2021

THE EAST EUROPEAN

REVOLUTION

H U G H S E T O N -\V A T S O N

A
F R E D E R IC K A. PRAEGER. P u b li s h e r

N ew Y ork
B y th e S a m e A u th o r

E A S T E R N E U R O PE B E T W E E N T H E W A R S , I 9 I 8 - I 9 4 I

T H E D E C L IN E O F IM P E R IA L R U S S IA

FROM L E N IN T O K H R U S H C H E V

N E IT H E R W A R NOR P E A C E
 BOOKS THAT MATTER
F irst p u b lish e d in th r U n ite d S ta te s of A m e ric a in 1951 by-
F re d e ric k A. P ra e g e r, In c., P u b lish e r
64 U n iv ersity P lac e, N ew Y ork 3, N . V.

S eco n d e d itio n p u b lish e d in 1954

T h ir d e d itio n p u b lish e d in 1956

S e c o n d p rin tin g , 1961

A ll rig h ts reserved

L ib ra ry of C o n g ress C a ta lo g C a rd N u m b e r: A 586364

T h f. East E uropean R e v o l u t io n is p u b li s h e d in t w o e d it io n s :

A p a p e rb a c k e d itio n ( U - 5 1 5 )
A c lo th b o u n d e d itio n

T h is book is N u m b e r 1 in th e series of
Praeger P u b lica tio n s in R u ssia n H is to r y
a n d W o r ld C o m m u n is m .

M a n u fa c tu re d in th e U n ite d S ta te s of A m erica
 PREFACE T O TH E SECON D ED ITIO N

N th e first h a l f o f th e b o o k , se v e r a l m in o r e rro rs h a v e b e en

I re c tifie d . I n th e se c o n d h a lf, a la r g e p a r t o f C h a p t e r I X has

b e e n re w ritte n . I h a v e a tte m p te d to re d u c e th e u n d ig e s te d
s ta tis tic a l m a te r ia l a n d to g iv e m o re sp a c e to g e n e r a l tren ds.
S o m e in fo r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g th e u p w a r d re v isio n o f th e e c o n o m ic
p la n s in 19 51 h a s b e e n in c lu d e d . In th e c a se o f Y u g o s la v i a som e
in fo r m a tio n o n th e p r a c t ic a l w o r k in g o f th e p la n in th e la st tw o
y e a r s h a s b e e n a d d e d . T h e se c tio n o n fo r e ig n tra d e h as b een
s h o rte n e d , a n d h e re to o fu r th e r in fo r m a tio n o n Y u g o s la v ia has
b e e n a d d e d . I n C h a p t e r X I h a v e b r o u g h t th e s u rv e y o f c o lle c t i­
v is a tio n o f a g r ic u lt u r e u p to d a te . D u r in g 19 5 1 th e p a c e w as
s u b s t a n t ia lly in c re a se d in th e C o m in fo r m c o u n trie s a n d sla c k e n e d
in Y u g o s la v ia . In th e se c tio n o f this c h a p t e r d e a lin g w ith L a b o u r ,
I h a v e r e p la c e d th e e x a m p le s g iv e n in th e first e d itio n b y m o re
r e c e n t e x a m p le s a n d h a v e b r ie fly m e n tio n e d n e w tre n d s in th e
e x p lo it a t io n o f L a b o u r . I n th e se c tio n on th e C h u r c h e s re c e n t
d e v e lo p m e n ts in c o m m u n is t tr e a tm e n t o f P o lish a n d H u n g a r ia n
C a t h o lic is m h a v e b e e n m e n tio n e d . A n e w p a r a g r a p h h as b e en
a d d e d a t th e e n d o f C h a p t e r X I I on G r e e c e .
T h e o n ly p o in t o n w h ic h I h a v e m o d ifie d m y o p in io n is th e
s itu a tio n o f th e in d u s tr ia l w o r k in g class. In th e first e d itio n I
th in k I w a s s o m e w h a t to o o p tim istic . E s p e c ia lly sin ce th e re v isio n
o f th e p la n s, th e w o rk e rs h a v e b e e n su b je c te d to in c re a s in g e x ­
p lo ita tio n . T h e s itu a tio n o f m ost w o rk e rs a p p ro a c h e s th a t o f th e
B ritish w o r k e r in th e w o rst d a y s o f e a r ly c a p ita lis m , w h ile o f
c o u rse t h e ir fr e e d o m o f o p in io n a n d s p e e c h is fa r less.
O n a ll o th e r p o in ts I stick to m y o r ig in a l v ie w s . In p a r tic u la r
I re ite r a te m y v ie w t h a t th e p u rp o se o f c o lle c tiv is a tio n o f a g r i­
c u lt u r e is p o lit ic a l a n d a d m in is tr a tiv e ra th e r th a n e c o n o m ic a n d
t e c h n ic a l, a n d t h a t th e b r e a c h b e tw e e n T i t o a n d th e C o m in fo r m
w a s c a u s e d n o t b y d is a g re e m e n t o n d o c tr in e b u t b y p e tty q u a rr e ls
a r is in g fro m th e b a sic fa c t t h a t M o s c o w d istru ste d T i t o b e c a u se
h e h a d c r e a te d h is o w n sta te m a c h in e , n o t re c e iv e d it as a gift
fr o m th e R e d A r m y . J u s t as, in th e S o v ie t U n io n , S t a lin ’s feu d s
w it h h is fo r m e r c o lle a g u e s w e re c a u s e d b y p e rs o n a l h a tre d a n d
v
vi THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

s u b se q u e n tly ju s tifie d b y d o c tr in a l o r p o litic a l issues, so in th e

ca se o f T it o a n d S ta lin th e p e rso n a l b r e a c h c a m e first a n d th e
ta m e id e o lo g u e s w e re th en g iv e n th e task o f in v e n tin g th e id e o lo g i­
c a l issues. T h e y d id n o t d o th e ir j o b v e r y w e ll, b e c a u se in so fa r
as T i t o w a s a t a ll g u ilty o f th e c h a rg e s b ro u g h t a g a in s t h im , he
w as less g u ilty th a n a n y o f th e n e ig h b o u r in g p u p p e t c o m m u n ist
ru lers. O n c e th e b re a c h w a s m a d e , h o w e v e r, serio u s d iffe re n c e s
o f p o lic y d id in fa c t d e v e lo p .
It is p e rh a p s w o rth w h ile to e x p la in m o re c le a r ly th e p u rp o se
o f this b o o k . I t is tw o fo ld — to d e s c rib e th e re c e n t h isto ry o f
E astern E u ro p e , e s p e c ia lly sin ce 19 4 1 , a n d to d e s c rib e a n d
a n a ly se th e p o lic y o f th e c o m m u n ist re g im e s. T h e co m m u n ist
le a d e rs, as M a rx ists, a re b o u n d to p a y lip se rv ic e to th e th e o r y
th a t th e ca u ses o f p o litic a l p h e n o m e n a a re e c o n o m ic . In th e ir
p r a c tic a l p o lic y h o w e v e r th e y in v a r ia b ly g iv e first p r io r ity to
p o litic a l fa cto rs. I exp ress n o o p in io n c o n c e r n in g th e g e n e r a l
p ro p o sitio n th a t e c o n o m ic s d e te rm in e s p o litic s : w ith re g a rd to
th e p a r tic u la r p h e n o m e n o n o f E a s te rn E u r o p e fro m 194 5 to 1951
I h a v e n o t th e le a st d o u b t th a t p o litic s is m o re im p o r ta n t th a n
e co n o m ic s . I f th e e m p h a sis in this b o o k is o n p o litic s r a th e r th a n
e co n o m ic s , th a t is b e c a u se th e e m p h a sis o f e ve n ts is o n p o litic s
r a th e r th a n e c o n o m ic s. N e v e rth e le ss, as a g r e a t d e a l o f p o litic a l
a c tio n a n d c o n tro v e rs y is co n c e rn e d w ith e c o n o m ic s , a g o o d d e a l
o f sp a ce in this b o o k is g iv e n to e c o n o m ic p r o b le m s , a n d t h a t n o t
so le ly in th e c h a p te rs w h ic h h a v e a n e c o n o m ic o r so c ia l h e a d in g .
A n e x p e rt in e c o n o m ic a n a ly sis w o u ld o f c o u rse tre a t th ese p r o b ­
lem s q u ite d iffe re n tly . I a m n ot c o n c e rn e d w ith e c o n o m ic a n a ly sis,
b u t w ith th e e c o n o m ic co n te n t of, a n d b a c k g r o u n d to , c o m m u n ist
p o litics. B u t p o litics is n o t ‘ o n ly p o lit ic s ’ , a t r iv ia lity to b e d is­
m issed w ith c o n te m p t. P o litics in a c o m m u n ist sta te is every' a sp e c t
o f p r iv a te a n d p u b lic life a n d e v e r y m o m e n t o f th e d a y a n d
n igh t.
 PREFACE T O TH E T H IR D ED ITIO N

U R I N G th e th re e y e a r s th a t h a v e p assed sin c e th e sc c o n d ,

D re v ise d , e d itio n a p p e a r e d , S ta lin h as d ie d , a n d th ere h a v e

b e e n c h a n g e s in th e S o v ie t U n io n w h ic h h a v e b een
r e fle c te d in th e E a s t E u r o p e a n states. I t h as a lso b e c o m e possible
to see m o re c le a r ly th e tre n d to w a r d s th e fo r m a tio n o f n e w r u lin g
classes in th ese co u n trie s, c lo se ly fo llo w in g th e tre n d in th e S o v ie t
U n io n b u t d iffe r in g in c e r ta in im p o r ta n t resp ects. In Y u g o s la v ia
a d iffe r e n t ty p e o f re g im e h as b e e n e v o lv in g sin ce th e b re a c h w ith
th e C o m in fo r m , a n d h e re to o th e p ic tu re is s u b s ta n tia lly c le a re r
th a n it w a s th re e y e a r s a g o . F in a lly th e p la c e o f E a ste rn E u ro p e
in in te r n a tio n a l p o litic s h as b e e n m o d ifie d , b y th e fo rm a tio n a n d
s u b s e q u e n t d is lo c a tio n o f th e B a lk a n A llia n c e , a n d still m o re b y
th e in c r e a s in g u r g e n c y o f th e G e r m a n p ro b le m .
T h e s e su b je c ts a r c su ffic ie n tly im p o rta n t to ju s tify a n ew
c h a p te r , w h ic h h as b e e n in se rte d b e tw e e n th e la st tw o . O th e rw is e
th e r e h a s b e e n n o c h a n g e .
S in c e th e n e w c h a p t e r w a s w r itte n , th e G e n e v a c o n fe re n c e o f
O c t o b e r 19 5 5 h as b e e n h e ld . I t h as o n ly too sa d ly c o n firm e d th e
a n a ly sis w ritte n in th e e a r ly su m m e r.

December 19 5 5
 To
My Wife
 CONTENTS

CHAP. HAilE
I n t r o d u c t io n xi
N o te o n P r o pe r N am es x vii

PART I— B A C K G R O U N D

I T h e S o c ia l S t r u c t u r e

T h e E a st E u r o p e a n N a tio n s , i — T h e R u lin g
C lasses, 6 — P e a sa n ts and W o rk e rs, 13 —
N a t io n a lis m , 19
II P a r t ie s a n d P o l it ic s
23
B o u rg e o is D e m o c r a tic P a rtie s, 23— P e a sa n t
P a rtie s, 3 1 — M a r x is t P a rtie s, 36— F ascist P a rtie s,
4 3 — F ro m P a r lia m e n ta r is m to D ic ta to r s h ip , 46

PART II— W A R

III T h e C o n q u est o f E a ster n E u r o pe

49
IV T h e A x is N e w O r d e r
70
V T h e A x is S a t e l l it e s
83
R u m a n ia , 83— B u lg a r ia , 90— H u n g a r y , 98
V I T h e R e s is t a n c e M o vem en ts 106
R e s is ta n c e a n d C o lla b o r a t io n , 106— P o la n d , 110
-— Y u g o s la v ia , 1 1 8 — G r e e c e , 1 3 1 — A lb a n ia , 139
— C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , 146
V II G r e a t a n d S m a ll A l l ie s 150
P o la n d , 150— Y u g o s la v i a , 1 5 7 — C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ,
162

PART III— S O V IE T IS A T IO N

V III T h e S e iz u r e o f P o w e r 167
T h e P a tte r n , 167-— P o la n d , 1 7 1 — C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ,
179 — H u n g a r y , 190— R u m a n ia , 202— B u lg a ria ,
2 1 1 — Y u g o s la v ia , 2 1 9 — A lb a n ia , 226
ix
X THE E A ST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

IX E c o n o m ic R e c o v e r y a n d P l a n n in g 230
T h e A ft e r m a t h o f W a r , 230— N a tio n a lis a tio n ,
236— R e c o v e r y P la n s, 2 4 1 — T h e L o n g -te r m
P la n s, 246— F o re ig n T r a d e P r o b le m s, 2 54
X S o c ia l an d R e l ig io u s P o l ic y 265
The P e a sa n ts, 265— L a b o u r , 277— T h e I n t e l­
lig e n tsia , 282— T h e C h u r c h e s , 287
XI P o l it ic a l P o w e r 296
T h e S ta te M a c h in e , 296— T h e C o m m u n is t
P a rtie s, 304
X II T h e G r e e k E x c e p t io n 318
P o litic a l D e v e lo p m e n t, 3 18 — E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p ­
m e n t, 329 — G r e e k P ro sp e cts, 336
X III I n t e r n a t io n a l P ro blem s 3 39
N a tio n a lis m , 339— B a lk a n P ro b le m s, 3 4 7 — T h e
G e r m a n P r o b le m , 360
X IV S in c e S t a l in 372
XV E ast a n d W est 399
B ib l io g r a p h ic a l N o t e 416
I n d ex 42 5

M APS

Drawn by Denys R . Baker

P o la n d a n d C z e c h o s l o v a k ia 5
S o u t h -E a ster n E u r o pe 8 -9
 IN T R O D U C T IO N

H E N th e B o lsh e v ik s m a d e th e ir re v o lu tio n in N o v e m b e r

W 1 9 1 7 , th e y fe lt th e m se lv e s th e h eirs o f th e m en w h o m a d e
th e g r e a t ‘ b o u rg e o is r e v o lu t io n s ’ o f 1688 in E n g la n d a n d
178 9 in F r a n c e . A t th e sa m e tim e th e ir r e v o lu tio n w as th e first o f
a n e w ty p e . I t w a s a ‘ p r o le ta r ia n r e v o lu t io n ', m a d e in th e n a m e
a n d o n b e h a lf o f th e in d u s tr ia l w o r k in g class. I t w as e x p e c te d to b e
fo llo w e d soon b y sim ila r re v o lu tio n s in o th e r c o u n trie s, e s p e c ia lly
in th e a d v a n c e d in d u s tr ia l c o u n trie s.
T h e B o lsh e v ik r e v o lu tio n e sta b lis h e d th e S o v ie t system in
R u s s ia , a c o u n t r y w h o se p o p u la tio n to - d a y is so m e 200 m illio n s.
D e s p ite a fe w b r ie f successes, h o w e v e r, C o m m u n is m d id n o t
e sta b lis h it s e lf e lse w h e r e fo r t h ir ty y e a rs. T o - d a y th e S o v ie t fo rm
o f g o v e r n m e n t is b e in g r a p id ly e x te n d e d to a fu rth e r 100 m illio n
E u ro p e a n s . W o r ld w a r g a v e th e R u ssia n B o lsh e v ik s th e ir o p p o r ­
t u n ity in 19 1 7 , b y s h a tte r in g th e c u m b ro u s b u t b rittle m a c h in e r y
o f th e R u ssia n sta te . W o r ld w a r a g a in g a v e c o m m u n ists th e ir
o p p o r t u n it y in 19 4 5 , b y sh a tte r in g th e R e ic h o f A d o lf H itle r , w h o
h a d d e s tro y e d so m e o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n states a n d p la c e d som e
u n d e r his p r o te c tio n . H is to r y m a d e a p re s e n t o f ch a o s to th e
B o lsh e v ik s in 1 9 1 7 , b u t th e y h a d to fig h t th e ir o w n c iv il w a r in
o r d e r to p u t th e ir r e g im e in th e p la c e o f ch a o s. A lo n e in E a ste rn
E u r o p e in 1 9 4 4 -5 *he Y u g o s la v co m m u n ists a c h ie v e d this ta sk :
e lse w h e r e c o m m u n ists w e r e p la c e d in p o w e r b y th e v ic to rio u s
a r m y o f B o lsh e v ik R u ssia . E v e n th e Y u g o s la v c o m m u n ists h a d
h a d su b s ta n tia l fo reig n h e lp , first fro m th e W e st a n d th en from
th e E ast.
T h e E a s te rn E u r o p e a n re v o lu tio n th e n w a s im p o se d fro m o u t ­
sid e a n d fro m a b o v e . I t c a n n o t ju s t ly b e c o m p a r e d w ith th e
re v o lu tio n s o f 1688, 178 9 a n d 1 9 1 7 . B u t b e c a u se it w a s im p o se d ,
it is n o t less a r e v o lu tio n . T h e p u b lic a n d p r iv a te lives o f 100
m illio n E a s t E u ro p e a n s a re b e in g tra n s fo rm e d o u t o f re c o g n itio n
a n d a t b r e a k n e c k sp e e d . T h e so cia l s tru c tu re a n d p o litic a l regim es
o f E a s te rn E u r o p e (e x c e p t C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ) b e tw e e n th e w o rld
w a rs w e r e n e a r e r to th o se o f I m p e r ia l R u ssia th a n o f W e ste rn
E u r o p e , b u t its c u lt u r e w a s fa r m o re w e ste rn th a n th a t o f I m p e r ia l
xi
x ii TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

R u ssia h ad e v e r b e en . A n d c u ltu r a l tra d itio n s, th o u g h felt m ost

stro n g ly b y th e fa irly sm all e d u c a te d class, o r in te llig e n tsia ,
p e n e tra te d also to o th e r classes, in c lu d in g e v e n th e im p o v e rish e d
p e a sa n try . T h e in flu e n ce o f sch o o l, a n d o f th e C a t h o lic an d
P ro te sta n t ch u rc h e s, en su red this. T h e r e fo r e th e c h a n g e fro m th e
p re -w a r c iv ilisa tio n to th e civ ilisa tio n o f th e S o v ie t w o rld is fa r
g re a te r an d fa r m o re a b r u p t for th e p e o p le o f E a ste rn E u ro p e
th a n it w as fo r the p e o p le o f E u ro p e a n a n d A s ia tic R u ssia a fte r
th e B olsh evik re v o lu tio n . T h e p a ce is a lso q u ic k e r. E le v e n y e a rs
passed b e tw e e n th e B o lsh e v ik re v o lu tio n a n d th e in a u g u r a tio n o f
th e first F iv e - Y e a r P la n , tw e lv e y e a rs b e tw e e n th e re v o lu tio n
a n d c o lle c tiv isa tio n o f a g ric u ltu re . T h e first E ast E u ro p e a n F iv e -
Y e a r P la n , th e Y u g o s la v , b e g a n in 194 7, tw o y e ars a fte r T i t o ’s
go v e rn m e n t h ad o b ta in e d p o w e r th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y . T h e
o th e r co u n trie s a re b e g in n in g th eir fiv e- o r six -y e a r c o n stru c tio n
pla n s in 1949 a n d 1950. C o lle c tiv is a tio n w as a n n o u n c e d as th e aim
in E astern E u ro p e in th e su m m e r o f 1948, a n d b y th e e n d o f
1949 it h a d g o n e a lo n g w a y in b o th Y u g o s la v ia a n d B u lg a ria .
T h e ch a n g e s in E astern E u ro p e th e n a re tr u ly re v o lu tio n a r y .
T h e y a re also im m e n se ly im p o rta n t fo r th e o u te r w o rld . B y th em
th e S o v ie t w o r ld ’ s s u p p ly o f p o te n tia l fa c to ry -fo d d c r a n d c a n n o n -
fo d d e r has risen from 200 m illio n to n e a rly 300 m illio n . M o r e o v e r
th e a v e ra g e lev el o f m a n u a l skill a n d e d u c a tio n o f E a ste rn E u ro p e
is fa r h ig h e r th a n th a t o f E u ro p e a n , le t a lo n e A s ia tic , R u ssia . I f
th e so v ie tisa tio n o f E astern E u ro p e c a n b e c o n so lid a te d , it w ill
p r o b a b ly p ro v e a m o re v a lu a b le g a in to M o s c o w th a n th e
so v ie tisa tio n o f C h in a w ith its 400 m illio n s.
T h e p u rp o se o f this b o o k is b o th to d e sc rib e a n d to a n a ly se
th e so v ietisatio n o f E astern E u ro p e . T h e o b sta c le s a n d p itfalls a re
o f co u rse o b v io u s. S o m e in fo rm a tio n is u n o b ta in a b le , a n d m u ch
m o re is u n re lia b le . T h e process is b y n o m ea n s co m p le te . I n te r ­
n a tio n a l crises o c c u r a lm o st e v e ry m o n th . M a n y d eta ils, a n d n o
d o u b t som e im p o rta n t po in ts, w ill la te r b e seen to b e m ista k e n .
Y e t still I th in k th e a tte m p t w o rth m a k in g . I b e lie v e th ere is ro o m
fo r a w o rk in te rm e d ia te b e tw e e n jo u rn a lis m a n d h isto ry . I b e lie v e
th a t th e a c a d c m ic to o l-b o x c a n b e a p p lie d to c u rre n t e ve n ts.
I b e lie v e th a t th e g e n e ra l p a tte rn , a n d m ost o f th e d e ta il, w ill b e a r
th e test o f tim e.
T h r e e th in g s seem to m e d e s ira b le fo r o n e u n d e r ta k in g su ch
w o rk — p e rso n a l e x p e rie n c e o f E astern E u ro p e a n d k n o w le d g e o f
its b a c k g ro u n d ; close a tte n tio n to c u rre n t e v e n ts in E aste rn
E u ro p e o v e r th e p e rio d c o n c e r n e d ; a n d stu d y o f th e th e o r y a n d
 I N T R O D U C T IO N xiii
p r a c tic e o f R u ssia n b o lsh e vism a n d E u ro p e a n c o m m u n ism . In
a n e a r lie r w o rk s o m e w h a t h u r rie d ly co m p o sed in 1 9 4 2 - 3 ,' an d
d e a lin g w ith th e p e rio d b e tw e e n th e w o rld w a rs, I w as, I h o pe,
r e a s o n a b ly w e ll su p p lie d w ith th e first q u a lific a tio n , a n d to a
lesser e x te n t w ith th e se co n d , b u t c o m p le te ly la ck e d th e th ird .
I knew' n o th in g o f R u ssia n h isto ry , th e S o v ie t re g im e , o r the
o rg a n isa tio n o f c o m m u n ist p a rties. I h ad seen co m m u n ists in
E a ste rn E u r o p e o n ly as m a rty rs o f fascist d icta to rsh ip s, re g a rd e d
w ith s y m p a th y b y m a n y d e m o c ra tic in te lle c tu a ls an d d isco n ­
te n te d p ea san ts. N o in d ic a tio n c o u ld be fo u n d in E astern E u ro p e
o f h o w th e y w o u ld b e h a v e sh o u ld th e y th em selves o b ta in p o w e r.
I w as o f co u rsc fa m ilia r w ith a n ti-co m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a : it w as
im p o ssib le to v isit E a ste rn E u ro p e w ith o u t b e in g d elu g e d b y it.
B u t I d id n o t feel d isp o sed to b e lie v e w h a t I w as to ld b y Iro n
G u a rd ists, b y th e scrib es o f M ila n S to ja d in o v ic , o r b y th e d isciples
o f th e la te D r . J o s e p h G o e b b e ls. N o r w as I im pressed b y the
a rg u m e n ts o f th e B a lk a n r u lin g classes, w h o se a ttitu d e to c o m ­
m u n ism w as o b v io u s ly d e te rm in e d b y fe a r for th e ir d u b io u sly
a c q u ir e d possessions. M y re lu c ta n c e to b e lie v e a n y o f these
p e o p le w as sh a red b y o ld e r a n d w'iser m en th an I on b o th sides
o f th e A tla n tic .
In p r e p a r in g th e presen t w o rk I h a v e tried to som e e x te n t to
fill this g a p . I t is r e m a rk a b le h o w m u c h o f c u rre n t even ts in
E a ste rn E u ro p e is e x p la in e d b y e v e n a little re a d in g o f R u ssia n
t w e n tie th -c e n tu ry h isto ry , o f th e w o rk s o f L e n in a n d S ta lin , and
o f th e e a r ly h isto ry o f th e C o m in te rn . T h e w h ole p ro g ra m m e is
th e r e in th e sp eech es a n d a rticle s o f th e p ro m in e n t S o v ie t an d
C o m in te rn figu res o f th e i g î o ’ s. O rg a n is a tio n , m eth od s o f p o liti­
c a l w a r fa r e , p o litic a l a llia n ce s a n d tactics, sh ort-term a n d lo n g ­
te rm aim s— a ll a re e x p la in e d n o less fr a n k ly a n d m u c h m o re
c le a r ly th a n in M ein Kampf. T h e en em ies a n d th e d u p e s are
n a m e d . B u t n o o n e seem s to h a v e rea d o r listen ed b u t th e fa ith fu l.
F o r th ose o u tsid e th e fo ld , u n c ritic a l p raise o r u n c ritic a l ab u se,
p a n ic o r o stric h -h e a d e d o p tim ism to ok th e p la c e o f k n o w led g e .
T h is p e rso n a l re m in isce n ce h as, I th in k , a p la c e in this in tro ­
d u c tio n , b e ca u se I b e lie v e th a t m y o w n ig n o ra n c e w as not
u n ty p ic a l o f m y g e n e ra tio n , in c lu d in g those w h o tried o r p r o ­
fessed to try to le a rn s o m e th in g a b o u t in te rn a tio n a l a ffa irs. A n d
th o u g h w e a re n o d o u b t to b la m e fo r o u r ig n o ra n c e , little less
b la m e a tta c h e s to th e g e n e ra tio n b e fo re us, w h o h ad m o re
th a n tw e n ty y e a rs, b e tw e e n th e B o lsh e v ik re v o lu tio n an d th e
1 Eastern Europ* betuwn the Wars, 1^18-41 (C .U .I* .. 19 45 ).
x iv TH E E A ST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
S e co n d W o rld W a r , in w h ic h to le a rn , y e t d id n ot re a d th e sign s.
A s fo r th e c o rre sp o n d in g g e n e ra tio n in E astern E u ro p e , w h o w e re
n o t o n ly ig n o ra n t o f th e n a tu re o f co m m u n ism b u t to ok few steps
to re m o ve th e social in ju stic e on w h ic h co m m u n ism th riv e d , th e y
h a v e less reason th a n a n y o n e to p rid e th em selves o n p o litic a l
w isd o m . O n e m ust h o p e th a t in th e W e st, on b o th sid es o f th e
A tla n tic , th e lesson w ill n o w b e le a rn e d , a n d th a t steps w ill be
tak e n in o u r schools a n d u n iversities to tell th e n e x t g e n e ra tio n
s o m e th in g a b o u t b o th R u ssia n h isto ry a n d th e th e o ry a n d p r a c ­
tice o f c o m m u n ism . A s fa r as B rita in is c o n c e rn e d , it m u st be
a d m itte d th at so fa r th ere is m ig h ty little sign o f a n y c h a n g e .
T h r o u g h o u t th e p e rio d d escrib e d in this b o ok I h a v e tried m y
best to fo llo w even ts in E astern E u ro p e . D u rin g th e w a r I w a s c o n ­
ce rn e d in v a rio u s o fficia l c a p a c itie s w ith th e a ffa irs o f v a rio u s East
E u ro p e a n co u n trie s— in 19 3 9 -4 1 in E aste rn E u ro p e , in 1 9 4 1 -4 in
th e M id d le E ast a n d 19 4 4 -6 in L o n d o n . In th e su m m e r o f 1946 I
v isited C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , Y u g o s la v ia , B u lg a ria , R u m a n ia a n d
H u n g a r y ; in th e sp rin g o f 1947 C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d H u n g a r y ; in
th e a u tu m n o f 1948 G r e e c e . I re g ret th at I h a v e n ot h a d a n
o p p o rtu n ity to visit P o la n d sin ce th e w a r. In a ll th ese jo u r n e y s I
m et w ith h e lp a n d co u rte sy fro m o fficials as w e ll as from p r iv a te
citize n s. It is n o w m o re th an tw o y e ars sin ce I w as b e y o n d th e
‘ iro n c u r t a in ’ . S u c h c o n ta c ts as h a v e b e en po ssib le w ith p e o p le o f
th ose co u n trie s, a n d w ith B ritish p e o p le w h o h a v e m o re re c e n tly
v isite d , o r w o rk e d in , th ose co u n trie s, h a v e o f co u rse b e en v a lu a b le
to m e. A p a r t from th is I h a v e relied o n a g o o d d e a l o f w ritte n
m a te ria l, in b o th E ast E u ro p e a n a n d W e ste rn la n g u a g e s, w h ic h is
d escrib e d , a n d th e m ost useful p a rt o f w h ic h is listed , in th e b ib lio ­
g r a p h ic a l n o te a t th e en d o f th e b ook .
I h a v e a tte m p te d to d e s c rib e th e process b y w h ic h th e E ast
E u ro p e a n co m m u n ists o b ta in e d p o w e r, a n d to a n a ly se th e re g im e
th e y h a v e e stab lish e d . I h a v e trie d to sh o w th e im p a c t o f this
re g im e on th e so cia l classes a n d on th e c itiz e n . T h e s e th in g s I
b e lie v e ca n b e d isco v ere d w ith c o m p a r a tiv e c e r ta in ty . H o w th e
c itiz e n feels a b o u t it, h o w e v e r, is m u c h m o re d iffic u lt to fin d o u t.
H e re th e ‘ iron c u r t a in ’ is a re a l o b sta c le . I h a v e som e id e a h o w
th e citiz e n felt u n d e r th e p r e -w a r regim es, a n d so m e id e a h o w h e
fe lt in th e su m m e r o f 1946 a n d th e sp rin g o f 1947 w h e n I visite d
E a ste rn E u ro p e . M y id eas o f b o th m a y w e ll h a v e b e e n m isg u id e d .
S in ce 1947 I c a n o n ly guess, b a sin g m y gu ess o n o b s e rv a n c e o f
o fficia l p o lic y a n d m y p rev io u s k n o w le d g e , s u p p le m e n tin g it
w h e n possible b y th e a c co u n ts o f th ose w h o h a v e b e e n m o re
 IN T R O D U C T IO N XV

re c e n tly . I h a v e trie d to a v o id gen e ra lisa tio n s a b o u t p u b lic

o p in io n to -d a y , a n d w h ere th e y c a n n o t b e a v o id e d I h a v e tried
to w a r n th e re a d e r o f th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n guesses a n d facts.
T h e S o v ie t z o n e o f E u ro p e to -d a y in clu d es E astern G e r m a n y
a n d to a lesser e x te n t E astern A u s tria a n d F in la n d . I h a v e o n ly
a v e r y b r ie f p a ssa ge on th e first tw o , a n d n o n e a t a ll a b o u t F in ­
la n d . T h is is b e c a u se G e r m a n y a n d A u s tria ca n o n ly b e a d e q u a te ly
d iscu ssed in co n n e c tio n w ith E u ro p e as a w h o le , an d b e cau se
F in la n d is u n k n o w n to m e a n d b e lo n g s to a q u ite d iffe re n t
c u ltu r a l a n d s tra te g ic a r e a from th e E astern E u ro p e w h ic h is th e
s u b je c t o f this b o o k . O n th e o th e r h a n d , I h a v e in c lu d e d G r e e c e ,
w h ic h is n o t so v ietised , b e c a u se it d oes b e lo n g in e x tr ic a b ly to th e
B a lk a n s a n d b e c a u se its re g im e presents a n in te re stin g c o m p ariso n
b o th w'ith th e so vietised regim es a n d w ith th e p r e -w a r B alkan
regim es.
T h e p resen t c a n n o t b e d escrib e d w ith o u t som e refe re n ce to th e
re ce n t p ast. O n e o f th e less p le a sa n t p h e n o m e n a o f c o n te m p o r a r y
p o litic a l co n tro v e rsy is th e fa lsifica tio n o f th e past fo r th e sake o f
th e p resen t. I t is as u n p a r d o n a b le to p resen t the p r e -w a r regim es
as h a p p y d e m o c ra c ie s b e c a u se o n e d islikes C o m m u n ist d ic ta to r ­
sh ips, as to d e p ic t a ll p a st h isto ry as b la c k m isery an d opp ression
b e ca u se o n e loves th e c o m m u n ist b r a v e n e w w o rld . I h o p e th a t,
w h a te v e r o th e r e rro rs I h a v e c o m m itte d , I h a v e a v o id e d these
tw o .
T h e first tw o c h a p te rs c o v e r m u c h th e sam e g ro u n d as m y
e a r lie r b o o k , b u t a re d iffe re n tly a n d o f c o u rse m u c h m ore sh o rtly
p resen te d . T h e seco n d c h a p te r c o n ta in s m a te ria l on th e o rig in o f
th e m a in p o litic a l p a rtie s o f E astern E u ro p e w h ic h is n ot I th in k
e a s ily o b ta in a b le in E n g lish , o r o b ta in a b le a t a ll in on e p la c e .
T h e e ve n ts d e s c rib e d a n d d iscussed in th e th ird c h a p te r h a v e
a lr e a d y fig u re d in se v era l b rillia n t w o rk s b y profession al d ip lo ­
m a tic h isto ria n s, w h ic h a re listed in th e b ib lio g r a p h ic a l n o te. I
th in k , h o w e v e r, th a t th e re a d e r w ill fin d useful a b r ie f su m m a ry
o f th e e ve n ts o f 1 9 3 9 -4 1 as fa r as th e y c o n c e rn E aste rn E u ro p e
o n ly . T h e h isto ry o f th e resistan ce m o ve m e n ts an d o f th e rela tio n s
b e tw e e n th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n ts a n d th e G r e a t A llie s has n o t, I
b e lie v e , y e t b e en p resen ted as a w h o le . H e re I am w ell a w a re th a t
m u ch im p o rta n t d e ta il is n o t y e t a v a ila b le , a n d v e r y stro n g
d iffe re n ce s o f o p in io n a re held in g o o d fa ith b y b e tte r an d m ore
le a rn e d m en th a n I. I v e n tu re , h o w e v e r, to h o p e th a t if e v e r a ll th e
facts a re k n o w n m y a c c o u n t w ill n o t b e fo u n d to b e v e r y fa r from
th e tru th .
xvi TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e seizu re o f p o w e r b y th e co m m u n ists falls p a r tly in to th e
w a rtim e p erio d a n d p a r tly in to th e first y e a rs o f a rm is tic e . In
Y u g o s la v ia a n d A lb a n ia it too k p la c c , in G r e e c e it w a s fru stra te d ,
a n d in P o la n d it m a d e m u c h p ro gress, a lr e a d y in 1944. T h e
e ig h th c h a p te r, th e first in th e th ird p a rt, giv e s a c h ro n o lo g ic a l
s u m m a ry o f p o litic a l evcnLs in fiv e co u n trie s u p to th e e sta b lis h ­
m en t o f c o m p le te d ic ta to rs h ip b y th e C o m m u n is t P a rty (d u rin g
1948), an d in Y u g o s la v ia a n d A lb a n ia u p to th e T ito - C o m in fo r m
b re a c h . E v e n ts su b seq u en t to this a re m en tio n e d in th e la te r c h a p ­
ters, w h ic h a re n o t c h ro n o lo g ic a l, b u t d e a l w ith e c o n o m ic p o lic y ,
so cia l classes, d istrib u tio n o f p o litic a l p o w e r a n d fo reig n p o lic y .
T h e c h a p te r o n G r e e c e is m a in ly c h r o n o lo g ic a l, d iv id e d in to a
p o litic a l a n d a n e c o n o m ic sectio n , a n d e n d in g w ith a b r ie f su m ­
m a ry o f p ro b lem s a n d tren ds.
In th e a n a ly tic a l c h a p te rs I h a v e tried to p o in t o u t th e d iffe r ­
e n ces w h ic h still exist b e tw e e n in d iv id u a l c o u n trie s, b u t m y
em p h a sis is ra th e r on u n ifo rm ity th a n o n d iv e rs ity . T h is is b e ca u se
I a m co n v in c e d th a t in a ll th e sovietised c o u n trie s th e tre n d o f
g o v e rn m e n t is id e n tic a l, an d th a t th e d iffe re n ce s a re b e in g ra p id ly
re m o v e d . It is th e sim ila rity b e tw e e n th e re g im e s, a n d th e close
im ita tio n b y a ll o f th e past h isto ry o f th e S o v ie t U n io n , w h ic h n eed
to be stressed for W e ste rn re a d e rs, to w h o m th e th e o ry a n d p r a c ­
tice o f co m m u n ism a re still w o e fu lly u n fa m ilia r. I t is n o d o u b t tru e
th a t b e n e a th th e su rfa ce , n a tio n a l c h a ra c te rs re m a in as d istin ct
as e ve r. B u t th e y h a v e n o d ire c t p o litic a l effects.
I n th e last c h a p te r I h a v e g iv e n m y o w n co n clu sio n s on th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f E astern E u ro p e . T h e y fall in to th re e section s. T h e
first co n cern s S o v ie t fo reig n p o lic y a n d E a ste rn E u r o p e ’ s p la c e in
it. T h e secon d con sid ers th e n a tu re o f th e n e w regim es, th e c o n ­
cep ts o f ‘ p o lit ic a l’ a n d ‘ e c o n o m ic ’ d e m o c r a c y , a n d th e forces
w h ic h su p p o rt a n d op p ose th e n e w ru lers. T h e last p a g e s a re a n
a tte m p t to e x p la in th e d isru p tiv e in flu e n c e o f E a ste rn E u ro p e in
w o rld a ffa irs in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y , a n d to p la c e it in som e sort
o f w o rld p e rsp e c tiv e .
 NOTE ON PROPER NAM ES

G r e e k n am es a re tra n s lite ra te d fro m th e G r e e k to th e L a tin

a lp h a b e t in th e n o rm a lly a c c e p te d w a y . B u lg a ria n an d R u ssian
n am es a r c tra n s lite ra te d fro m th e C y r illic , a n d sh o u ld b e p ro­
n o u n c e d as w ritte n . T h e o n ly u n fa m ilia r c o m b in a tio n to E n glish
re a d e rs w ill b e ‘ z h ’ . T h is a p p ro x im a te s to ‘ s ’ in ‘ p le a s u r e ’ or
to th e F re n c h ‘j ’ in ‘j o u r ’ . W h e r e a ‘ z ’ o r an ‘ s ’ is fo llo w e d by
a n a sp ira te , it is sh o w n b y an a p o stro p h e b e fo re it. T h u s ‘ z ’ h ’
o r ‘ s’ h ’ sh o u ld b e d istin g u ish ed from ‘ z h ’ o r ‘ s h ’ . F o r th e a sp ira te
in B u lg a r ia n o r R u ssia n n am e s I h a v e used a sim p le ‘ h ’ , w h ic h is
n o t v e r y d iffe re n t from its so u n d , ra th e r th an th e ‘ k h ’ b e lo v e d b y
m a n y p h o n e tic ia n s, w h ic h is m ea n in g le ss in E n glish .
T h e o th e r E ast E u ro p e a n la n g u a g e s use th e L a tin a lp h a b e t
w ith v a rio u s m o d ific a tio n s (S e rb o -C ro a tia n u sin g th e L a tin in
C r o a t ia a n d th e C y r illic in S e r b ia ) . A s it is b e y o n d m y p o w e r to
re d u ce th ese v a rio u s uses o f L a tin letters to a system b oth u n iform
a n d in te llig ib le , I h a v e k ep t th e e x a c t sp e llin g used in e ach
c o u n tr y — e x c e p t fo r c e rta in w e ll-k n o w n n am es w h ic h h a v e a
re co g n ise d E u ro p e a n sp e llin g , e .g . P ra g u e in stead o f P ra h a . T h e
fo llo w in g is an a p p ro x im a te e x p la n a tio n o f the m ain letters in
p r o p e r n am e s o f e a c h la n g u a g e w h ic h d iffe r from E n g lish . I f this
a d v ic e is fo llo w e d , n am e s w ill be p ro n o u n c e d in te llig ib ly . N o
a tte m p t, h o w e v e r, is m a d e to d e a l w ith q u a lit y o f v o w e ls o r stress
o f sy lla b le s.

