MANUAL LOADSHEET HANDLING

What is a Load sheet?

A load sheet provides details on the weight and balance of an actual flight, including aircraft weight,
crew, pantry,fuel, passengers, luggage, freight or mail. It provides details of the allocation of this load
where appropriate.

Forces to move forward

When we throw a paper plane in the air, we give the plane a boost to go on. It is a kind of force known
as thrust. The air that presses against the plane at the same time slows it down and generates a drag
force. This is generally referred to as air resistance. Gravity also works on the plane that pushes it to the
ground.

Weight :

The combined load of the aircraft itself, the passengers, the fuel, and the freight or luggage. Weight is
that force which keeps the aircraft act downward due to  the force of gravity. It opposes lift and works
vertically down the center of gravity of the aircraft (CG). During a flight, the weight of aircraft constantly
changes with the fuel consumption.

Weight has a relationship with lift which is quite simple but needs an understanding with regarding to
the concept of aerodynamics of flight. Lift is a upward force, perpendicular to relative wind and
perpendicular to lateral axis of aircraft.To offset the weight of the aircraft, lift is necessary.If the weight
of the lift force is the same in stabilized level flight, the plane is balanced and does not speed up or
down. The vertical speed would be decreased if the lifting becomes less than weight. The vertical speed
is raised when the lift is greater than weight.

Lift :

The Lift force creates an air force perpendicular to the Flight Path through the center of the Lift (CL) and
perpendicular to the lateral Axis, which works through the airfoils dynamic impact. In level flight, lift
opposes the weight of an aircraft. When the air pressure below a wing is greater than the air pressure
above the wing, the net upward force is called the lift. It keeps the flight sustain in the air. The unique
aircraft type is designed such that more distance must be traveled by the air passing over it and the
pressure area is then reduced and therefore the wing is raised upwards.

Thrust :

Thrust, the propeller or rotor's forward power. It overcomes or opposses the force of drag. It normally
operates in accordance with the longitudinal axis. It can either push or pull the aircraft. In order for the
aircraft to start going, the thrust must be exerted and greater than the drag. The plane continues to fly
and gain speed until all thrust and drag are equal. The thrust and drag must be equal in order to keep
the airspeed stable, as lifting and weight must be equivalent to maintaining the height constant.

When the engine power is decreased during level flight, the lowered is lowered and the aircraft slows
down. The aircraft will continue to decelerate as long as the thrust is less than the drag. To a degree, the
 drag power reduces as the aircraft speeds down. The plane will slow down again until it is again dragged
to stabilize the airspeed.

Drag :

Drag, backward force induced by wing, rotor, fuselage and other prevailing objects interaction with
airflow. The drag typically opposes thrust and reverses the relative wind in parallel. It is the friction of
the air as it meets and passes over aircrfat and its components.

lift

drag
thrust

weight
The aircraft in flight is at the middle of a constant tug of war between four forces: lift, weight, thrust,
and drag. Aerodynamic forces are known to be lifting and dragging because they occur due to aircraft
acceleration. The weight descends on the plane opposite the height produced by air over the air. Thrust
is created by the engines of the aircraft and removes air resistance drag to the front of the
aircraft.During takeoff, the thrust has to overcome drag and lift has to overcome weight before the
plane can fly. In a constant level of travel, thrusts are precisely equal to weight as drag and lift.

To land, the thrust must be lower than the drag and lift level below the weight level.Aerodynamics is the
study of these forces.The lifting force acts from the wings and the weight force from the fuselage is
downwards. This triggers moments of folding and wing tension. In severe environments, wings can fold
up and even break.

Aircraft structural limitations

Each aircraft has certain manufacturers' weight restrictions. These limits are ratified by the national
aircraft certifying authority. These restrictions are legally restricted to the airlines which operate the
aircraft, which shall not, in any case, extend those limits specified. If weight restrictions are exceeded,
airplane and passenger safety will be endangered.

The aircraft are explicitly and emphatically stated to be capable of flight once an airworthiness
certificate is issued, providing that weight restrictions specified by the Government Authorities makes
the regulation a legal requirement.

Maximum zero fuel weight

It is the maximum operating weight without the fuel used or the sum of the optimum empty operating
weight and payload.

Usually, the lifting force reached on the wing works down from the central fuselage. These powers are
forcing on the wings a bending action. The designed wing strength decreases the load weight which can
be loaded in the aircraft fuselage. When the wings have no fuel and full weight, the most critical
movement may occur.

Such a scenario could bent the wings upwards and affect both the fuselage and the form of the wings.
This limitation on aircraft weight and weight of load is placed in the fuselage to deter such an incident.

This means the restriction of weight imposed on the wing structure to prevent excessive stress and
consequent damage.
 Maximum take off weight

Maximum takeoff weight is straightforward; it is simply the maximum weight a pilot can plan a
takeoff due to aircraft limitations, structural or otherwise.

