh Thangappan
Dr. K. Ashok Dr. K. Suresh
Asst. Professor, Dept. of History B.T. Asst in History Co-ordinator
Madras Christian College, Tambaram, Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS Ramesh Munisamy
Chennai. Chennai.
153
NOTES
154
NOTES
155
NOTES
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