P o l is h

sz E n g lish sh in ‘ s h o w ’ ,
ś E n g lish s in ‘ s u e ’ ,
cz E n g lish c h in ‘ c h u r c h ’ ,
ć E n g lish l in ‘ v e n t u r e ’ .
1 v a rie s b e tw e e n II in ‘ d u l l ’ a n d w in ‘ w e d ’
ń E n g lish n in ‘ t e n u r e ’ ,
ą a n asa lised v ersio n o f F re n c h o n in ‘ b o n ’ ,
e v a rie s b e tw e e n en in ‘ h e n ’ a n d F re n c h en in 'b i e u ’ .
rz as s in ‘ p le a s u r e ’ o r F re n c h j in ‘j o u r ’ ,
i th e sa m e as rz.
xvii
XVIII THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

c E n glish ts in ‘ le ts ’ ,
j E n glish y in ‘ y e t ’ .

C zech

c a n d j as in P olish.
ś as P olish sz; ć as P olish c z ; ń as P o lish ń; ź as P o lish ź ;
t’ A p p ro x im a te ly as P olish c.
f v a rie s b e tw e e n r fo llo w e d b y a y a n d th e so u n d o f a
P olish rz. S o m etim e s sou n ds lik e E n g lish sh in ‘ s h o w ’ ,
é E n glish y e in ‘ y e l l ’ .

S er b o -C r o a t ia n

c , ć a n d j as in P olish.
t , i an d ź as in C z e c h .

H u n c a r ia n

c a n d j as in P olish,
s E n glish sh i n ‘ s h o w ’ ,
sz E n glish s in ‘ s o ’ ,
cs E n glish c h in ‘ c h u r c h ’ ,
zs E n glish s in ‘ p le a s u re ’ o r F re n c h j in ‘j o u r ’ ,
ly v a rie s b e tw e e n 11 in ‘ a llu r e ’ a n d y in ‘ y e t ’ ,
g y E n glish d in ‘ v e r d u r e ’ ,
n y E n glish n in ‘ t e n u r e ’ ,
ó as in G e rm a n ,
ü as in G e rm a n .
Ő, ű le n g th en e d form s o f ö a n d ü .
a E n g lish o in ‘ h o t ’ ,
á E n glish a in ‘ fa t h e r ’ .

R u m a n ia n

ă E n g lish er in ‘ w e a t h e r ’ ,
â E n glish e in ‘ g a r m e n t ’ ,
ş E n glish sh in ‘ s h o w ’ ,
ţ E n glish ts in ‘ le ts ’ ,
j F re n c h j i n ‘j o u r ’ ,
oa a p p ro x im a te s to F re n c h o i in ‘ t o it ’ .
g b e fo re a , o a n d u as in E n g lish , b e fo re e a n d i as d g in
‘ b rid g e ’ . W h e n ge o r gi co m es b e fo re a , o o r u , th e iis n o t
p ro n o u n c e d b u t th e g h as th e so u n d o f d g in ‘ b r id g e ’ .
W h e n g h co m es b e fo re e o r i, th e h is n ot p r o n o u n c e d b u t
the g is as E n glish in ‘g e t’ or ‘g iv e ’ .
 NOT E ON P R O P E R NAMES XIX

c b e fo re a , o an d u as in E n g lish , b e fo re c a n d i as ch in
‘ c h u r c h ’ . W h e n c i o r c c co m es b e fo re a, o o r u, th e e
o r i is n o t p ro n o u n c e d b u t the c h as the sou n d o f ch in
‘ c h u r c h ’ . W h e n ch co m es b efore e o r i th e h is not
p r o n o u n c e d b u t th e c is as in E n g lish ‘ c a t ’ .

A l b a n ia n

ę E n g lish ch in ‘ c h u r c h ’ ,
x E n g lish d s in ‘ h e a d s ’ ,
x h E n glish d g in ‘ b r id g e ’ .
11 E n glish 11 in ‘ a llu r e ’ ,
g j E n g lish d g iii ‘ b rid g e ’
 Part One

BACKGROUND

C H A P T E R ONE

T H E S O C IA L S T R U C T U R E

T H E E A ST E U R O P E A N NATIONS

A S T E R N E u ro p e , as it is u n d e rsto o d in this b o ok , th e a re a
stre tc h in g fro m th e B a ltic in th e n o rth to th e M e d ite rra n e a n
in th e so u th , a n d fro m th e fro n tiers o f G e rm a n y , A u s tria an d
I t a ly in th e w est to those o f th e S o v ie t U n io n in th e east, is
in h a b ite d b y a t least tw e lv e n atio n s. S e v e n o f these— Poles, C z e c h s,
S lo v a k s, S lo v e n e s, C r o a ts, S erb s a n d B u lg a ria n s— are S la vs. T h e
o th ers a re th e H u n g a ria n s, R u m a n ia n s, G ree k s, T u r k s and
A lb a n ia n s . T o th e tw e lv e sh o u ld p e rh a p s b e a d d e d tw o m o re S la v
g ro u p s w h o se c la im to se p a ra te n a tio n h o o d is a little u n c e rta in —
M a c e d o n ia n s a n d M o n te n e g rin s. A n o th e r sp ecia l g ro u p are S la v s
o f M o sle m re lig io n (S e rb o -C ro a t-sp e a k in g in B osn ia, B u lg a ria n ­
s p e a k in g ( ‘ P o m a k ’ ) in T h r a c e ) , w h o se o u tlo o k , fo rm ed b y th eir
re lig io n , is so d iffe re n t from th a t o f th eir C h ris tia n n e ig h b o u rs as
to co n stitu te s o m e th in g lik e se p a ra te n a tio n a lity .
T h e P oles a re th e m ost n u m ero u s o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n n ation s,
a n d h a v e th e lo n g e st u n in te rru p te d h isto rica l tra d itio n . T h e
P olish sta te to o k sh a p e a fte r th e estab lish m e n t o f C h ris tia n ity in
th e te n th c e n tu r y , a n d re m a in e d in d e p e n d e n t u n til th e en d o f th e
e ig h te e n th . P o la n d h a d to fa ce co n sta n t pressure from h e r G e rm a n
n e ig h b o u r s— first from th e relig io u s o rd e r o f th e T e u to n ic kn igh ts
a n d th en fro m th e se c u la r p r in c ip a lity o f P ru ssia. In th e east she
w as fo r lo n g p e rio d s a t w a r w ith th e G r a n d D u c h y o f M u s c o v y ,
w h ic h la te r b e c a m e th e R u ssia n e m p ire . In th e fifteen th and
six te e n th ce n tu rie s P o la n d w as a G r e a t P o w e r, a n d h e r n e ig h ­
b ou rs w e re still w e a k , b u t in th e se v en te e n th she w as e xh a u ste d
b y S w e d ish in va sio n s a n d w ars w ith R u ssia , a n d in 1772 b e g a n the
p a rtitio n s b e tw e e n R u ssia , A u stria an d P russia w h ic h w e re c o m ­
p le te d b y 179 5. F ro m th en u n til 19 18 P o la n d w as d iv id e d in to
th re e p o rtio n s— P o m e ra n ia u n d e r P russia, G a lic ia u n d e r A u stria ,
a n d th e ‘ C o n g re ss K in g d o m ’ a n d h istoric L ith u a n ia u n d e r
R u ssia .
2 T H E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

T h e C z e c h s h ad a n a tio n a l sta te in th e K in g d o m o f B o h e m ia ,
w h ic h lasted w ith v a r y in g d eg re e s o f in d e p e n d e n c e fro m th e
ten th c e n tu r y u n til 1620. Its h e ro ic p e rio d w as th e H u ssite w ars
o f th e e a r ly fifteen th c e n tru y , w h e n th e C z e c h relig io u s reform ers
d efe n d e d th em selves su ccessfu lly a g a in st ‘ C r u s a d e r s ’ su m m o n e d
b y th e P o p e from a ll o v e r E u ro p e . In th e six te en th c e n tu r y
B o h e m ia b e c a m e a p a rt o f th e H a b s b u rg e m p ire , a n d a fte r 1620
w as su b je cte d to a process o f re lig io u s p e rsecu tio n a n d ge rm a n isa -
tion . N o t u n til th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y d id a C z e c h n a tio n a l
r e v iv a l b e g in , a n d in d e p e n d e n c e w as restored b y th e co lla p se o f
th e H a b s b u rg e m p ire in 19 18 . T h e S lo v a k s h a v e so m e c la im to be
con sid e re d th e d esce n d a n ts o f th e S la v s w h o e sta b lish e d a
M o ra v ia n k in g d o m in th e D a n u b e b asin in th e n in th c e n tu r y , b u t
th e a rriv a l o f th e H u n g a ria n c o n q u e ro rs a t th e e n d o f th at c e n ­
tu ry en g u lfe d th em . T h e y re m a in e d su b je cts o f H u n g a r y , w ith o u t
a n y n a tio n a l se lf-g o v e rn m e n t, u n til 19 18 . T h e n , on th e g ro u n d s o f
th eir close a ffin ity w ith th e C z e c h s, a n d so m e w h a t v a g u e prom ises
o f a u to n o m y m ad e b y th e P ittsb u rg h a g r e e m e n t ,1 th e ir p o litic a l
lead ers a g re e d to form a c o m m o n sta te w ith th em .
T h e H u n g a ria n s e n tered Centn«! E u ro p e a t th e en d o f the
n in th c e n tu r y , an d c o n q u e re d th e S la v k in g d o m o f M o r a v ia ,
w h ich th en o c c u p ie d th e m id d le D a n u b e v a lle y . In th e y e a r 1000
th e ir k in g a c c e p te d th e C a t h o lic form o f C h r is tia n ity , a n d his
successors took th eir p la c e a m o n g th e e stab lish e d C h r is tia n ru lers
o f m e d ie v a l E u ro p e . N o th in g re m a in e d o f th e ir A s ia tic o rig in b u t
th eir la n g u a g e . T h e k in g d o m o f H u n g a r y w as n o t co n fin e d to th e
a re a in h a b ite d b y p e o p le w h o sp o k e th e H u n g a r ia n la n g u a g e ,
b u t w as e x te n d e d b y c o n q u e st to th e n a tu ra l b o u n d a rie s o f th e
C e n tr a l E u ro p e a n p la in — th e C a r p a th ia n s , th e riv e r S a v a a n d th e
footh ills o f th e A lp s. T h u s for a th o u san d y e a rs H u n g a r y h as c u t
th e S la v b lo c k in tw o , s e p a ra tin g th e C z e c h s , P oles a n d S lo v a k s
in th e n o rth from th e S erb s, C r o a ts a n d S lo v e n e s in th e sou th .
W ith in its fro n tie rs w ere la rg e n u m b e rs o f R u m a n ia n s , C r o a ts a n d
S lo v a k s, w h o w e re tre a te d as su b je c t n atio n s. B y th e tre a ty o f
T r ia n o n o f 1920, H u n g a r y w as re d u ce d to a te rrito r y w h ic h w as
su ppo sed to co rresp o n d to th a t in h a b ite d b y H u n g a ria n s , b u t
w h ic h in fa c t left som e th re e m illio n H u n g a ria n s as su b je cts o f
n e ig h b o u r states.

1 T h e a g re em en t sign ed in 19 18 in P itts b u rg h b y P rofessor T . G . M a s a ry k (la te r

P residen t o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia } a n d re p re sen tativ es o f th e S lo v a k e m ig ra n ts in the
U n ite d S tates. T h e a g re e m e n t p ro m ised se lf-g o v ern m en t for S lo v a k s w it h in th e n ew
r e p u b lic , b u t th e term s w ere not m a d e c le a r. A c c u s a tio n s o f b ad fa ith w e re su b ­
s e q u e n tly m ad e b y b o th sides.
 THE SO C IA L ST R U C TU R E 3
T h e R u m a n ia n s a re th e d esce n d a n ts o f th e D a c ia n s, a p e o p le
w h o w e re co n q u e r e d b y th e R o m a n s in th e secon d c e n tu r y a . d .,
a n d u n d e r R o m a n ru le a c c e p te d L a tin as th eir la n g u a g e . A fte r the
d e p a r tu r e o f th e R o m a n s, th e c o u n tr y w as c o n q u e r e d in tu rn b y
S la v s, H u n g a ria n s , M o n g o ls a n d T u r k s . B u t th ro u g h o u t th e c e n ­
tu ries o f fo reig n ru le , th e p e o p le k ep t th e ir s e p a ra te n a tio n a l
c h a r a c te r . T h e ir la n g u a g e to -d a y , in sp ite o f m a n y S la v a n d o th er
w o rd s, re m a in s p r e d o m in a n tly L a tin in b o th v o c a b u la r y an d
s tru c tu re . T h e c h ie f c u ltu r a l a n d relig io u s in flu en ces in R u m a n ia n
h isto ry h a v e b e e n B y z a n tin e , a n d to -d a y th e m a jo rity o f R u m a n ­
ia n s b e lo n g to th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h . T h e o n ly e x c e p tio n to this
w as th e im p o rta n t U n ia te fr a c tio n a m o n g th e R u m a n ia n s o f
T r a n s y lv a n ia .1 D u r in g th e M id d le A g e s th ere w e re p erio d s w h en
th e R u m a n ia n p r in c ip a litie s o f M o ld a v ia a n d W a lla c h ia w ere
in d e p e n d e n t, b u t in th e six te en th c e n tu r y th e y w e re c o n q u e re d
b y th e T u r k s , w h o ru le d th e m d ir e c tly o r in d ire c tly for o v e r th ree
h u n d r e d years.
T h e S o u th S la v s se ttle d in th e B a lk a n s in th e sixth a n d seven th
ce n tu rie s, a t a tim e w h e n th e B y z a n tin e e m p ire w as w e a k e n e d b y
w ars in th e E ast. T h e S lo v e n e s p e n e tra te d fa r in to A u stria , b u t
w e re d r iv e n b a c k b y C h a rle s th e G r e a t a n d his successors to th eir
p resen t h o m e a t th e n o rth -e a st c o rn e r o f th e A d r ia tic . T h e y n e ve r
h ad a n in d e p e n d e n t S ta te o f th e ir o w n , b u t w e re ru le d b y A u stria
r ig h t u p to 19 18 . T h e C r o a ts fo u n d ed a sta te in th e n in th c e n ­
tu ry , a n d h a d in d e p e n d e n t re la tio n s w ith V e n ic e a n d C o n ­
s ta n tin o p le . In th e tw e lfth c e n tu r y C r o a tia w as c o n q u e r e d b y the
H u n g a r ia n s , a n d in c o rp o ra te d , w ith a m ea su re o f a u to n o m y , in
th e k in g d o m o f H u n g a r y . B oth th e S lo v e n e s a n d th e C r o a ts
a c c e p te d C h r is t ia n it y fro m R o m e , a n d u n til 19 18 w e re lin k ed
m o re c lo se ly w ith C a t h o lic C e n tr a l E u ro p e th a n w ith th e B alkan s.
T h e S e rb s w e re c o n v e r te d to C h r is tia n ity b y em issaries from
th e S o u th , fro m C o n s ta n tin o p le , a n d h a v e re m ain e d sin ce th en
a n O r t h o d o x n a tio n . T h e m a in in flu e n ce s in th eir h isto ry h a v e
b e e n B y z a n tin e ra th e r th a n w e ste rn . T h e y h a d a n in d e p e n d e n t
sta te fo r som e ce n tu rie s, a n d w e re for a b r ie f p erio d th e stron gest
p o w e r in th e B a lk a n s. In th e fifteen th c e n tu r y th e y w e re fin a lly
c o n q u e r e d b y th e T u r k s . T h e B u lg a ria n s a re a lso O r th o d o x , and
ł T h e U n ia t e C h u r c h w as fo u n d e d in e a strrn P o la n d at th e en d o f th e sixteen th
c e n tu r y , anti in tro d u c e d in T r a n s y lv a n ia in th e e ig h te e n th . It w as h ie ra rc h ic a lly
su b o rd in a te to th e P o p e , b u t its priests w e re a llo w e d to m a rry a n d it c o u ld use the
lo c a l la n g u a g e s in c h u r c h se rvices in stea d o f I.a tin . T h e p u rp o se o f its fo u n d a tio n w as
to w in o v e r th e p e o p le o f th e R u m a n ia n a n d R u ssia n b o rd e rla n d s to R o m e . In fact it
c a m e to b e a c e n tre o f U k r a in ia n a n d R u m a n ia n n a tio n a lism , d ire cte d as m u ch
a g a in st P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y as a g a in st R u ssia . S ee also b e lo w , p p . 289 90.
4 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
w e re still m o re p r o fo u n d ly in flu e n ce d b y B y z a n tin e c u ltu r e th an
th e S erb s. T h e first B u lg a ria n sta te w as fo u n d e d in th e n in th
c e n tu r y b y a c o n q u e r in g M o n g o l trib e c a lle d B u lg a rs, w h o su b ­
s e q u e n tly a c c e p tc d th e la n g u a g e a n d cu stom s o f th e S la v in ­
h a b ita n ts w h o m th e y fou n d on th e ir a r r iv a l, w h o h ad th em selv es
o c c u p ie d th e .c o u n tr y som e ce n tu rie s e a rlie r. M e d ie v a l B u lg a ria
e n jo y e d se v eral b r ie f p e rio d s o f civ ilisa tio n an d m ilita r y p o w e r.
It w as c o n q u e re d b y th e T u r k s a few y ears e a r lie r th a n S e rb ia .
T h e G ree k s h a v e o f co u rse a fa r lo n g e r a n d m o re g lo rio u s h isto ry
th an a n y o th e r E ast E u ro p e a n p e o p le . T h e y w e re th e d o m in ­
a n t n a tio n o f th e B y z a n tin e e m p ire , w h o se th o u s a n d -y e a r ru le
w as b ro u g h t to a n en d b y th e T u rk is h co n q u e st o f C o n s ta n tin o p le
in 1453. U n d e r th e T u rk is h re g im e th e G re e k s e n jo y e d m o re rig h ts
th an th e B a lk a n S la v s. T h e y c o n tro lle d th e h ig h e r offices in th e
O r th o d o x C h u r c h , a n d also p la y e d a la rg e p a rt in th e c o m m e rc e
o f th e T u rk is h e m p ire . T h e A lb a n ia n s a re p r o b a b ly th e m ost
d ire ct d esce n d a n ts o f th e Illy ria n s o f R o m a n tim es. T h e ir c o u n try
w as ru le d in tu rn b y m a n y d iffe re n t c o n q u e ro rs, u n til it fell to
th e T u rk s in 1467 a fte r a fierce resista n ce led b y th e n a tio n a l
h e ro S k a n d c rb e g . A fte r th e T u rk is h co n q u e st th e m a jo rity o f th e
A lb a n ia n s b e c a m e M o slem s. C a th o lic a n d O r t h o d o x m in o ritie s
also exist in n o rth a n d sou th re sp e ctiv e ly .
T h e T u rk is h e m p ire in E u ro p e fell g r a d u a lly to p ieces d u r in g th e
n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . T h e S erb s re v o lte d in 1804, a n d th e G re e k s
d id th e sam e in th e tw en ties. T h e R u m a n ia n s a n d B u lg a ria n s
g o t th eir in d e p e n d e n c e in th e se co n d h a lf o f th e c e n tu r y , less b y
th e ir o w n effo rts th a n as a resu lt o f w ars b e tw e e n R u ssia a n d
T u r k e y . M a c e d o n ia re m a in e d in th e O t to m a n e m p ire till 19 12 ,
w h en it b e c a m e th e o b je c t o f d isp u tes b e tw e e n B u lg a ria , S e rb ia
a n d G r e e c e . A lb a n ia w as m a d e a n in d e p e n d e n t sta te b y a g r e e ­
m en t b e tw e e n th e G r e a t P o w ers in 19 13 .
In C e n tr a l E u ro p e , th e H u n g a ria n s o b ta in e d m ost o f th e
su b stan ce o f in d e p e n d e n c e b y th e C o m p r o m is e o f 1867 w ith
E m p e ro r F ra n c is J o s e p h . U n d e r th e ‘ D u a l S y s t e m ’ w h ic h it
e stab lish e d , A u s tria a n d H u n g a r y h a d se p a ra te g o v e rn m e n ts.
E a ch c o n tro lle d in te rn a l a ffa irs w ith in its o w n te rrito r y , w h ile
fo reig n p o lic y an d m ilita r y a ffa irs w e re c o n d u c te d in c o m m o n fo r
th e w h o le e m p ire . U n d e r th is system th e G e rm a n s a n d H u n ­
ga ria n s w e re p r iv ile g e d n atio n s, a n d th e R u m a n ia n s a n d S la v s
h a d an in fe rio r statu s. T h e co lla p se in th e F irst W o rld W a r o f th e
th re e e m p ires o f G e r m a n y , R u ssia a n d A u s tr ia m a d e p ossib le th e
re sto ra tio n o f P o la n d . T h e d isin te g ra tio n o f A u s tr ia a lso a llo w e d
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POLAND AND CZECH O SLO V A K IA

6 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
th e C z e c h s to form a n e w sta te to g e th e r w ith th e S lo v a k s, w h o h a d
b e e n su b je c t to H u n g a r y . R u m a n ia w a s a b le to a n n e x T r a n s y l­
v a n ia , B u k o v in a a n d p a rt o f th e B a n a t fro m A u s t r ia - H u n g a r y , a n d
B essa rab ia from R u s s ia .1 F ro m th e so u th ern te rrito ries o f A u stria -
H u n g a r y w a s fo rm ed th e n e w sta te o f Y u g o s la v ia , w h ic h also
a b so rb ed M o n te n e g ro . T h e c re a tio n o f Y u g o s la v ia w a s th e resu lt
o f a m o v e m e n t w h ic h h a d g ro w n stro n g d u r in g th e last d e c a d e s
o f th e H a b s b u rg e m p ire , a n d w h ic h a im e d a t th e c re a tio n o f a
s in g le sta te o f a ll th e S o u th S la v n a tio n s, o n a b asis o f e q u a l
fe d e ra l rig h ts for e a c h n a tio n . T h is c o n c e p tio n w a s o p p o se d b y th e
le a d in g p o litic ia n s in B e lg ra d e , w h o w ish e d in ste ad to c re a te a
‘ G r e a te r S e r b ia ’ , a te rrito ria l e x te n sio n o f th e p r e - w a r k in g d o m .

T H E R U L IN G CLASSES
T h e r u lin g class o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s on th e e v e o f
th e S e co n d W o r ld W a r w a s c o m p o se d o f fo u r e le m e n ts in v a r y in g
m ixtu re s— la n d o w n e rs, b u sin ess m en , b u re a u c ra ts a n d in te lle c ­
tu als.
In P o la n d , in th e p r e -1 9 1 8 K in g d o m o f H u n g a r y , a n d in
R u m a n ia , b ig la n d o w n e rs w e re b o th p o litic a lly a n d e c o n o m ic a lly
p o w e rfu l. U p to th e e n d o f th e F irst W o r ld W a r th e y w e re th e
c h ie f cle m en t in th e r u lin g class. F o rm a l serfd o m w as a b o lish e d in
th e m id d le o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , b u t th e d e p e n d e n c e o f th e
p e a san ts o n th e la n d o w n e rs w as o n ly s lig h tly r e d u c e d , as th ere
w as n o la rg e -sc a le re d istrib u tio n o f la n d . W h e n A m e r ic a n ce re a ls
b e g a n serio u sly to c o m p e te in th e E u ro p e a n m a rk e t, in th e th ird
q u a r te r o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , m a n y P o lish , H u n g a r ia n a n d
R u m a n ia n la n d e d e states w e re ru in e d . A la rg e p a rt o f th e ‘ g e n t r y ’
(ow n ers o f a few ' h u n d re d s o f acres) sold th e ir la n d , a n d w e n t to
th e tow n s, w h e r e th e y e n tered th e c iv il se rv ic e o r free profession s,
o r b e c a m e p rofession al a r m y officers. T h e ir la n d w as a c q u ire d ,
p a r tly b y th e ‘ m a g n a te s ’ (o w n e rs o f th o u san d s, o r tens o f
th o u san d s, o f a c re s), a n d p a r tly b y th e b a n k s .' T h e s e c h a n g e s d id

1 T h e s e reg ion s a r e sh o w n o n th e m a p o n p p . 8 -9 . In b o th T r a n s y lv a n ia a n d the

ß a n a t, w h ic h h a d b ee n p a rt o f H u n g a r y fo r ce n tu ries , th e R u m a n ia n s w e r e th e m o st
n u m ero u s n a t io n a lity , w h ile H u n g a ria n s a n d G e rm a n s fo rm e d c o n s id e ra b le m in o r­
ities. T h e p o p u la tio n o f B u k o v in a w as p a rt ly R u m a n ia n a n d p a rtly U k r a in ia n . In
B e ssa rab ia th e R u m a n ia n s w e re th e m o st n u m e ro u s n a t io n a lity , fo llo w e d b y U k r a in ­
ians, R u ssia n s, B u lg a ria n s, G e rm a n s a n d T u rk s . N o rth e rn B e ssa ra b ia h a d bee n
a c q u ir e d b y R u ssia fro m T u r k e y in 18 12 , S o u th e rn B e ssa ra b ia in 18 78 . F o r fu rth e r
h isto ric al a n d eth n ic a l d e ta ils see R . W . S e to n -W a tso n , History o f the Rumanians, a n d
M a c a r tn e y , Hungary and fur Successors.
* A n e x c e p tio n to this sta te m e n t is G a lic ia , w h e re a la r g e p a rt o f th e la n d so ld b y
im p o v erish ed P o lish la n d o w n e rs p assed in to th e h a n d s o f P o lish p ea san ts. S e c W a r -
rin e r, The Economics o f Peasant Fanning, p p . 2 2 -3 .
 T H E SO CI A L ST R U C T U R E 7
n o t le a d to a n y m a rk e d class co n flic t b e tw e e n th e m a g n a te s an d
th e g e n tr y , th o u g h this m ig h t h a v e b e en e x p e c te d on p u re ly
e c o n o m ic g ro u n d s. B o th b e lo n g e d to th e sa m e tra d itio n a l aris­
t o c r a c y , a n d h a d a sim ila r h isto ry a n d e d u c a tio n . T h e y w ere
in te rm a rrie d , a n d tre a te d e a c h o th e r as so cia l e q u a ls. T h e a ris­
to c r a c y co n sid e re d its e lf a sin g le class. T h e c h ild re n o f th e g e n try
w h o h a d settled in th e tow n s k e p t th e a risto c ra tic m e n ta lity o f
th e ir fa th e rs. T h o u g h th e ir e c o n o m ic p o sition w as th a t o f a
m id d le class, th e ir m e n ta lity w a s d iffe re n t from th a t o f e ith e r the
W e st E u ro p e a n o r th e B a lk a n b o u rg e o isie .
A fte r th e F irst W o rld W a r , la n d reform s w e re c a rrie d o u t in
R u m a n ia , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d Y u g o s la v ia . T h e la n d o w n in g class
lost th e e c o n o m ic basis o f th e ir p o litic a l p o w e r. T h e p o litic a l basis
w a s at th e sa m e tim e re m o v e d b y th e in tro d u c tio n o f u n ive rsa l
su ffra g e . T h e resu lt o f th ese m easu res w as th a t th e la n d o w n e rs
b e c a m e a sm a ll a n d r e la tiv e ly u n in flu e n tia l e le m e n t in th e ru lin g
classes o f Y u g o s la v ia a n d R u m a n ia . In P o la n d , la n d refo rm w as
on a m o re m o d e st sca le , a n d w ith th e p assage o f tim e th e p a c e o f
re d istrib u tio n w a s slo w ed u p . In H u n g a r y o n ly a sm all p a rt o f
th e la n d c h a n g e d h an d s. T h u s in b o th these co u n trie s la n d o w n e rs
c o n tin u e d to p la y an im p o rta n t p a rt in p o litics. P o w e r w as in
efTcct sh a re d b e tw e e n th e g re a t la n d o w n e rs a n d th e a risto cra tic
m id d le cla ss d e s c rib e d a b o v e . E v e n in R u m a n ia an d C r o a t ia th e
a ris to c ra tic o rig in o f a p o rtio n o f th e m id d le class h ad p o litic a l
a n d c u lt u r a l effects.
In th e B a lk a n s la n d o w n e rs w e re u n im p o rta n t eve n b efore 1918 .
In S e r b ia a n d B u lg a r ia th e n a tiv e fe u d a l a risto c ra c y w as d estro yed
b y th e in v a d in g T u r k s in th e fifteen th c e n tu ry . T h e T u rk s th e m ­
selves cre a te d n o h e re d ita ry la n d o w n in g class. S u c h la n d as w as
in th e possession o f T u r k is h p ash as o r b eys a t th e tim e o f lib e ra ­
tio n w a s d iv id e d a m o n g S e rb ia n o r B u lg a ria n p easan ts. In
G r e e c e la r g e estates h ad s lig h tly m o re im p o rta n c e , b u t a reform
c a rrie d o u t b y V e n iz e lo s on th e e v e o f th e F irst W o r ld W a r w e n t
fa r tow 'ards e lim in a tin g th em . In A lb a n ia a class o f b ig la n d ­
o w n e rs fo rm e d a p se u d o -fe u d a l r u lin g class in th e so u th ern , or
T o s k , p ro v in c e s, w h ile th e n o rth e rn ers, o r G h e g s, w e re o rg an ise d
o n a trib a l basis s o m e w h a t sim ila r to th e S co ttish clan s.
A n E ast E u ro p e a n business class c a m e in to b e in g to w a rd s the
e n d o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . T h e e arliest in d u stria l ce n tre s w ere
W a r s a w , L o d z a n d D o m b ro w a -S ilc s ia in P o la n d , th e C z e c h lan d s,
a n d B u d a p e st. A C z e c h b u sin ess class g r e w u p in B o h e m ia an d
M o r a v ia in c o m p e titio n w ith th e G e r m a n from th e en d o f the
 S O U T H -E A S I
T h e n am es o f to w n s g iv e n a re those o ffic ia lly u sed b
a lte rn a tiv e nam es a rc also in co m m o n u se : N o v i S ad
EUROPE
th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f th e res p ectiv e c o u n tries. T h e fo llo w in g
Ú jv id é k N e u s a tz ; K is h in y o v : C h ifin á u .
10 T H E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . In P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y , th e first b u sin ess m en
ten d ed to b e J e w s o r G e rm a n s. P oles b e g a n to e n te r b u sin ess
sh o rtly b efo re th e F irst W o rld W a r , p a r tic u la r ly in th e p ro v in ce s
ru le d b y P russia. H u n g a r ia n J e w ish in d u stria lists a n d b a n k e rs to
som e e x te n t in te rm a rrie d w ith th e H u n g a r ia n la n d o w n in g fa m ilie s
a n d h ad a sh a re in th e ir p o litic a l p o w e r, th o u g h th e y w e re seld om
p ro m in e n t in p u b lic life. It w as n ot u n til a fte r th e F irst W o rld W a r
th a t e th n ic H u n g a ria n s b e g a n to g o in to b u sin ess in c o n sid e ra b le
n u m b ers. B o th Polish a n d H u n g a r ia n b u sin ess m en th u s fo u n d
th em selves in d ire c t e c o n o m ic c o n flic t w ith th e J e w s . T h is g a v e a
stro n g stim ulus to a n ti-se m itism , w h ic h u n til th en h a d b e e n m a in ly
a n in te lle c tu a l a n d re lig io u s p h e n o m e n o n , w ith a c e rta in m a te ria l
basis in th e fo rm o f r iv a lr y in th e free professions. In th e th irtie s th e
g ro w th o f e th n ic P olish a n d H u n g a ria n business classes w a s ra p id
an d w as a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e sp re ad o f fascist id eas. T h e process
w as e n c o u ra g e d b y th e go v e rn m e n ts, a n d a fo rm o f S ta te c a p it a l­
ism c a m e in to b e in g , u n d e r w h ic h it w as h a rd to sa y w h e th e r th e
p o liticia n s c o n tro lle d o r w e re co n tro lle d b y th e n e w b u sin ess m en .
In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th e J e w ish e le m e n t w as to o sm a ll to p r o d u c e
these effects, a n d th e p o litic a l tra d itio n s o f th e C z e c h p e o p le w e re
o p p osed to a n ti-sem itism . T h e C z e c h business class g re w in
n u m b e rs an d p ro d u c e d its o w n w e a lth y c a p ita lists. B u t th e b a la n c e
o f so cia l classes a n d th e d e m o c ra tic o u tlo o k o f th e n a tio n m a d e th e
C z e c h b o u rg e o isie re se m b le th a t o f W e ste rn E u ro p e r a th e r th a n o f
n e ig h b o u r in g co u n trie s.
R u m a n ia n d e v e lo p m e n t resem b led th a t o f P o la n d a n d H u n ­
g a ry , b u t a t a m ore p r im itiv e le v el. In 19 18 m ost o f R u m a n ia n
in d u stry a n d b a n k in g w as in J e w ish h a n d s, b u t c e rta in e th n ic
R u m a n ia n fa m ilie s, m o stly o f ‘ g e n t r y ’ o rig in a n d c o n n e c te d w ith
th e d o m in a n t L ib e r a l P a rty , p la y e d a n im p o rta n t p a rt. T h e
fo llo w in g tw e n ty y ears b ro u g h t a fu rth e r in flu x o f e th n ic R u m a n ­
ian s in to business, o f w h o m m a n y w e re o f h u m b le r so c ia l o rig in
(for in sta n ce , sons o f sm a ll o fficials o r o f w e a lth y p e a sa n ts), a n d
from the n e w ly a c q u ire d p ro v in c e s (e sp e c ia lly T r a n s y lv a n ia a n d
B u k o v in a ). T h e ir c o m p e titio n w ith J e w ish business led to v io le n t
a n ti-se m itism . In R u m a n ia , as in P o la n d an d H u n g a r y , th£
g o v e rn m e n ts o f th e th irties h ad a p o lic y o f S ta te c a p ita lis m , w h ic h
fa v o u re d e s p e c ia lly m e ta llu rg ic a l, c h e m ic a l a n d e n g in e e r in g
h e a v y in d u s t r y .1 O n th e e v e o f th e S e c o n d W o r ld W a r th e
interests o f th e S ta te an d o f b ig b u sin ess w e re h a r d ly s e p a ra b le .

1 T h e social and political effects of this economic developm ent are discussed in a
work by the Com m unist intellectual P atrâşcanu, Sub trei dictaturi (Bucarest, 1945 ).
 T H E SOC IAI. ST R U C T U R E II
T h e b u sin ess cla ss o f S e rb ia a n d B u lg a ria w as o f m o re recen t
g ro w th . I t w as d e r iv e d fro m th e w e a lth y pea san ts, p ig -d ca lers,
m o n e y le n d e rs a n d c ra ftsm e n o f th e v illa g e s an d sm all tow n s. A t
th e en d o f th e last c e n tu r y c o n ta c ts b e tw e e n these e lem en ts an d
w estern b u sin ess in terests (A u stria n , G e r m a n , F re n c h and
B ritish ) d e v e lo p e d , a n d so m e th in g lik e a c a p ita list class c a m e in to
b e in g . A fte r 1 9 1 8 th e c o m p a r a tiv e ly la rg e sta te Y u g o s la v ia
o ffe re d n e w o p p o rtu n itie s o f e n ric h m e n t to th e S e rb ia n business
m en , w h o tried to use p o litic a l p o w e r to im p o se th e ir w ill on th e
o ld e r b o u rg e o isie o f C r o a t ia . In B u lg a ria , im p o ve rish ed b y d efeat,
th ere w e r e fe w e r p rize s to be w o n . T h e A lb a n ia n b o u rge o isie h ad
n o t a d v a n c e d b e y o n d th e v illa g e sh o p k e e p e r o r u su rer stage.
G r e e k c a p ita lis m w a s m u c h o ld e r : in a sense it m a y b e said to go
b a c k to B y z a n tin e o r e v e n cla ssica l tim es. I t w as b ased m a in ly on
im p o rt a n d e x p o rt bu sin ess, an d on sh ip p in g . A fte r 19 13 a to b a c c o
in d u s tr y g r e w r a p id ly in M a c e d o n ia a n d T h r a c e , a n d a fte r the
F irst W o r ld W a r fa cto rie s sp r a n g u p in th e A th e n s -P e ir a e u s
a n d S a lo n ic a areas.
A n im p o rta n t e le m e n t in th e r u lin g classes w e re th e h ead s o f
th e b u r e a u c r a c y . T h e P o lish b u r e a u c r a c y w a s based 011 a m ix tu re
o f R u ssia n , P russian a n d A u s tria n tra d itio n s, w ith th e first on th e
w h o le p r e d o m in a tin g . T h e C z e c h s h a d b een tra in ed in the
A u s tr ia n sch o o l. H u n g a r ia n a n d C r o a tia n officials o w e d so m e­
t h in g to A u s tria n a n d so m e th in g to o rie n ta l m o d els, w h ile the
b u r e a u c r a tic tra d itio n s o f G r e e c e , R u m a n ia , S e rb ia an d B u lg a ria
w e re e n tire ly T u r k is h . C o r r u p tio n w as u n d o u b te d ly w id esp re a d in
E ast E u ro p e a n b u r e a u c r a c y . A t th e lo w lev els it w as d u e to b ad
p a y , w h ic h m a d e it a lm o st im p o ssib le fo r o fficials, w ith fam ilies to
s u p p o rt, to refu se b rib e s fo r m in o r transgression s o f th e la w . A t
th e to p , c o r r u p tio n to ok th e fo rm o f e m b e z zle m e n t b y m inisters
o r se n io r o fficials o f ‘ d is c re tio n a r y fu n d s ', sale o f fa v o u ra b le
ta riffs to fo reig n b u sin ess in terests, la rg e b rib e s from e m p lo y e rs
to la b o u r in sp ecto rs, a n d sim ila r abuses.
A se co n d u n p le a s a n t c h a ra c te ristic o f b u r e a u c r a c y w as b r u ta l­
ity . P e a sa n ts w e re o fte n ro b b e d a n d b e a te n b y ge n d a rm e s. In
th e p rison s to rtu re w as w id e ly u sed , p a r tic u la r ly fo r p o litic a l
o ffen ce s. E v e n w h e n b u re a u c ra ts w e re n o t g u ilty o f p h y sic a l
v io le n c e , th e y sh o w e d a n u tte r c o n te m p t fo r ‘ th e m asse s'. O n ly
to o fr e q u e n tly th e m a in a m b itio n o f th e p e a sa n t’s son w h o
o b ta in e d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n w as to se cu re a p la c e in som e sort o f
g o v e r n m e n t e m p lo y m e n t, w h e re h e w o u ld b e a b le to p a ra d e his
s u p e rio r ity o v e r th e p e o p le o f his n a tiv e v illa g e . T h e b u re a u c ra c y
12 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
w as e n o rm o u sly in fla te d to g iv e jo b s o f this k in d , b u t in th e slu m p
o f th e th irties th e strain w as to o m u c h for it. T h e r e w e re th en
th o u san d s o f ‘ u n e m p lo y e d in te lle c tu a ls ', w h o fo rm e d a n im p o r­
ta n t e le m e n t o f in sta b ility in D a n u b ia n p o litic s .1
T h e profession al class o r ‘ in te llig e n ts ia ’ w a s n o t s tric tly a
s e p a ra te class. P a rt o f it b e lo n g e d to th e r u lin g class, a n d p a rt
p ro v id e d th e n earest e q u iv a le n t in E astern E u ro p e to a ‘ m id d le
cla s s ’ o f a w estern ty p e . B efore 19 18 th e in te llig e n tsia o f P o la n d ,
H u n g a r y an d R u m a n ia w as re c ru ite d p a r tly fro m th e J e w ish
p o p u la tio n a n d p a r tly from fo r m e rly la n d o w n in g ‘ g e n t r y ’
fam ilies. A fte r 19 18 th e g r e a t d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o p u la r e d u c a tio n
o p e n e d it to sons o f p easan ts, sm all o fficials a n d sk ille d w o rk e rs.
T h e a cce s sib ility to th e m asses o f th e e d u c a tio n la d d e r— th e m ain
m ean s o f risin g in to th e ru lin g class— v a rie d b e tw e e n c o u n trie s.
It w as least in H u n g a r y a n d g re a te st in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . T h e
e d u c a tio n system o f th e B a lk a n co u n trie s h a d a lr e a d y b e fo re 19 18
b een c o m p a r a tiv e ly ‘ d e m o c r a t ic ’ in th e sense o f o p p o r tu n ity , an d
this w as s till-m o re th e case a fte rw a rd s. B u t th ro u g h o u t E astern
E u ro p e it w as o f co u rse m o re d ifficu lt fo r c h ild re n o f w o rk e rs o r o f
p o o r p easan ts to rise th a n fo r th ose m o re fa v o u r a b ly p la c e d , a n d
th e d ep ressio n o f th e th irties m a d e th in g s still w o rse. T h e q u a lit y
o f e d u c a tio n v a rie d g re a tly . I t w a s h igh est in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d
P o la n d , p r o b a b ly low est in R u m a n ia .2 T h e le a d in g u n ive rsities
o f a ll co u n trie s m a in ta in e d a fa irly h ig h sta n d a rd , b u t in th e
v illa g e sch ools te a c h in g a ll to o o ften d e g e n e ra te d to th e th re e R ’ s
p lu s a tr a in in g in n a tio n a l h a tre d .
H ig h e r e d u c a tio n h a d h ig h p restige in E astern E u r o p e . E v e n
b u re a u c ra ts w e cc n ot a sh a m e d , b u t h o n o u re d , to c a ll th e m ­
selves ‘ in te lle c tu a ls ’ . I t w as e sp e c ia lly v a lu a b le to p u t ‘ D r . ’
b e fo re o n e ’s n a m e . L a w y e rs a n d professors w e re p r o m in e n t in
p o litics, b o th in th e p se u d o -d e m o c ra tic p e rio d o f p a r ty p o litics
a n d u n d e r th e d ic ta to rs h ip s w h ic h re p la c e d th em . A p a r t fro m
those w h o b e c a m e p u b lic p o litic a l fig u res, th e r e w e re m a n y
o th ers w h o se task it w as to p r o d u c e le g a l a n d id e o lo g ic a l th eories
to ju s tify th e p o lic y a n d m eth o d s o f th e v a rio u s regim es. B u t th e
in te llig e n tsia w as a lso a re v o lu tio n a ry fo rce . It w a s th ro u g h it th a t
fo reig n p o litic a l id eas re a c h e d E astern E u ro p e . In th e n in e te e n th
1 It is o n ly fa ir to a d d th a t this g lo o m y p ic tu re is not a p p lic a b le to C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ,
w ho se b u re a u cra ts w e re o n th e w h o le b o th honest a n d h u m a n e .
* R u m a n ia n u n iv ersitie s o f co u rse p ro d u c e d so m e first-class a n d m a n y co m p e te n t
g ra d u a te s . But th e p re v a le n c e o f fascist a n d an ti-se m itic to u g h s, se ek in g n o t k n o w le d g e
b u t an o p p o r tu n ity to b e a t u p J e w is h stu d en ts o r sh o p k ee p ers, w a s a b lo t o n th e
R u m a n ia n e d u c a tio n syste m . T h e sa m e p h e n o m en o n w a s also fo u n d to so m e e x te n t
in P o la n d . C h a u v in is t p ro p a g a n d a passed fo r te a c h in g o f h isto ry in th e g re a te r p a rt o f
d ie B a lk a n p e n in su la as w ell.
 T H E S O C IA L S T R U C T U R E 13
c e n tu r y , stu d e n ts w h o visite d F ra n c e o r G e r m a n y b ro u g h t b a c k
w ith th e m th e id e a s o f lib e ra lism a n d n a tio n a lism , w h ic h p ro ­
fo u n d ly a ffe c te d th e ir c o u n trie s’ d e v e lo p m e n t. A fte r 19 18 it w as
th ro u g h th e y o u n g e r g e n e ra tio n o f th e in te llig e n tsia th a t c o m ­
m u n ism , a n d la te r fascism , sp re ad in E astern E u ro p e .
T h e E a st E u ro p e a n in te llig e n tsia aro se fro m c o n ta c t w ith th e
W e st. S c ie n tific d isco v erie s, lite ra ry a n d artistic in flu e n ce s, and
th e m a in p o litic a l id e as, c a m e from F ra n c e , G e r m a n y o r th e
A n g lo -S a x o n c o u n trie s. E ast E u ro p e a n in te lle c tu a ls felt th e m ­
selves to b e p a rt o f a sin g le E u ro p e a n c u ltu r e , a n d th e ir a m b itio n
w a s to b e a c c e p te d as e q u a ls b y th e ir w e ste rn co lle a g u e s— as
in d e e d m a n y o f th e m fu lly d e se rv e d to b e. B u t i f th e E ast E u ro ­
p e a n in te lle c tu a ls w e re w estern in o u tlo o k , this c a n n o t b e said o f
th e ir p e o p les as a w h o le . T h e so cia l s tru c tu re o f E astern E u ro p e
m o re clo se ly re se m b le d th a t o f R u ssia , o r e v e n o f A s ia tic co u n trie s,
th a n t h a t o f F ra n c e , B rita in or G e r m a n y . T h is w ill b e seen b y a
b r ie f d e s crip tio n o f th e p e a s a n try a n d w o rk in g class.