At the start of the take off run the maximum allowable weight. In assessing this limit, the manufacturer
shall take into account the strength of the material used to produce the aircraft as well as the
standard variables of output, such as the runway, the temperature, the atmospheric pressure, the wind
elements, the flaps etc.

Maximum landing weight

Maximum landing weight is the maximum weight at which an aircraft can land and remain within
limitations

It places stress on its undercarriage when the aircraft touches down on the runway. During the impact, a
huge force is exerted which sends shock waves all over the structure of the aircraft. just a small volume
of shock waves resulting from the effect may be coated and absorbed by the aircraft under carriage.

The manufacturers computed and determined that the force of the aircraft was almost nine times the
aircraft weight. If the weight of the aircraft is greater than the weight limit, both the under carriage and
the fuselage could be damaged by the generated shock waves. The maker put a limit on landing weight
in order to prevent such a situation.

Maximum Taxi weight

Maximum land maneuver weight including run-up and taxi fuel.

The maximum weight allowed by the aircraft may be moved onto the ground either by the aircraft's own
motor capability or by a tractor.If the weight I of taxi is exceeded, the construction of the wheel can
cause damage.

Regulated Take off weight

For establishing the MTOW, manufacturers use a standardized range of values for the performance
variables. Occasionally, due to ambient and airport requirements, the maximum take-off weight of an
aircraft can be limited. Such a limited weight of take off is called regulated weight of take off.

The maximum weight allowed for the release of the brakes for a given flight operation is based on the
airport and operating restrictions. The RTOW shall never exceed the manufacturer's maximum design
take-off weight.

Conditions Affecting Take off Performance

There are many conditions which affects aircraft take off performance and also restricts overall
perfromance of aircraft. These conditions are as follows;

Temperature
Strong air pressure and high air density can be expected at cold temperature .  High air air pressure and
high air density can quickly be achieved at take off.  Low air pressure and low air density can be
expected at a high temperature.

Therefore, an aircraft needs a longer take-off while operating in a hot weather and with

cold temperatures needs a  shorter take-off.

Elevation of Airfield

High air pressure and high air denstiy can be expected at a low altitude. During the time of take off in a
low altitude area, lift can be easily attained. but Lower pressure area and low density is expected on high
altitude.

Because of this cause, at high altitude, aircraft needs a longer take off run whereas in places of low
altitude, aircraft needs a shorter take off run.

Wind Component

Aircraft take off perfromance is affected by wind direction and speed effect. A headwind shortens the
take off run, while crosswind and tail wind increases it.

Length of Runway

Shorter take-off means less weight for take off to hit the lift right away. If aircraft have a longer take-off
flight, take-off weight won't be limited.

Obstruction on the flight path

An obstacle along the road, such as a mountain or a high building, will shorten the departure. To achieve
lift instantly, it limits take-off weight.

Noise abatement regulation

City authorities specifically impose noise control laws in some cities. An aircraft shall emit minimum
noise at departure in these situations. In order not to make too much noise, the engine capacity of the
aircraft must not be entirely used. The aircraft take off weight is limited by less engine power.

Slope of runway

To achieve the lift in ascending order, it takes more engine power. When you're on a bicycle, the idea is
identical. Compared to the downhill you exercise more power to proceed in an uphill region.

Runway contamination

When the contamination occurs on the road, for example water or snow due to lower resistance of the
wheels on the runway, an aircraft takes longer off run.

Load sheet
Operational weights
Operational weights differ depending on the variable nature, and are used for weight and equilibrium
documentation of aircraft. The weights differ between airlines and flights. The technical
terminology know-how is important for those who have prepared and collect loadsheets.

1. Basic weight:
This is the sum of the empty weight of the producer and the weight of things of the operator, such as
rescue supplies, passenger seats (configuration), the structure of the galley, gasoline, and oil of the
engine. The crew and their luggage and freight weights are excluded.

Initially, the aircraft would be measured by the suppliers and registered in the Handbook before delivery
as 'basic weight.' When any adjustments are made and even during regular inspections, the airline
weights the plane. All concerned will be advised of such updated basic weight. 'Weight Report' is the
paper that informs one of the corrected weights. Simple weight can also be called "Aircraft and Weight
Configuration."

Aircraft empty weight +Unusable fuel +Engine oil +Water for galleys and lavatories +Fluids for
toilet +Tables and baby bassinets +Galley structure and fixed equipment +Emerygency
equipments = BASIC WEIGHT

2. Dry operating weight:

It is the total of the specific weight (BW), crews and their luggage and the carriage weights anD
weights of the factors, including installed cabin stretcher (BED), extra crew occupying a
passenger seat.
The 'Dry Operating Weight' documentation for Emirates Weight and Balance shall be collected
from the recent Weight Study provided by the Department of Flight Operations Efficiency
Engineering. These reports of weight are revised and shared occasionally. On board the
Captain's aircraft is always a copy of the paper.

Basic Weight Crew and their Baggage + Pantry Weight + Other Items such as BED and/or XCR
=DRY OPERATING WEIGHT (DOW)

3. FUEL:
For flight operations, fuel is essential.
Ramp fuel:
In load management, the following fuel terms are used:
Ramp Fuel The aircraft holds complete fuel at the loading bay. Some companies call it "Total
Fuel" or "Block Fuel".

Taxi Fuel:
The fuel consumed as engines were started onto the runway from the parking lot to the
departure point. The fuel of the taxi varies between stations. The distance to the take-off point
 on the runway depends on the parking bay.   The waiting period before departure is often taken
into account.
Take off fuel:
The cumulative fuel in the aircraft at the start of take off run.  Ma ny airlines name it "Loadsheet
Fuel" The amount of taxi fuel to acquire the take-off fuel must be limited when Ramp Fuel is
provided.
Trip Fuel
Trip Fuel needed by the scheduled operating conditions to fly from the departure airport to the
arrival airport.
Ramp fuel – taxi fuel = Take off fuel
4. Operating Weight
The sum of the dry operating weight and the amount of take-off fuel is operating
weight. This weight is the minimum weight to fly the aircraft.
Dry operating weight + take off fuel = operating weight

5. Allowed weight for take off

The weight of an airplane at the starting point is optimum. There is a measurement
procedure for the permitted take-off weight on the load sheet. This assumes that the
weight of the aircraft is still below the overall structural weight specified.

It is calculated using all the three main aircraft structural limitations.

Based on the following calculations, the lowest figure is the 'Allowed Weight for Take-
Off":
Maximum Zero Fuel Weight + Take-Off Fuel Published Maximum Take-Off Weight or
Regulated Take-Off Weight (if applicable) Maximum Landing Weight + Trip Fuel

The measure would be based on the lowest of a, b or c which is known as the "allowed
weight for takeoff" in order to be under all the structural weight constraints.

a. Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) +Take-Off Fuel (TOF)

b. Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW) or Regulated Take-Off Weight (RTOW)
c. Maximum Landing Weight (MLW) + Trip Fuel ALLOWED
= WEIGHT FOR TAKE-OFF (LOWEST OF A, B OR C)

6. Allowed for traffic load

That is the maximum load weight that can be shipped on an airplane. The operating
weight is computed by eliminating the permissible take-off weight.

Allowed weight for take off – operating weight = Allowed weight for traffic load.

7. Deadload:
 This is the overall luggage weight, freight, mail service, unit load, ballast and equipment
in compartments beyond aircraft's dry weight.

Baggage (gross weight) + cargo (gross weight) + mail (gross weight) = Deadload

8. Total traffic load:

It is the Total passenger weight, luggage, freight, mail and unit loading equipments. It
contains profits as well as non revenue load.   It is sometimes referred to as "Payload."

Passenger Weight + Baggage (Gross Weight) + Cargo (Gross Weight) +Mail (Gross
Weight) = Total Traffic Load

9. Under load:
This is the difference as the actual load of traffic is excluded from the permitted traffic
load. After the load sheet has been filled, it displays how much extra traffic load can be
accepted.

Allowed traffic load – total traffic load = underload

Aircraft stability and performance are directly influenced by weight and balance. It will never get off the
ground because a plane is so big. If it is out of equilibrium, as it takes off, it can be uncontrollable.
Needless to mention, neither example will yield the desired result.

Weight and useful load

A big element in aviation is weight by itself. This refers in particular to small aircraft that have very little
useful load.

The weight an avion can bear is the useful load. This is determined by the aircraft maker taking the full
gross weight and the aircraft's vacuum weight. The remaining weight of petrol, passengers and luggage
is all you can carry.

Owing to the lightness of the flights, most small aircraft cannot fly in safety with full fuel, passengers and
luggage.

Aircraft balance

The "balance" is the other significant feature of weight and balance. The weight is not only important,
but even probably perhaps more important. We should put all our weight directly at the CG in an ideal
universe.
But this is not feasible in the real world. We have also to prepare wisely for the weight and position of
the aircraft, so that they can operate safely.

A Load Control Officer must be well-versed with these calculations:

Basic Weight (BW)

Crew and their Baggage Weights

Pantry Weights

Other Items such as XCR and BED

= Dry Operating Weight (DOW)

Take-Off Fuel (TOF) Total Traffic Load (PAX + Baggage + Cargo + Mail) Operating Weight (OW) Zero Fuel
Weight (ZFW) (must not exceed MZFW) Take-Off Fuel (TOF) Take-Off Weight (TOW) (must not exceed
MTOW or RTOW) Trip Fuel Landing Weight (LW) (must not exceed MLW)