PE A SA N TS A N D W O R K E R S

E aste rn E u ro p e is still a p r e d o m in a n tly a g r ic u ltu r a l regio n .

In th e th irties th e p e a sa n try fo rm e d fifty to e ig h ty p e r c e n t o f
th e p o p u la tio n in a ll co u n trie s o f th e re g io n e x c e p t C z e c h o ­
s lo v a k ia .1
B e fo re 19 18 th e a g r ic u ltu r e o f P o la n d , A u s tr ia - H u n g a r y a n d
th e o ld k in g d o m o f R u m a n ia w as la r g e ly b ase d on g re a t la n d e d
e states, w h ile in th e B a lk a n s sm all h o ld in g s p r e v a ile d . A fte r 1918
less th a n o n e m illio n a cres w e re re d istrib u te d in ru m p H u n g a ry ,
w h ic h left m ost o f th e g re a t estates a lm o st o r c o m p le te ly in ta c t.
I n P o la n d , d isa g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e p o litic a l pa rties re ta rd e d
th e e x e c u tio n o f l a n d re fo rm , a n d in th e th irties su ch d istrib u tio n
as h a d b e en d e c id e d w as still fu rth e r d e la y e d . B e tw ee n 1921 a n d
1937 a b o u t six m illio n a cres w e re d iv id e d u p. In R u m a n ia m ore
th a n ten m illio n a cres w e re tra n sferred from b ig la n d o w n e rs to
p e a san ts. In th e fo llo w in g tw e n ty y ears it is tru e th a t m a n y o f
th e n e w o w n e rs w e re c o m p e lle d b y e c o n o m ic pressure to sell th eir
la n d , o f w h ic h so m e fo u n d iLs w a y b a c k to th e o ld la n d o w n e rs,
a n d som e w a s a c q u ire d b y w e a lth y peasan ts, w h o b e g a n to
c o n stitu te a n e w class o f la n d o w n e rs. N e ve rth e le ss th e con trasts
in th e size o f h o ld in g s w e re v e r y m u c h sm a ller in R u m a n ia th an
1 A p p r o x im a t e fig u res for th e p ro p o rtio n o f p ea san ts in th e th irties a r e : 34 p e r c e n t o f
th e p o p u la tio n in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . 55 p e r ce n t in H u n g a r y , 50 p er ce n t m G re e c e ,
6 3 p e r ce n t in P o la n d , 75 p e r c e n t in Y u g o s la v ia , 78 p er ce n t in R u m a n ia , a n d 80 per
c e n t in B u lg a ria .
14 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
in H u n g a r y o r P o la n d . In Y u g o s la v ia a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia fa irly
ra d ic a l la n d reform s also too k p la c e . I t is p r o b a b le th a t a sim ila r
process o c c u rre d a fte r th e refo rm as in R u m a n ia , b u t this c a n n o t
be sta ted w ith c e rta in ty o w in g to th e a b se n c e o f re c e n t statistics.
B u lg a ria a n d G r e e c e w e re a lr e a d y c o u n trie s o f sm a ll h o ld in g s. In
A lb a n ia la rg e estates c o n tin u e d to exist in th e so u th ern p ro v in ce s.
T h e so cia l a n d e c o n o m ic p ro b lem s o f th e p e a s a n try d iffe re d in
th e tw o ty p e s o f so c ie ty — th e refo rm ed a n d th e u n re fo rm e d — a n d
d ese rve b r ie f se p a ra te c o n sid e ra tio n .
In H u n g a r y a n d P o la n d th ere w a s a la rg e class o f la n d less
a g r ic u ltu r a l w o rk ers. S o m e o f these w e re c a su a l la b o u re rs, w h o
fou n d e m p lo y m e n t d u r in g th e seasons o f g re a te st a g r ic u ltu r a l
a c tiv ity , an d w e re g iv e n lo w m o n e y w a g e s s u p p le m e n te d b y som e
p a y m e n t in g ra in . F o r a la rg e p a rt o f th e y e a r th e y w e re u n e m ­
p lo y e d , a n d d rifte d ro u n d th e c o u n tr y in se a rch o f w o rk . O th e r s
w e re estate servan ts p e rm a n e n tly e m p lo y e d in th e v a rio u s jo b s
c o n n e cte d w ith th e u p k e e p o f th e b ig estates. T h e y h a d th e
a d v a n ta g e o f a c e rta in m in im u m se c u rity , b u t e n jo y e d less p e r­
son al free d o m . O n so m e estates h o u sin g a n d n o u rish m e n t w e re
e x tr e m e ly b a d .
T w o fea tu res o f this system a re w o rth stressing. O n e w a s th e
e xisten ce o f a p e rm a n e n t reserve o f a g r ic u ltu r a l la b o u r , w h ic h th e
la n d lo rd s used to k ee p d o w n w ag es. T h e p o litic a l p o w e r o f th e
la n d lo rd s e n a b le d th em to so m e e x te n t to p re v e n t this su p e rflu o u s
la b o u r from b e in g w h o lly a b so rb e d b y in d u str y . T h e o th e r fe a tu r e
w as th e w eakn ess o r a b se n ce o f a g r ic u ltu r a l w o rk e rs’ tra d e u n ion s.
In H u n g a r y su ch u n io n s h a d b e e n fo u n d e d in th e 1890’ s, w h e n
th e y ca rrie d o u t ‘ h a rv e st strik e s’ w h ic h serio u sly a la rm e d th e
g o v e rn m e n t.1 S p e c ia l le g is la tio n h ad th en b e e n in tro d u c e d to
p re v e n t strikes o f la n d la b o u re rs. A ft e r th e c o u n te r -r e v o lu tio n
o f 19 1 9 tra d e u n io n a c tiv ity in th e v illa g e s w a s m a d e q u ite
im p o ssib le. In P o la n d sim ila r u n ion s a p p e a r e d in 1919.® T h e y
w e re to so m e e x te n t led b y co m m u n ists, a n d a fte r th e w a r o f
1920 w ith th e S o v ie t U n io n th e a u th o ritie s te n d e d to tre a t th e m
as su b v e rs iv e o rg a n isa tio n s.
O n th e e v e o f th e S e c o n d W o rld W a r th ere w a s c o n s id e ra b le
pressure b y p u b lic o p in io n in b o th H u n g a r y a n d P o la n d in fa v o u r
o f la n d refo rm . Its o p p o n e n ts trie d to ju s tify th e ir a ttitu d e b y
e c o n o m ic a rg u m e n ts, in sistin g th a t a re fo rm w o u ld d a n g e ro u sly
1 S e e K o v á c s , A néma forradalom (‘ T h e S ile n t R e v o lu t io n ’ ) (B u d a p e st 19 3 7 ).
* S ee a rtic le b y M U k o in Vofnosy Istorii, th e S o v ie t h isto ric a l jo u r n a l, o f O c to b e r
1948, en title d ‘ R e v o lu tsio n n fo e d v iz h e jn ie v P o lsh i v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 g o d a h ’ . ( ‘ T h e R e v o lu ­
tio n a ry M o v e m e n t in P o la n d in 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 ’ .)
 THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE I5

d islo c a te p r o d u c tio n . T h e r e w as o f co u rse som e fo rce in these

a rg u m e n ts. B u t th e so cia l a n d p o litic a l d isco n te n t ca u se d b y th e
g r e a t co n tra sts in w e a lth re p resen te d a still m o re serio u s d a n g e r.
L a n d re fo rm c o u ld o n ly b e a step fo r w a r d : it c o u ld n ot solve
th e p ro b le m s o f th e p easan ts. T h is w a s sh o w n b y th e e x p e rie n c e
o f th e B a lk a n c o u n trie s an d o f R u m a n ia . T h e n e w o w n e rs o f lan d
re c e iv e d little h e lp fro m th e g o v e rn m e n ts. T h e y w e re p o o rly
su p p lie d w ith liv e sto c k a n d e v e n w ith essen tial a g r ic u ltu r a l tools.
C r e d it w a s h a rd to g e t, a n d m a n y p ea san ts b e c a m e h e a v ily
in d e b te d to v illa g e u su rers o r b an k s. T e c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n w as
n e g le c te d . S o n s o f p ea san ts w h o o b ta in e d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n o n ly
to o o fte n stu d ied la w , settled d o w n in th e tow n s a n d c u t th e m ­
selves o f f fro m p e a sa n t life. T h e r e w as a sh o rta g e o f tra in ed
a g r ic u lt u r a l e n g in e ers. C o -o p e r a tiv e s w e re m a n a g e d b y th e pros­
p e ro u s m in o r ity o f th e p e a san ts in th e ir o w n in terests, a n d w e re o f
little use to th e sm a llh o ld e rs.
T h e s e fa cto rs w e a k e n e d th e sm a llh o ld e rs a lr e a d y in th e 1920 ’s:
w ith th e slu m p o f th e th irtie s th e ir p lig h t b e c a m e d esp e ra te .
A g r ic u lt u r a l p rices fe ll m o re ste e p ly , a n d re c o v e re d m o re slo w ly ,
th a n th ose o f in d u stria l g o o d s. T h e few essen tial th in g s w h ic h the
p e a sa n ts h a d to b u y in th e to w n s— salt, o il, so m e a rticle s o f
c lo t h in g — b e c a m e in to le r a b ly e x p e n s iv e . T h e b u rd e n o f d eb ts and
o f ta x a tio n w as e n o rm o u s ly in cre a se d .
O n th e e v e o f th e w a r , b e tw e e n tw o -th ird s a n d th re e-q u a rte rs
o f th e p e a san ts o f E a ste rn E u ro p e w e re sm a llh o ld e rs, w h o se la n d
w a s in su ffic ien t to s u p p o rt th e ir fa m ilies. T h e fu n d a m e n ta l
p r o b le m w a s o v e r p o p u la tio n . T h e g e n e ra l d e n sity o f p o p u la tio n
in a n y o f th ese c o u n trie s w a s v e r y m u c h sm a lle r th an in W e ste rn
E u r o p e . B u t th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le e n g a g e d in a g ric u ltu re p er
u n it o f a g r ic u ltu r a l la n d w a s v e r y m u c h h ig h er. G r a n te d th e lo w
le v e l o f in d u stria lisa tio n a n d th e b a c k w a r d m eth od s o f a g r ic u l­
tu re , E a ste rn E u ro p e w as o v e r p o p u la te d . T h e y ie ld o f cro p s w as
lo w , a n d h a d m a d e v e r y little pro gress fo r th e p r e c e d in g fifty years.
In e x istin g circ u m sta n c e s th ere w as n o t e n o u g h la n d to g o ro u n d ,
a n d th ere w a s n o t e n o u g h w o rk fo r th e p o p u la tio n liv in g on the
la n d . O n a g iv e n u n it o f la n d in Y u g o s la v ia , R u m a n ia o r B u lg a ria
th re e tim es as m a n y p e o p le p r o d u c e d th re e tim es less th an in
D e n m a r k .1 O n e o r tw o m em b e rs o f th e a v e r a g e sm a llh o ld e r

1 D e n s ity o f a g r ic u lt u r a l p o p u la tio n w as 36 6 p er sq u a re k ilo m e tre in D en m a rk ,

116 -3 *n K u m a n ia , 15 7 4 in Y u g o s la v ia . O u tp u t o f v\hcat p er h e c ta re in q u in ta ls
w as 2 9 ’ 2 in D e n m a rk , 9*1 in R u m a n ia , 11 in Y u g o s la v ia . I hese fig u res co m e from
M a d g e a r u , Ei-olutia economiei románefti, 1940. T h e y are of co u rse a p p ro x im a te , as b o th
p o p u la tio n a n d o u tp u t c h a n g e d y e a r b y y e a r. But th e y g iv e a s u b sta n tia lly tru e p ic tu re .
l6 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
fa m ily w e re o b lig e d to seek w o rk o n th e la n d o f a la r g e r h o ld in g
o r in in d u stry . M a n y fa iled fo r lo n g p erio d s to fin d su ch w o rk .
V e r y few p ea san ts w e re c o m p le te ly u n e m p lo y e d , in th e sense in
w h ic h w o rk ers in in d u stria l ce n tre s m a y b e u n e m p lo y e d . B u t
a lm o st e v e ry p e a san t from th e sm a llh o ld e r class w a s p e rm a n e n tly
u n d e r-e m p lo y e d . E x p e rts c a lc u la te d th a t b e tw e e n o n e -th ird an d
o n e -h a lf o f th e la b o u r p o w e r o f th e v illa g e s w a s su p e rflu o u s.
W ith th e best w ill in th e w o rld , it w a s d iffic u lt to fin d a so lu tio n
to this p ro b le m , an d im p o ssib le to d ev ise a ra p id o n e. L o n g -te rm
results c o u ld b e h o p e d from a g e n e ra l im p ro v e m e n t o f m eth o d s o f
a g ric u ltu re . S u c h im p ro v e m e n t re q u ire d a g re a t in cre a se o f
te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n , pro visio n b y th e S ta te o f c h e a p c re d it
fa cilitie s a n d tools, n e w ro a d s a n d r a ilw a y s , d r a in a g e a n d ir r ig a ­
tion sch em es, re g r o u p in g o f strip h o ld in g s in to e c o n o m ic a lly
w o rk a b le u n its, a n d th e o rg a n isa tio n o f m u c h m o re e ffic ien t a n d
fa r-re a c h in g form s o f co -o p e ra tiv e s. I m p r o v e m e n t o f a g r ic u ltu r a l
m eth od s w o u ld m a k e possib le sp e c ia lisa tio n in m o re v a lu a b le
cro p s, su ch as v e g e ta b le oils, in d u stria l p la n ts o r fo d d e r , th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f liv estock a n d d a ir y p r o d u c e , a n d a re d u c tio n
o f th e h ith e rto e xcessive c u ltiv a tio n o f cere als. S id e b y sid e w ith
th ese m easu res in a g ric u ltu re , it w as essen tial to d e v e lo p in d u stry .
A n d this m e a n t a c a re fu l p la n n in g o f a v a ila b le resou rces, a n d th e
c re a tio n o f su ch in d u stries as c o u ld b e b ase d o n n a tiv e ra w
m ate ria ls, p ro v id e so m e o f th e n eed s o f th e h o m e m a rk e t, a n d
a ffo rd e m p lo y m e n t to a n in c re a sin g p r o p o rtio n o f th e excess
p o p u la tio n o f th e v illa g e s.
T h e need fo r su ch an a g r ic u ltu r a l an d in d u stria l p o lic y w as
u n iv e rsa lly re co gn ise d in E a ste rn E u ro p e b e tw e e n th e tw o W o rld
W a rs, b u t v e r y little w as a c h ie v e d . I n d u stry m a d e co n sid e ra b le
progress, b u t in h a p h a z a r d fash io n . I t w as d e te rm in e d ra th e r b y
th e w ishes o f foreign c a p ita l interests th a n b y th e c o u n t r y ’s re a l
n eed s. T h e s e o f co u rse often , b u t b y n o m ean s a lw a y s , c o in ­
c id e d . T h e a g r ic u ltu r a l p o lic y o f th e g o v e rn m e n ts w as m a in ly d e ­
v o te d to th e p ro te c tio n o f th e m in o r ity ( 15 -2 0 p e r c e n t) o f m e d iu m
fa rm ers, w h o p ro d u c e d fo r th e b ig in te rn a l m ark e ts a n d fo r e x p o rt
tra d e , a n d n e g le cte d th e sm a llh o ld e rs. F o r in sta n c e , in Y u g o s la v ia
a p o lic y o f h igh g ra in p rices b e n e fited th e m e d iu m fa rm ers o f th e
g r a in -g ro w in g p ro v in c e s o f S la v o n ia a n d V o iv o d in a , b u t h a rm e d
th e sm a llh o ld e rs o f th e w o o d e d a n d m o u n ta in o u s d istricts o f
B osn ia , D a lm a tia o r M o n te n e g ro , w h o h a d to b u y th e ir fo o d .
B u t th e m e d iu m farm ers h a d m o re in flu e n c e in th e p o litic a l
p a rtie s, a n d so w e re a b le to e x e rcise m o re pressu re on th e g o v e rn -
 T H E S O C IA L ST R U C T U R E If
m en ts th a n th e sm a llh o ld e rs. M o st o f th e tim e th e g o v e rn m e n ts
h ad n o sy ste m a tic a g r ic u ltu r a l p o lic y . T h e y c o n fin e d th em selves to
c a r r y in g o n ‘ s o m e h o w ’ a n d m a k in g d e m a g o g ic speech es a b o u t
th e stern solid v irtu e s o f th e so u n d p e a sa n try . B u t w h e n th e y d id
try to fo r m u la te a con sisten t p o lic y , fo r in sta n ce K in g C a r o l’ s
g o v e rn m e n ts in 19 3 8 -4 0 in R u m a n ia , th e ir a im seem ed to b e to
c r e a te a s tro n g y e o m a n fa rm e r class, o w n in g from 25 to 120 acres
o f la n d . In this th e y w e re fo llo w in g th e p o lic y o f th e Im p e ria l
R u ssia n sta te sm a n S to ly p in , o r o f H it le r ’s M in iste r o f A g r ic u ltu r e
W a lte r D a r r e . B u t i f a g r ic u ltu r e w a s to b e b ased on h o ld in g s o f this
size, w h a t w as to h a p p e n to th e m a jo r ity o f th e p e a sa n try for
w h o m th ere w o u ld b e n o la n d ? T h e go v e rn m e n ts h ad n o a n sw er.
S p o k e sm e n sh o o k th e ir h e ad s sa d ly , m u rm u re d a b o u t in d u stry ,
a n d left it a t th a t.
A ll g o v e rn m e n ts w e re a g re e d in d e te sta tio n o f a p o lic y o f
c o - o p e r a tiv e c u ltiv a tio n . Y e t th ere w o u ld a p p e a r to be m u c h to
be said fo r c o -o p e ra tiv e fa rm in g in these c o u n trie s, a t least in th e
g r a in -g r o w in g p la in la n d s. It w o u ld m a k e possible a ra tio n a l use o f
m a c h in e r y , a n d p r e v e n t th e e x p lo ita tio n o f th e p o o re r p easan ts b y
th e w e a lth ie r. S u c h a p o lic y w o u ld h o w e v e r o n ly w in p o p u la r
su p p o rt i f it w e re p u rsu e d w ith o u t th e in ju stices a n d excesses
w h ic h o c c u rre d in R u ssia in 19 2 9 -3 3 .
L a n d re fo rm c o n tin u e d to b e th e d esire o f th e H u n g a ria n an d
P o lish p e a san ts, m a n y o f w h o m d id n ot th in k fu rth e r a h e a d . In
th e B a lk a n co u n trie s th e m ise ry o f th e th irties b ro u g h t a g re a t
d isillu sio n m e n t to th ose w h o h a d e x p e c te d g re a t th in gs o f th e la n d
refo rm s. B u t th e r e a c tio n o f th e p e a sa n ts to p o v e rty an d u n d e r­
e m p lo y m e n t v a rie d a c c o r d in g to th e g e n e ra tio n . T h e o ld e r m en
te n d e d to re g a rd th e ir m isfo rtu n es as te m p o ra r y a n d a b n o rm a l,
a n d to h o p e fo r a re tu rn o f th e b e tte r tim es th e y h a d k n o w n . T h e
y o u n g e r m en , w h o h a d n e v e r k n o w n a n y th in g b u t m isery,
re g a rd e d it as n o rm a l, a n d w e re m o re in c lin e d to a ttr ib u te it to a
fa u lt in th e w h o le so cia l system . T h e y listen ed w ith g re a te r sy m ­
p a th y th an th e ir fa th e rs to r e v o lu tio n a ry p r o p a g a n d a .
A se p a ra te w o r k in g class, w ith a m o d e o f life a n d o u tlo o k q u ite
d is tin c t fro m th ose o f b o u rg e o isie o r p e a sa n try , w as an im p o rta n t
fa c to r in W e ste rn an d C e n t r a l P o la n d , in th e C z e c h la n d s, and
in B u d a p e st. In a ll th ese re gio n s tra d e u n io n s w e re firm ly e sta b ­
lish ed b y 19 18 , a n d e v e n in th e fa ce o f p o lic e pressure b e tw e e n
th e w a rs th e y k e p t th e ir h o ld o n th e w o rk e rs. In th e so u th -ea stern
c o u n trie s in d u s tr y w a s less a d v a n c e d , b u t it w as g r o w in g q u ic k ly .
R u m a n ia w as a h e a d o f h e r so u th ern n e ig h b o u rs. T h e p e tro leu m
l8 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

in d u stry , c e n tre d on P lo eşti a n d th e P r a h o v a v a lle y , w as th e

old est. B u t d u r in g th e th irtie s m e ta llu r g ic a l in d u stry , su p p o rte d
b y v e r y h ig h p r o te c tiv e ta riffs, m a d e ra p id p ro gress. B u c a rest a n d
B ra şo v w e re im p o rta n t in d u stria l ce n tre s, a n d th ere w e re o th ers
in v a rio u s p a rts o f th e c o u n tr y , e sp e c ia lly in T r a n s y lv a n ia . In
Y u g o s la v ia th e m ost in d u strialise d re gio n w a s C r o a t ia , w h ic h h a d
b e en d e v e lo p e d a lr e a d y u n d e r th e p r e - 1 9 1 8 H u n g a r ia n re g im e .
In S e rb ia progress w as m a d e in th e th irties. In B u lg a r ia th ere w e re
th e b ig c o a l m ines o f P e rn ik , a n u m b e r o f fa cto rie s in a n d ro u n d
S o fia , te x tile m ills in th e c e n tra l p ro v in c e s an d a flo u rish in g
to b a c c o in d u stry in P lo v d iv . T o b a c c o w a s also th e la rg e st in d u str y
o f G r e e c e , b u t o th e r fa cto rie s g re w u p in th e A th e n s a re a . A lb a n ia ’s
o n ly in d u stria l resou rce w as o il. w h ic h b e g a n to be m in e d in the
tw en ties.
T h e p ro b lem s o f th e sk ille d w o rk e r in E a ste rn E u ro p e w e re
m u ch th e sa m e as in th e W e st, a n d so d o n ot n eed m u c h a tte n tio n
h ere. B u t a sp e c ia l p ro b le m w a s p r o v id e d b y th e u n sk ille d w o rk ers
from th e v illa g e s. T h e s e w e re p ea san ts w h o se fa m ilie s o w n e d sm a ll
h o ld in g s w h ic h p r o v id e d p a rt o f th e su b sisten ce n eed s o f th e ir
m em b ers, b u t w h o c a m e to th e fa cto rie s to e a rn a b it m o re , in
o rd e r to b u y th e few essen tial to w n -m a d e p ro d u c ts (clo th es, sa lt,
la m p -o il, e tc .) w h ic h th e y c o u ld n o t d o w ith o u t, a n d to p a y tax es
a n d d eb ts. T h e y w e re th erefo re c o n te n t w ith less th a n th e w a g e
re q u ire d b y w o rk ers w h o liv e d in th e to w n s a n d m a in ta in e d th eir
fa m ilies th ere. T h e y p r o v id e d a u sefu l re se rv e o f la b o u r to th e
e m p lo y e rs. W h e n in d u str y p ro sp e re d , th e in flu x o f n e w re cru its
fro m th e v illa g e s k e p t w a g e s d o w n , a n d w h e n tim es w e re b a d th e
v illa g e re cru its re tu rn e d to a life o f u n d e r-e m p lo y m e n t a n d u n d e r­
n o u rish m e n t a t h o m e . T h e y w e re n o t re co rd e d in th e o fficia l
u n e m p lo y m e n t statistics.
T h e s e co n d itio n s w e re a seriou s o b sta c le to R u m a n ia n a n d
B a lk a n w o rk in g -c la ss o rg a n isa tio n . A n a d d itio n a l d iffic u lty w as
th e h o stility o f th e p o lic e , w h ic h W 'as in c lin e d to v ie w a ll tra d e
u n ion s as ‘ nests o f B o ls h e v is m ’ . T h e R u m a n ia n tra d e u n io n s h a d
few lib e rtie s e v e n in th e P a r lia m e n ta r y p e rio d . T w o b ig strikes,
in 1929 in th e J iu v a lle y c o a l-m in e s a n d in 1933 in th e G r iv its a
r a ilw a y w o rk sh o p s in B u c a re s t, w e re su p p ressed w ith loss o f life.
T h e u n ion s w e re fo r m a lly a b o lish ed in 1938 w h e n K in g C a r o l’s
d ic ta to rs h ip w as c re a te d . B u lg a ria n tra d e u n io n s w e re stro n g im m e ­
d ia te ly a fte r th e F irst W o rld W a r , b u t w e re m u c h w e a k e n e d in th e
repression o f 1923. In 1934 th e y w e re a b o lish e d a fte r V c lc h e v ’s
m ilita r y coup d ’ état a n d r e p la c e d b y ‘ c o r p o r a t iv e ’ o rg a n isa tio n s .
 THE SO CI A L ST R U C T U R E 19

In Y u g o s la v ia tr a d e u n io n s g re w r a p id ly , a n d o rg a n ise d a
n u m b e r o f seriou s strikes, d u r in g th e d iso rd e re d y ears 1 9 1 9 - 2 1 . In
th e fo llo w in g y e a rs th e y lost g ro u n d a n d su ffered from p o lic e
repression . T h e y w e re p e rh a p s stron gest in S lo v e n ia , w h ere th e
tra d itio n s o f A u s tr ia n S o c ia l D e m o c r a c y h ad left som e m ark .
In C r o a t ia , th ere w e re sp e c ia l n a tio n a list tra d e u n ion s, co n tro lled
b y th e C r o a t ia n P e a sa n t P a rty . In S e rb ia th e S to ja d in o v ic
g o v e rn m e n t o f 1 9 3 5 -8 c re a te d a n e w tra d e u n io n o rg a n isa tio n ,
k n o w n as ‘ju g o r a s ’ . Its m em b e rs w o re u n ifo rm s, a n d th e o r g a n ­
isation w a s m o d e lle d on M u ss o lin i’s fascist ‘ c o r p o r a tio n s ’ . T h e
G r e e k tra d e u n io n s b e c a m e a c tiv e in th e e a r ly th irties, e sp e c ia lly
in th e to b a c c o c e n tre s in th e n o rth . A g e n e ra l strik e in K a v a lla ,
o rg a n ise d b y c o m m u n ist-le d tra d e u n ion s, w as th e im m e d ia te
o c ca sio n o f th e in sta lla tio n o f G e n e r a l M e ta x a s ’s d ic ta to rs h ip ,
u n d e r w h ic h tra d e u n io n a c tiv it y b e c a m e im possib le.

N A TIO N A LISM

In E aste rn E u ro p e n a tio n a lism is a m o re p o w e rfu l a n d e xp lo siv e

fo rce th a n in th e W e st. T h is is o f co u rse n ot su rp risin g in v iew o f
th e h isto ry o f th e re g io n . M a n y n ation s, n o n e o f w h ic h h as a la rg e
p o p u la tio n , a r e c o n c e n tr a te d in to a c o m p a r a tiv e ly sm all sp a ce.
A series o f m ig ra tio n s , co n q u e sts a n d reco n q u ests h a v e ca u se d an
in te rm ix tu re o f n a tio n a litie s in c e rta in a re as, w h ic h c a n n o t be
stra ig h te n e d o u t b y a n y ‘ e th n ic a l fr o n t ie r ’ . M o re o v e r a ll these
n a tio n s h a v e e x p e rie n c e d lo n g p erio d s o f foreign ru le , an d this
h as m a d e th e m p a r tic u la r ly sen sitive in q u estio n s a ffe c tin g th eir
in d e p e n d e n c e a n d n a tio n a l p restige.
B u t th e E a st E u ro p e a n n a tio n a lism o f th e last tw e n ty years
c a n n o t b e e x p la in e d e n tire ly b y these causes. N a tio n a lism w as
s y s te m a tic a lly p r o p a g a te d b y th e g o v e rn m e n ts, a lm o st as a S ta te
re lig io n . In th e sch oo ls ch ild re n w e re ta u g h t to re ga rd n e ig h ­
b o u rin g n a tio n s as c u lt u r a lly a n d m o r a lly in fe rio r to th e ir o w n .
In th e te a c h in g o f h isto ry th e g re a te st em p h a sis w as la id on th e
b r ie f p e rio d s in th e M id d le A g e s w h e n e a c h n a tio n h ad d o m in a te d
a re as a t p resen t h e ld b y its n e ig h b o u rs. T h e s e e p h e m e ra l m e d ie v a l
fro n tiers w e re re p resen te d as th e ‘ n a t u r a l’ b o u n d a rie s o f the
n a tio n . N o th in g w as d o n e to p ro m o te m u tu a l k n o w le d g e and
u n d e rs ta n d in g b e tw e e n n e ig h b o u rs. F o r in stan ce , m a n y R u m a n ­
ian s h a d som e k n o w le d g e o f F ra n c e , som e eve n h a d g o o d k n o w ­
le d g e , b u t h a r d ly a n y o n e k n e w a n y th in g a t a ll a b o u t Y u g o s la v ia ,
B u lg a ria o r P o la n d . I n te lle c tu a ls p rid e d th em selves 011 th eir
ig n o r a n c e o f th e b e n ig h te d B a lk a n s.
20 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
E astern E u ro p e b ristled w ith m in o rity p ro b lem s. In 1939, o f a
p o p u la tio n o f a b o u t 110 m illio n , som e 22 m illio n p e o p le b e lo n g e d
to m in o ritie s.1 In P o la n d th e G e r m a n m in o rity w as fa ir ly w e ll
tre a te d , b u t c o u ld n e v e r re c o n c ile its e lf to th e fa c t th a t it w as n o
lo n g e r th e r u lin g n a tio n . T h e U k r a in ia n a n d W h ite R u ssia n
m in orities w e re b a d ly tre a te d . In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia b e tte r tre a tm e n t
w as g iv e n to n a tio n a l m in o rities th an a n y w h e re else in E astern
E u ro p e . B u t n e ith e r th e G e rm a n s o f th e C z e c h la n d s n o r th e
H u n g a ria n s o f S lo v a k ia a n d R u t h c n ia c o u ld fo rg e t th a t th e y h ad
o n c e b een th e m a ste r n a tio n . In R u m a n ia a n d th e B a lk a n s
a lm ost a ll m in orities w e re b a d ly tre a te d . T h e e x c e p tio n w e re th e
G e rm a n s, w h o in Y u g o s la v ia a n d R u m a n ia re c e iv ed fa v o u re d
tre a tm e n t as a c o u n te r -w e ig h t to th e H u n g a ria n s. T h e y h a d in
p r a c tic e so m e th in g lik e c u ltu r a l a u to n o m y a n d g r e a te r p o litic a l
free d o m th a n th e m em b e rs o f th e m a jo rity n ation s. I n H u n g a r y
th e ir p o litic a l in d e p e n d e n c e w as m o re re stric te d , b u t th e ir e c o n o m ic
p osition w as, as also in Y u g o s la v ia a n d R u m a n ia , e x tr e m e ly
fa v o u ra b le . T h e o th e r n a tio n a l m in o ritie s (for in sta n ce , H u n ­
g a ria n s in Y u g o s la v ia a n d R u m a n ia , A lb a n ia n s in Y u g o s la v ia ,
B u lg a ria n s in R u m a n ia , a n d T u r k s in B u lg a ria ) su ffered serious
d isab ilities. T h e y h a d in su ffic ien t sch ools in th e ir o w n la n g u a g e ,
w e re ru led b y o fficials o f th e m a jo rity n a tio n w h o d id n ot sp e a k
th eir la n g u a g e , h ad little o p p o rtu n ity o f o ffic ia l e m p lo y m e n t, a n d
w e re e xp osed to v a rio u s e c o n o m ic d isa d v a n ta g e s . In p a rt this w as
d u e to a d e lib e r a te p o lic y o f n a tio n a l d isc rim in a tio n b y th e
g o v e rn m e n ts, in p a rt to th e m o re g e n e ra l fa c t th a t th e regim es
w e re o p p ressiv e d ic ta to rsh ip s, w h ic h w e ig h e d h e a v ily o n th e
m a jo rity n a tio n .a s w e ll as o n th e m in o rity .
A sp e cia l ca se w e re a re as o f m ix e d p o p u la tio n , w h e re it w as
d ifficu lt to sp ea k o f ‘ m a jo r it y ’ a n d ‘ m in o r it y ’ n a tio n s, as th ese h a d

1 A c c o r d in g to th e o ffic ial censu s fig u res o f th e v a rio u s statrs th e n u m b e rs o f

n a tio n a l m in o rities w e re as follo w * (to th e n earest i o .o o d , cen su s y e a r in b r a c k e ts ) :
P o la n d ^1931)— U k ra in ia n s 3,230,000; W h it e R u ssia n s 990,000; G e rm a n s 740,000.
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia (19 3 0 )— G e rm a n s 3,230 ,0 00 ; H u n g a ria n s 6 90,000; Poles 80,000.
H u n g a r y Í19 20 )— G e rm a n s 550,000; S lo v a k s 140,000; S o u th S la v s 80,000. R u m a n ia
(19 3 0 )— H u n g a ria n s 1,430,00 0; G e rm a n s , 740,00 0; U k ra in ia n s 580,000; R u ssia n s
420,000; B u lg a ria n s 360,000. Y u g o s la v ia ( 1 9 3 1 ) — G e rm a n s 510 ,0 0 0 ; H u n g a ria n s
470,00 0; A lb a n ia n s 440,000; R u m a n ia n s 230,000. B u lg a ria (19 3 4 )— T u r k s 620,000.
O f these figures, th e C z e c h o s lo v a k a n d the R u m a n ia n are p r o b a b ly th e m o st re lia b le .
T h e Y 'u g osla v figures fo r A lb a n ia n s , a n d the P o lish fig u res fo r U k ra in ia n s a n d W h it e
R u ssian s, fall fa r sh o rt o f th e tru th a t the tim e, p o ssib ly n o t sh o w in g m u c h m o re th a n
h a lf the rea l n u m b ers. J e w s n u m b e re d 2,730,000 in P o la n d a n d 720,000 in R u m a n ia
a c c o rd in g to th e sa m e censuses. In H u n g a r y th e y w e re o n ly re c o rd e d as a n a tio n a l
g ro u p in th e 1941 censu s, tak e n w h e n so u th S lo v a k ia , R u th e n ia a n d n o rth T r a n s y l­
v a n ia form e d p a rt o f H u n g a r y . T h e y w e re th en re c o rd e d as 160,000, w h ic h seem s a
v e ry low fig u re. J e w s in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia in 1930 w e re re c o rd e d as 190,000, o f w h o m the
m a jo rity c a m e fro m are a s w h ic h in 1941 w e re in H u n g a r y .
 T H E S O C IA L S T R U C T U R E 21
liv e d to g e th e r fo r ce n tu rie s a n d b e co m e in e x tr ic a b ly in te rw o v e n .
T h e m ost im p o rta n t e x a m p le o f this is T r a n s y lv a n ia . F o r c e n ­
tu ries th e H u n g a ria n s ru le d this p r o v in c e , an d th e R u m a n ia n s
h ad n o rig h ts. In 19 18 it w as a c q u ire d b y R u m a n ia , a n d it w as
th e tu rn o f th e H u n g a ria n s to b e u n d e rd o g s. F o r tw e n ty years
T r a n s y lv a n ia w a s a b o n e o f c o n te n tio n b e tw e e n H u n g a r y an d
R u m a n ia , w h o se re la tio n s w ith e a c h o th e r w e re co n tin u o u sly b ad .
A n o th e r e x a m p le is M a c e d o n ia , th e v a r ie ty o f w h ose p o p u la tio n
has g iv e n F re n c h co o k s a w o rd fo r fru it sa la d . It has b een for fifty
y ears a b o n e o f c o n te n tio n b e tw e e n S e rb ia (or Y u g o s la v ia ) , B u l­
g a ria a n d G r e e c e .
A fu rth e r sp e cia l p ro b le m w as c re a te d in tw o states, C z e c h o ­
s lo v a k ia an d Y u g o s la v ia , w h e re th ere w as m o re th an on e ‘ state
n a t io n ’ — in th e first ca se C z e c h s a n d S lo v a k s, a n d in th e second
S erb s, C r o a ts a n d S lo v e n e s. In b o th cases o n e n atio n (the C z e c h s
in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d th e S erb s in Y u g o s la v ia ) o b ta in e d c o n tro l
o f th e sta te m a c h in e a n d id e n tifie d its o w n n atio n a lism w ith
‘ n a tio n a l u n it y ’ . T h e p ro b le m w as c o m p lic a te d b y d iffe re n t c u l­
tu ra l a n d a d m in is tra tiv e tra d itio n s. T h e C z e c h s w e re 'm o r e
w e s te r n ’ th a n th e S lo v a k s, w h ile th e S erb s w e re ‘ m o re o r ie n t a l’
th an th e C r o a ts o r S lo v e n e s. T h u s th e S lo v a k s e n jo y e d b etter
g o v e rn m e n t u n d e r th e C z e c h s th a n th e y h ad p re v io u sly k n o w n ,
w h ile for th e C r o a ts th ere w as a d e c lin e in sta n d a rd s. B u t b oth
S lo v a k s a n d C r o a ts w e re stro n g ly n a tio n a list, a n d ca u sed in fa ct
fa r m o re tro u b le to th e n e w states th a n d id th e n a tio n a l m in orities
in th e strict sense.
N a tio n a lism w as d e lib e r a te ly used b y D a n u b ia n g o v e rn m e n ts
as a m ea n s o f d iv e r tin g d isc o n te n t from h o m e p ro b lem s. I f the
d ep ressed p e a san ts c o u ld b e p e rsu a d e d th a t th e ir p o v e rty w as
d u e , n o t to th e fa ilu re s o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, b u t to th e w ick ed n ess o f
a n e ig h b o u r in g n a tio n , this c o u ld re lie v e th e re g im e o f d a n g e rs in
in te rn a l p o litics. F o r in sta n ce , ‘ R e v is io n is m ’ 1 w as used b y th e
H u n g a r ia n ru lers to d iv e rt p u b lic a tte n tio n from th e q u estio n o f
a la n d re fo rm . T h e J e w s w e re a m ost c o n v e n ie n t sca p e g o a t in
P o la n d , R u m a n ia a n d H u n g a r y . D e sp ite th eir d e m a g o g ic an d

1 ‘ R e v is io n is m ’ m ea n t rev isio n o f the tre a ty o f T r ia n o n (19 2 0 ). T h is c o u ld m ea n one

o f th ree th in g s— im p ro v e d tre a tm e n t for H u n g a ria n m in o ritie s in n e ig h b o u r stales,
fro n tie r rev isio n d e sig n e d to resto re to H u n g a r y are as in h a b ite d m a in ly b y H u n g a ria n s
a n d a d jo in in g th e fro n tie rs o f H u n g a r y , a n d resto ratio n o f the 19 14 frontiers. T h e first
w as in th e o ry a c c e p ta b le to the n e ig h b o u r states. T h e seco n d w as o ffic ia lly refused, but
w a s not u tfe rlv in c o n c e iv a b le . T h e th ird , w h ic h w o u ld h a v e p u t m illio n s o f non-
H u n g a ria n s b a c k u n d e r H u n g a r ia n ru le, w as o b v io u s ly u n a c c e p ta b le . T h e w o rd
‘ r e v isio n ism ’ b e c a m e a b o g y -w o rd to th e p u b licists o f th e L ittle E n te n te co u n tries
a n d a m y s tic w a r -c r y to those o f H u n g a ry .
22 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

p se u d o -re v o lu tio n a ry c h a ra c te r, th e n a tio n a list m o v e m e n ts fu r­

th ered th e interests o f so cia l c o n se rv atism . In th e la te th irtie s th ey
also b e ca m e th e tools o f N a z i G e r m a n y . It is c u rio u s th a t those
w h o m ost strid e n tly d e c la im e d th e ir d e v o tio n to th e ir n a tio n s’
‘ g re a tn e s s’ , a n d w h o a d v a n c e d th e m ost e x tr a v a g a n t n a tio n a list
cla im s w ith re g a rd to th eir n e ig h b o u rs, a ll b e c a m c th e m ost
su b serv ien t a ge n ts o f G e rm a n Im p e ria lism .
I t w as c le a r a lre a d y b e fo re th e w a r th a t th e o n ly m e th o d o f
tre a tm e n t fo r th e d isease o f n a tio n a lism w a s to e n d th e id e n ti­
fica tio n o f n a tio n a lity w ith th e sta te a p p a ra tu s. E a c h n a tio n h as
a la n g u a g e a n d c u ltu re o f its o w n , w h ic h re q u ires re sp ect, a n d as
lo n g as these a re tra m p le d on b y a n o th e r n a tio n e a c h w ill re a ct
w ith v io le n c e. B e tw ee n th e w ars it w as a d o g m a th a t n a tio n a lity
c o u ld o n ly be p ro te c te d b y n a tio n a l states. T h is m e a n t th a t e v e ry
n a tio n m ust h a v e a sta te o f its o w n , w ith in w h o se fro n tiers a ll
m em b ers o f th e n atio n a re in c lu d e d an d n o o th e r n a tio n m a y h a v e
a n y righ ts. B u t E astern E u ro p e c a n n o t b e o rg an ise d on this basis
unless on e n a tio n su ccced s in e x te rm in a tin g a ll th e o th ers, w h ic h
w ith th e e x istin g b a la n c e o f n u m e ric a l a n d m ilita r y stre n g th is
im p ro b a b le . T h e o n ly w a y o u t w o u ld seem to be a clo se r a sso cia ­
tion o f states, w h ic h w o u ld re d u c e th e im p o rta n c e o f fro n tiers.
W ith in th e states so asso cia te d , m em b e rs o f d iffe re n t n a tio n a l
gro u p s w o u ld h a v e e q u a l rig h t to use th e ir la n g u a g e in sch ools
a n d a d m in istra tio n a n d e q u a l o p p o rtu n itie s o f re c ru itm e n t in to
th e civ il service. T h is w o u ld in fa c t not w e a k e n b u t stre n g th e n th e
states.
S o c ia l reform s, b y r e m o v in g in te rn a l tensions, c o u ld h e lp th e
ch a n ce s o f su ch a p o lic y . N o less essen tial is a m in im u m o f in te r­
n a tio n a l sta b ility . I f these tw o essen tial c o n d itio n s w e re fu lfille d ,
th en a t least a b e g in n in g c o u ld b e m a d e . U ltim a te success m ust
d e p e n d a b o v e all on th e a d o p tio n o f a n e n tire ly n ew e d u c a tio n a l
p o lic y , d esign ed to e n c o u ra g e c itiz e n s fro m th e ir e a rlie st y e a rs to
re g a rd fe llo w -c itizc n s o f fo reig n sp eech , n o t as en em ie s b u t as
frien d s.
 CHAPTER TWO

P A R T IE S A N D P O L IT IC S

H E m a n y p o litic a l pa rties w h ic h e xisted in E astern E u ro p e

T b e fo re 1939 c a n b e r o u g h ly d iv id e d in to fo u r ty p es, w h ich

w e w ill c a ll b o u rg e o is d e m o c ra tic , p e a sa n t, M a rx is t and
fascist. T h e p resen t c h a p te r w ill c o n ta in a b r ie f su m m a ry o f th e
p a rt p la y e d b y th e m o st im p o rta n t p a rtie s from these fo u r
c a te g o rie s. F ro m th e s u m m a r y a g e n e ra l p ic tu re sh o u ld em e rg e
o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n co u n trie s from p a r lia ­
m en ta rism to d ic ta to rs h ip a n d sh o u ld re n d e r possib le som e b ro a d
co n clu sio n s on th a t su b ject.

BOURGEOIS D E M O C R A T IC PA R TIE S

T h e s e p a rtie s stood fo r w e ste rn p a r lia m e n ta r y d e m o c ra c y . T h e y

d id n o t h a v e a s p e c ific a lly class p ro g ra m m e . R a t h e r th e y so u gh t
b y p ro gre ssiv e g e n e ra l p rin c ip le s to a p p e a l to a ll classes. T h e y said
m u ch o f p o litic a l free d o m a n d so m e th in g o f so cia l reform . T h e y
re ce iv e d th e votes o f m a n y p easan ts, sm all o fficials an d fa c to ry
w o rk e rs, b u t th e ir le a d e rs w e re fo r th e m ost p a rt la w y ers, business
m en o r te a ch e rs fro m th e to w n s. T h is b e c a m e still m o re th e case
as th e n u m e ric a l a n d e c o n o m ic im p o rta n c e o f th e b ou rge o isie
in cre a se d . T h e ir p o licie s in p r a c tic e fa v o u re d m a in ly th e u rb an
business class a n d th e ric h e r pea san ts. T h e e c o n o m ic d ifficu ltie s o f
th e th irties a c c e n tu a te d th e c o n flic t o f in terests b e tw e e n th eir
le a d e rs a n d th e p o o r in b o th to w n a n d v illa g e . R isin g so cia l d is­
c o n te n t a la rm e d th em , a n d d im in ish e d th eir en th u siasm fo r eve n
p o litic a l d e m o c r a c y , sin ce it m ig h t g iv e p o w e r to th e u n p riv ile g e d
to o v e r ru le th e ir p o lic y . T h e y split in to fractio n s, som e o f w h ich
jo in e d th e n e w d ic ta to rs h ip s a n d a b a n d o n e d a ll p rete n c e o f
lib e ra l p rin cip le s, w h ile o th ers re m ain e d in in e ffe ctu a l op p o sitio n ,
d iv id e d w ith in th em selv es b y p e rso n a l q u a rre ls a n d cu t o f f from
th e m a jo rity o f th e ir p e o p les b y th e ir co n se rv a tism a n d in e rtia .
T h e m ost im p o rta n t p a r ty o f this ty p e in P o la n d w e re the
N a tio n a l D e m o c ra ts , w h o w e re led fo r m o re th an th irty y e a rs b y
R o m a n D m o w sk i. T h is p a r ty to so m e e x te n t stood for th e tr a d i­
tion s o f th e F re n c h R e v o lu tio n b u t its n a tio n a lism w as m o re
23
24 th e EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
im p o rta n t th an its lib e ra lism . T o som e e x te n t this w as in e v ita b le
a t a tim e w h e n P o la n d 's d ivisio n b e tw e e n th re e e m p ire s w a s a
b itte r g rie v a n c e to e v e ry P olish p a trio t. B u t D m o w sk i in tro d u c e d
a n e w an d a ggre ssiv e ty p e o f n a tio n a lism . In his fa m ou s b ook
Thoughts o f a Modern Pole (1893) h e re p u d ia te d th e o ld lib e ra lism ,
a n d h eld u p B ism arck ’s P russia as a m o d e l to b e fo llo w e d b y Poles.
Prussian m eth od s sh o u ld b e used to o v e r th r o w th e h a te d P russian s.
O n e o f his close associates, B a lic k i, exp ressed sim ila r v iew s in a b o o k
sig n ific a n tly en title d National Egoism. D m o w sk i’ s n a tio n a lism w as
d ire cte d n ot o n ly a g a in st th e g re a t o p p re ssin g n atio n s, th e
G e rm a n s an d R u ssian s, b u t a lso a g a in st n atio n s su ffe rin g from th e
sam e opp ression b u t w h o w e re real o r p o te n tia l riv a ls o f th e P o les—
th e U k ra in ia n s an d th e J e w s. T h e N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic P a r ty w as
clo se ly lin k e d w ith th e risin g P olish m id d le class, la r g e ly o f a risto ­
c ra tic o rig in , w h ic h w as e n te r in g th e free professions a n d business.
P olish business w as in c re a sin g ly lin k e d to th e g re a t R u ssia n
m ark e t, an d D m o w sk i th erefo re w o rk e d e n e r g e tic a lly th o u g h
u n su ccessfu lly for P o lish -R u ssian c o -o p e ra tio n w ith in th e fr a m e ­
w o rk o f a ‘ n c o s la v ’ p o lic y w h ic h w as a b o v e a ll d ire c te d a g a in st
G e r m a n y . A t th e sam e tim e th e e n try o f P oles in to busin ess,
h ith e rto la rg e ly a J e w ish p reserve, g a v e a p o w e rfu l im p e tu s to
an ti-sein itism . A fte r 19 18 th e N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic P a r ty w a s th e
stron gest in P o la n d . P ilsu d sk i’s coup d'etat o f 1926 th re w it in to
o p p o sitio n , w h e re it re m a in e d u n til th e N a z i co n q u e st. D u r in g
th e th irties it w as v e r y m u c h in flu e n c e d b y fascism . It b e c a m e
m ore a n d m o re a n ti-sc m itic , b u t its a n ti- G e r m a n n a tio n a lism
p rev e n te d m ost o f its su p p o rte rs fro m fa llin g a p r e y to N a z i
p r o p a g a n d a . O n th e e ve o f th e w a r it w as a re a c tio n a r y a n d
c h a u v in istic p a rty , led b y th e pro fessio n al a n d business class, b u t
possessing w id e p o p u la r su p p o rt la r g e ly th ro u g h th e in flu e n c e o f
th e C a th o lic C h u r c h .
T h e C z e c h N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic P a r ty re se m b led th e P o lish in
its n a tio n a lism a n d in th e so cia l c h a r a c te r o f its le a d e rsh ip . It w as
how 'ever less lin k e d w ith th e C a th o lic C h u r c h , a n d it h a d m u ch
less p o p u la r su p p o rt a fte r 19 18 . Its le a d e r K r a m a r w a s a n o ld
frien d o f D m o w sk i, a n d w as w ith h im p ro m in e n t in th e n e o sla v
m o v e m e n t b efore 19 14 . T h e p a r ty w a s so c ia lly c o n s e rv a tiv e , an d
w as b a c k e d m a in ly b y business m en a n d se n io r b u re a u c ra ts . In
th e th irties it lost m u ch g ro u n d a m o n g th ese classes to th e a d v a n ­
ta g e o f th e A g r a r ia n P a rty . T h e o th er b o u rg e o is d e m o c r a tic p a r ty
a m o n g th e C z e c h s w as th e N a tio n a l S o c ia list P a rty . Its m ost
d istin g u ish ed m e m b e r w as D r. E d u a rd B en eś, b u t his co n sta n t
 P A R T I E S AND PO L IT IC S 25
te n u re o f th e F o re ig n M in istry o r the P resid e n cy p rev e n te d him
from p la y in g a ro le in p a r ty p olitics. T h e p a r ty w as so cia lly
r a d ic a l a n d stro n g ly n a tio n a list. B ecau se o f th e fo rm e r association
o f th e C a t h o lic C h u r c h w ith ih c A u stria n im p e ria l d y n a sty and
ru lin g class, an d b e c a u se o f a p a trio tic g lo rific a tio n o f th e H ussite
tra d itio n , th e N a tio n a l S o c ia lists te n d e d to w a rd s a n ti-c le ric a lism .
In m a n y w a y s th e y c a n be c o m p a r e d , in o u tlo o k a n d p o lic y , w ith
th e F re n c h R a d ic a l P a rty . T h e ir m ain stren gth w as a m o n g the
profession al class an d sta te o fficials, b u t th ey also e n jo y e d co n ­
s id e ra b le w o rk in g -cla ss su p p o rt.
H u n g a r y h a r d ly h a d an im p o rta n t p a r ty o f th e b o u rge o is
d e m o c ra tic ty p e . F o r la c k o f a b e tte r d escrip tio n on e m ust h o w ­
e v e r in c lu d e u n d e r this title th e ‘ g o v e rn m e n t p a r t y ', w h ic h u n d e r
v a rio u s n am es d o m in a te d H u n g a ria n p o litics from 1920 to 1944.
Its essen tial basis w as th e la n d e d g e n try a n d th e H u n g a ria n
m id d le class. T h e la tte r con sisted m a in ly o f b u re a u c ra ts an d p ro­
fessional m en o f a risto c ra tic o rig in , b u t from th e th irties o n w a rd s the
p u r e ly H u n g a r ia n business e le m e n t b e g a n to b e im p o rta n t. T h e
n o n -H u n g a ria n (m a in ly J e w ish ) business class su p p o rte d the
g o v e rn m e n t p a r ty , b u t h ad little d ire c t in flu e n ce in it. H u n g a ria n
p o litics w e re v e r y la r g e ly a p e rso n a l a ffa ir. T h e lead ers d ep e n d e d
on th e su p p o rt o f th e R e g e n t, A d m ir a l H o rth y . L o c a l p a rty bosses
o b ta in e d th e ir positions, a n d rose in th e p a r ty h ie ra r c h y , m a in ly
b y p e rso n a l co n n e c tio n s w ith in flu e n tia l m en . F ro m 1921 to 1931
th e g o v e rn m e n t p a r ty a n d th e c o u n tr y w e re d o m in a te d b y C o u n t
S te p h e n B e th le n , a m e m b e r o f a fa m ou s T r a n s y lv a n ia n a risto ­
c ra tic fa m ily , a so cia l c o n se rv a tiv e w ith e lem en ts o f w h iggish
lib e ra lism . A fte r 1933 th e d o m in a n t p e rs o n a lity w as G e n e ra l
G ö m b ö s, a m id d le -class m an o f G e r m a n o rig in , w h o in clin e d
r a th e r m o re to a fascist sty le o f d e m a g o g y , b u t still d id n ot c a rry
th in g s to a n e x tr e m e . U n d e r his successors, e sp e c ia lly the b a n k e r
I m r é d y (P re m ie r 1 9 3 8 -9 ), th e fascist tren d w ith in th e p a r ty g re w .
T h e C h u rc h e s (C a th o lic , C a lv in is t a n d E v a n g e lic a l) u su a lly
h ad som e in flu e n ce w ith in th e p a rty . M ild ly lib e ra l e lem en ts
re m a in e d w ith in it to th e e n d . I t is d ifficu lt to g e n e ra lise a b o u t so
h e te ro g e n e o u s a g ro u p , b u t it is p r o b a b ly tru e th at w ith the
p a ssa ge o f tim e th e la n d o w n in g g e n try lost som e p o w e r w ith in it
to th e a d v a n ta g e o f th e risin g m id d le class, its e lf la rg e ly o f g e n try
o rig in , a n d th a t it th us b e g a n to p a y m o re a tte n tio n to the
interests o f in d u str y a n d less to those o f a g ric u ltu re . B u t w h en
a g r ic u ltu r a l q u estio n s arose it d e fe n d e d th e la n d o w n e rs at the
e x p e n se o f th e sm a llh o ld e rs o r la b o u rers.
26 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e d o m in a n t R u m a n ia n p a r ty w as th e N a tio n a l L ib e r a l,
w h ich rep resen ted th e m id d le class in busin ess, th e profession s a n d
th e b u re a u c ra c y . T h e p a r ty is in e x tr ic a b ly a sso cia ted w ith th e
fa m ily o f B ră tia n u , a b o v e a ll w ith th e fa th e r a n d son , Io n an d
Io n el, w h o w e re m a n y tim es P rim e M in iste r b e tw e e n 1880 a n d
1927. B efore 19 1 4 th e lib e ra ls a lte r n a te d w ith th e c o n se rv a tiv e s,
re p resen tin g th e la n d o w n e rs. B u t la n d refo rm a n d u n iv e rsa l
su ffrag e , b o th in tro d u c e d b y th e lib e ra ls d u r in g th e w a r , d e p riv e d
the la n d o w n e rs o f e c o n o m ic a n d p o litic a l p o w e r, a n d th us
d estro y e d th e C o n s e r v a tiv e P a rty . In th e ten y e ars a fte r 1 9 18 the
g re a t m a jo rity o f th e w e a lth ie r p e o p le in to w n a n d c o u n tr y , a n d
th e b u lk o f th e c iv il se rv ice a n d business (in c lu d in g J e w is h
b usin ess), su p p o rte d th e lib e ra ls in th e o ld k in g d o m o f R u m a n ia .
B u t in th e n e w p r o v in c e o f T r a n s y lv a n ia th e m a in p o litic a l fo rce
w as th e N a tio n a l P a rty , fo u n d ed u n d e r th e H u n g a r ia n re g im e . Its
su p p o rt c a m e from th e p ea san ts, b u t its le a d e rs w e re m id d le class
— sm a ll-to w n la w y e rs, sch o o l te a ch e rs an d m e rc h a n ts. I t m ig h t
h a v e b e en e x p e c te d th a t these tw o p a rtie s w o u ld m e rg e a fte r
19 18 a n d fo rm a u n ited b o u rg e o is d e m o c r a tic p a r ty o f G r e a te r
R u m a n ia . T h a t this d id n o t h a p p e n w as d u e p a r tly to th e cla sh
o f tw o p o w e rfu l p erso n a lities, th e tw o le a d e rs, Io n e l B ră tia n u
a n d Iu liu M a n iu , fo r w h o m th ere w a s n o t ro o m w ith in o n e
p a rty , a n d p a r tly to th e d esire o f th e b u sin ess e le m e n ts w ith in
th e L ib e r a l P a rty to g e t th e ir h an d s on th e c o n sid e ra b le e c o n o m ic
resou rces o f T r a n s y lv a n ia , in c lu d in g th e n e w in d u strie s w h ic h
th e H u n g a ria n s h a d e n c o u ra g e d sin ce th e en d o f th e n in e te e n th
c e n tu r y . C o n s e q u e n tly th e lib e ra ls re m a in e d a p a r t y o f th e
old k in g d o m . T h e y stood fo r rig id c e n tra lism , b o th a d m in is ­
tr a tiv e a n d e c o n o m ic , a n d also fo r e c o n o m ic n a tio n a lism . T h e y
w e re e sp e c ia lly h ostile to fo re ig n c a p ita l. T h e ir g re a t d a y s e n d e d
w ith th e d e a th o f Io n el B ră tia n u in 19 2 7. T h e y w e re o u t o f o ffice
u n til 1933. T h e y th en re tu rn e d fo r fo u r y e a rs, b u t w e re o n ly a
sh a d o w o f th eir fo rm e r selves. T h e ir m a in le a d e r w a s n o w
T ă tă r e s c u , w h o b e c a m e a w illin g in stru m e n t o f K i n g C a r o l 11 ’s
p la n s for a p e rso n a l d ic ta to rs h ip . T h e lib e ra ls w e re n o w a
th o ro u g h ly r e a c tio n a ry p a r ty , d o m in a te d b y b ig in d u strialists
(e sp e cia lly fro m th e n e w h e a v y in d u str y w h ic h m a d e q u ic k
progress in th e th irtie s), an d to le ra tin g th e g r o w th o f fascist
m o ve m e n ts. A fte r th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a ro y a l d ic ta to rs h ip in
1938 th e lib e ra ls sp lit u p in to little c liq u e s.
T h e c o rre s p o n d in g p a r ty in Y u g o s la v ia w a s th e S e r b ia n R a d ic a l
P a r ty . T h e fo u n d ers o f th e p a r ty in th e sev en ties w e re u to p ia n
 P A R T I E S AN D P O L IT IC S 27

socialists, p u p ils o f th e R u ssia n w rite r C h e rn y sh e v sk i. D u rin g the

e ig h tie s th e so cia list e lem en ts in th e ir p r o g ra m m e d isa p p e a red ,
an d th e y b e c a m e a m ilita n t p e a san t p a r ty fig h tin g fo r p o litica l
d e m o c r a c y as u n d e rsto o d in th e W e st. T h e y h ad to fig h t the
d esp o tic P rin ce M ila n an d th e P rogressive P a rty , w h ic h w as based
on th e to p b u re a u c ra ts, p rofession al a r m y officers a n d m erch a n ts,
a n d p u rsu e d a p o lic y o f m o d e rn isa tio n b y th e in tro d u c tio n o f
c a p ita lism , m a k in g th e p ea san ts p a y . T h e ra d ic als led a p easan t
re v o lt in 1883, w h ic h w as su ppressed w ith som e b lo o d sh ed . In
th e n e x t tw e n ty y e a rs th e y w e re o c c a sio n a lly in th e g o v e rn m e n t,
b u t th e o p p o sitio n o f th e C r o w n p rev e n te d th em from exe rcisin g
re a l p o w e r. O n ly w ith th e o v e r th r o w o f the O b r c n o v ic d y n a sty
in 1903 an d th e a ccession o f a c o n stitu tio n a l m o n a rch , K in g
P e te r I K a r a d jo r d jc v ic , d id th e y h a v e th eir c h a n c e . N o w th ey
h ad b e c o m e th e ‘ p a r ty o f p o w e r ’ , a n d th e y re m ain e d in th a t h a p p y
position fo r som e th irty years. P a śić , th eir le a d e r, w h o h ad started
as a re v o lu tio n a ry , b e c a m e a re sp ecta b le an d fa n a tic a lly n a tio n ­
a list p o litic ia n . T h e p a r ty a ttr a c te d to its e lf a ll th e business and
b u re a u c ra tic e le m e n ts w h ic h h a d p re v io u sly su p p o rte d its rivals
th e P rogressives.
B y 19 14 S e r b ia a lr e a d y h ad th e b e g in n in g s o f a c a p ita list class,
an d w ith th e c re a tio n o f Y u g o s la v ia in 19 18 this cla ss’s c h a n c e s o f
new: w e a lth e n o rm o u s ly in cre a se d . T h e S e r b -C r o a t stru g g le , w h ich
b e g a n w ith (he c o n tro v e rsy b e tw e e n ce n tralism a n d fed eralism at
th e C o n s titu e n t A ss e m b ly o f 1921 a n d w h ich poisoned Y u g o s la v
p o litics fo r m o re th a n tw e n ty years, w as to a c o n sid e ra b le exten t
d u e to th e r iv a lr y b e tw e e n th e c a p ita list classes o f B e lg ra d e an d
Z a g r e b . T h e fo rm e r n o w c o n tro lle d th e R a d ic a l P a rty , a n d used
th e sta te p o w e r to fu rth e r th e ir interests a t th e exp en se o f th eir
C r o a t riv a ls. T h a t th e y w e re n o t a lw a y s successful in n o w a y
d im in ish e d C r o a t ia n re se n tm e n t. A fte r th e d e a th o f PaSić in 1926
th e p a r ty w a s led b y lesser m en . W h e n K in g A le x a n d e r in trp d u ce d
a d ic ta to rs h ip in 1929, it w as la rg e ly from th e ran ks o f th e R a d ic a l
P a r ty th a t h e ch o se his co lla b o ra to rs. T h u s , e ve n th o u g h the
ra d ic a ls, lik e o th e r p a rtie s, w e re u n a b le to c a r r y on stric tly p a rty
a c tiv itie s, th e y w e re still r e la tiv e ly p r iv ile g e d . T h e so cia l e lem en ts
w h ic h co n tro lle d th e R a d ic a l P a r ty w e re a lso fa v o u re d b y the
d ic ta to rs h ip . A fte r A le x a n d e r ’ s assassin ation , his successor P rin c e
R e g e n t P a u l a lso re lie d o n th e ra d ic a ls. M ila n S to ja d in o v ic ,
P r e m ie r fro m 193 5 to 1939, w a s a ra d ic a l. H e c re a te d a n e w p a rty ,
th e Y u g o s la v R a d ic a l U n io n , w h ic h c o m b in e d th e ra d ic a ls w ith
th e S lo v e n e C a th o lic s a n d th e Y u g o s la v M o sle m o rg a n isa tio n .
28 T H E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

T h e last tw o g ro u p s c o n tro lle d S lo v e n ia a n d B osn ia , b u t in th e

rest o f th e c o u n try th e ra d ic a ls w e re su p re m e . T h is p o lic y w a s n ot
a cce p te d b y th e w h o le p a rty . T h e re m a in in g g e n u in e d e m o c ra ts
b ro k e a w a y , a n d c o lla b o ra te d w ith th e o p p o sitio n p a rtie s. B u t
b y n ow th e ra d ic a ls w e re , like th e R u m a n ia n lib e ra ls, a sh a d o w o f
th e ir fo rm e r selves. S to ja d in o v ic m o d e lle d h im se lf in c re a sin g ly a n d
o p e n ly on Ita lia n fascism , w h ile th e r a d ic a l o p p o sitio n w a s w e a k
a n d b a d ly led .
A n o th e r S e rb ia n b o u rg e o is p a r ty w o rth m e n tio n in g is th e
D e m o c ra t P a rty . T h is w as d e riv e d from th e I n d e p e n d e n t R a d ic a ls ,
w h o h ad b ro k e n a w a y from th e m ain p a r ty a fte r 1903, a n d from
th e S e rb d em o c ra ts o f th e fo rm e rly H u n g a r ia n p ro v in ce s. In th e
19 2 1 e le ctio n s it w on th e secon d la rg e st n u m b e r o f seats a fte r th e
R a d ic a ls. T h e D e m o c ra t P a r t y ’s p r o g ra m m e h a r d ly d iffe re d from
th a t o f th e R a d ic a l. O n th e w h o le it w a s m o re g e n u in e ly d e m o ­
c ra tic , a n d w as b ased m o re on th e sm all o fficials a n d p rofession al
class, a n d less o n business, th a n its m o re su ccessfu l riv a l.
T h e B u lg a ria n b o u rg e o is d e m o c ra tic p a rtie s w e re a lr e a d y
ra th e r w e a k b y th e en d o f th e F irst W o r ld W a r . A fte r B u lg a r ia ’ s
lib e ra tio n in 1878 th e m ain stru g g le w as b e tw e e n th e c o n s e rv a ­
tives an d th e lib e ra ls, co rre s p o n d in g a p p r o x im a te ly to th e p r o ­
gressives a n d th e ra d ic a ls in S e rb ia a t th e sam e tim e . F ro m th e
L ib e ra l P a rty h ad b ro k en o f f th e m o re p ro gressiv e R a d ic a l P a r ty .
A ll these h ad b een m o re o r less left b e h in d b y th e tid e o f p o litics in
th e fo llo w in g y e a rs. M o re im p o rta n t w as th e D e m o c r a tic P a rty
led b y M a lin o v , w h ic h w as stro n g b e fo re 1 9 1 4 a n d c o n tin u e d to
p la y a p a rt in th e p o st-w a r ye ars. It w as, lik e o th e r sim ila r p a rtie s,
led b y p rofessio n al m en a n d su p p o rte d b y p e a san ts. A fte r th e w a r
th e P e a san t P a rty a n d th e co m m u n ists d o m in a te d th e scen e.
W h e n th e P e a san t P a rty w as v io le n tly o v e r th r o w n in 1923, a
‘ D e m o c ra tic b lo c ’ w'as c re a te d o f b o u rg e o is p o litic ia n s, b u t b e h in d
this re sp e c ta b le fa ţ a d e a re g im e o f fo rce e xisted . O n ly in 1931 a
m o re o r less d e m o c ra tic re g im e w as re v iv e d , a n d fo r th re e y e a rs
th e D e m o c ra ts , u n d e r M a lin o v a n d his su ccessor M u s h a n o v , w e re
th e stron gest p a rty . In 1934 a m ilita r y coup d'état o v e r th r e w
p a rlia m e n ta r y g o v e rn m e n t, a n d this w a s su c ce e d e d b y a ro y a l
d ic ta to rs h ip w h ic h w as still in p o w e r w h e n B u lg a ria w a s d r a w n
in to th e w a r on th e sid e o f th e A x is.
G r e e k p o litics w e re d o m in a te d b y tw o b o u rg e o is d e m o c r a tic
p a rtie s, L ib e ra ls a n d P op u lists, c o m m o n ly k n o w n as R e p u b lic a n s 1

1 T h e r e w ere re p u b lica n s w h o w e re n o l lib era ls, a n d ro ya lists w h o w e re not

p o p u lists, but no ro yalists w e re lib e ra ls a n d n o re p u b lic a n s w e re po pu lists.
 PARTIES AND PO L I T I C S 29

a n d R o y a lists. M o r e e v e n th a n in th e o th e r E ast E u ro p e a n
co u n trie s, p e rso n a l issues w e re su p rem e. T h e L ib e r a l P a rty w as
b ased on th e p e rs o n a lity o f V e n iz e lo s , w h o w as n ot o n ly a g re a t
n a tio n a l le a d e r, b u t also a so cia l re fo rm e r, a n d in tro d u c e d a lan d
reform a n d o th e r im p o rta n t m easu res b efore 19 14 . B u t th e issue
o f th e m o n a rc h y soon b e d e v ille d G r e e k p o litics. F o r tw e n ty
ye a rs a ll o th e r issues w e re re la tiv e ly ig n o re d . In 19 16 K in g
C o n s ta n tin e w as p r o -G e r m a n w h ile V e n iz e lo s w as fo r the
E n ten te . E n te n te m ilita r y in te rv e n tio n d ec id e d th e issue, b ut
c re a te d g r e a t re se n tm e n t a m o n g a la rg e p a rt o f th e p o p u la tio n .
A fte r th e w a r a g a in st G e r m a n y w as o v er, b u t w h ile G r e e c e w as
e n g a g e d in h e r o w n w a r w ith th e T u r k s in A s ia M in o r, C o n s ta n ­
tin e w as resto red . B u t th e d ec isive d efe a t o f th e G r e e k forces b y
K e m a l A t a tiir k in 1922 m a d e h im u n p o p u la r. T w o colon els,
P la stira s a n d G o n a ta s , led a re v o lt w h ich d ep osed h im and
e x e c u te d six p r o m in e n t ro y a list p o litic ia n s. V e n iz e lists, royalists
a n d m ilita r y d ic ta to rs su cce e d e d e a ch o th e r in th e fo llo w in g years
w ith o u t m u ch v io le n c e . In 1935 th e V e n iz e lists u n su ccessfu lly
re v o lte d a g a in st a ro y a list g o v e rn m e n t. S o m e m on th s la te r
m o n a r c h y w a s restored in th e person o f K in g G e o rg e I I . F o r a
y e a r th e k in g a tte m p te d to ru le c o n stitu tio n a lly , a n d insisted on
a g e n e ro u s a m n e sty . B u t in A u g u s t 1936 lie g a v e d ic ta to ria l
p o w e rs to G e n e r a l M e ta x a s , w h o in tro d u c e d a re g im e d e lib e r a te ly
m o d e lle d o n fascism . It w as still in p o w e r w h en w a r b e gan .
T h r o u g h o u t these y e a rs th e en ergie s o f th e tw o m ain pa rties had
b e en co n c e n tr a te d on th e m o n a rc h y -r e p u b lic c o n tro v e rsy .
L ib e ra ls h a d b e en d e v o te d to th e person o f V e n iz e lo s, p o p u lists to
th e p erso n o f th e K in g . B oth p a rtie s in c lu d e d business m en ,
b u re a u c ra ts , p ea san ts a n d som e w ork ers. B oth a tte m p te d w h en in
p o w e r to p u rg e th e b u r e a u c r a c y an d th e a rm y office r co rp s o f
su p p o rte rs o f th e ir riv als. In this th e royalists w e re th e m o re
su ccessfu l as th e ir last p u rg e fo llo w e d th e 1935 risin g and th e
r e p u b lic a n s h a d n o c h a n c e to g e t th eir o w n b a c k b efore th e h e a v y
h a n d o f M e ta x a s d esc e n d e d . P e rh a p s th e m ost sig n ifica n t d iffe r­
e n ce b e tw e e n th e tw o p a rties w a s re g io n a l. T h e stro n g h o ld o f th e
p o p u lists w as th e P e lo p o n n e se , an a g r ic u ltu r a l region in w h ich
p o litic a l lo y a ltie s a re still to so m e exten t d e c id e d b y in d iv id u a l
lo c a l n o ta b le s o r fam ilies. P elo p o n n esia n s h a v e lo n g b een d isp ro ­
p o r tio n a te ly n u m e ro u s in th e b u r e a u c r a c y in a ll pa rts o f G r e e c e .
T h e p e rso n a l stro n g h o ld o f V e n iz e lo s w as his o w n h o m e la n d ,
C r e te , b u t th e re p u b lic a n s w e re a lso stro n g in M a c e d o n ia a n d
T h r a c e , th e n e w la n d s w o n b y V e n iz e lo s ’s successful foreign
30 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

p o lic y , in w h ic h m o re o v e r a la rg e n u m b e r o f refu gees fro m A sia

M in o r w e re settled. I t is p r o b a b ly also tru e th a t th e re p u b lic a n s
h ad m ore su p p o rt th a n th e ir riv als a m o n g th e v e r y im p o rta n t
sh ip -o w n in g a n d c o m m e rc ia l class, w h ile th e ro y a lists w e re
stro n ge r a m o n g th e re m a in in g la n d -o w n in g fa m ilies. B u t d iffe r ­
ences o f p rin c ip le a rc n ot e a sy to fin d . It is h a r d ly an e x a g g e ra tio n
th a t w h ile tw o fa ctio n s o f th e G r e e k b o u rg e o isie w ra n g le d fo r
p o w e r, th e G r e e k p easan ts a n d w o rk ers grew' p o o re r a n d w e re
ig n o re d . A n d G r e e c e ’ s e c o n o m ic tro u b le s, sim ila r to th ose o f o th e r
B a lk a n c o u n trie s, w e re m u c h a g g r a v a te d b y th e b u rd e n o f
se ttlin g m o re th a n a m illio n A s ia M in o r refu gees in a n a lr e a d y
o v e r p o p u la te d c o u n try .
It is co n v e n ie n t a t this p o in t to m e n tio n th e p a rtie s clo se ly
associated w ith th e C a th o lic C h u r c h . T h e y d o n o t e x a c t ly fit e ith e r
o f th e ca te g o rie s o f ‘ b o u rg e o is-d e m o cra tic ’ o r ‘ p e a sa n t ’ p a rtie s
th o u g h possessing som e o f th e fea tu res o f e a c h . T h e tw o m ost
im p o rta n t a re th e P e o p le ’s P a rtie s o f S lo v e n ia a n d S lo v a k ia .
T h e S lo v e n e p a r ty w as in a sense a p e a sa n t p a r ty , b u t it w a s
n e v e r in te n d e d to b e a class p a r ty , an d in its le a d e rsh ip C a t h o lic
priests p la y e d a v e r y im p o rta n t p a rt. In p a r tic u la r , priests h ad
o rg a n ise d th e e ffic ien t c o -o p e ra tiv e m o v e m e n t, w h ic h w as o f r e a l
b e n efit to sm allh o ld e rs as w e ll as to m o re p ro sp e ro u s p ea san ts.
T h e p a r ty w as stro n g ly n a tio n a list. Its m ain e n em ies w e re
G e rm a n s a n d Ita lia n s. U n d e r A u s tria n ru le it h a d b o th resisted
g e rm a n isin g pressure a n d fie rc e ly o p p o se d th e I t a lia n cla im s
to te rrito r y in h a b ite d b y S lo v e n e s. W h e n a fte r 19 18 this te rrito ry
w as g iv e n to Ita ly , th e S lo v e n e p a r ty re m a in e d irrid e n tist, th o u g h
it d id n o t a lw a y s ta lk lo u d ly a b o u t it. In its re la tio n s w ith B e l­
g ra d e , it stood fo r a u to n o m y , b u t it d id n o t press its c la im s. T h e
S lo v e n e s, h a v in g a la n g u a g e o f th e ir o w n , e n jo y e d th e su b sta n ce o f
a u to n o m y , a n d b e in g b e tte r e d u c a te d a n d m o re e ffic ien t th a n
o th e r Y u g o s la v s , o b ta in e d a sh are o f th e b e tte r posts in th e w h o le
c o u n tr y m u c h la rg e r th a n th e ir n u m b e rs w a r ra n te d . B e tw e e n th e
w ars th e S lo v e n e b o u rg e o isie b e c a m e w e a lth ie r a n d m o re n u m e r ­
ous. T h e p a r ty le a d e rsh ip th u s b e c a m e in c re a sin g ly b o u rg e o is
th o u g h th e m asses re m a in e d p e a san ts. A t th e sa m e tim e th e tren d
o f p o litic a l C a th o lic is m w a s, as in A u s tr ia u n d e r D o llfu ss, to w a rd s
fascism . M g r . A n to n K o r o ś e c , th e p a r t y ’ s le a d e r, h ad s ta rte d as a
d e m o c ra t b u t b y 1939 w as m u ch m o re lik e a fascist. A s M in is te r
o f th e I n te rio r in B e lg ra d e h e w as in c h a r g e o f rep ression a ll o v e r
th e c o u n try , a n d used his p o w e rs ru th le ssly . T h u s th e S lo v e n e
P e o p le ’ s P a r ty w as p a r tly b o u rg e o is, p a r tly p e a sa n t a n d p a r tly
 PARTIES AND PO L I TI CS 3I
fascist, w as a lw a y s stro n g ly c le ric a l a n d n a tio n a list, a n d to th e end
also c o n ta in e d som e g e n u in e ly d e m o c ra tic elem en ts.
T h e S lo v a k P e o p le ’ s P a r ty resem bles th e S lo v e n e in m a n y w ay s.
T h e v a st m a jo rity o f its su p p o rte rs w e re p easan ts, its lead ers ca m e
la r g e ly fro m th e p riesth o o d , its id e o lo g y w as a lw a y s stro n g ly
C a t h o lic , a n d it w as e x tr e m e ly n a tio n a list. Its le a d e r, F r. H lin k a ,
b e g a n as a n a tio n a l le a d e r a g a in st th e H u n g a ria n g o v e rn m e n t.
W h e n his c o u n try b e c a m e p a rt o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia he b e c a m e a n ti-
C z e c h , w h ile n ot c e a s in g to b e a n ti-H u n g a ria n . H is h o stility w as
d u e n ot o n ly to th e c e n tra lism o f th e C z e c h s, w h o w o u ld n o t g iv e
S lo v a k ia th e a u to n o m y h e d e m a n d e d , b u t also to th e lib e ra l an d
n a tio n a list o u tlo o k o f th e C z e c h e d u c a te d class, w h ic h in effect
ru le d th e w h o le R e p u b lic . N a tio n a lism a n d a n ti-lib e ra lism
n a tu r a lly in clin e d th e S lo v a k P e o p le ’s P a r ty lead ers to w ard s
fascism . W h e n in 19 3 8 -9 th e y o b ta in e d first a u to n o m y a n d th en
in d e p e n d e n c e b y th e fa v o u r o f H itle r an d M u sso lin i, th e fascist
e le m e n ts in th e p a r ty d e fin ite ly p r e v a ile d . I n d e p e n d e n t S lo v a k ia
w as a fascist sta te , w ith o n e p a r ty a n d w ith a rm e d p a r ty fo r m a ­
tion s b ased on th e B la ck sh irts o r S .S . M g r . T is o , th e su ccessor o f
H lin k a (w h o h a d d ie d in 19 3 7 ), h a d p e rh a p s som e reservatio n s
w it h re g a rd to fascist id e o lo g y , a t a n y ra te w h ere N a zism c o n ­
flic te d w ith C a th o lic d o c trin e , b u t his m ost e x trem e follow ers had
n o in h ib itio n s . D u r in g th e tw e n ty y e a rs o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , a
S lo v a k u rb a n b o u rg e o isie h ad d e v e lo p e d . P a rt o f it, e sp e c ia lly
m em b e rs o f th e P ro te sta n t fifth o f th e p o p u la tio n , w e re clo se ly
lin k e d w ith th e C z e c h s, b u t th e a n ti- C z e c h m a jo rity o f th e b o u r­
ge o isie stro n g ly su p p o rte d th e P e o p le ’s P a r t y a n d w o n in c re a sin g
in flu e n ce .
T w o m o re C a th o lic p a rtie s d e s e rv e b r ie f m en tio n . T h e se a re the
C h ris tia n L a b o u r P a r t y in P o la n d , an d th e C z e c h P e o p le ’s P a rty .
T h e first w a s stro n g in S ile sia , w h e re it e n jo y e d su p p o rt from
C a t h o lic fa c to ry w o rk e rs. T h e secon d w as su p p o rte d b y th e
p e a san ts in M o r a v ia . B o th th ese p a rtie s w e re d e m o c ra tic in o u t­
lo o k . N e ith e r h a d g r e a t in flu e n c e b e tw e e n th e w o rld w ars.

PEASANT P A R T IE S

A s , w ith th e sin g le e x c e p tio n o f th e C z e c h la n d s, p e a san ts form ed

a m a jo r ity o f th e p o p u la tio n th ro u g h o u t E a ste rn E u ro p e , it w as
lo g ic a l to e x p e c t th a t p a rtie s c re a te d an d le d b y p e a san ts, to
d e fe n d th e in terests o f p ea san ts, w o u ld p la y a b ig p a rt in th e
d e m o c r a tic system w h ic h th e v ic to r y o f th e A llie s in 19 18 w as to
b r in g a b o u t in E a ste rn E u ro p e . P e a sa n t p a rtie s, o rg an ise d o n a
32 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
class basis a n d w ith a class p r o g ra m m e , a p p e a r e d in th e p o st-w a r
years, b u t th e h opes p la c e d in th em w e re d isa p p o in te d . P e rh a p s
th e m ain reason lies in th e p h y sic a l d ispersio n o f p ea san ts in sm all
v illa g e s an d se ttlem en ts, w h ic h m ak es th e ir o rg a n isa tio n in to a
c o m p a c t fo rce m u c h m o re d iffic u lt th a n th a t o f e ith e r b o u rg e o is
o r fa c to ry w ork ers. In p a rlia m e n ta r y p o litics p easan ts fe lt o u t o f
p la ce . I n e v ita b ly th e le a d e rsh ip o f th e ir p a rtie s w a s a ssu m ed b y
p e o p le w h o h a d th e rig h t e d u c a tio n a n d e x p e rie n c e fo r p o litic a l
d eb a te s a n d jo u rn a lis m — la w y e rs, te a ch e rs a n d w rite rs. T h e
p e a san t p a rtie s w e re a lw a y s con fu sed in th e ir a ttitu d e to in d u stry
a n d th e tow n s. T h e y realised th e n e ed fo r in d u str y as a n o u tle t for
th e surplus ru ra l p o p u la tio n , b u t th e y c lu n g to ro m a n tic id eas
a b o u t th e ‘ m o ra l s u p e r io r ity ’ o f th e c o u n try o v e r th e to w n .
O fte n , in stead o f c o -o p e ra tin g w ith th e to w n w o rk ers a g a in st b ig
business an d b u re a u c ra c y , th e y a llo w e d th em selv es to b e u sed b y
th e r u lin g class a g a in st th e w ork ers. ‘ A n t i- t o w n ’ d e m a g o g y
u su a lly w o rk e d o u t to th e a d v a n ta g e o f th e ru lers. A n o th e r fa u lt
w a s th e fa ilu re to a d m it d iv e rg e n c ie s o f in terest w ith in th e p e a s­
a n try — b e tw e e n la rg e a n d sm all farm ers, a n d b e tw e e n g ra in -
p r o d u c in g a n d p a sto ra l region s. F in a lly , n a tio n a lism in c re a sin g ly
to o k th e p la c e o f th e fig h t fo r so c ia l ju s tic e in th e sp eech es an d
p ro g ra m m es o f th e ir le a d e rs, a n d this b e c a m e m o re so as b o u r ­
geois e lem en ts g a in e d c o n tro l.
T h e P olish p e a san t m o v e m e n t d e v e lo p e d d iffe re n tly u n d e r
R u ssia n an d A u stria n ru le . In A u s tria n G a lic ia , u n d e r th e le a d e r ­
sh ip o f W ito s, it h ad b e co m e an im p o rta n t fo rce b e fo re 19 1 4 . It
w as a m o d e ra te d e m o c ra tic p a r ty , d e m a n d in g m o re g o v e rn m e n t
assistan ce to sm a ll fa rm ers. In R u ssia n P o la n d th e in flu e n c e o f th e
R u ssia n a g ra r ia n so cialist m o v e m e n t, a n d th e m o re o p p ressiv e
form o f g o v e rn m e n t, g a v e th e p e a sa n t m o ve m e n ts a m o re re v o ­
lu tio n a r y c h a ra c te r. In u n ited P o la n d a fte r 19 18 th ere w e re
se v eral d iffe re n t p e a san t p a rties, o f w h ic h th e m ost im p o rta n t
w e re ‘ P ia s t ’ from G a lic ia , a n d ‘ L i b e r a t io n ’ fro m e x -R u ssia n
te rrito ry . T h e v a rio u s g ro u p s c o -o p e ra te d fo r a tim e in P a r lia ­
m en t, b u t th e y soon d isa g re e d a g a in . It w a s n o t till th e P iłsu dsk i
d ic ta to rs h ip b e g a n to resort to severe rep ression a fte r 1930 th a t
th e y w e re d riv e n to g e th e r. In 1931 a u n ite d p e a sa n t m o v e m e n t
w as fo rm ed u n d e r th e title P e o p le ’s P a rty . In th e th irties ra d ic a l
v ie w s g re w a m o n g th e pea san ts, e s p e c ia lly in G a lic ia , w h e re o v e r ­
p o p u la tio n w as p a r tic u la r ly seriou s. T h e slo w in g u p o f th e la n d
re fo rm a n d th e in cre a se d d is p a rity b e tw e e n th e p rices o f fa rm
p r o d u c e a n d m a n u fa c tu re d go o d s w e re sp e c ia l g rie v a n c e s to th e
 P A R T I E S A ND PO L IT IC S 33

P o lish p ea san ts. In A u g u s t 1937 th ere w as a p ea san t strike, a

re fu sa l to b rin g th e ir go o d s to th e tow n s. It led to d isord ers an d
b r u ta l a rm e d su p p ressio n . O n th e e v e o f th e S e co n d W o rld W a r,
th e P olish p e a sa n t m o v e m e n t h a d m o re su p p o rt, an d w as in a
m o re r a d ic a l m o o d , th an tw e n ty y e a rs p rev io u sly .
T h e C z e c h A g r a r ia n P a rty w as n o t a p u re ly p easan t p a rty . T h e
c o n tra st b e tw e e n to w n a n d c o u n try w as less strik in g in th e C z e c h
la n d s th a n a n y w h e re in E astern E u ro p e . T h e peasan ts w e re m ore
e ffic ien t, b e tte r e d u c a te d a n d e q u ip p e d , an d e n jo y e d a m u ch
h ig h e r sta n d a rd o f liv in g . T h e ir o u tlo o k w as m u ch closer to th at
o f th e b o u rg e o isie . T h e la rg e a n d e ffic ien t C z e c h b o u rge o isie h ad
fo r fifty y e a rs b e fo re 19 1 4 g ro w n la r g e ly from th e p e a sa n try . T h e
b ig g e st C z e c h b a n k , Z iv n o ste n s k a B a n k a , h ad b e g u n as a savin gs
b a n k for sm all b o u rg e o is a n d p easan ts, b u t b y th e 1920’s it h ad
b e co m e a g re a t c a p ita lis t c o n c e rn . T h e links b e tw e e n C z e c h
p ea san ts, sm all b o u rg e o is a n d b ig business m en w e re clo se : e ach
c a te g o r y m erg e d im p e r c e p tib ly in to th e n ext. T h e g ro w th o f a
C z e c h c a p ita lis t class w a s a lso fu rth e re d b y th e n ecessity o f su r­
p a ssin g th e e sta b lish e d G e rm a n -A u s tria n business class o f
B o h e m ia . O n e resu lt o f this so cia l process w as th a t th e A g r a r ia n
P a rty b e c a m e d o m in a te d b y business m en . It b e c a m e th e p a rty
o f C z e c h c a p it a l, re p la c in g in th at ro le th e N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic
P a r ty o f K r a m a r , w h o se p o litic a l id eas w e re less a n d less a c c e p t­
a b le to m ost C z e c h s. T h e A g r a r ia n P a r ty tried to a ttr a c t S lo v a k
p e a sa n ts as w e ll as C z e c h . B u t th e S lo v a k p easan ts w e re a t a v e r y
d iffe re n t e c o n o m ic a n d c u ltu r a l le v el from th e C z e c h . T h e y w e re a
p r o le ta ria n p e a s a n try r a th e r th an a b o u rge o is p e a sa n try . T h e y
w e re p o o r , ig n o ra n t, te c h n ic a lly b a c k w a r d , an d su ffered from
in c re a sin g pressu re o f p o p u la tio n on th e la n d . T h e y w e re also
u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f th e ir priests. M o st fo llo w e d the n atio n a list
sem i-fascist S lo v a k P e o p le ’s P a rty . M a n y o f th e le a d e rs o f the
S lo v a k A g r a r ia n s w e re re c ru ite d from th e im p o rta n t P rotestan t
m in o r ity . T h e S lo v a k P ro testan ts w ere b o th m o re p rosperou s
a n d b e tte r e d u c a te d th a n th e C a th o lic s. T h e ir o u tlo o k w as
n e a re r th a t o f th e C z c c h s. T h u s in b o th th e C z e c h la n d s and
S lo v a k ia th e A g r a r ia n P a rty w as o n ly p a r tly a p e a san t p a rty .
B u t it w a s th e stron gest p a r t y in th e c o u n try , took p a rt in a lm ost
e v e r y c o a litio n , a n d w a s c o n tin u o u sly in p o w e r from 1922
o n w a rd s, u n d e r S v e h la , th e m ost sk ilfu l p a rlia m e n ta r y ta c tic ia n o f
th e R e p u b lic , a n d th e n u n d e r H o d ż a , a S lo v a k P ro te sta n t w h o h ad
b e e n a m e m b e r o f th e H u n g a r ia n P a rlia m e n t b efo re 19 14 . T h e
a g r a r ia n s w e re stro n g ly e n tre n c h e d in th e a d m in istra tio n , a n d
34 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
w e re a b le to g iv e v a lu a b le p a tro n a g e to a m b itio u s p ersons seekin g
a ca re e r. T h e p a r ty b e c a m e c o m p la c e n t a n d ra th e r re a ctio n a ry'.
T h e H u n g a ria n S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ P a rty w a s also a m ix e d p a rty .
I t w as b ased on th e n o t v e r y la rg e class o f m e d iu m p ea san ts, a n d
m a d e little a p p e a l to th e 3,000,000 d w a r f h o ld ers a n d la b o u rers.
I t stood fo r la n d re fo rm , b u t a m o d e ra te an d g ra d u a l re fo rm . In
th e tw en ties u n d e r G a sz to n G á l it h a d a su b sta n tia l fo llo w in g , a n d
p ro v id e d som e op p o sitio n to th e B e th len re g im e . In th e th irtie s it
fell off. O n th e e v e o f w a r it w as led b y a ra th e r c o n se rv a tiv e
m e m b e r o f th e g e n try , T ib o r E c k h a rd t. I t a ttr a c te d lib e r a l e le ­
m en ts from th e m id d le class o f B u d a p e st, a n d c o n tin u e d to d efe n d
p o litic a l d e m o c ra c y a t a tim e w h e n fascism w a s g a in in g g ro u n d
b o th in a n d o u tsid e th e g o v e rn m e n t p a r ty . B u t it n e v e r c o -o p e ra te d
clo se ly w ith th e socialists, a n d its le a d e rs w e re in g e n e ra l m o re
in terested in fo reig n p o lic y — in w h ic h th e y fa v o u re d th e W e ste rn
P o w e rs in o p p o sitio n to th e re g im e ’s in c re a sin g d e p e n d e n c e on th e
A x is — th an in so cia l p ro b lem s.
T h e R u m a n ia n P e a sa n t P a r ty w as fo u n d e d a fte r th e w a r b y a
sch ool te a c h e r, Io n M ih a la c h e . B efore 19 1 4 a g r a r ia n so cia list id eas
o f th e R u ssia n ty p e h a d h ad a b ig in flu e n c e on a se ctio n o f th e
R u m a n ia n in te llig e n tsia . T h e p e a sa n t re v o lt o f 190 7, b lo o d ily
su ppressed b y th e a u th o ritie s, h a d d ire c te d a tte n tio n to th e so cia l
p ro b lem s o f th e p e a sa n try . B u t it w a s o n ly a fte r u n iv e rsa l su ffra g e
h a d b een b ro u g h t in, a n d a la n d refo rm h a d b e en d e c id e d ,
th a t a n o rg a n ise d p e a sa n t m o v e m e n t c a m e in to b e in g . In its first
ye a rs its ra d ic a lis m ca u se d a la r m to th e R u m a n ia n ru lin g class
a n d d o m in a n t p a rtie s. B u t in 1926 th e P e a sa n t P a r ty fused
w ith th e T r a n s y lv a n ia n N a tio n a l P a r ty , led b y Iu liu M a n iu ,
w h ic h fo r reason s e x p la in e d a b o v e h ad n o t b e e n a b le to c o m e to
term s w ith th e lib e ra ls, th e p a r ty w h ic h in stru c tu re a n d o u tlo o k
m o st co rresp o n d e d to it. T h e r e b y th e P e a sa n t P a r ty g a in e d
p a r lia m e n ta r y stre n g th , b u t lost m u c h o f its d r iv in g fo rce. I t n o w
b e ca m e a c u rio u s m ix tu re o f T r a n s y lv a n ia n re g io n a lists a n d
p e a sa n t ra d ic a ls. S u p e rio r e d u c a tio n a n d p a r lia m e n ta r y sk ill,
a c q u ire d in th e h a rd sch o o l o f p r e - 1 9 1 4 B u d a p e st, soo n g a v e th e
T r a n s y lv a n ia n s le a d e rsh ip o f th e p a r ty . B o th w in g s o f th e p a r ty
s in ce re ly b e lie v e d in p o litic a l d e m o c r a c y , b u t th e ir so c ia l id eas
d iffe re d w id e ly . A fte r th e N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a r ty (as it w a s c a lle d
a fte r 1926) c a m e to p o w e r in 1928, it r e c e iv e d s u p p o rt fro m
b u sin ess m en in b o th h a lv e s o f th e c o u n tr y . Its a b a n d o n m e n t o f th e
lib e ra ls’ stric t e c o n o m ic n a tio n a lism c re a te d b o n d s b e tw e e n it an d
fo reig n c a p ita l, n o w a d m itte d in to R u m a n ia o n a m u ch m o re
 PA R TI E S AND P O L IT IC S 35

g e n e ro u s sca le . 7 his fu rth e r stre n gth e n e d th e b o u rg e o is elem en ts

w ith in it a t th e e xp e n se o f th e p ea san ts. Its p erio d o f o ffice w as a
d isa p p o in tm e n t to th e pea san ts. It c o in cid e d w ith th e slu m p ,
a n d b ro u g h t n o m a jo r reform s. T h e p a r ty w as w e a k e n e d b y th e
p e rso n a l q u a rr e l b e tw e e n its le a d e r M a n iu a n d K in g C a r o l I I ,
w h o w a s a b le to c re a te c liq u e s a n d sp lits w ith in its ranks.
T h e C r o a t ia n P e a san t P a rty , fo u n d ed át th e b e g in n in g o f the
c e n tu r y b y th e b ro th e rs A n te a n d S te p a n R a d ić , w o n a sw e e p in g
v ic to r y in C r o a t ia w h e n th e c re a tio n o f Y u g o s la v ia b ro u g h t
u n iv e rsa l su ffra g e . T h e R a d ić b ro th ers h eld ra d ic a l v iew s. T h e ir
o r ig in a l p o lic y w a s a class p o lic y . T h e p easan ts, b e in g th e m a jo rity
o f th e p e o p le , sh o u ld ru le , an d sh o u ld ou st th e la n d lo rd s and
b o u rg e o is w h o h ith e rto h ad m o n o p o lised p o w e r. T h e y w e re also
for c o -o p e ra tio n w ith th e w o rk e rs a n d for th e b ro th e rh o o d o f all
S la v , a n d e sp e c ia lly a ll S o u th S la v , n atio n s. B u t th e n e w Y u g o ­
sla v ia w a s n ot a fe d e ra tio n o f e q u a l S la v n a tio n s : it w as a c e n tra l­
ist sta te c o n tro lle d b y a S e rb ia n p a r ty , th e ra d ic a ls, w h o ru le d in
th e in terest o f th e S e rb ia n b o u rg e o isie a gain st a ll classes o f the
C r o a t ia n n a tio n . T h u s th e B e lg ra d e g o v e rn m e n ts in c u rre d the
e n m ity n o t o n ly o f th e C r o a tia n p e asan ts on so cia l gro u n d s b u t
also o f th e C r o a tia n business a n d m id d le class on n a tio n a l gro u n d s.
A n d as th e C r o a tia n P e a san t P a rty w as b y fa r th e stro n gest p a r ty
in C r o a t ia , C r o a tia n business m en a n d in te lle c tu a ls, in stead o f set­
tin g u p sm all p a rtie s o f th e ir o w n , en tered th e P e a san t P a rty .
A n d as th e n a tio n a l issue, w h ic h b e c a m e sim p lified in to o n e o f
‘ C r o a ts a g a in st S e r b s ’ , o v e rsh a d o w e d a ll else, le a d e rsh ip w ith in
th e P e a sa n t P a rty passed from p e a san t in to m id d le -class h an d s.
A n te R a d ić h a d d ied b e fo re th e w a r , a n d S te p a n w as fa ta lly
w o u n d e d b y a sh ot on th e flo o r o f th e B e lg ra d e p a rlia m e n t in
1928. H is successor,. M a ie k , a la w y e r , e n jo y e d g re a t p o p u la rity
a m o n g a ll classes, b u t his m ost im p o rta n t ad visers w e re from th e
u rb a n m id d le class. In th e la te th irties th e p a rty h ad a pro-
fascist r ig h t w in g a n d a ra d ic a l left w in g , w h ile th e c e n tre stood
fo r a s o m e w h a t v a g u e p e a sa n t d e m o c ra c y . T h e in flu e n ce o f th e
C a t h o lic C h u r c h in th e p a r ty w as g r o w in g , an d fa v o u re d th e
rig h t.
T h e S e rb ia n A g r a r ia n P a rty w as less im p o rta n t. It w as form ed
a fte r th e c re a tio n o f Y u g o s la v ia from v a rio u s g ro u p s in S e rb ia ,
B osn ia a n d V o iv o d in a (fo rm e rly so u th ern H u n g a r y ) . It w as fa irly
su ccessfu l in th e 1921 e le ctio n s, b u t th en split a n d lost g ro u n d . It
b e c a m e in fa ct a th ird S e rb ia n d e m o c ra tic p a r ty , led b y sim ila r
p e o p le , a n d a p p e a lin g to th e sa m e typ es o f e lecto rs, as the
36 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

ra d ic a ls a n d th e d em o cra ts, b u t w e a k e r th an e ith e r o f th em . A

left w in g led b y D r a g o lju b J o v a n o v ic , an in te llig e n t a n d c o u r ­
a ge o u s u n iv e rsity professor, p le a d e d fo r r a d ic a l so cia l refo rm s an d
la id sp e cia l stress on th e n eed fo r real frien d sh ip b e tw e e n S e rb ia n
a n d C r o a tia n peasan ts.
T h e B u lg a ria n A g r a r ia n U n io n w as th e m ost im p ressiv e o f th e
E ast E u ro p e a n p e a sa n t p a rtie s. L ik e th e P o lish p a r ty , it w as a
class p a rty , a n d its o u tlo o k w as ra d ic a l. It h a d in A le x a n d e r
S ta m b o liisk i a g re a t le a d e r. H e w as P rim e M in is te r fro m 19 19
to 1923. H is p o lic y con sisted in tra n sfe rrin g p o w e r fro m th e
b u sin ess-b u re a u cra tic ru lin g class to th e p ea san ts. H e m a d e m a n y
en em ies, an d som e o f his close c o lla b o ra to rs w e re c ru d e , ig n o ra n t
a n d in to le ra n t. T h e r e w as to o m u c h a n ti-to w n d e m a g o g y a n d to o
little co -o p e ra tio n w ith th e in d u stria l w o rk e rs. B u t fo r th e la tte r
th e w o rk e rs’ le a d e rs w e re as m u c h to b la m e as th e p e a sa n ts’ .
S ta m b o liisk i a n ta g o n ise d B u lg a ria n n atio n a lists, a n d th e p o w e r ­
ful M a c e d o n ia n e m ig re o rg a n isa tio n , b y his p o lic y o f re c o n ­
cilia tio n w ith Y u g o s la v ia , a n d u n fo rtu n a te ly re c e iv e d little
s y m p a th y from B e lg ra d e . In J u n e 1923 his g o v e rn m e n t w as
o v e rth ro w n b y a c o n sp ir a c y o f o ld p o litic ia n s a n d a r m y officers,
a n d h e w as m u rd e re d . In th e fo llo w in g y e a rs th e p a r ty w as p e r ­
se cu te d , a n d splits o c c u rre d . In th e d e m o c ra t M a lin o v ’ s g o v e r n ­
m en t o f 1931 th e m o d e ra te w in g o f th e a g ra r ia n s , led b y G ic h e v ,
took p a rt in a c o a litio n . U n d e r th e d ic ta to rs h ip a fte r 1934 a ll
p a rtie s w e re b a n n e d , b u t th e a g ra r ia n s still h a d a la rg e fo llo w in g
in th e c o u n try . A p a r t from G ic h e v ’ s g ro u p th ere w as a left w in g ,
k n o w n from th e n a m e o f its n e w s p a p e r as ‘ P la d n e ’ , w h o se m ost
im p o rta n t le a d e r w as D r . G . M . D im itro v .

M ARXIST PA R TIE S

T h e m ost in d u strialise d c o u n tr y o f E a ste rn E u ro p e is C z e c h o ­

slo v a k ia . P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y also h a v e o ld -esta b lish e d in d u stria l
ce n tre s (S ilesia , L ó d ż , W a r s a w a n d B u d a p e st). In th ese th re e
co u n trie s, th erefo re , th e essen tial basis fo r a so cia list m o v e m e n t, a
w o rk in g class q u ite d istin ct fro m th e p e a sa n try , b u t r e c e iv in g a
flo w o f recru its from th e p e a sa n try , e x isted . F o r this rea so n th e
so cialist m o v e m e n t w a s stro n g in a ll th re e c o u n trie s, a n d h ad a
re a l m ass basis. In th e so u th -e a stern c o u n trie s in d u str y h as g ro w n
u p sin ce 19 18 fro m c o m p a r a tiv e ly sm a ll b e g in n in g s. T h e w o rk in g
class is n e w e r a n d less c le a r ly d efiin d . H e re so cia lism h as sta rte d
as a n in te lle c tu a l m o v e m e n t, fro m th e e d u c a te d class, a n d o n ly
la te r h as a c q u ire d a m ass basis. I t is n o c o in c id e n c e th a t it is in
 P A R T I E S A N D P O L IT IC S 37

th e co u n trie s o f th e se co n d ty p e th a t c o m m u n ism , n ot b e in g
serio u sly th re a te n e d b y a p o w e rfu l so cialist w o rk e rs’ m o ve m e n t,
has h a d m ost success.
T h e P olish so cia list m o v e m e n t goes b a c k to th e eigh ties, b u t its
h isto ry fo r m a lly b e g in s w ith th e fo u n d a tio n , b y a co n gress o f
e xile s in P aris in 1892, o f th e P olish S o c ia list P a rty ( P .P .S .) .1 Its
m a in stre n g th w as a lw a y s in R u ssia n P o la n d , w h ere it h ad to
o p e ra te ille g a lly u n til 1905 a n d a g a in a fte r 1907. In A u stria n
G a lic ia a le g a l m o v e m e n t w a s possib le, a n d a Polish S o cia l
D e m o c r a tic P a r ty w as fo u n d ed , n o m in a lly se p a ra te from the
p a r ty in R u ssia n -o c c u p ie d P o la n d b u t in fa c t clo se ly co -o rd in a te d
w ith it. In P ru ssia n -o cc u p ie d P o la n d socia lism w as n ot stron g,
b u t, su ch as it w as, it to o k ep t c o n ta c t w ith P .P .S . A fte r 1905
P .P .S . in R u ssia sp lit in to tw o g ro u p s, ‘ the L e f t ’ a n d th e ‘ re v o lu ­
tio n a r y fr a c t io n ’ . T h e first a im e d n o t a t c o m p le te in d ep en d e n ce
fo r P o la n d b u t a t w id e a u to n o m y w ith in a R u ssia n re p u b lic ,
a n d m e a n w h ile fa v o u re d c o -o p e ra tio n w ith the R u ssia n socialist
m o v e m e n t. T h e seco n d in sisted on c o m p le te in d e p e n d e n ce for
P o la n d , a n d w as s ce p tic a l o f th e v a lu e o f co -o p e ra tio n w ith a n y
R u ssia n s, so cia list o r o th erw ise . A m o n g th e le a d e rs o f th e ‘ re v o lu ­
t io n a r y fr a c t io n ’ w a s P iłsu d sk i, la te r d ic ta to r o f P o la n d . T h e
fa ilu re o f th e 1905 re v o lu tio n in R u ssia , fo llo w e d b y th e opp ressive
n a tio n a list p o lic y o f S to ly p in (P re m ie r 1 9 0 6 -1 1 ) , seem ed to
ju s t ify P ilsu d sk i’s v ie w , a n d th e P .P .S . L e ft lost g ro u n d in the
fo llo w in g y e a rs. T o c o m p le te th e p ictu re , sin ce 1900 th ere h ad
e x isted y e t a n o th e r o rg a n isa tio n , ‘ S o c ia l D e m o c r a c y o f P o lan d
an d L i t h u a n ia ’ ( S .D .K .P .L .) , led b y R o sa L u x e m b u rg . It w as
o p p o se d n ot o n ly to P olish in d e p e n d e n c e b u t to P olish a u to n o m y .
It a rg u e d th a t th e e c o n o m ic interests o f th e P olish lan ds w e re
b o u n d u p w ith those of th e th ree e m p ire s to w h ic h th ey b e lo n ge d .
T h e p a rtitio n o f P o la n d sh o u ld b e p reserve d . R u ssia n P o lan d
sh o u ld b e c o m e a n in te g ra l p a rt o f a ce n tra lise d R u ssia n socialist
re p u b lic .
U n d e r th e lib e ra te d P olish R e p u b lic tw o socialist parties
e m e rg e d . P .P .S . L e ft a n d S .D .K .P .L . u n ited in D e c e m b e r 19 18
to fo rm th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f P o la n d . T h e re m a in in g g ro u p s
fro m a ll th re e sectio n s o f P o la n d co m b in e d a t a con gress in
C r a c o w in 19 1 9 to fo rm o n e u n ited P .P .S . In th e w 'inter o f 1 9 1 8 -1 9
th e P o lish co m m u n ists w e re fa irly stro n g in th e W o rk e rs’ C o u n c ils

1 F o r a g r n e r a l a c c o u n t o f p o litic a l m o v em en ts in P o lan d u p to 19 14 . see F rid m a n ,

Geschichte der politischen Ideen in Polen. A b r ie f a c c o u n t o f th e h isto ry o f the socialist
m o v e m e n t, fro m a n o n -c o m m u n ist p o in t o f v ie w , is J a b ło ń s k i, P .P .S . ia iivlnoU i lud,
•945-
38 T H E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
w h ich w e re set u p , on th e R u ssia n a n d G e r m a n m o d els, in P olish
in d u strial cen tres. B u t e x c e p t in th e D o m b ro w a b a sin th e y w e re
e v e ry w h e re w e a k e r th an th e so c ia lists.1 T h e in d iffe re n c e o f th e
p easan ts, h o stility o f th e b o u rg e o isie , a n d th e a n ti-R u ssia n
n atio n a lism o f a ll classes p re v e n te d th e co m m u n ists from m a k in g
th em selves a g re a t fo rce. T h e P o lish -S o v ie t w a r o f 1920 d id n o t
h e lp th em . F ro m tim e to tim e in th e tw e n tie s a n d e a r ly th irties
th e y g a in ed g ro u n d in m u n ic ip a l e le ctio n s a t th e e xp e n se o f th e
socialists, b u t th e y n e v e r seem to h a v e m a d e h e a d w a y a m o n g th e
peasan ts. In th e th irties th e P olish co m m u n ists fell a p r e y to fa c ­
tion alism . T h e ir m ain le a d e rs w e re in e x ile in th e S o v ie t U n io n ,
an d w ere im p lic a te d in th e g r e a t p u rg es o f th e th irtie s. C o n s e ­
q u e n tly th e C o m in te rn d e c id e d in 1938 to d isso lv e th e p a rty .
P .P .S . on th e o th e r h a n d w as th ro u g h o u t P o la n d ’s tw e n ty y e a rs o f
in d ep en d e n c e a p o w e rfu l fo rce. I t h ad th e su p p o rt o f th e g re a t
m a jo rity o f th e r a p id ly in c re a sin g w o rk in g class. A fte r m isg u id e d ly
su p p o rtin g P ilsu d sk i’s coup d'Uat in 1926, th e socialists soon fo u n d
th em selves in o p p o sitio n to th e re g im e . D e sp ite p e rs e c u tio n th e y
h e ld th eir o w n . T h e tra d e u n io n m o v e m e n t, w h ic h th e y c o n tro lle d ,
g re w in stre n gth . In 19 3 6 -8 a series o f g re a t strikes w a s o rg a n ise d ,
som e o f th e ‘ s it - in ’ ty p e . P .P .S . also e stab lish e d fr ie n d ly re la tio n s
w ith th e P ea san t P a rty . O n th e e v e o f th e w a r it w as c le a r th a t in
co n d itio n s o f p o litic a l freed o m these tw o p a rtie s w o u ld h a v e h a d
a m a jo rity o f th e p e o p le.
C z e c h so cia l d e m o c ra c y b e g a n as a p a rt o f th e A u s tr ia n p a r ty ,
fo u n d ed b y V ik t o r A d le r in 1889. A t th e e n d o f th e n in e ties, h o w ­
e ve r, th e C z e c h p a r ty o rg a n ise d its e lf s e p a ra te ly , th o u g h c o lla b ­
o r a tin g v e r y clo se ly w ith th e A u stria n s. B efo re th e F irst W o rld
W a r th ere w e re tw o poin ts o f v ie w o n th e n a tio n a l q u e s tio n , as in
P o la n d . S o m e C z e c h socialists w ish ed fo r n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e ,
oth ers h o p e d fo r a g re a t A u s tr ia n so cia list r e p u b lic , w ith in w h ic h
th e C z e c h an d o th e r n atio n s w o u ld e n jo y a u to n o m y . T h e le a d e r o f
th e secon d te n d e n c y w as S m e r a l, w h o in in te rn a l p o litic a l issues
d id n o t b e lo n g to th e m o re re v o lu tio n a ry b u t to th e m o re m o d e ra te
w in g o f th e p a rty . N a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e w a s w e lc o m e d b y th e
C z e c h w o rk ers, b u t it w as fo llo w e d b y a g ro w th o f so c ia l co n flic ts .
S m e ra l p ro fite d from this to p u t h im s e lf a t th e h e a d o f th e left
w in g o f C z e c h so cia lism , w o n th e c o n fid e n c e o f M o s c o w , a n d
b e c a m e th e le a d e r o f th e C z e c h C o m m u n is t P a r t y . T h e fo rm a l
sp lit c a m e in 1 9 2 1. F o r th e first fe w y e a rs th e co m m u n ists h a d a
b ig g e r fo llo w in g th a n th e so c ia l d e m o cra ts. In th e th irtie s th e
1 See Vofnosy Istorii, loc. cit.
 P A R T I E S AND PO LI TIC S 3g

socialists re g a in e d g ro u n d , an d on th e e v e o f M u n ic h th e tw o
w o rk e rs’ p a rtie s h a d a b o u t e q u a l stre n gth .
T h e H u n g a r ia n S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a r ty w as fo u n d ed in 1890.
B y 1 9 1 4 it h a d a stro n g fo llo w in g a m o n g th e B u d a p e st w o rkers
a n d som e b ra n c h e s in th e m in in g an d in d u stria l areas o f the
p ro v in ce s. T r a d e u n io n s w e re b e g in n in g to b e a fo rce, d esp ite
le g a l o b sta cle s a n d o ffic ia l repression o f strik e s.1 B u t th e restricted
fra n ch ise k e p t th e so cia lists o u t o f p a rlia m e n t. T h e re v o lu tio n o f
1 9 1 8 g a v e p o w e r to th e w o rk e rs, b u t le a d e rsh ip soon passed to
th e e x tr e m e le ft, w h ic h fo rm e d th e H u n g a ria n C o m m u n ist P a rty .
P ro m in e n t a m o n g its le a d e rs w e re fo rm e r p riso n ers-o f-w a r in
R u ssia , w h o h a d b e en in d o c trin a te d b y th e B o lsh eviks b efo re
r e tu r n in g h o m e . In M a r c h 19 1 9 th e r a d ic a l d e m o c ra tic g o v e rn ­
m e n t o f C o u n t K á r o ly i re sig n e d , an d th e c o m m u n ist B é la K u n
se ize d p o w e r a n d p r o c la im e d a S o v ie t R e p u b lic . H e w as o v e r­
th ro w n in A u g u s t a fte r th e R u m a n ia n a r m y h ad en tered B u d a p e st.
T h e r e fo llo w e d a ‘ w h i t e ’ c o u n te r -r e v o lu tio n an d terro r, w h ic h
g a v e w a y in 1921 to th e m o re re sp e cta b le se m i-d ic ta to rsh ip o f th e
c o n s e rv a tiv e la n d o w n e r C o u n t B e th len . T h e H u n g a ria n C o m ­
m u n ist P a r t y d id n ot re c o v e r from th e 19 1 9 d isaster. Its lead ers
m o stly e sca p e d , a n d d e v o te d th e ir en ergies to b itte r fa c tio n a l an d
d o c tr in a l d isp u te s in e x ile . U n d e rg ro u n d a c tiv itie s w e re cru sh ed
b y th e p o lic e . In 1924 R á k o s i, a fo rm e r m e m b e r o f K u n ’ s g o v e rn ­
m en t, ille g a lly re tu rn e d to H u n g a r y b u t w as arre ste d . H e w as
c o n d e m n e d to d e a th b u t th e se n te n ce w as la te r co m m u te d . H e
sp e n t six te en y e a rs in p riso n b efo re b e in g e x c h a n g e d in 1940 for
H u n g a r ia n fla g s c a p tu r e d b y th e R u ssia n s in 1849. T h e S o c ia l
D e m o c r a t P a r t y c o n tin u e d to exist. A fte r th e w h ite te rro r h ad
sp e n t its fo rce, B e th le n to le ra te d th e socialists. T h e y h a d th eir
tra d e u n io n s, press a n d p a r t y o rg a n isa tio n s, a n d w e re a llo w e d to
m a k e p r o p a g a n d a a m o n g th e w o rk e rs, b u t w e re o b lig e d to ign o re
t h e p ea san ts, in c lu d in g th e a g r ic u ltu r a l la b o u rers. In th e th irties
th e m e m b e rs h ip o f th e S o cia list P a r ty w as m o stly m o re ra d ic a l
th a n its le a d e rs. T h e c a u tio n o f th e la tte r a t least p e rm itte d
th e c re a tio n o f a solid w o rk in g -c la ss o rg a n isa tio n . O n th e e ve o f
th e w a r th ere w a s little sign o f a n y se p a ra te c o m m u n ist o rg a n isa ­
tio n . T h o s e w h o w o u ld in free c o n d itio n s h a v e su p p o rte d c o m ­
m u n ism w o rk e d w ith in th e S o c ia list P a rty , its y o u th m o v e m e n t
a n d its tra d e u n io n s, tr y in g to p u sh th e p a r ty in to a m o re ra d ic a l
p o lic y .

1 T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e H u n g a r ia n w o rk in g-class m o v em en t befo re 19 14 is
d e s c rib e d in R é z le r . A magyar nagyipari munkásság kialakulása.
40 T H E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
A R u m a n ia n S o c ia list P a rty w as fo u n d e d in 1893, b u t b y 1900
it h ad d is in te g ra te d .1 Its le a d e rs w e re in te lle c tu a ls, a n d it h a d n o
m ass basis. In i g i o a n e w p a r ty w as fo u n d ed w h ic h a tte m p te d
n o t m erely to p ro c la im so cialist id eas b u t to o rg an ise th e in c ip ie n t
w o rk in g class. Its m ain le a d e r w as R a k o v s k y , a R u m a n ia n su b ­
j e c t o f B u lg a ria n e x tr a c tio n w h o w as la te r to p la y a p a rt in th e
B olsh evik P a rty in R u ssia a n d to h o ld h ig h posts u n d e r th e
S o v ie t re g im e u n til h e w a s ‘ u n m a s k e d ’ a t th e M o s c o w treason
trials. In 19 1 5 th e R u m a n ia n so cialists o rg a n ise d a c o n fe re n ce in
B u carest o f B a lk a n so cialist p a rtie s, a tte n d e d b y d e le g a te s from
B u lg a ria an d G r e e c e , b u t n ot from S e rb ia . A fte r th e w a r th e u su a l
split b e tw e e n socialists an d co m m u n ists o c c u rre d . T h e C o m m u n ­
ist P a rty o f R u m a n ia w as n o t fo r m a lly c re a te d u n til 1920. It
started w ith a m a jo rity o f th e so cia list m o v e m e n t. I t w as fie rce ly
repressed, a n d w as m a d e fo r m a lly ille g a l fro m 1924 o n w a rd s. T h e
socialists w e re to le ra ted b y R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n ts, b u t w e re
to a la rg e e xte n t co m p ro m ise d in th e eyes o f th e w o rk e rs b y th e ir
co -o p e ra tio n w ith th e regim es, e ve n w ith C a r o l I I ’s d ic ta to rs h ip .
O n th e o th er h an d it is h a rd to see w h a t th e y c o u ld h a v e d o n e in
th e circu m stan ce s b u t fig h t a re a rg u a r d a c tio n in d e fe n ce o f th e
few cru m b s o f lib e rty th a t th e re g im e a llo w e d . T h e w o rk in g class
d id n ot b e c o m e an im p o rta n t p a rt o f th e p o p u la tio n u n til th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f h e a v y in d u str y in th e th irties, a n d b y th a t tim e
R u m a n ia w as w'ell on th e w a y to b e c o m in g a fascist sta te . T h e
w ork ers in th e n e w in d ustries h a d h a d n o e x p e rie n c e o f th e e a r ly
la b o u r m o v e m e n t, a n d h a d n o c h a n c e to le a rn M a r x is t id eas.
T h e y h a d co n cre te e c o n o m ic reasons fo r d isc o n te n t b u t n o c le a r ly
d efin ed p o litic a l o u tlo o k . T h e sm a ll u n d e rg ro u n d c o m m u n ist
o rg an isa tio n s re c ru ite d som e d e v o te d a n d h e ro ic fig h ters, w h o
p la y e d a le a d in g p a rt in a few' b ig strikes, fo r in sta n ce in th e
G r iv its a r a ilw a y w o rk sh op s in B u carest in 1933. B u t c o m m u n ist
in flu e n ce w as not g re a t, a n d th e p a r ty w as still fu rth e r w e a k e n e d
in p u b lic esteem b y th e fa c t th a t m a n y o f its m ost a c tiv e p e o p le
b e lo n g e d to n a tio n a l m in o rity g ro u p s— H u n g a ria n s , B u lg a ria n s
a n d J e w s. T h e n o n -p o litic a l an d d isc o n te n te d w o rk e rs w e re , h o w ­
e ve r, m ore p ro m isin g m a te ria l fo r e xtrem ists th a n for m o d e ra te
socialists.
T h e S e rb ia n S o cia list P a r ty w as fo u n d e d in 1903. W it h in its
ran ks th ere w as a lw a y s a stru g g le b e tw e e n refo rm ists a n d p u re

1 See Petrrscu, Istoria socialismului in România. T h e pioneer of the R um anian move-

m cn t w as D o b r o g r a n u -G h e r e a , w h o u n d e r his o r ig in a l n a m e o f K a t z b e g a n his
p o litica l c a re e r in th e ‘ P o p u lis t ’ m o v e m e n t i r th e seve n tie s in R u ssia . S e e A p te k m a n ,
ObsKchtstvo Zemlya i Volya ( M o sco w 1920 ).
 P A R T I E S AND PO L I TI CS 4I
M a rx ists. T h e la tte r te n d e n c y p r e v a ile d , u n d e r th e le a d e rsh ip o f
T u c o v ic , a b rillia n t th eo rist a n d o rg a n ise r w h o w as killed in a ctio n
in S e p te m b e r 1 9 1 4 .“ In C r o a t ia , S lo v e n ia a n d B osn ia w e ak
so cia list o rg a n isa tio n s e xisted . In 19 19 a ll u n ited in a sin gle p a rty ,
in w h ic h th e e x tre m e left p r e d o m in a te d . T h e p a r ty jo in e d the
T h ir d I n te rn a tio n a l a n d b e c a m e th e C o m m u n ist P a rty o f Y u g o ­
sla v ia . F o r tw o y e a rs th ere w as a series o f strikes an d lo ca l d is­
o rd e rs, fo r som e o f w h ic h th e c o m m u n ists w e re resp onsible a n d for
m ost o f w h ic h th e y w e re b la m e d . In th e ele ctio n s o f 1921 th e y w e re
th e th ird stro n ge st p a rty . T h e assassin ation o f th e M in iste r o f th e
In te rio r in th e sa m e y e a r p r o v id e d an ex c u se fo r th e dissolu tion
o f th e p a rty . In su b se q u e n t y e ars it w as n o t o n ly c ru e lly p e r­
se cu te d , b u t lost g ro u n d a m o n g th e p o p u la tio n . M o st o f th e dis­
c o n te n t w h ic h in 1 9 1 9 -2 1 h a d g o n e to su p p o rt it n o w w e n t to th e
v a rio u s n o n -S e rb ia n n a tio n a list m o ve m e n ts. C o m m u n ism w as,
h o w e v e r , a fo rce a m o n g th e y o u n g in te llig e n tsia , e sp e c ia lly
stu d e n ts a n d g ra d u a te s o f B e lg ra d e u n iv e rsity , a n d in th e P o p u la r
F ro n t p e rio d a fte r 1935 it re c o v e re d m u c h p o p u la rity . A t the
sa m e tim e th e p a r t y ’s u n d e rg ro u n d o rg a n isa tio n , w h ic h w as
b itte r ly d e n o u n c e d fo r v a rio u s d o c trin a l an d o rg a n isa tio n a l
e rro rs in C o m in te rn con gresses in th e tw en ties, seem s to h a v e been
im p ro v e d a fte r 1937 b y J o s e p h B ro z ( T it o ) , w h o w as m ad e
S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l fo r th e p u rp o se o f c le a r in g u p h eresy and
‘ fra ctio n a lism O n th e e v e o f w a r it w as a sm all b u t w e ll-d isci­
p lin e d p a r ty , e n jo y in g a m ea su re o f sy m p a th y in w id e r circles.
M o d e r a te so cia lism o n th e o th e r h a n d w as e x tr e m e ly w e a k , and
la r g e ly d iscre d ite d b y th e c o n ta c ts o f som e o f its lead ers w ith the
d ic ta to rs h ip . Its o n ly re a l stre n g th la y in S lo v e n ia , w h ere som e­
th in g w a s left o f th e tra d itio n o f A u s tria n so cia l d e m o c ra c y .
T h e d iv isio n b e tw e e n refo rm ism a n d p u re M a rx ism h ad also
b e en im p o rta n t from ih e b e g in n in g in th e B u lg a ria n socialist
m o v e m e n t. T h e B u lg a ria n p a r ty w as fo u n d ed in 18 9 1. Its p io n eer
w a s D im ite r B la g o e v , w h o h a d o rg a n ise d in 1885 in S t. P e te rsb u rg
th e first k n o w n M a rx is t g ro u p in sid e R u ssia. B la g o e v re m ain e d in
to u ch w ith R u ssia n so cia lism a ll his life. H e stood fo r a h ig h ly
c e n tra lise d a n d d isc ip lin e d e lite p a r ty , c o n sid e rin g M a rx ist
q u a lit y m o re im p o rta n t th an m ere n u m b e rs o f a d h e re n ts. In this
h e re se m b led L e n in , th o u g h it is a m istak e to tre at his fo llo w ers as

1 S e e W e n d e l, Aus der W elt der Sudslaiven, p p . 2 0 0 -5 , 2 1 1 - 2 1. A lso L a p íe v ié , Istorija

socializm au .Srbiji (19 2 6 ). T h e presen t v ie w o f T u c o v ić held b y Y u g o s la v co m m u n ists
is ex p ressed in an a rtic le b y I ^ z a r S te fa n o v ic in Komunist, issue o f N o v e m b e r 1949.
2 F o r th e presen t Y u g o s la v co m m u n ist v ie w o f the p a rt y ’s ea rlie r h isto ry, see l i t o ,
R e p o r t to th e 5 th C o n g ress o f th e Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ist P a rty , J u ly 1948.
4.2 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

sim p le B u lg a ria n re p ro d u ctio n s o f th e R u ssia n B o ls h e v ik s .1 It

is an in te re stin g c o in c id e n c e th a t th e first fo rm a l sp lit in th e
B u lg a ria n m o v e m e n t— b e tw e e n th e ‘ N a r r o w ’ fa c tio n o f B la g o e v
an d th e ‘ B r o a d ’ fa ctio n w h ic h fo llo w e d th e u su al S e c o n d I n te r ­
n a tio n a l m o d e l— too k p la c e in 1903, th e y e a r o f th e d iv isio n o f
R u ssia n so cia l d e m o c ra c y in to B o lsh eviks a n d M e n sh e v ik s. U p
to th e w a r th e ‘ B r o a d ’ socialists h a d a la r g e r p o p u la r fo llo w in g
th an th e ‘ N a r r o w ’ , b u t b y 19 18 w a r-w e a rin ess a n d th e p re s tig e o f
th e R u ssia n re v o lu tio n co m b in e d to fa v o u r th e la tte r . In 1 9 1 9 th e
‘ N a r r o w ’ b e c a m e th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o f B u lg a ria , a n d a t th e
e lection s o f th a t y e a r h ad 25 p e r ce n t o f th e p o ll a n d fo u r tim es
as m a n y seats as th e S o c ia l D e m o c ra ts . D u r in g th e fo u r y e a rs o f
S ta m b o liisk i’ s g o v e rn m e n t th e w o rk e rs’ o rg a n isa tio n s w e re freer
th a n e v e r b efore, b u t th e relation s o f p ea san ts a n d w o rk ers w e re
con fu sed on b o th sides. W h e n th e c o u n te r -r e v o lu tio n o v e r th r e w
S ta m b o liisk i, th e co m m u n ists d e c la re d th em selves ‘ n e u t r a l’ o n th e
gro u n d th a t th e ‘ q u a rr e l o f th e u rb a n a n d th e ru ra l b o u r g e o is ie ’
d id n o t in terest th em . S oo n a fte rw a rd s th e y a d m itte d th e ir erro r,
a n d m ad e an a g re e m e n t w ith th e b a tte re d a g ra ria n s fo r c o m m o n
a ctio n . T h e resu lt w'as a co m m u n ist-le d in su rre c tio n in S e p te m b e r
1923, w h ic h w as b lo o d ily su ppressed. F u rth e r a tro c itie s fo llo w e d
a n unsu ccessfu l a tte m p t to assassin ate th e k in g in S o fia c a th e d r a l
in 1925. U n d e r th e D e m o c ra t P a rty g o v e rn m e n t ( 1 9 3 1 - 4 ) th e y
e n jo ye d m ore freed om in a re o rg an ise d fo rm u n d e r th e title o f
‘ L a b o u r P a r t y ’ , b u t u n d e r K in g B o ris’ s d ic ta to rs h ip fro m 1935
p e rsecu tio n w as o n c e m o re fierce. B u t th ro u g h o u t th ese y e a rs a
h a rd co re o f ille g a l c o m m u n ist o rg a n isa tio n w as m a in ta in e d in
S o fia a n d o th e r in d u stria l cen tres, a n d th e P o p u la r F ro n t p o lic y
in crea sed p u b lic sy m p a th y . L ik e th e Y u g o s la v , th e B u lg a ria n
p a r ty on th e e ve o f w a r w as p o te n tia lly a stro n g force.
T h e G r e e k so cialist m o v e m e n t w as e x tr e m e ly sm a ll b e fo re 19 14 .
In 19 18 a re v o lu tio n a ry S o c ia list P a rty w as fo rm e d , w h ic h jo in e d
th e C o m in te rn a n d la te r b e c a m e th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty o f G r e e c e .
T h e v io le n tly n a tio n a list a tm o sp h e re o f th e y e a rs o f w a r in A sia
M in o r w as n ot fa v o u ra b le to its g ro w th . O n ly in th e th irtie s d id
a seriou s la b o u r m o v e m e n t g r o w u p in th e in d u stria l ce n tre s o f
P cirae u s, S a lo n ic a a n d K a v a lla . T h e la tte r as th e c e n tre o f th e
to b a c c o in d u stry w as p a r tic u la r ly im p o rta n t. In th e la b o u r
m o v e m e n t c o m m u n ist in flu e n c e w as m u c h stro n g e r th a n m o d e r­
a te socialist. In th e 1935 p a rlia m e n t th e co m m u n ists h a d fifteen

1 S ee D im itro v , R e p o rt to the 5 th C o n g re s s o f th e B u lg a ria n C o m m u n ist P a rty ,

D e c e m b e r 1948 , for th e S talin ist v ie w o f th e ‘ N a r r o w S o c ia lis ts '.
 P A R T I E S AND P OL I TI CS 43

seats. O w in g to th e a lm o st e x a c t ly e q u a l stre n g th o f th e m u ch
la r g e r r e p u b lic a n an d ro y a list b lo ck s th e co m m u n ists h ad g re a t
b a r g a in in g p o w e r. F e a r o f c o m m u n ist stren gth w as th e reaso n , or
e x c u se , fo r M e ta x a s to set u p in 1936 his d ic ta to rsh ip , u n d e r
w h ic h o f co u rse c o m m u n ists w e re fie rc e ly repressed. O n th e e v e o f
w a r , th o u g h n ot n u m e ro u s, th e y w e re p o te n tia lly im p o rta n t.
T h e y h a d so m e o rg a n ise d w o rk in g -cla ss su p p o rt, a n d e n jo y e d
s y m p a th y a m o n g p a rt o f th e in te llig e n tsia . P erh a p s m o re im p o rt­
a n t still, th e y k n e w w h a t th e y w a n te d , a n d h ad th e ir answ ers to
th e p ressin g so cia l p ro b le m s w h ic h th e o ld p a rties, a b so rb ed in
a n c ie n t c o n tro v e rsie s, ig n o re d . T h e co m m u n ists co u ld h o p e to
e x p lo it th e d esire o f th e G r e e k c o m m o n m a n fo r a n e w d ea l.

FASCIST PART IES

F ascist m o v e m e n ts c a n b e d iv id e d in to tw o types— th e official

a n d th e d e m a g o g ic . T h e first ty p e w as p ractise d b y re a c tio n a ry
g o v e rn m e n ts w h o a p e d M u sso lin i o r H itle r, p a r tly to in g ra tia te
th em selv es w ith th ose g e n tle m e n a n d p a r tly b e cau se th e y v a g u e ly
fe lt th a t fascism w as ‘ th e u p -to -d a te t h in g ’ . T h e y w e re re a lly o n ly
fittin g o u t th e ir o ld r e a c tio n a ry regim es in n e w tra p p in g s: th ey
h a d n o in te n tio n o f tra n s fo rm in g th em in to to ta lita ria n states.
T h e se co n d ty p e w as th e m ass m o v e m e n t led b y fa n a tics w h o re a lly
b e lie v e d in th e fascist c a u se , w h o w ish ed to sw eep a w a y th e old
ab u ses, d ro w n th e o ld ru lers in b lo o d a n d in tro d u c e th e ra c ia list
t o ta lita r ia n n e w o rd e r.
In P o la n d P iłsu d sk i p la y e d w ith th e first ty p e o f fascism , an d
so m e o f his successors w e n t fu rth e r. In th e ‘ c o lo n e ls’ c liq u e ’
w h ic h h e ld p o w e r a fte r his d e a th , C o lo n e l K o c , th e fo u n d er o f th e
‘ C a m p o f n a tio n a l u n i t y ’ , stood fo r this p o lic y . S o d id th e ‘ U n io n
o f y o u n g P o la n d ’ , a n a n ti-se m itic y o u th m o v e m e n t sponsored b y
th e a u th o ritie s. B u t P o la n d ’ s le a d e rs in th e la te th irties v a c illa te d
b e tw e e n rig h t c e n tre a n d e x tr e m e rig h t, a n d in th e last y e a r b efo re
H it le r ’s in v a sio n th e y w e re m o v in g a w a y from fascism . In H u n ­
g a r y G e n e r a l G ö m b ö s (P re m ie r 19 3 2 -6 ) w as th e m a in re p re ­
s e n ta tiv e o f th e sa m e te n d e n c y . H e d id n ot go so fa r as his b o m ­
b a s tic sp e e ch e s su g g e ste d , a n d his successors w e re lu k e w a rm .
C o u n t T e le k i, th e P r e m ie r w h e n w a r b ro k e o u t, h a d m o v e d b a c k
to w a r d s a lib e ra l co n se rv a tism . In R u m a n ia K in g C a r o l II tried
to m a k e h im s e lf a m in ia tu re M u sso lin i, e sta b lish in g a o n e -p a rty
sta te a n d in tr o d u c in g a p a r ty u n ifo rm , R o m a n salu tes a n d tru ly
fascist rh e to ric . H a r d ly a n y o n e too k h im serio u sly, a n d it is
d o u b tfu l w h e th e r h e d id h im self. B e h in d th e sh in in g n e w fa c a d e
44 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
th e sam e o ld abuses c o n tin u e d , th e o n ly d iffe re n c e b e in g th a t th e
tin y su rv iv in g re m n a n ts o f p o litic a l free sp eech w e re a b o lish ed .
In Y u g o s la v ia S to ja d in o v ic h a d h im se lf c h e e re d as ‘ le a d e r ’ b y
w e ll-tra in e d c r o w d s ,' a n d his su ccessor C v e t k o v ic set u p a
u n ifo rm e d o fficial tra d e u n io n o rg a n isa tio n b ased o n th e I ta lia n
m od el. K in g B oris o f B u lg a ria m o d e stly a v o id e d su ch lu x u rie s.
P e rh a p s th e B a lk a n d ic ta to r w h o c a m e n earest to tru e fascism w as
G e n e ra l M e ta x a s o f G r e e c e . H is rep ressive m a c h in e r y w as e x ­
tre m e ly e ffic ien t, h e h ad a y o u th m o v e m e n t, ‘ N e o la ia ’ , c le a r ly
m o d e lle d on th e H itle r J u g e n d , an d h e h a d th o u san d s o f p ost­
ca rd s p rin te d w ith his o w n p o r tr a it a n d a le g e n d d e s c rib in g h im
as th e ‘ fo u n d er o f th e th ird H e lle n ic c iv ilis a t io n ’ . 2

It is n o a cc id e n t th a t fascist m ass pa rties e xisted o n ly in th e

th re e co u n trie s w h ic h h a d th e la rg e st a n d e c o n o m ic a lly m ost
in flu e n tia l J e w ish co m m u n itie s— P o la n d , H u n g a r y an d R u m a n ia .
In a ll th ree co u n trie s in th e th irties a n in c re a sin g n u m b e r o f
u n iv e rsity g ra d u a te s c o m p e te d e a c h y e a r fo r a d e c re a sin g n u m ­
b er o f jo b s in th e free professions a n d in business, a n d fo u n d th e ir
w a y b arre d b y J e w s. U n iv e rs ity stu d en ts a n d y o u n g g ra d u a te s
form ed th e h a rd c o re o f th e fascist p a rtie s a n d p r o d u c e d th e ir
leaders an d org an isers. T h e P olish fascists w e re c a lle d th e N a tio n a l
R a d ic a l C a m p . T h e ir m ain stre n g th c a m e fro m a g r o u p w h ic h in
1934 sp lit o f f fro m th e N a tio n a l D e m o c ra t P a rty , a n d w a s jo in e d
b y fu rth e r gro u p s in 193 7. T h e y stood fo r a ra c ia list d ic ta to rs h ip
o f th e N a z i ty p e (th o u g h n o t n ecessarily d e p e n d e n t on N a z i
G e r m a n y ) , a n d in te n d e d ru th le ssly to p u rg e n o t o n ly th e J e w s
b u t those Poles w h o sh o w e d s y m p a th y fo r J e w s o r h e ld d e m o ­
c ra tic v iew s. B u t th e P olish fascists h a d little su p p o rt o u tsid e th e
u rb a n m id d le class.
T h e H u n g a ria n a n d R u m a n ia n fascist m o ve m e n ts, k n o w n
re sp ectiv e ly as ‘ A r r o w C r o s s ’ an d 'I r o n G u a r d ’ , re c ru ite d th e ir
le a d e rs from th e sam e class, b u t also m a d e a b ro a d a n d b y n o
m ean s u n successful a p p e a l to th e p ea san ts a n d w o rk ers.
L ik e th e G e r m a n N a tio n a l S o cia lists, th e H u n g a r ia n a n d
R u m a n ia n fascist m o ve m e n ts re c e iv ed fin a n c ia l su p p o rt from
som e in d u strialists, a n d w e re e n c o u ra g e d b y r ig h t-w in g p o liticia n s.
T h e a d m in istra tio n w as u n w illin g to tak e a c tio n a g a in st th e m , a n d
th e co u rts passed v e r y le n ie n t sen tences w h e n th e y c o m m itte d
crim es. C o d r e a n u , le a d e r o f th e Iro n G u a r d , w as a c q u itte d in

1 C ia n o re g a rd ed him as a tru e fascist {Europa vtrso la catastrofe, p . 160).

* T he first w as classical A th e n s, th e seco n d the tty z a n tin c e m p ire.
 P A R T I E S A ND P OL I TI CS 45

1 9 2 1 o f th e m u r d e r o f th e P refec t o f I a ş i, a n d a b so lve d from c o m ­

p lic ity in th e assassin atio n b y an Iro n G u a rd is t o f th e P rim e
M in iste r , Io n D u c a , in 1933, th o u g h his g u ilt on b o th o ccasio n s
w a s n o to rio u s. B u t in R u m a n ia in th e th irties a c rim e w as n ot a
c rim e i f i t c o u ld b e sh o w n th a t th e m o tive s o f its p e rp e tr a to r w e re
‘ p a t r io t ic ’ . In H u n g a ry ' th ere w a s m o re re sp ect fo r th e la w , b u t
th e sa m e te n d e n cie s w e re o p e r a tin g fro m th e tim e o f G ö m b ö s
o n w a rd s . B oth m os'em en ts— a n d h e re a g a in th ere is a p a ra lle l
w ith G e r m a n N a z is m — a fte r m a k in g use o f th e h e lp o r to le ra tio n
o f th e r u lin g class to o b ta in a m ass fo llo w in g , tu rn e d a g a in st th eir
p a tro n s.
B o th m o v e m e n ts la u n c n e d c a m p a ig n s fo r la n d reform , an d
v io le n tly d e n o u n c e d c a p ita lists. It is tru e th a t th e y b e g a n b y
a tta c k in g J e w ish la n d o w n e rs, w h o w e re a n o t u n im p o rta n t
m in o r ity in H u n g a r y , an d J e w ish ca p ita lists, w h o w e re e x tre m e ly
im p o r ta n t in b o th c o u n trie s. B u t soon th e y used m o re g e n e ra l
slo g an s o f a v a g u e so cia l re v o lu tio n a r y ty p e , a g a in st th e w h o le
ru lin g class. In R u m a n ia , th o u g h few b ig estates re m a in e d , o v e r­
p o p u la tio n a n d lo w a g r ic u ltu r a l o u tp u t ca u se d w id esp re a d lan d
h u n g e r. T h e Iro n G u a r d ’ s slo g an ‘ O n e m an o n e a c r e ’ d re w g re a t
n u m b e rs o f p ea san ts in to its ran ks. In H u n g a r y la n d refo rm w as
a n e v e n b e tte r slo g a n . O w in g to th e w eakn esses o f th e p ea san t
p a rtie s in b o th c o u n trie s, th ere w as n o stro n g d e m o c ra tic tra d itio n
a m o n g th e p easan ts. T h is e x p la in s w h y fascist a g ita tio n w as so
m u ch m o re su ccessfu l th a n in P o la n d , w h ere su ch a tra d itio n
e xisted .
In th e w o r k in g class to o b o th p a rtie s h a d som e success. In
H u n g a r y th e o ld e r tra d e u n io n s w e re firm ly h e ld b y th e socialists,
b u t in th e n e w e r in d u stries, a m o n g u n sk ille d w o rk ers a n d to
so m e e x te n t in th e m ines th e A r r o w C ross w o n a go o d d e a l o f
su p p o rt. In R u m a n ia p o lic e p e rsecu tio n o f tra d e u n io n s a n d o f all
M a r x is t p r o p a g a n d a h a d b e e n so fie rce th a t a la rg e p a rt o f the
w o rk e rs w e re q u ite n o n -p o litic a l, th o u g h th o ro u g h ly d isco n te n te d .
T h e y in e v ita b ly fo llo w e d th e Iro n G u a r d . F o r in stan ce , th e b ig
M a la x a a r m a m e n t w o rk s in B u c a rest w as a G u a rd is t stro n g h o ld .
B o th p a rtie s w e re in c re a sin g ly d islik ed b y th e g o v e rn m e n ts,
b e c a u se th e y in sisted on th ro w in g o f f th e ir p o litic a l tu te la g e ,
b e c a u se th e y p r e a c h e d re v o lu tio n , a n d b e c a u se th e y e n jo y e d th e
s u p p o rt o f th e G e rm a n s . K in g C a r o l I I refu sed to b e in tim id a te d .
H a v in g set u p his o w n d ic ta to rs h ip e a r ly in 1938, h e arrested the
Iro n G u a r d le a d e rs, a n d in th e fo llo w in g N o v e m b e r h e h ad th em
‘ sh o t w h ile t r y in g to e s c a p e ’ . A fu rth e r m assa cre to o k p la c e in
46 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

S e p te m b e r 1939 a fte r G u a rd ists h a d assassin ated th e P rim e

M in iste r C ă lin e sc u . T h e Iro n G u a r d fin a lly c a m e to p o w e r w ith
G e rm a n h e lp in S e p te m b e r 1940 w h e n C a r o l w as fo rc e d to
a b d ic a te a fte r th e loss o f B essa rab ia an d n o rth e rn T r a n s y lv a n ia .
B u t th ey p ro v e d so s a v a g e ly in c o m p e te n t a n d c o rr u p t th a t th e
G e rm a n s a llo w e d G e n e ra l A n to n e sc u to suppress th em in
Jan uar> ' 194 1. In H u n g a r y th e tra d itio n a l re g im e w as s tro n g
e n o u g h to k eep th e A r r o w C ross o u t u n til th e last stages o f th e w a r .
B u re a u c ra c y and p o lice w e re lo y a l, a n d th e H u n g a r ia n ru lers w e re
a b le b y skilful d ip lo m a c y to c o n v in c e th e G e rm a n s th a t th e y w e re
m ore effic ien t allies th a n th e A r r o w C ross c o u ld b e . T h e e x p e rie n c e
o f th e Iron G u a r d rein forced th e ir case. It w a s o n ly w h e n e v e ry
o th e r fo rce in H u n g a ria n so c ie ty h ad tu rn e d a g a in st G e r m a n y
th a t in O c t o b e r 1944 th e A r r o w C ro ss le a d e r S z á la si w a s b ro u g h t
to p o w e r.

FROM PARLI AM ENT AR IS M T O DI CT AT ORS HIP

T h e fu n d a m e n ta l reason fo r th e co lla p se o f p a rlia m e n ta r y

d e m o c ra c y b e tw e e n th e w ars in E astern E u ro p e w as th e c o n flic t
b e tw e e n th e interests o f th e r u lin g b o u rg e o isie — busin ess, p r o ­
fessional a n d b u r e a u c r a tic — a n d th e m a jo rity o f th e p o p u la tio n .
T h e ru lers liv e d a n d th o u g h t lik e F re n c h la w y e rs o r G e r m a n la n d ­
o w n e rs: th e m asses w e re ig n o ra n t a n d h u n g r y p e a san ts o r w o rk e rs,
w h ose p o v e rty w as in c re a sin g a n d w h o se c h a n c e o f u sefu l e d u c a ­
tion w as d im in ish in g . B etw een ru lers an d m asses w as a n o v e r ­
staffed , c o rru p t a n d b ru ta l b u r e a u c r a c y w h o se n o tio n s o f p u b lic
serv ice d e riv e d from I m p e r ia l R u ssia o r O tto m a n T u r k e y . T h e
c o n flic t c o u ld n ot b e o v e r c o m e b y p a p e r co n stitu tio n s, e v e n if
these w e re b ased on c e n tu rie s o f F re n c h le g a l e x p e rie n c e . T h e
o n ly c o u n try in w h ic h p a rlia m e n ta r y d e m o c r a c y su rv iv e d ,
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , h ad a d iffe re n t so cia l stru ctu re a n d d iffe re n t
a d m in istra tiv e a n d m o ra l tra d itio n s. A n d eve n this is o n ly tru e
o f th e C z e c h p ro vin ce s, n o t o f S lo v a k ia . In th e C z e c h la n d s th ere
w as a h e a lth y b a la n c e o f so cia l classes— p rosp erou s a n d te ch ­
n ic a lly e ffic ien t p easan ts, b o u rg e o isie a n d sk illed w o rk e rs.
E d u c a tio n w as o f a h ig h q u a lit y . A d m in is tr a tio n h a d lo n g b e e n as
go o d as a n y w h e re in th e A u stria n E m p ire . T h e g re a t re lig io u s
and m o ra l tra d itio n o f H u s w as still a liv in g re a lity . N o n e o f these
co n d itio n s a p p lie d to th e g re a te r p a rt o f a n y o th e r E ast E u ro p e a n
c o u n try .
A p a r t from this g e n e ra l ca u se , e a c h o f th e fiv e o th e r co u n trie s
h a d sp ecific causes lo r th e co lla p se o f d e m o c ra c y w h ic h m ust be
 P A R T I E S AND POLI TI CS 47
m e n tio n e d .1 In P o la n d th e c h a n g e to ok p la c e in 1926, w h en
P iłsu dski c a rrie d o u t a coup d'élat. Its im m e d ia te ca u se w as Pil-
su d sk i’ s p e rso n a l a m b itio n a n d in to le ra n c e . H e w as obsessed w ith
th e id e a o f P o la n d ’s u n ity a n d grea tn ess, a n d co u ld n ot e n d u re
e ith e r to be o u t o f p o w e r h im s e lf o r to w a tc h th e d ispu tes o f the
p a r lia m e n ta r y p a rties, w h ic h seem ed to h im n o m o re th an sordid
w ra n g le s. A t first h e left a go o d d e a l o f freed o m to p a rlia m e n t,
b u t fro m 1930 th e pressure tig h te n e d , a n d in 1935 a n ew c o n ­
stitu tio n w a s in tro d u c e d w h ic h fo r m a lly p u t an en d to d e m o c ra c y .
In H u n g a r y co m m u n ist re v o lu tio n w as fo llo w e d b y a c o u n te r­
re v o lu tio n w h ic h restored th e sem i-feu d al system o f b efo re 19 14
w ith little c h a n g e . T h e g e n d a rm e s a n d th e op en b a llo t k ep t the
o p p o sitio n o u t o f th e c o u n try sid e , a n d lib e ra l a n d so cialist forces
in B u d a p e st a lo n e w e re n o t stro n g e n o u g h to c h a lle n g e th e p o w e r
o f th e re g im e . In R u m a n ia th e re sto ra tio n o f K in g C a r o l I I in
1930 w as o f d e c isiv e im p o rta n c e . Y e a r s o f skilful in trig u e e n a b le d
h im to sp lit u p th e tra d itio n a l p a rtie s a n d set u p his p erso n a l
d ic ta to rs h ip in J a n u a r y 1938. B y this tim e G u a rd is t law lessness
h a d so a la rm e d th e b o u rg e o isie th a t it w as g la d to see a ‘ stron g
h a n d ’ w h ic h seem ed to p r o te c t it from u p h e a v a l. In Y u g o ­
s la v ia th e q u a r r e l b e tw e e n S erb s a n d C r o a ts th re a te n e d the
e x iste n ce o f th e sta te. W h e n S te p a n R a d ić w a s m u rd e re d in
p a rlia m e n t in 1928, a ll th e C r o a tia n m em b e rs left th e house.
K i n g A le x a n d e r in J a n u a r y 1929 p r o c la im e d a ro y a l d icta to rsh ip ,
b u t in ste ad o f u sin g his p o w e r to fo rce S erb s a n d C ro a ts in to a g re e ­
m en t h e p la y e d th em o f f a g a in st e a c h o th e r an d m a in ta in e d his
p e rso n a l re g im e , a llo w in g c ru e l acts o f repression b y the police.
W h e n h e w as m u rd e re d in 1934 his su ccessor P rin ce R e g e n t P a u l
lo o sen ed th e g r ip a little , b u t c iv il lib e rtie s w e re n e v e r restored u p
to th e G e r m a n in va sio n . T h e b e la te d S e r b -C r o a t co m p ro m ise
o f A u g u s t 1939 d id n o t a p p e a s e th e old passions. T o o m u ch
b ittern ess re m a in e d , a n d th e o u tb re a k o f w a r in E u ro p e m ea n t
th a t th ere w o u ld n o t be tim e to settle d o w n . In B u lg a ria the b lo o d y
rep ression o f 1923, a n d th e series o f M a c e d o n ia n terrorist crim es
th r o u g h o u t th e tw e n tie s, sto red u p h a tre d . T h e 1 9 3 1 —4 g o v e rn ­
m en ts u n d e r th e d e m o cra ts M a lin o v an d M u s h a n o v w e re m o re
g e n u in e ly d e m o c r a tic , b u t c o u ld n ot estab lish o rd e r. T h e g ro u p
o f officers, le d b y C o lo n e l D a m ia n V e lc h e v a n d K im o n G h e o r-
g h ic v , w h o o v e r th r e w it in M a y 1934 w e re n o t fascists. T h e y
w a n te d to ‘ c le a n u p ’ th e c o u n try , b u t b efo re th e y h a d m a d e u p

.
1 F o r m o re d e ta ile d tre a tm e n t o f b o th th e g e n e ra l a n d im m e d ia te causes, see m y
Eastern Europe beluven ihe Wars, 19 4 1
48 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
th eir m in d s h o w this w as to b e d o n e th e y h a d b e e n o v e r th r o w n
b y K in g B oris, w h o d id n o t re lin q u ish p o w e r u n til his d e a th in
1943.* In G r e e c e e v e ry th in g w as co n fu sed b y th e b lo o d feu d
b e tw e e n R o y a lists a n d R e p u b lic a n s , a n d th e su m o f m ise ry w as
e n o rm o u sly in crea sed b y th e se ttle m e n t o f o v e r a m illio n u p ­
ro o te d G ree k s from A s ia M in o r, w h o m th e G r e e k e c o n o m y h a d
n ot a b so rb ed b y 1940.
B u t th ere is o n e m o re fa cto r, w h ic h w as a lw a y s p resen t, a n d
a fte r 1933 w as d o m in a n t— th e r iv a lr y o f th e G r e a t P o w ers, w h ic h
d iv id e d th e sm all states in to h o stile ca m p s, a n d c o m p e lle d th em to
sp en d on a rm a m e n ts a g r o w in g p r o p o rtio n o f th e m e a g re w e a lth
w h ic h , e ve n if fu lly used fo r p e a c efu l pu rp o ses, c o u ld n ot h a v e
g u a ra n te e d th eir p e o p les a d e c e n t life. T o G r e a t P o w e r p o lic y w e
m ust n o w tu rn .

1 F o r M a c e d o n ia n terro rism inside B u lg a ria , a n d fo r th e p o litic a l a im s a n d actio n s

o f th e 1934 m ilitary' g ro u p , see S w ire , Bulgarian Conspiracy.
 Part Two

W AR

CHAPTER THREE

TH E C O N Q U E ST O F EASTERN EUROPE

H E N A d o lf H itle r b e c a m e C h a n c e llo r o f th e G e rm a n

W R e ic h in J a n u a r y 1933, an d so h a d a c h a n c e to p u t in to
p r a c tic e his p la n s for m a k in g G e r m a n y th e greatest
P o w e r in E u ro p e a n d in th e w o rld , it w as n a tu ra l th a t h e sh ou ld
p a y g r e a t a tte n tio n to th e co u n trie s o f E astern E u ro p e . T h r o u g h ­
o u t th e ce n tu rie s G e r m a n e c o n o m ic a n d c u ltu ra l links w ith these
c o u n trie s h a d b e e n close, a n d m a n y G e rm a n s h ad w id e p erso n a l
e x p e rie n c e a n d k n o w le d g e o f th em . E astern E u ro p e w'as a ‘ no-
m a n ’ s-la n d ’ , possession o f w h ic h w o u ld g iv e a n y P o w e r th e first
p la c e on th e c o n tin e n t. I t w a s essen tial to c o n tro l it b efore
c h a lle n g in g e ith e r o f th e tw o g re a t la n d P ow ers w ith w h o m
G e r m a n y ’s p o lic y o f e x p a n sio n m ust u ltim a te ly b rin g h er in to
c o n flic t, F ra n c e o r R u ssia .
G e r m a n y h a d c e rta in sp ecific cla im s in re la tio n to E astern
E u ro p e . T h e first w a s th e eastern fro n tie r— D a n z ig a n d th e P olish
c o rrid o r. O f a ll H it le r ’ s ‘ n a tio n a l a sp ira tio n s’ in th e E ast, this
w as th e m ost g e n u in e ly p o p u la r w ith th e G e rm a n p e o p le.
G e rm a n s o f a ll so cia l classes a n d n e a rly a ll p o litic a l o p in ion s felt
it in to le ra b le th a t ‘ a n c ie n t G e rm a n l a n d ’ sh ou ld b e ru le d b y the
‘ in fe r io r ’ P oles. T h e se co n d w as u n io n w ith A u s tria — the
‘ A n s c h lu s s ’ . O n this th e G e rm a n s felt less stro n g ly , as a t least in
th e N o rth th ere w a s su sp ic io n a n d c o n te m p t fo r th e A u stria n s.
B u t H itle r w a s a n A u s tria n a n d a g o o d g e n e ra l ca se c o u ld c e r­
ta in ly b e m a d e o u t fo r th e u n ific a tio n o f th e twro G e r m a n states.
T h e th ird c la im w a s th e a n n e x a tio n o f th e B o h e m ia n b o rd e rla n d s,
th e ‘ S u d e ta n p r o v in c e s ’ o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . H e re to o a g o o d case
c o u ld b e m a d e o n g ro u n d s o f n a tio n a lity , b u t a m o n g G e rm a n s
in th e R e ic h th e resp onse w as a t first lu k e w a rm . T h e s e la n d s h ad
b e lo n g e d b e fo re 19 18 to A u s tr ia , n o t G e r m a n y , a n d N o rth
G e rm a n s w e re n o t m u c h m o re in terested in th eir fa te th a n in th at
o f A u s tr ia . F in a lly th ere w a s a b ro a d e r a n d v a g u e r c la im fo r th e
re c o g n itio n o f a g e n e ra l rig h t fo r th e R e ic h g o v e rn m e n t to
in te re st its e lf in th e fa te o f th e c o n sid e ra b le G e rm a n m in o rid e s
49
jo THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
in S o u th -E a ste rn E u ro p e . T h e s e to o w e re fo r th e m ost p a rt o f
A u stria n ra th e r th a n o f N o rth G e rm a n o rig in . T h e r e w e re a b o u t
500,000 e a c h in H u n g a r y a n d Y u g o s la v ia a n d 700,000 in
R u m a n ia . T h e G e rm a n p u b lic w as n ot m u c h in terested in th e m ,
b u t th e N a z i p a r ty took u p th e ir ca u se , a n d v a rie d in its c la im s
from ‘ p ro te c tin g th em fro m opp ression ’ to in c o r p o r a tin g th e m in
th e R e ic h .
B u t m o re im p o rta n t th an these cla im s, w h ic h p la y e d a g r e a te r
p a rt in th e p r o p a g a n d a d ire c te d b o th to th e G e rm a n p u b lic a n d
to fo reig n o p in io n th an in th e a c tu a l p la n s o f th e N a z i le a d e rs,
w as th e n eed to b re a k o r to re n d e r h arm less th e tre a tie s w h ic h
b o u n d th e E ast E u ro p e a n co u n trie s to e a c h o th e r o r to o th e r
G r e a t P o w ers. F ra n c e h a d treaties o f a llia n c e w ith P o la n d (1 9 2 1 )
a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia (192 4) an d tre atie s o f frien d sh ip w ith Y u g o ­
sla v ia a n d R u m a n ia (1 9 2 7 ). T h e m ost im p o rta n t in te r-E a s t
E u ro p e a n treaties w e re th e L ittle E n ten te (19 2 2 ) lin k in g C z e c h o ­
slo v a k ia , Y u g o s la v ia a n d R u m a n ia , th e P o lis h -R u m a n ia n tre a ty
( 1 9 2 1 ), an d th e B a lk a n E n ten te (193 4) w h ic h in c lu d e d R u m a n ia ,
Y u g o s la v ia , G r e e c e a n d T u r k e y . I t a ly h ad c re a te d b y th e R o m e
P roto cols (193 4) a b lo c k w ith A u s tr ia a n d H u n g a r y , w h ic h w as
d ire cte d a g a in st th e L ittle E n ten te a n d e sp e c ia lly Y u g o s la v ia . S h e
also h a d a tre a ty o f a llia n c e w ith A lb a n ia (19 2 7 ) a n d a n u n im p o r ­
tan t tre a ty o f frien d sh ip w ith R u m a n ia (1 9 2 7 ). T h e m ost im p o r ­
ta n t o f a ll th e treaties a ffe c tin g E astern E u ro p e w e re th e F ra n c o -
S o v ie t p a c t a n d th e C z e c h o s lo v a k -S o v ie t a llia n c e , b o th sig n e d in
1935. H itle r set h im se lf sy ste m a tic a lly to b re a k th ese v a rio u s
a llia n ce s. H e used n ot o n ly d ip lo m a c y in th e n o rm a l sense, b u t
e co n o m ic p e n e tra tio n a n d p r o p a g a n d a — in c lu d in g ‘ e x p o r t ’ o f
a n ti-sem itism , a n ti-B o lsh e vism a n d v a rio u s form s o f so cia l
d e m a g o g y . B u t his m ost p o w e rfu l w e a p o n w a s his success in th e
fa ce o f th e W e ste rn Pow'ers. W h e n h e o p e n ly re in tro d u c e d
c o n scrip tio n , r e o c c u p ic d th e R h in e la n d , a n d re a rm e d on a v a st
sca le w ith o u t in c u rrin g m o re th a n v e r b a l protests fro m th e v ic to rs
o f 1918 , w h e n o n e o f th ese v ic to rs, I t a ly , c o lla b o ra te d c lo se ly w ith
h im in th e ‘ B e rlin -R o m e A x i s ’ , a n d th e o th e r tw o p referre d
‘ a p p e a s e m e n t’ to sa n c tio n s, it is n ot su rp risin g th a t th e sm a lle r
states tried to m a k e th e ir o w n term s w ith h im .
M a rs h a l P iłsu d sk i, th e e ld e rly d ic ta to r o f P o la n d , tw ic e in 1933
p rop osed to th e F re n c h g o v e rn m e n t p r e v e n tiv e a c tio n b y th e
a rm ies o f b o th co u n trie s a g a in st H it le r .1 T h e first re q u est w as

1 N a m ie r, Diplomatic Prtludt, p p . 10, 15 . M y tre a tm e n t o f P o lish fo re ig n p o lic y in the

fo llo w in g p a ges o w es m u ch to this b rillia n t w o rk.
 T H E C ONQUE S T OF EA S TE RN EUROPE 51
refu sed a n d th e secon d ig n o re d . P o la n d th en so u gh t a n a g re e m e n t
w ith G e r m a n y . T h e first e x p lo ra to ry step w as a n in te rv iew
b e tw e e n th e Polish c h a r g e d ’ a ffa ires in B erlin , W y so c k i, and H itle r
in M a y 1933. In th e a u tu m n d rafts o f a n o n -a ggressio n tre a ty w ere
e x c h a n g e d b e tw e e n th e tw o go v e rn m e n ts, a n d o n 26 J a n u a r y 1934
a tre a ty w as sig n e d . D u r in g th e fo llo w in g y e a rs co -o p e ra tio n
b e tw e e n G e r m a n y a n d P o la n d w e n t fu rth e r th an m ere n on -
a g g rcssio n . B o th P o w ers h ad a co m m o n p o lic y o f h o stility to
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , frien d sh ip w ith H u n g a r y , a n d e n c o u ra g e m e n t o f
fascist a n d p r o -G e r m a n e lem en ts in R u m a n ia . T h e g ro w th o f
fascist in flu e n c e in sid e P o la n d , b o th a m o n g som e g o v e rn m e n t su p ­
p orters a n d a m o n g a p a rt o f th e o p p o sitio n , stre n g th e n e d this
p o lic y . P o la n d ’s tr a d itio n a l h o stility to R u ssia w as e m p h asised ,
w h ile h er n o less tra d itio n a l h o stility to G e r m a n y w as passed o v e r
in sile n ce . P o la n d w as a la rm e d b y th e F ra n c o -S o v ie t p a c t, an d
s y s te m a tic a lly o p p o se d th e v a rio u s a tte m p ts b y F ren ch an d B ritish
sta tesm en d u r in g 1935 to c o n c lu d e a n ‘ E astern L o c a r n o ’ . It is tru e
th a t b a s ic a lly P o la n d ’ s ru lers, e v e n in c lu d in g th e F o re ig n M in iste r
B eck w h o w as re g a rd e d a b r o a d as ‘ p r o - G e r m a n ’ , still fa vo u re d
a p o lic y o f ‘ b a la n c e ’ b e tw e e n th eir tw o g re a t n e ig h b o u rs. T h e y
w e re n o t c o m p le te ly c o m m itte d to G e r m a n y , an d d id n ot w ish
to a b a n d o n th e a llia n c c w'ith F ra n c e . In 1936 P ilsu d sk i’s successor
as h e a d o f th e a rm y , M a rs h a l R y d i- S m ig ly , visite d F 'rance and
o b ta in e d b y th e a g re e m e n t o f R a m b o u ille t a c re d it o f tw o m illio n
fra n cs, w ith o u t a n y p o litic a l c o n d itio n s .1 A c c e p ta n c e o f F re n ch
m o n e y d id n ot, h o w e v e r, p r e v e n t P o la n d from c o n tin u in g to su p ­
p o rt G e r m a n y a g a in st F r a n c e ’s a lly C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , in w h o se
d ism e m b e r m e n t sh e to ok p a rt in O c t o b e r 1938.
D is ru p tio n o f th e L ittle F^ntente w as an im p o rta n t aim o f
G e r m a n fo re ig n p o lic y . S u ccess w as q u ic k e st in Y u g o s la v ia . H ere
a t first G e r m a n a n d Ita lia n p o lic y w as o p p o se d . Y u g o s la v ia w as
th e su ccesso r o f A u s tr ia - H u n g a r y as I t a ly ’s riv a l in th e A d r ia tic .
I t a lia n d ip lo m a c y th erefo re a im e d a t h e r e n c irc le m e n t as a first
s ta g e to w a r d s th e fin a l g o a l o f d o m in a tio n o f th e w h o le M e d ite r ­
ra n e a n . I t a ly h a d sh o w n s y m p a th y fo r H u n g a r ia n , B u lg a ria n and
A lb a n ia n te r rito r ia l c la im s on Y u g o s la v ia , a n d h ad e n co u ra g e d
C r o a t ia n a n d M a c e d o n ia n extrem ists. D is ru p tio n fro m w ith in
a n d d ism e m b e r m e n t fro m o u tsid e seem ed to be th e p u rp o se
b e h in d I ta lia n p o lic y to Y u g o s la v ia . R e la tio n s w e re at th e ir w orst

1 M . N o e l, F re n c h a m b a ssa d o r in W a rs a w , w ish ed p o litic a l ‘ s t r in g s ’ to b e a tta ch e d

to th e lo a n , b u t his a d v ic e w as d isre g a rd e d in P aris. S e e N o e l, /.’aggression alUmande
contre la Pologne.
52 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
in 1934. T h e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t fe a re d th e re sto ra tio n o f a
H a b s b u rg in V ie n n a u n d e r I ta lia n p ro te c tio n . T o this it e v e n p re ­
ferred in c o rp o ra tio n o f A u s tria in G e rm a n y . A fte r th e fa ilu re o f th e
A u stria n N a z i putsch o f J u ly 1934, in w h ic h D o llfu ss w a s m u r­
d ere d , A u stria n N a z i refu gees fo u n d h o sp ita lity in Y u g o s la v ia .
In O c to b e r 1934 K in g A le x a n d e r o f Y u g o s la v ia w as m u rd e re d b y
a M a c e d o n ia n terro rist, a n d th e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t b e lie v e d
b o th th e I ta lia n a n d H u n g a r ia n a u th o ritie s to be to so m e e x te n t
in v o lv e d . D u r in g th e y e a r G e r m a n in flu e n c e in B e lg ra d e in ­
crea sed . A n im p o rta n t tra d e tre a ty w as sig n e d . M a r s h a l G o r in g
b e g a n to spen d h o lid a y s in th e c o u n try , a n d re p resen te d G e r m a n y
a t th e k in g ’s fu n e ra l. G e rm a n p o lic y d e fin ite ly o p p o se d th e d is­
m e m b e rm e n t o f Y u g o s la v ia , p re fe rrin g to k ee p this c o n sid e ra b le
sta te u n ited a n d m a k e it a frien d o f G e rm a n y .
E ve n ts in A b y ssin ia an d S p a in , a n d th e g ro w th o f M u ss o lin i’ s
a m b itio n s a t th e e xp e n se o f th e W e ste rn P ow ers, b ro u g h t I t a ly
a n d G e r m a n y closer to g e th e r in 1936 a n d 193 7. I t a ly ce a sed to
opp ose G e rm a n in flu e n c e in A u s tria , an d e n c o u ra g e d th e g o v e rn ­
m en t o f S c h u s c h n ig g to m a k e con cession s to H itle r. W h e n e v e n
th e h op e th a t A u s tr ia w o u ld be k e p t n o m in a lly in d e p e n d e n t as a
b u ffe r sta te b e tw e e n th e tw o d ic ta to rs re c e d e d , M u sso lin i a c c e p te d
th e necessity o f th e A n sc h lu ss.1 H e a lso a c c e p te d G e r m a n y ’s
p o lic y to w a rd s Y u g o s la v ia . In 193 5 M ila n S to ja d in o v ic b e c a m e
P rim e M in iste r in B e lg ra d e . Im pressed w ith th e v a lu e to his
co u n try o f tra d e w ith th e A x is c o u n trie s, a n d sy m p a th isin g
w ith fascist id eas, S to ja d in o v ic so u g h t th e frien d sh ip o f R o m e
a n d B e rlin . In J a n u a r y 1937 h e sig n e d a tr e a ty o f frien d sh ip
w ith B u lg a ria , w h ic h w'as a lr e a d y clo se ly lin k e d w ith b o th
I t a ly a n d G e r m a n y . In M a r c h 1937 an I t a lo - Y u g o s la v tre a ty o f
frien d sh ip w as sign ed in B e lg ra d e . T h e e v id e n c e o f C ia n o ’ s d ia r y
an d p a p e rs is th at th e I ta lia n g o v e rn m e n t to o k th is tr e a ty
seriou sly. C ia n o p e rs o n a lly lik e d a n d tru ste d S to ja d in o v ic , a n d
in te n d e d to b ase his w h o le B a lk a n p o lic y on c o lla b o ra tio n w ith
B e lg ra d e .2 T h e id e a o f d ism e m b e rm e n t o f Y u g o s la v ia w as
re p la ce d b y th at o f a jo in t p a rtitio n o f th e p e n in su la , w ith I t a ly
to tak e m ost o f A lb a n ia , Y u g o s la v ia th e rest a n d p e rh a p s also
S a lo n ic a from G r e e c e . M e a n w h ile S to ja d in o v ic u n d e rto o k to
d esert C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , to seek re c o n c ilia tio n w ith H u n g a r y , a n d
to use his in flu e n ce w ith th e R u m a n ia n s to d o lik ew ise. In th e
1 F o r a cle a r discussion of the A u stria n p ro b le m in G e r m a n - I ta lia n rela tio n s, see
W isk em a n n , The Rom e-Berlin A xis, c h a p te r 6 . F o r th e A u s tria n b a c k g ro u n d , B o rk e n a u ,
Austria and After, a n d for th e ev en ts le a d in g u p to th e A n sc h lu ss, G e d y e , Fallen Bastions.
• C i a n o , L 'Europa Verso la catastrofe, p p . l b o - a .
 T H E C O NQ U E S T OF E A S T E RN EUROPE 53

su m m e r o f 1938 h e a ssu red C ia n o th a t h e w o u ld on n o a c c o u n t

fig h t th e H u n g a ria n s fo r th e sake o f th e C z e c h s, a n d th a t h e w as
q u ite co n te n t to see C z e c h o s lo v a k ia lose m ost o f h e r te rrito ry an d
b e re d u c e d to a sm a ll ‘ n e u tr a lis e d ’ C z e c h ru m p .
R u m a n ia n p o lic y w a s m o re c a u tio u s. T h e G r e a t P o w e r n earest
h e r fro n tiers w as R u ssia , w h ic h h ad n e v e r re n o u n ced its rig h t to
B e ssa ra b ia . E v e n w ith o u t this d isp u te , rela tio n s c o u ld n o t h a v e
b e en g o o d b e tw e e n a c o m m u n ist sta te a n d o n e ru le d b y a re a c tio n ­
a r y s e m i-d ic ta to rsh ip w h ic h to le ra te d th e ra p id rise o f a pro-
G e r m a n fascist m o v e m e n t. B u t as P o lan d w as d e te rm in e d in n o
circu m sta n ce s to p e rm it th e p a ssa ge o f S o v ie t troop s th ro u g h h er
te rrito r y , th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e F ra n c o -R u ss o -C ze c h o slo v a k
p a c t re q u ire d th e c o -o p e ra tio n o f R u m a n ia . W h ile th e B u carest
F o re ig n M in is tr y w as h eld b y T itu lc s c u , th e c h a m p io n o f th e
L e a g u e o f N a tio n s, th e ch a n c e s o f su ch c o -o p e ra tio n seem ed go o d .
B u t in 1936 K in g C a r o l dism issed T itu le s c u , a n d a d o p te d a p o lic y
o f b a la n c e b e tw e e n th e A x is a n d A n g lo -F r e n c h g ro u p s. R u m a n ia n
h e lp to C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th u s b e c a m e m o re u n c e rta in . B u t R u m a n ia
a t le a st d id n o t, lik e Y u g o s la v ia , a b a n d o n h er a lly , or, like P o la n d ,
c o lla b o r a te w ith th e G e rm a n s a g a in st h e r. E a r ly in 1938 C a r o l
su p p ressed th e a v o w e d fifth c o lu m n o f th e A x is , th e Iro n G u a r d ,
a n d to o k p o lic y d e fin ite ly in to his o w n h an d s. R ig h t u p to M u n ic h
h e a t least re m a in e d fo r m a lly lo y a l to his o b lig a tio n s. W h a t w o u ld
h a v e b e e n his a ttitu d e i f th e S o v ic t-C z e c h a llia n c e h ad c o m e in to
o p e ra tio n w ill n e v e r b e k n o w n , fo r th e M u n ic h a g re e m e n t sp a red
h im th e n ecessity to ch o ose.
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w a s fo r fiv e y e a rs th e p r in c ip a l o b je c t o f H itle r ’s
d ip lo m a tic o ffen sive . I f h e r sta tesm en h ad b e en w illin g to m ak e
a n a g re e m e n t sim ila r to th e G e rm a n -P o lis h tre a ty o f 1934,
h a d refu sed a llia n c e w ith R u ssia an d lo osen ed th e ir tics w ith
F ra n c e , it is q u ite p ossib le th a t H itle r w o u ld h a v e to ld th e
S u d e te n G e rm a n s to m a k e n o tro u b le fo r the P r a g u e g o v e rn ­
m en t. H in ts to this e ffe ct w e re m a d e b y G e rm a n spokesm en.
B u t D r . B e n eś (F o re ig n M in is te r till 1935 a n d th en P resid en t
o f th e R e p u b lic ) b e lie v e d in th e stre n g th an d lo y a lty o f F ra n c e
a n d fe a re d th a t c o -o p e ra tio n w ith G e r m a n y w o u ld in th e en d
m a k e im p o ssib le w ith in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th e d e m o c ra tic in sti­
tu tio n s to w h ic h h e a n d th e g re a t m a jo rity o f his p e o p le w e re
d e v o te d . S o th e offers w e re re je c te d , th e tre a ty w ith R u ssia w as
s ig n e d , a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia re m a in e d , in th e w o rd s o f G o e b b e ls,
a ‘ d a g g e r p o in te d a t th e h e a rt o f G e r m a n y ’ . G e r m a n d ip lo m a c y
s u cce e d e d in iso la tin g h e r from h e r n a tu ra l frien d s in E astern
54 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
E u ro p e , a n d w as also a b le to e m p lo y d isru p tiv e forces w ith in h er
o w n fron tiers. T h e first w as th e G e r m a n m in o rity , th re e a n d a h a lf
m illio n stro n g, o f w h ic h sin ce th e e le c tio n s o f 1935 th e o v e r­
w h e lm in g m a jo rity su p p o rte d th e th in ly c a m o u fla g e d N a z i
m o v e m e n t o f H e n le in — th e ‘ S u d e te n G e r m a n P a r t y ’ . T h e secon d
w as th e a u to n o m ist a n d fascist S lo v a k P e o p le ’s P a r ty led b y th e
p riest H lin k a , an d a fte r his d e a th b y a n o th e r p riest, M g r . T iso .
T h e th ird w as th e H u n g a r ia n m in o rity in S lo v a k ia , r a th e r less
th a n a m illio n stro n g. T h e fo u rth w as th e sm a ll P o lish m in o rity
in th e S ilesia n b o rd e r p r o v in c e o f T e s c h e n , w h ic h h a d b een a
so u rce o f d isp u te b e tw e e n P o la n d a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia sin ce 19 19 .
F in a lly H itle r sk ilfu lly p e rsu a d e d th e go v e rn m e n ts o f F ra n c e an d
B rita in to d isin terest th em selves in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , a n d to ig n o re
th e w ishes o f o n e o f h e r g re a t a llie s, th e S o v ie t U n io n .
B y th e fro n tie r se ttle m e n ts w h ic h fo llo w e d th e M u n ic h a g r e e ­
m en t, C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ce d ed te rrito ry to G e r m a n y , H u n g a r y a n d
P o la n d , e a c h o f w h ic h a c q u ire d in a d d itio n to th e ir o w n c o m ­
p a trio ts c o n sid e ra b le n u m b e rs o f C z e c h s a n d S lo v a k s. T h e
re m a in d e r w as d iv id e d in to th re e w id e ly a u to n o m o u s u n its.
T h e first w as a ru m p o f B o h e m ia a n d M o r a v ia . T h e se co n d w as
S lo v a k ia , n o w c o n tro lle d b y th e P e o p le ’s P a rty fascists, w h o m a d e
it q u ite c le a r th a t th e y w e re o n ly w a itin g fo r a fa v o u r a b le m o m e n t
a n d th e a p p r o v a l o f B erlin to b re a k a w a y c o m p le te ly . T h e th ird
w as th e e astern m ost p r o v in c e o f ‘ S u b - C a r p a t h ia n R u t h e n ia ’ ,
w h ic h b e c a m e th e c e n tre o f U k ra in ia n n a tio n a lism . Its sp o kesm en
c a lle d this sm all a n d b a c k w a r d la n d a ‘ U k ra in ia n P ie d m o n t ’ ,
fro m w h ich w o u ld co m e th e lib e ra tio n o f th e U k r a in ia n s su b je ct
to Polish o r S o v ie t ru le.
In th e y e a r b e tw e e n M u n ic h an d th e o u tb re a k o f w a r, th e first
im p o rta n t e ve n t in sou th -ea st E u ro p e w a s th e d ism issal o f
S to ja d in o v ic b y P r in c e R e g e n t P a u l in F e b r u a r y 1939. Its ca u ses
la y p r o b a b ly in in te rn a l r a th e r th an in fo reig n p o lic y , in th e su r­
p risin g ly sm all g o v e rn m e n t m a jo rity a t th e ele ctio n s o f D e c e m b e r
1938, an d in th e R e g e n t ’s d esire to re a c h a g re e m e n t w ith th e
C r o a ts , to w h ic h th e p e rs o n a lity o f S to ja d in o v ic w a s an o b sta cle .
B u t th e dism issal sh o w ed th e A x is g o v e rn m e n ts th a t in th e last
resort th e p o w e r in Y u g o s la v ia la y n ot w ith th e P re m ie r b u t w ith
th e P rin c e R e g e n t, w h o m th e y r ig h t ly re g a rd e d as an A n g lo p h ile .
T h e frien d sh ip o f S to ja d in o v ic w a s to o fra il a b asis fo r frien d sh ip
w ith Y u g o s la v ia , a n d th e fo reig n p o lic y o f P rin c e P a u l w a s to o
u n c e r ta in to b e m a d e th e fo u n d a tio n o f A x is p o lic y in th e B a lk a n
p e n in su la . A fte r F e b r u a r y 1939 th e A x is a ttitu d e to Y u g o s la v ia
 T H E CONQUE S T OF EASTERN EUROPE 55

th erefo re c h a n g e d . In J a n u a r y C ia n o , on a visit to B e lg ra d e, w as
e a g e r ly d iscu ssin g w ith S to ja d in o v ic th e p a rtitio n o f A lb a n ia a n d
a n o u tle t for Y u g o s la v ia to S a lo n ic a . In A p r il, w h e n I ta lia n troop s
o c c u p ie d A lb a n ia , th e Y u g o s la v M in iste r in R o m e ru sh ed ro u n d
to C ia n o to seek in fo rm a tio n o n th e e v e n t, w h ic h h a d tak e n him
b y su rp rise , a n d w as re c e iv e d w ith c o o l p o liten e ss.1
T h e o c c u p a tio n o f A lb a n ia w as th e im m e d ia te ca u se o f th e
u n ila te ra l B ritish g u a r a n te e to G r e e c e , b u t n o n e w as g iv e n to
Y u g o s la v ia . P rin ce P a u l h o p e d to m a in ta in g o o d rela tio n s w ith the
A x is , a n d m a d e a to u r o f th e E u ro p e a n c a p ita ls in th e e a r ly su m ­
m er. I t is n o w c le a r fro m C i a n o ’s p a p e rs th a t th e A x is d id n ot trust
h im . In M a y R ib b e n tr o p to ld C ia n o th a t H itle r w as satisfied w ith
Y u g o s la v ia ’ s n e u tr a l a ttitu d e , b u t m a d e it cle a r th a t i f d isso lu tion
c a m e fro m w ith in , th e n A x is p o lic y in Y u g o s la v ia w o u ld be d e te r­
m in e d b y I ta ly , w h o se su p e rio r in terest in th e M e d itre ra n e a n a re a
th e G e rm a n s re co g n ise d . In A u g u s t, h o w e v e r, b o th R ib b e n tr o p
a n d H itle r exp re sse d d istru st o f Y u g o s la v ia . T h e y c o m p a re d h er
re la tio n to I t a ly w ith th at o f P o la n d to G e rm a n y . B o th co u n trie s
w e re ‘ u n fa it h fu l’ , a n d w o u ld use a n y fu tu re w a r b e tw e e n the
A x is a n d th e W e st as an o p p o rtu n ity to sta b th e A x is P o w ers in
th e b a c k . T h e r e fo r e G e r m a n y m ust liq u id a te P o la n d , an d it w as
d e s ira b le th a t I ta ly sh o u ld d o th e sam e w ith Y u g o s la v ia .* T h e
Ita lia n s, h o w e v e r, h e sitate d to a c c e p t this a d v ic e . M e a n w h ile
‘ d isso lu tio n fro m w it h in ’ w as at least p o stp on ed b y th e C v e tk o v ic -
M a c e k a g re e m e n t o f 25 A u g u s t, w h ic h g a v e C r o a tia a la rg e
m ea su re o f se lf-g o v e rn m e n t an d b ro u g h t th e re p resen ta tive s o f th e
C r o a t ia n P e a san t P a rty in to th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t in B e lg ra d e.
W h e n th e E u ro p e a n w a r b ro k e o u t, Y u g o s la v ia seem ed in te rn a lly
stro n g e r th a n she h ad b e en fo r m a n y years.
In th e e ven ts o f th e su m m e r o f 1939 th e B a lk a n s w e re a sid e ­
s h o w : th e crisis w h ic h le d to w a r re a lly b e g a n w ith th e a n n e x a ­
tio n o f ru m p C z e c h o s lo v a k ia on 15 M a r c h . T h e P r a g u e g o v e r n ­
m en t w a s so b o ld as to dism iss th e a u to n o m o u s g o v e rn m e n t o f
S lo v a k ia , w h ic h w as fa ir ly o p e n ly p r e p a rin g secession, on 9
M a r c h . T is o a p p e a le d to H itle r, a n d o n 12 M a r c h w as su m ­
m o n e d to B e rlin . T h e r e h e w as u rg e d a t o n c e to p r o c la im th e
in d e p e n d e n c e o f S lo v a k ia . I f h e refu sed , th e G e r m a n g o v e r n ­
m en t w o u ld m a k e n o o b je c tio n to a H u n g a r ia n o c c u p a tio n o f
p a rt o f S lo v a k ia . F a c e d w ith th e p ro sp e c t o f p a rtitio n b e tw e e n
G e r m a n y a n d H u n g a r y , T is o a c c e p te d a n in d e p e n d e n c e in
v a ssa la g e to H itle r w h ic h h e w as in a n y case g la d to h a v e .
1 C ia n o . o p . e i l., p p . 4 2 3 -5 . s I b id .. pp. 4 3 1 , 4 5 1 , 455-
56 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

M e a n w h ile th e C z e c h P resid e n t H a c h a w as su m m o n e d to B erlin

a n d fo rced to a c c e p t a G e rm a n p r o te c to r a te o v e r B o h e m ia a n d
M o r a v ia , w h ic h w e re to b e in c o rp o ra te d in th e R e ic h . O n 15
M a r c h G e r m a n troo p s e n tered P r a g u e . F in a lly R u th e n ia , th e
a b o r tiv e P ie d m o n t o f th e U k r a in ia n n atio n a lists, w as o c c u p ie d b y
th e H u n g a ria n s, a n d a co m m o n H u n g a ria n -P o lish fro n tie r w as
e stab lish e d . T h is w as th e last te rrito r ia l c h a n g e in E u ro p e w h ic h
g a v e p lea su re to th e ru lers o f P o la n d , a n d b y n o w th e ir j o y h a d a
so u r a fte r-ta ste , fo r th e y w e re su rro u n d e d o n th re e sides b y
G e rm a n -c o n tro lle d te rrito ry .
P o lish -G e rm a n relatio n s h ad d e te rio ra te d sin ce th e a u tu m n .
O n 24 O c t o b e r 1938 R ib b e n tr o p h a d h a d a n im p o rta n t co n v e r sa ­
tion at B e rc h te sg a d e n w ith th e P olish A m b a ssa d o r L ip sk i. H e
h ad exp ressed a d esire to p la c e P o lish -G e rm a n c o -o p e ra tio n ,
w h ich h a d re c e n tly b een so p r o fita b le to b o th states, on a m o re
solid basis, b y e lim in a tin g re m a in in g ca u ses o f frictio n a n d c o n ­
s id e rin g th e possib ilities o f fu rth e r c o m m o n a c tio n in a w id e r
field . P o la n d w a s asked to a p p ro v e th e in c o rp o ra tio n o f D a n z ig
in th e R e ic h an d to g ra n t G e r m a n y a n e x tr a -te r rito ria l ro a d a n d
se v e ra l-tra c k r a ilw a y across th e ‘ c o r r id o r ’ . In re tu rn P o la n d
w o u ld be g iv e n a free p o rt in D a n z ig a n d e x tr a -te r rito ria l c o m ­
m u n ica tio n s w ith it. B o th states w o u ld g u a r a n te e e a c h o th e r ’ s
fron tiers fo r ten o r tw e n ty -fiv e ye ars. B o th P o w ers w o u ld p u rsu e
a p o lic y o f jo in t a c tio n , e sp e c ia lly w ith re g a rd to th e e m ig ra tio n
o f J e w s , th e c o lo n ia l q u estio n , a n d a ‘jo in t p o lic y to w a rd s R u ssia
on th e basis o f th e a n ti-C o m in te rn p a c t ’ . A ft e r so m e w e e k s’ c o n ­
s id e ra tio n B e ck g a v e an u n fa v o u ra b le re p ly . T h e su b je c t w as
raised a g a in w h e n B eck visite d H itle r a t B e rc h te sg a d e n on 5
J a n u a r y 1939, a n d w h e n R ib b e n tr o p re p a id th e visit in W a r s a w at
th e en d o f th e sam e m o n th . In M a r c h th e P oles b e g a n to c o n c e n ­
tra te troop s o n th e D a n z ig b o rd e r, a n d th e G e r m a n press sta rte d
a n in sp ired c a m p a ig n a g a in st P o la n d . A t th e e n d o f M a r c h th e
B ritish c a b in e t d e c id e d to g iv e a g u a r a n te e to P o la n d . A t th e
b e g in n in g o f A p r il B e ck visite d L o n d o n , a n d o n 6 th th e first
a g re e m e n t w as sign ed .
L o o k in g b a c k a fte r th e e v e n t, it seem s as i f R ib b e n tr o p ’ s
o rig in a l o ffe r m a y g e n u in e ly h a v e b e e n a im e d a t th e c o n so lid a ­
tion o f P o lish -G e rm a n frien d sh ip , a n d th e G e rm a n s m a y h a v e
b e e n g e n u in e ly d isa p p o in te d a t th e refu sa l. A fte r a ll, P o la n d
h a d su p p o rte d G e rm a n p o lic y fo r m o re th a n fo u r y e a rs, w as
b itte r ly a n ti-R u ssia n a n d a n ti-c o m m u n ist, a n d w a s b e in g g iv e n
a c h a n c e to tak e p a rt in H itle r ’ s in te n d e d c o n q u e st o f R u ssia
 T H E C ONQUE S T OF EA S TE RN EUROPE 57
a n d to ta k e a sh are o f th e p ic k in g s fo r h erself. B eck in d eed
still re m ain s a n e n ig m a tic fig u re. It m a y n e v e r b e ce rta in h ow far
h e w a s p e rs o n a lly w illin g to go in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith G e r m a n y .
B u t it is c e rta in th a t P olish p u b lic o p in io n w as g ro w in g e ve r m o re
v io le n tly a n ti- G e r m a n , a n d th at th e a rm y w as a g a in st con cession s
to H itle r . I f B eck h a d fa v o u re d a c c e p ta n c e o f th e G e rm a n term s,
he w o u ld n ot o n ly h a v e fa c e d a h ostile p u b lic , b u t he w o u ld
h a v e b e en u n a b le to c a r r y his co lle a g u e s w ith h im . In fa ct he d id
n o t try . H itle r fo r his p a rt w as n ot p r e p a re d to b u y P olish frien d ­
sh ip b y a d e fin ite re n u n c ia tio n o f D a n z ig a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n s
a cross th e C o r r id o r . T h u s the c o n flic t b e c a m e too sh a rp fo r p e a c e ­
ful se ttle m e n t. T h is b e c a m e c le a r to th e w o rld w h en B rita in g a v e
h e r g u a r a n te e , an d w as fo r m a lly co n firm e d b y H itle r ’s sp eech
o f 28 A p r il, in w h ic h h e re p u d ia te d th e G e rm a n -P o lis h n o n ­
a g g re ssio n tre a ty o f 1934 a n d th e A n g lo -G e r m a n n a v a l a g r e e ­
m en t o f 1935.
T h e o c c u p a tio n o f P r a g u e h a d ca u se d a la rm in R u m a n ia ,
w h e re fo r a tim e a H u n g a r ia n in va sio n o f T r a n s y lv a n ia , w ith th e
b le ssin g o f G e r m a n y , w a s fe a re d . D e sp e ra te ly k een to a v e rt
G e r m a n h o stility , K in g C a r o l a c c e p te d a n e w tra d e tre a ty w ith
G e r m a n y , w h ic h g a v e th e la tte r fa r-re a c h in g a d v a n ta g e s in th e
fu tu re d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e R u m a n ia n e c o n o m y . A t th e sam e tim e
B u ca rest a p p e a le d to L o n d o n , a n d th e th ird g u a r a n te e w as
g ra n te d b y C h a m b e r la in w ith e q u a l haste. L ik e th e g u a r a n te e to
G r e e c e , th e g u a r a n te e to R u m a n ia w as u n ila te ra l, w h erea s th e
a g re e m e n t w ith P o la n d b o u n d b o th p a rties to h e lp e a c h o th er.
In th e n e w situ a tio n th e a ttitu d e o f th e S o v ie t U n io n w as c le a rly
o f th e g re a te st im p o rta n c e . A ft e r M u n ic h th e W e ste rn P ow ers
u tte r ly ig n o re d M o sc o w , a p p a r e n tly h o p in g th a t a n e w e ra o f
c o -o p e ra tio n w ith th e A x is h a d o p e n e d . In his sp eech to th e 1 8th
C o n g re ss o f th e C o m m u n ist P a rty , h eld on io M a r c h , S ta lin h ad
d e n o u n c e d th e fascist a ggresso rs, b u t h a d a lso d e c la re d th a t th e
S o v ie t U n io n w a s n ot p rep a re d to ‘ p u ll th e ch estn u ts o u t o f th e
f i r e ’ for o th e r P o w e rs. A fte r th e fall o f P ra g u e , B ritish p u b lic
o p in io n , b o th in a n d o u t o f P a rlia m e n t, pressed th e G o v e rn m e n t
to d iscu ss w ith th e R u ssia n s c o m m o n d efe n ce a g a in st G e rm a n
e x p a n sio n . M r . C h a m b e r la in sh o w e d little eag ern ess. P ro p osals
a n d co u n te r-p ro p o sa ls w e re e x c h a n g e d in A p r il. E a r ly in M a y
L itv in o v w a s re p la c e d as F o re ig n M isn ite r b y M o lo to v . T h is
w a r n in g d id n ot q u ic k e n th e p a c e o f B ritish d ip lo m a c y . D u rin g th e
su m m e r th e B ritish a d v a n c e d re lu c ta n tly sta ge b y sta g e , a n d at
e a c h s ta g e S o v ie t su spiciousness in c re a se d . T h e m ain o b sta c le
ij8 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
th ro u g h o u t w as th e a ttitu d e o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n states w h ic h it
w as p rop o sed to g u a r a n te e . P oles a n d R u m a n ia n s o b je c te d
stro n g ly to th e p assage o f S o v ie t tro op s across th e ir te rrito r y , a n d
th e B a ltic states o b je cte d to b e in g g u a r a n te e d a g a in st ‘ d ire c t o r
in d ir e c t ’ a gg re ssio n from G e r m a n y . In th e lig h t o f la te r e ve n ts
th e ir a ttitu d e is u n d e rs ta n d a b le . It is a lso tru e th a t B rita in , h a v in g
m a d e an a llia n c e w ith P o la n d , c o u ld h a r d ly b e g in im p le m e n tin g it
b y fo rcin g h e r a lly to a c c e p t fro m a th ird P o w e r c o n d itio n s w h ic h
w e re re p u g n a n t to h er. N o r c o u ld B rita in m a k e a se p a ra te a llia n c e
w ith th e th ird P o w e r w h ic h sim p ly ig n o re d h e r a lly ’ s w ish es. T h is
w as a ll th e m o re tru e b e c a u se sin ce M u n ic h th e w o rd o f B rita in
h a r d ly co m m a n d e d u n iv e rsa l re sp ec t: a n o th e r ‘ let d o w n ’ w o u ld
h a v e p ro v e d fa ta l. T h u s it m ust b e a d m itte d th a t, h a v in g m a d e th e
co m m itm e n t to P o la n d , M r . C h a m b e r la in c o u ld h a r d ly h a v e
a c te d o th erw ise th a n he d id . A seriou s c ritic ism , h o w e v e r, is th a t
th e g u a r a n te e to P o la n d sh o u ld n e v e r h a v e b e en g iv e n b e fo re
a sc e rta in in g w h a t w o u ld b e th e S o v ie t a ttitu d e . I f B rita in w as
se e k in g a p o w e rfu l a lly in th e E ast, th e n it w as R u ssia n o t P o la n d
th a t she sh o u ld first h a v e a p p ro a c h e d . O n ly w h e n a n A n g lo -
R u ssia n a llia n c e h ad b e e n m a d e sh o u ld g u a r a n te e s to th e sm a lle r
states h a v e b e e n co n sid e re d .
W h e th e r, i f a p p ro a c h e d in this w a y , th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t
w o u ld h a v e c o n c lu d e d a n a llia n c e w ith B rita in , c a n n e v e r be
p ro v e d . E v e n i f it h ad n ot b e en n ecessary to c o n sid e r th e o p p o si­
tion o f th e sm all E ast E u ro p e a n states, a n d e v e n i f th e B ritish an d
th e R u ssian s h a d h a d fa r g re a te r c o n fid e n c e in e a c h o th e r 's
p o litic a l in ten tio n s th a n w as th e c a se , th ere w o u ld still h a v e b e en
th e o b je c tio n th a t B rita in c o u ld n ot fo r th e first m o n th s o f w a r
h a v e p ro v id e d a n y e ffe c tiv e h e lp on la n d , a n d th a t th e F re n ch
c a p a c it y fo r o ffen sive o p e ra tio n s w as in d o u b t. R u ssia w o u ld h a v e
b o rn e th e m a in b ru n t o f th e G e r m a n a tta c k . I t w a s p r o b a b ly this
w h ic h fin a lly d e c id e d th e S o v ie t le a d e rs in fa v o u r o f a g re e m e n t
w ith G e r m a n y , fo r w h ic h th e G e rm a n s h a d b e en n e g o tia tin g
s in ce th e b e g in n in g o f J u n e .1 In th e w o rd s o f th e se n io r G e rm a n
F o re ig n O ffic e o fficia l S c h n u rr e , in c o n v e r sa tio n w ith S o v ie t

1 A n estim a te o f S o v ie t a n d G e r m a n in ten tio n s d u rin g the su m m er o f 1939 m ust

co n sid e r (a) w h e n the S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t first d e c id e d to m ak e o v e rtu re s to the
G e rm a n s ; (b) w h e n the G e r m a n g o v e rn m e n t first co n sid e red a ra p p ro c h e m e n t w ith
th e U .S .S .R . ; (c) w h en th e tw o g o v e rn m e n ts fin a lly d e c id e d to m a k e a n a g re e m e n t.
T h e d a te o f (d) w o u ld seem to b e th e S ta lin sp e ech to th e i8 ih C o n g re s s o f th e S o v ie t
C o m m u n ist I’ a r ty ( t o M a r c h ) ; o f (b) th e e n d o f M a y . T h e final d e cisio n o n e a c h
sid e, h o w e v e r, c a n h a rd ly b e d a te d befo re A u g u s i. F o r th e w h o le p ro b le m see N a m ie r,
o p . c it., U .S . S ta te D e p a rtm e n t Nazi-Soviet Relations; BelofT, T he Foreign Policy o f Soviet
Russia, v o l. 2, a n d R ossi, Deux ans d'alliance Germano-Sovietique.
 T H E CONQ UE S T OF EA S T E RN EUROPE 59
d ip lo m a ts in B e r lin : ‘ W h a t c o u ld E n g la n d o ffe r R u ssia ? A t
b est, p a r tic ip a tio n in a E u ro p e a n w a r a n d th e h o stility o f G e r ­
m a n y , b u t n o t a sin g le d e s ira b le e n d fo r R u ssia. W h a t c o u ld w e
o ffe r o n th e o th e r h a n d ? N e u tr a lity a n d s ta y in g o u t o f a possible
E u ro p e a n c o n flic t, a n d i f M o sc o w w ish e d , a G e rm a n -R u ssia n
u n d e rs ta n d in g o n m u tu a l in terests w h ic h , ju s t as in fo rm e r tim es,
w o u ld w o rk o u t to th e a d v a n ta g e o f b o th co u n trie s.’ 1
T w o fu rth e r m o tives c a n be fo u n d fo r th e G e rm a n -S o v ie t
a g re e m e n t, w h ic h w as sign e d in M o sc o w on 23 A u g u s t b y th e
tw o F o re ig n M in iste rs, R ib b e n tr o p a n d M o lo to v .
O n e w a s th e r e c o v e ry o f te rrito r y o n c e h eld b y Im p e r ia l R u ssia
a n d m a in ly in h a b ite d b y U k ra in ia n s o r W h ite R u ssian s. B y th e
secret a d d itio n a l p r o to c o l to th e n o n -a ggre ssio n tre a ty o f 23 A u g u st
1939 sp h eres o f in terest w e re la id d o w n fo r ‘ th e e v e n t o f a te rri­
to ria l an d p o litic a l re a rra n g e m e n t in th e areas b e lo n g in g t o ’ th e
B a ltic states a n d P o la n d . F in la n d , L a tv ia , E sth o n ia a n d eastern
P o la n d w e re to b e th e S o v ie t sp h e re , w e ste rn P o la n d an d L ith u ­
a n ia th e G e r m a n . B y th e secret a d d itio n a l p ro to c o l to th e B o u n ­
d a r y a n d F rie n d sh ip T r e a t y o f 28 S e p te m b e r, L ith u a n ia w as
tra n sfe rre d to th e S o v ie t sp h e re , w h ile th e G e rm a n sp h ere in
P o la n d w as e n la r g e d . A fu rth e r c la u se in th e p ro to co l o f 23 A u g u st
h a d also ‘ c a lle d a tt e n t io n ’ to th e S o v ie t 'in te re s t in B e s s a ra b ia ’ ,
in w h ic h G e r m a n y ‘ d e c la re d c o m p le te p o litic a l d isin te re ste d n e ss’ .
T h e o th e r a d d itio n a l S o v ie t m o tiv e is less c e rta in . It is th e
d esire to p r e c ip ita te a w a r b e tw e e n th e ‘ tw o im p e ria list c a m p s ’ .
E n c o u ra g e m e n t o f c o n tra d ic tio n s w ith in th e c a p ita list w o rld has
a lw a y s b e en a p r in c ip le o f S o v ie t d ip lo m a c y , a n d h ere w as a
m a g n ific e n t o p p o r tu n ity to a p p ly it. T h e r e is o f co u rse n o fin al
d o c u m e n ta r y p r o o f th a t this th o u g h t w as u p p e rm o st in S ta lin ’s
m in d a t th e tim e , b u t it is a re a so n a b le d e d u c tio n from th e k n o w n
facts. T h e r e is e v e n so m e c o n c re te in d ic a tio n o f it in th e w a y in
w h ic h S ta lin ‘ e a g e r ly c o n c u r r e d ’ w ith R ib b e n tr o p ’s rem ark s on
th e w eak n ess o f E n g la n d , a n d sp u rred th e G e rm a n F o re ig n
M in is te r o n to sm ash th e B ritish E m p ire , b u ilt on ‘ the stu p id ity
o f th e o th e r co u n trie s th a t a lw a y s let th em selves be b lu f f e d '.2
T h e s e w o rd s a re in c r u d e co n tra st to th e u n c tu o u sly self-righ teo u s
p h rases in w h ic h S o v ie t p ro p a g a n d ists e x to lle d th e p a c t as a
c o n trib u tio n to w o rld p e a ce.
D id R u ssia g a in o r lose o n b a la n c e ? D e fe n d e rs o f S o v ie t p o lic y

1 U .S . S ta te D e p a rtm e n t, N azi-Soviet Relations (h erea fter referred to sim p ly b y its

title ), p . 34.
* Mazi-Soviet Relations, p . 74.
6o THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
use a rg u m e n ts v e r y sim ila r to th ose used b y C h a m b e r la in a n d his
frien d s to ju s tify M u n ic h . T h e y insist th a t R u ssia g a in e d v a lu a b le
tim e in w h ic h to p re p a re h e rse lf for th e u ltim a te G e r m a n a tta c k ,
a n d th at th e te rrito ria l ga in s o f 1939 a n d 1940 p r o v id e d h e r w ith
a d efe n ce in d ep th w h ic h sa v e d h e r in 19 4 1. T h e r e is n o d o u b t
m u c h to b e said fo r this v ie w , a n d fu tu re h isto ria n s m a y d e c id e
th a t it is rig h t. B u t th ere is a n o th e r sid e to it. T h e m a in d iffe re n ce
b e tw e e n th e m ilita r y e ffo rt o f F ra n c e in 19 1 4 a n d in 1940, th e
m a in reason w h y J o ffr e sto p p e d th e G e rm a n s at th e M a r n e b u t
G a m e lin a n d W e y g a n d w e re o v e r w h e lm e d , is still im p e rfe c tly
u n d ersto o d in B rita in a n d in A m e r ic a . It is n o t a q u estio n o f
M a g in o t-m in d e d n e ss, r ig h t-w in g o r le ft-w in g d efe a tism , lo w
m o ra le , fifth co lu m n , o r a n y o f th e o th e r sim ila r fa sh io n a b le
ex p la n a tio n s. T h e s e factors m a y h a v e p la y e d so m e p a rt, b u t th e y
w e re n o t d ec isiv e . T h e d e c isiv e fa c to r w as th at in 19 14 a R u ssia n
a r m y w as fig h tin g , a n d in 1940 it w as n o t. B e cau se th ere w a s a
B o lsh e v ik re v o lu tio n a n d a B re st-I.ito vsk tre a ty , p e o p le fo rge t
th at th e a rm ie s o f Im p e r ia l R u ssia for th re e y e ars e n g a g e d a la rg e
p a rt o f th e G e rm a n a r m y a n d m a d e possib le th e fin al v ic t o r y in
th e W est. In 1940 th ere w as n o ‘ secon d f r o n t ’ . T h e F re n c h an d
B ritish a rm ies w e re a lo n e, F ra n c e co lla p se d , a n d th e B ritish w e re
d riv e n from th e C o n tin e n t. A y e a r la te r it w as R u s s ia ’s tu rn , she
to o w a s a lo n e, a n d h er p e o p le ’s su fferin g s w e re te rrib le . A g a in st
th e sh ort-term ga in s o f 1 9 3 9 -4 1 m ust b e set th e losses o f 1 9 4 1 -4 ,
th e th re e d re a d fu l y e a rs b e fo re th e A n g lo -S a x o n a rm ie s e stab lish e d
th em selves o n c e m o re on F'rench soil. B y re fu sin g F 'ran ce a secon d
fro n t in 1939 a n d 1940, th e S o v ie t le a d e rs d e p riv e d th em selv es
o f a secon d fro n t in 19 4 1, 1942 a n d 1943.
It w as in E a ste rn E u ro p e th a t S o v ie t sh o rt-term g a in s w e re
o b ta in e d , an d it w as in E astern E u ro p e th a t th e co n flic ts d e v e lo p e d
w h ic h led to th e fin a l b re a c h b e tw e e n G e r m a n y an d R u ssia . T h e
first in tim e, a n d p e rh a p s th e m ost im p o rta n t, w a s th e R u m a n ia n
p ro b le m . T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t w a ite d fo r a g o o d o p p o rtu n ity
to m a k e go o d its c la im to B e ssa rab ia . In a sp e e ch in M a r c h 1940
to th e S u p re m e S o v ie t, M o lo to v exp ressed th e h o p e th a t th e S o v ie t
U n io n w o u ld ‘ p e a c e fu lly re c o v e r p o ssessio n ’ . T w o m o n th s la te r,
th e co lla p se of F ra n c e b ro u g h t u tte r d e m o ra lisa tio n to R u m a n ia ,
w h ose fo reig n p o lic y fo r tw e n ty y e ars h a d b e en p r in c ip a lly b ase d
on F re n ch stre n g th . T h e su ccess o f G e r m a n a rm s m a d e it u rg e n t
for th e S o v ie t a lly to assert th e r e m a in d e r o f th e c la im s re c o g n ise d
b y th e R ib b e n tr o p - M o lo to v tre a ty . T h e S o v ie t U n io n th e re fo re
n o t o n ly a n n e x e d th e B a ltic sta tes b u t d e c id e d to fo rc e a so lu tio n o f
 T H E CONQ UE S T OP E A S T E R N E U R O P E 6l
th e B e ssa ra b ia n q u e s tio n . O n 23 J u n e M o lo to v in fo rm ed th e G e r ­
m a n A m b a s s a d o r o f his in te n tio n to ta k e n ot o n ly B essa rab ia b u t
also B u k o v in a , a p r o v in c e w h ic h h a d n e v e r b e lo n g e d to R u ssia, b u t
h a d b e e n a c q u ir e d b y R u m a n ia fro m A u s tria in 1918 . B u k o v in a
lies n o rth -e a st o f th e C a r p a t h ia n m o u n ta in b a rrie r, a n d is thus
g e o g r a p h ic a lly c o n n e c te d w ith th e p la in s o f G a lic ia a n d S o u th
R u ssia as m u c h as w ith M o ld a v ia . Its p o p u la tio n is p a r tly U k r a in ia n
a n d p a r tly R u m a n ia n . T h e G e rm a n g o v e rn m e n t exp ressed su rprise
a t this a d d itio n a l c la im , W'hich h ad n ot b een m en tio n e d in
th e p r e v io u s y e a r , b u t a g re e m e n t w as re a c h e d w h e n M o lo to v
d e c id e d to c la im o n ly th e n o rth e rn p a rt o f th e p ro v in c e , w h ere
U k r a in ia n s u n d o u b te d ly p r e d o m in a te d . T h e G e rm a n s asked o n ly
t h a t th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s sh o u ld assist th e re se ttle m e n t o f the
G e r m a n m in o r ity o f 100,000 from B e ssa ra b ia , a n d th a t th e tran s­
fe r o f te r r ito r y sh o u ld b e a c c o m p lish e d p e a c e fu lly , in o rd e r th a t
th e p r o d u c tio n o f th e R u m a n ia n o il w ells sh o u ld n ot b e a ffe cte d .
O n 26 J u n e a S o v ie t u ltim a tu m o f tw e n ty -fo u r h ou rs w as add ressed
to th e R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t. T h e G e rm a n g o v e rn m e n t
in stru cte d its M in is te r in B u c a re st, F a b ritiu s, to ‘ a d v ise th e
R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t to y ie ld to th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t’ s
d e m a n d ’ . O n 27 J u n e K i n g C a r o l h eld a C r o w n C o u n c il in
B u ca re st. S o m e C o u n c illo rs , in c lu d in g th e h isto ria n an d e x-
P re m ie r P rofesso r I o r g a , u rg e d resista n ce, b u t in v ie w o f th e G e r ­
m a n a d v ic e , th e K in g d e c id e d to s u rre n d e r.1 T h u s th e S o v ie t
g o v e r n m e n t g a in e d so m e te rrito r y , p u sh ed b a c k its fro n tie r from
O d e ss a , a n d b e c a m e a r ip a ria n sta te on th e D a n u b e . I n re tu rn it
a n ta g o n ise d m a n y R u m a n ia n p a trio ts w h o m ig h t h a v e b e en its
frien d s, a n d g a v e a sp len d id p r o p a g a n d a w e a p o n to th ose w h o
w e re in a n y ca se its en em ies.
T h e a n n e x a t io n . o f B e ssa ra b ia sta rte d th e d ism e m b erm e n t
o f R u m a n ia . B u lg a r ia a n d H u n g a r y p resen te d th e ir b ills.
R u m a n ia n o w c o m m itte d h e rs e lf to a p ro -A x is p o lic y . G e r m a n y
v a lu e d R u m a n ia ’s resou rces h ig h ly , a n d possessed a u sefu l fifth
c o lu m n in sid e th e c o u n tr y . S h e th erefo re w ish e d to sp a re R u m a n ia
as fa r as p ossib le. B u t sh e also h ad to g iv e som e su p p o rt to B u lg a ria
a n d H u n g a r y , w h o se c o -o p e ra tio n w ith th e A x is w as also d esir­
a b le . T h e A x is P o w e rs a t first e n c o u ra g e d th e th re e g o v e rn m e n ts
to w o rk o u t a n a g re e m e n t b y th em selves. B u t n e g o tia tio n s fa ile d ,
a n d p a tr io tic fe e lin g in R u m a n ia w a s w o rk in g u p to a fren zy .
A s it w a s essen tial fo r th e A x is to p r e v e n t a w a r w h ic h m ig h t
d e s tro y th e o il field s, it w as d e c id e d to a rb itra te b e tw e e n H u n g a ry
1 C a fc n c u , Préliminaires de la guerre d /’ Est, p. 292.
62 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

a n d R u m a n ia . T h e fro n tie r d ic ta te d a t V ie n n a on 30 A u g u s t d id
n ot satisfy e ith e r sid e. It restored to H u n g a r y a b o u t o n e m illio n
H u n g a ria n s to g e th e r w ith a R u m a n ia n m in o r ity o f o v e r a m illio n .
T h e m ain in d u stria l resou rces w e re left to R u m a n ia , w h ile th e
s tra te g ic a lly im p o rta n t C a r p a t h ia n lin e in th e east w as a lm o st a ll
in H u n g a ria n h an d s. M o re th a n h a lf a m illio n H u n g a ria n s w e re
left in R u m a n ia .
P u b lic o p in io n in R u m a n ia w as u n d o u b te d ly fo r resista n ce. It
w as fe a r o f S o v ie t a c tio n th a t d e c id e d th e R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t
to y ie ld . O n 29 A u g u st th e S o v ie t A ssistan t F o re ig n C o m m issa r,
D e k a n o z o v , su m m o n e d th e R u m a n ia n m in ister G a fe n c u , a n d
d e liv e re d a ‘ v e r b a l n o t e ’ o f p ro te st c o n c e rn in g a n in c id e n t o n th e
M o ld a v ia n fro n tie r, w h ic h ‘ m ig h t tak e a m o re seriou s tu rn ’ .
W h e th e r this a c tio n w a s in te n d e d to h e lp th e pressure e x e rte d b y
th e A x is P ow ers on R u m a n ia , o r w as a n in d ire c t w a r n in g to th e
A x is P ow ers th a t th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t w a s in te re ste d in w h a t
w as h a p p e n in g in R u m a n ia , is n o t c le a r. It is, h o w e v e r, c e rta in
th a t it w as e x p lo ite d b y th e A x is g o v e rn m e n ts. T h e o p in io n o f
G a fe n c u , w h o w as th en R u m a n ia n M in is te r in M o s c o w , is th a t
‘ th e d a n g e r o f an im m e d ia te R u ssia n d escen t in M o ld a v ia w a s th e
d ecisive a rg u m e n t in v o k e d b y th e V ie n n a a rb ite rs to im p o se th e ir
a r b it r a t io n ’ . 1 R u m a n ia th en y ie ld e d .
B u lg a ria h a d a lr e a d y re c e iv e d so u th D o b r u d ja , a p r o v in c e
w h o se p o p u la tio n w as m a in ly n o n -R u m a n ia n , a n d w h ic h , a p a r t
fro m co n sid e ra tio n s o f p restige , th e R u m a n ia n s d id n o t v e r y
m u ch m in d losin g . T h u s in tw o m o n th s R u m a n ia h a d lost m o re
th an a th ird o f h e r te rrito ry a n d som e th re e m illio n R u m a n ia n s
as w ell as a b o u t tw o m illio n su b je cts o f n o n -R u m a n ia n n a tio n a l
o rig in .
H a v in g im p osed these h e a v y losses, th e A x is P o w ers o ffe re d as
co m p e n sa tio n a fo rm a l g u a r a n te e o f a ll R u m a n ia ’s re m a in in g
fron tiers. T h is c o u ld o n ly b e in te rp re te d as a g u a r a n te e d ire cte d
a g a in st th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e fascist g o v e rn m e n t o f G e n e r a l
A n to n e scu an d th e Iro n G u a r d , w h ich c a m e to p o w e r w h e n K in g
C a r o l, his p restige d estro y e d b y th e n a tio n a l losses, a b d ic a te d on
6 S e p te m b e r, in te rp re te d it in this sense. M o lo to v r e p r o a c h e d th e
G e r m a n g o v e rn m e n t fo r fa ilin g to co n su lt M o s c o w b e fo re h a n d ,
a n d this le d to an e x c h a n g e o f re c rim in a tio n s, b ase d on d iv e rg e n t
in te rp re ta tio n s o f A r t ic le 3 o f th e N o n -A g g re ssio n P a c t. T h e
S o v ie t p o in t o f v ie w w as m a in ta in e d a t le n g th in a m e m o ra n d u m
d a te d 21 S e p te m b e r. D iv e r g e n c e o f v ie w s b e tw e e n B e rlin an d
G a fe n c u , o p . c it., p p . 5 6 -8 .
 T H E CONQ UE S T OF EA S TE RN EUROPE 63
M o sc o w w as a lso re v e a le d a t th e c o n fe re n c e w h ic h m et in B u carest
a t th e e n d o f O c t o b e r to d e c id e th e n e w re g im e for th e D a n u b e .
M o s c o w w ish e d th e d e lta to b e re g u la te d b y a b ila te r a l S o v ie t-
R u m a n ia n a u th o rity , w h ile th e A x is P ow ers, w ith th e su p p o rt o f
R u m a n ia , w ish ed a m u ltila te ra l D a n u b e co m m ission to re g u la te
th e w h o le co u rse o f th e riv e r. T h e c o n fe re n ce c o u ld n o t re a ch a
d ec isio n . It w as a d jo u rn e d a t th e e n d o f D e c e m b e r a n d n e v e r
re a sse m b le d .
O n 13 O c t o b e r R ib b e n tr o p w ro te a p e rso n a l le tte r to S ta lin , in
w h ic h h e in v ite d M o lo to v to visit B erlin to discuss th e w h o le field
o f R u s s ia ’s re la tio n s w ith G e r m a n y a n d w ith th e T h r e e P o w e r
A llia n c e . T h e in v ita tio n in som e w a y s resem b les R ib b c n t r o p ’s
a p p r o a c h to P o la n d in O c t o b e r 1938. A y e a r o f G e rm a n -S o v ie t
c o -o p e ra tio n h a d , lik e fo u r y e a rs o f G e rm a n -P o lis h co lla b o ra tio n
fro m 1934 to 1938, b ro u g h t lim ite d b u t c o n sid e ra b le a d v a n ta g e s
to b o th p a rtie s. T h e tim e h a d c o m e to see w h e th e r this c o lla b o r a ­
tio n c o u ld b e e x te n d e d to a w o rld sca le , o r m ust b re a k d o w n a n d
g iv e p la c e to o p e n c o n flic t. F ro m this p o in t o f v ie w M o lo to v ’s
v isit, w h ic h to o k p la c e on 1 2 - 1 3 N o v e m b e r , w as a h isto rica l
tu rn in g -p o in t. T h e G e rm a n p ro p o sa ls w e re b rie fly th e fo llo w in g .
T h e T h r e e P o w e r A llia n c e a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n w e re to sign a
tr e a ty o f p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic c o -o p e ra tio n , re c o g n isin g e ach
o th e r ’s sp h eres o f in terest, c o n su ltin g e a c h o th e r on p ro b lem s
a ris in g fro m c o n ta c t b e tw e e n th ese sph eres, a n d g iv in g n o su p p o rt
to a n y c o m b in a tio n o f P o w ers d ire c te d a g a in st a n y o f th em .
T h e S o v ie t sp h e re w as to be ‘ so u th o f th e te rrito ry o f th e U .S .S .R .
in th e d ire c tio n o f th e I n d ia n O c e a n ’ . T h e r e w as to b e a fu rth e r
a g re e m e n t to b rin g pressu re j o in t ly to b e a r on T u r k e y fo r a
re v isio n o f th e M o n tr e u x c o n v e n tio n on th e S tra its. In fu tu re
B la ck S e a P o w e rs w e re to h a v e th e rig h t to sen d w arsh ip s th ro u g h
th e S tra its in to th e M e d ite r r a n e a n , b u t n o n o n -B la c k S e a P ow ers,
n o t e v e n G e r m a n y a n d I t a ly th em selves, w e re to h a v e th e rig h t
to sen d w a rsh ip s th ro u g h th e S tra its in to th e B la c k S e a .1 T h e term s
seem g e n e ro u s. In p a r tic u la r th e p ro p o se d se ttle m e n t o f th e S traits
w as o n e fo r w h ic h th e T s a rs h a d u n su ccessfu lly striv e n fo r g e n e ra ­
tion s.
B u t th e term s w e re n ot g o o d e n o u g h fo r M o sc o w . I t w as n ot
th a t M o s c o w o b je c te d in p r in c ip le to a p a rtitio n o f th e w o rld
b e tw e e n G e r m a n y , I t a ly , J a p a n a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n : it w as
th a t M o s c o w ’ s sh a re o f th e lo o t o u g h t to b e b ig g e r. T h e o fficial
S o v ie t c o u n te r-p ro p o sa ls w e re c o m m u n ic a te d on 25 N o v e m b e r.
1 t fa & S o tn tt filiations, p p . 2 5 5 -8 .
64 the EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e S o v ie t sp h ere w as to b e d efin e d as 't h e a re a sou th o f B a tu m
a n d B a k u in th e g e n e ra l d ire c tio n o f th e P ersian G u l f ’ , b u t m ore
sp ecific con cession s w e re d e m a n d e d w ith re g a rd to T u r k e y a n d
B u lg a ria . T h e se cre t p ro to c o l on T u r k e y w as to in c lu d e th e cession
o f a base fo r la n d a n d n a v a l forces o f th e U .S .S .R . ‘ on th e
B osp horus a n d D a r d a n e lle s ’ . B u lg a ria w a s to c o n c lu d e a m u tu a l
assistance p a c t w ith th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e P o w e rs w e re to re c o g ­
nise th a t ‘ B u lg a ria is g e o g r a p h ic a lly lo c a te d in sid e th e se c u rity
zo n e o f th e B la ck S e a b o u n d a rie s o f th e U .S .S .R ., a n d th a t it is
th erefo re a p o litic a l n ecessity th at a m u tu a l assistan ce p a c t b e
c o n c lu d e d . . . w h ic h sh all in n o w a y a ffe c t th e in te rn a l re g im e
in B u lg a ria , her so v e re ig n ty o r in d e p e n d e n c e ’ . 1 D u r in g th e d is­
cussions w ith H itle r a n d R ib b e n tr o p , M o lo to v h a d ra ised se v eral
tim es th e id e a o f a p a c t w ith B u lg a ria , w h ic h w as to b e a sort o f
co m p e n sa tio n to M o sc o w fo r th e A x is g u a r a n te e to R u m a n ia .
H itle r re p lied th a t h e c o u ld g iv e n o a n sw e r u n til h e h a d c o n su lte d
M u sso lin i, a n d u n til h e k n e w the v iew s o f th e B u lg a ria n g o v e r n ­
m en t. T h e last p o in t m a y h a v e b e en a n in sin ce re e x c u se fro m th e
G e rm a n p o in t o f v ie w , b u t it w as a re a l p o in t n on e th e less, fo r
th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e B a ltic states, w h ic h h a d m a d e p a c ts w ith
R u ssia in 1939 w ith pro fu se S o v ie t assu ran ces o f n o n -in te r­
fe re n ce in in te rn a l a ffa irs, c o u ld h a r d ly b e e n c o u r a g in g to th e
B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n t.
T h e d isp a rity b e tw e e n th e G e r m a n a n d S o v ie t p ro p o sa ls w a s
to o g re a t to p e rm it a g re e m e n t. T h e n e g o tia tio n s w e re n o t c o n ­
tin u ed , an d re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e tw o P o w e rs d e te rio ra te d . B u t
it w o u ld b e rash to assu m e th a t th e G e rm a n s n e v e r in te n d e d to
e stab lish a firm basis fo r c o -o p e ra tio n w ith th e S o v ie t U n io n fo r
a lo n g e r p e rio d , a n d th a t c o n flic t w as in e v ita b le . I f a g re e m e n t
c o u ld h a v e b e en re a c h e d , a G e r m a n -J a p a n e s e -S o v ie t b lo c,
c o n tro llin g a ll E u ro p e an d A s ia a n d m ost o f A fr ic a , a n d d ire c te d
a g a in st th e U n ite d S tate s a n d th e o u t ly in g p o rtio n s o f th e B ritish
E m p ire , w as b y no m ean s a n u n re a lis a b le p ro je c t. B u t th e S o v ie t
a p p e tite w as to o la rg e a n d to o im p a tie n t. F o r th e sake o f aim s
in B u lg a ria , su re ly a p o sitio n o f se c o n d a ry im p o rta n c e , th e S o v ie t
le a d e rs th re w a w a y th e c h a n c e n o t o n ly to g a in la n d s in th e
M id d le E ast, b u t to w a tc h in p e a c e w h ile th e g re a te st c a p ita list
states e x h a u ste d th em selves in a tita n ic stru g g le on th e w o rld
scale.
E v e n a fte r th e fa ilu re o f th e N o v e m b e r talk s, it is p e rh a p s
too m u c h to sa y th a t H itle r fin a lly d e c id e d o n w a r . T h e ‘ B a r-
1 Nazi-Soviet Relations, p p . 2 5 8 -9 .
 T H E C ONQUE S T O f E A S T E RN EUROPE 65
b a r o s s a ’ o p e r a tio n a l in stru c tio n w as sign ed on i8 D e c e m b e r.
B u t H itle r c o u ld c o u n te r m a n d ord ers as w e ll as g iv e th em . N o
w a r is q u ite c e rta in u n til it b re ak s o u t. D u rin g th e first six m onth s
o f 19 4 1, h o w e v e r , G e r m a n - S o v ie t re la tio n s u n d o u b te d ly g re w
w o rse , a n d th e m a in im m e d ia te ca u se fo r this w as even ts in the
B a lk a n s.
D u r in g th e su m m e r M u sso lin i h a d b een im p a tie n t to start a
little v ic to rio u s w a r a g a in st G r e e c e , b u t th e G e rm a n g o v e rn m e n t
h a d h e ld h im b a c k . A t th e e n d o f O c to b e r , w h ile H itle r w as
v is itin g F r a n c o o n th e S p a n ish -F re n c h fro n tie r, h e d e c id e d to
a c t. H e in fo rm e d th e F ü h r e r w h e n th e y m et in F lo re n c e on 281h,
w h e n m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s w e re a lr e a d y in progress. T h is g estu re o f
I ta lia n in d e p e n d e n c e n o d o u b t a n n o y e d th e G e rm a n s, b u t th ey
c o u ld o n ly a c c e p t i t . 1 A fte r b r ie f in itia l successes, th e Ita lia n troops
w e re d riv e n b a c k b y th e G ree k s, w h o a d v a n c e d triu m p h a n tly in to
A lb a n ia . A s th e m o n th s w e n t b y th e I ta lia n situ a tio n d id n ot
im p ro v e . T o th e A x is g o v e rn m e n ts th ere seem ed a re a l d a n g e r
t h a t th e B ritish m ig h t e stab lish in G r e e c e a E u ro p e a n b rid g e ­
h e a d . B esid es this th e A x is n e ed e d so u th ern G r e e c e a n d C r e te as
b ases a g a in st th e M id d le E a st. T h e re fo r e th e G e rm a n g o v e rn ­
m e n t d e c id e d to in te rv e n e in th e co n flic t. F o r this it w as necessary
fo r G e r m a n tro o p s to m a rch th ro u g h B u lg a ria , a n d for Y u g o ­
s la v ia ’ s n e u tr a lity to b e assu red . D u r in g J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y
th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t m a d e c le a r its u n w illin gn e ss to see G e rm a n
tro o p s in B u lg a ria , a r g u in g th a t this m ig h t b rin g th e T u r k s in to
th e w a r a n d th e B ritish to th e S tra its. B u t th e G e rm a n s w e n t
a h e a d . O n 27 F e b r u a r y th e y in fo rm e d M o sc o w th a t B u lg a ria w as
a b o u t to a d h e re to th e T h r e e P o w e r A llia n c e (this a c tu a lly took
p la c e o n 1 M a r c h ) , a n d th a t G e r m a n troo p s w o u ld e n te r B u lg a ria
in o r d e r to d e te r th e B ritish fro m e sta b lish in g th em selves in
G r e e c e , b u t th a t th ere w o u ld b e n o a tta c k on T u r k e y . M o lo to v
c o ld ly re p lie d b y re p e a tin g th e p h ra se th a t B u lg a r ia c a m e w ith in
‘ th e s e c u rity z o n e o f th e U . S . S . R . ’ S o v ie t d isa p p ro v a l o f th e
G e r m a n a c tio n w a s also m a d e p u b lic b y a sta te m e n t o f th e
o ffic ia l T a s s a g e n c y .
D u r in g M a r c h A x is d ip lo m a c y pressed a n d w o o e d Y u g o s la v ia .
T h e h o p e o f a n n e x in g S a lo n ic a w as h e ld o u t to th e Y u g o sla v s .
P r in c e P a u l a n d m ost o f his m in isters w ish ed to a v o id c o m m it­
m en ts to th e A x is , a n d th ere c o u ld b e n o d o u b t th a t p u b lic
o p in io n w a s a g a in st it. A n a tte m p t h a d b e en m a d e to stren gth en

1 F o r d e ta ils o f th e Ita lia n a tta c k o n G re e c e , sec W isk c m a n n , 7 'he Rotru-Brtiin

A x is, a n d D o n o sti, M ussolini t l'Eurof>a.
66 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
Y u g o s la v ia ’ s freed o m o f a c tio n b y th e tre a ty o f frien d sh ip sign ed
in D e c e m b e r 1940 w ith H u n g a r y . T h e sp o kesm en o f b o th g o v e r n ­
m en ts p o u re d o u t c o m p lim e n ts to th e A x is , b u t it w a s c le a r th a t
b o th h o p e d b y this a ctio n to su p p o rt e a c h o th e r ’ s n e u tr a lity . B u t
u ltim a te ly th e pressure p ro v e d to o m u c h for P r in c e P a u l, a n d on
25 M a r c h th e Y u g o s la v P re m ie r an d F o re ig n M in is te r sign ed th e
T h r e e P o w e r P a ct in V ie n n a . T h e Y u g o s la v p e o p le ’ s re a c tio n w as
th e coup d ’ etat o f 27 M a r c h , c a rrie d o u t b y a sm all n u m b e r o f
office r co n sp irato rs b u t u n d o u b te d ly re p re s e n tin g th e fe e lin g o f a t
least th e S e rb ia n n a tio n . T h e g o v e rn m e n t th at fo llo w e d th e coup
w as fo rm ed for th e g re a te r p a rt n o t o f officers b u t o f th e o ld
p o liticia n s o f th e d e m o c ra tic o p p o sitio n . T h e ir m ost o b v io u s
ch a ra c te ristic w a s S e rb ia n n a tio n a lism a n d d istru st o f th e C r o a ts .
In d e e d th ere is som e g ro u n d fo r th e su sp icio n th a t th e y w e re m o re
in terested in u n d o in g th e con cession s m a d e to th e C r o a ts b y P r in c e
P a u l in 1939 th a n in resistin g th e A x is. C e r ta in ly th e y h a ste n e d to
assure B erlin a n d R o m e th a t th e y co n sid e re d th e sig n a tu r e o f th e
T h r e e P o w e r A llia n c e b in d in g . A t th e sa m e tim e th e y so u g h t clo se r
rela tio n s w ith M o sc o w .
B etw een th e w o rld w ars th ere h a d b e en n o d ip lo m a tic re la tio n s
b e tw e e n Y u g o s la v ia an d th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e y h a d b e en
restored in 1940, w ith th e b lessin g o f th e A x is. M ila n G a v r ilo v ic ,
le a d e r o f the S e rb ia n A g r a r ia n P a rty an d first Y u g o s la v A m b a s ­
s a d o r to M o sc o w , w as a g o o d frien d o f th e p o litic ia n s w h o fo rm ed
th e g o v e rn m e n t o f 27 M a r c h . In fa c t h e w as d e c la re d to b e a
m in ister in th a t g o v e rn m e n t w h ile se rv in g in M o s c o w . H e w as
also a go o d frien d o f G r e a t B rita in . G a v r ilo v ic so u g h t clo se r
frien d sh ip w ith M o sc o w , a n d his efforts m et w ith a su rp risin g
response. O n 4 A p r il M o lo to v su m m o n e d th e G e r m a n A m b a s ­
sa d o r to his office to in form h im th a t th e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t
h ad p rop o sed to th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t a tre a ty o f n on -a g g re ssio n
an d frien d sh ip , a n d th a t th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h a d d e c id e d to
a c c e p t, a n d w as a b o u t to sign th e tre a ty . H e in sisted th a t h e w as
c o n v in ce d th a t th e presen t Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t fu lly in te n d e d
to a b id e b y its d e c la ra tio n th a t it w o u ld c o n tin u e to a d h e re to
th e T h r e e P o w e r A llia n c e , a n d he th e re fo re sa w n o rea so n w h y
th e G e rm a n g o v e rn m e n t sh o u ld be d is p le a s e d .1
T h e S o v ie t a c tio n h as n o t y et b e en su ffic ie n tly e x p la in e d . I t is
c le a r th a t it w as in te n d e d as a re m in d e r to B erlin t h a t M o s c o w
w as in terested in th e B a lk a n p e n in su la . B u t it is to o m u c h to
assu m e th a t M o s c o w w as d e lib e r a te ly e n c o u r a g in g Y u g o s la v ia
1 N a & S o v u t Relations, p . 3 17 .
 T H E C O NQ U E S T OF EA S T E RN E U R O P E 67
to sta n d u p to th e A x is , a n d still less a r g u a b le th at b e cau se
G a v r ilo v ic w as A n g lo p h ile a n d his p ro p o sa l w as a c c e p te d b y the
K r e m lin , th erefo re S o v ie t p o lic y w as ta k in g an A n g lo p h ile tu rn .
M o lo to v o f co u rse d id n o t k n o w w h e n h e sign ed th e p a c t th a t th e
G e rm a n s w e re g o in g to a tta c k Y u g o s la v ia tw o d a y s la ter. T h e
in fo r m a tio n w a s c o m m u n ic a te d to h im e a r ly on 6 A p r il, som e
h o u rs a fte r th e first G e r m a n b o m b s h a d fa lle n on B e lg ra d e.
It c a n b e a rg u e d t h a t th e S im o v ic g o v e rn m e n t w as b y no
m ea n s so so lid ly o r so re so lu te ly a n ti-A x is as h as b e en co m m o n ly
a ssu m e d , a n d w h e n M o lo to v told S c h u le n b u r g th a t h e d id
n ot re g a rd it as a n ti- G e r m a n h e m a y h a v e b e en sin cere. B u t
H it le r w a s t a k in g n o ch a n c e s. T h e A x is h ad a lr e a d y o n c e been
d isa p p o in te d b y c h a n g e s o f g o v e rn m e n t in B e lg ra d e — in F e b ­
r u a r y 1939, w h e n S to ja d in o v ic , o n w h o se d e v o tio n to th e A x is
G e r m a n a n d I t a lia n B a lk a n p o lic y w as la rg e ly b ased , h ad
b e e n dism issed b y P r in c e P a u l. N o w b y g re a t d ip lo m a tic e ffo rt
th e y h a d b ro u g h t Y u g o s la v ia to th e p o in t o f sig n in g th e T h r e e
P o w e r A llia n c e , a n d th e P re m ie r a n d F o re ig n M in iste r w h o h a d
sig n e d , to g e th e r w ith th e P rin c e R e g e n t h im self, w ere o v e rth ro w n .
W h a t e v e r m a y h a v e b e en th e d ip lo m a tic in ten tion s o f th e S im o v ic
g o v e rn m e n t, th e a c t o f 27 M a r c h w as tre a te d b y H itle r as a slap
in th e fa c e , a n d h e re a c te d a c c o r d in g ly . A n d w h e n th e G e rm a n s
m a rc h e d a g a in st Y u g o s la v ia , strik in g sim u lta n e o u sly from
A u s tr ia , H u n g a r y , R u m a n ia a n d B u lg a ria , an d jo in in g u p th ro u g h
M a c e d o n ia w ith th e I ta lia n s in A lb a n ia , th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t
d id n o t e v e n m a k e a g e stu re in fa v o u r o f its n e w frien d .
T h r e e o th e r frien d sh ip tre atie s o f Y u g o s la v ia w e re also c a s u a l­
ties— w ith B u lg a r ia ( 1 9 3 7 ) , I t a ly (19 3 7 ) a n d H u n g a r y (19 4 0 ).
T h e H u n g a r ia n P re m ie r, C o u n t P a u l T e le k i, w as m ost u n w illin g
to let th e G e rm a n s th ro u g h , b u t R e g e n t H o rth y co n se n ted , an d
th e G e n e r a l S ta ff, in w h ic h G e rm a n in flu e n ce h a d lo n g b een
e x tr e m e ly stro n g, in sisted . T e le k i, u n a b le to c h a n g e th e co u rse o f
eve n ts, c o m m itte d su icid e . Y u g o s la v resista n ce c o lla p se d in a few
d a y s, a n d th e G e r m a n a tta c k o n G r e e c e w as also q u ic k ly su ccess­
fu l. I t w as co m p le te d b y th e fa ll o f C r e te in M a y .
T u r k e y , w h ic h w a s a m e m b e r o f th e B a lk a n E n ten te o f 1934
a n d h a d in O c t o b e r 1939 sign e d a tr e a ty w ith B rita in a n d F ra n c e
d esp ite S o v ie t p ressure, re m a in e d n e u tra l in th e B a lk a n c a m p a ig n .
A n a tta c k b y a B a lk a n sta te ( B u lg a r ia o r A lb a n ia ) on h er B a lk a n
E n te n te co -sig n a to rie s ( Y u g o s la v ia , G r e e c e o r R u m a n ia ) in
a sso cia tio n w ith a n o th e r P o w e r o b lig e d T u rk e y to g o to w a r.
H o w e v e r , B u lg a r ia h a d n o t fo r m a lly d e c la re d w a r on e ith e r
68 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

c o u n tr y , a n d h a d n o t tak e n p a rt in m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s, so it

co u ld b e a rg u e d th a t th e casus foederis h a d n ot arisen . T u r k e y ’s
desire to re m a in a t p e a c e w ith B u lg a ria h a d b e en sh o w n b y th e
T u r c o -B u lg a r ia n d e c la ra tio n o f 1 7 th F e b ru a ry .
T u r k e y ’ s in a c tio n w as a d isa p p o in tm e n t to h e r B a lk a n frien d s.
B u t in th e lig h t o f su b se q u e n t e ve n ts th e A llie s h a d rea so n to b e
g ra te fu l. I f T u r k e y h ad g o n e to w a r w ith G e r m a n y in 19 4 1 , it is
o b v io u s th a t th e G e r m a n forces w o u ld h a v e b e e n a b le to a d v a n c e
th ro u g h A n a to lia . In v ie w o f th e stre n g th o f G e r m a n y ’ s in flu e n c e
a t this tim e in b o th S y r ia a n d I r a q , it is p r o b a b le th a t E g y p t, a n d
so th e w h o le M e d ite rra n e a n , w o u ld h a v e b e e n lost to B rita in .
H itle r w o u ld also h a v e h a d to p o stp o n e his in v a sio n o f R u ssia fo r
a y e a r, a n d so w o u ld h a v e c o n c e n tr a te d his fo rces a g a in st B rita in .
T h u s it m a y b e a rg u e d th a t T u r k e y ’s n e u tr a lity sa v e d B rita in
fro m still g r e a te r peril.
G e r m a n d ip lo m a c y m a d e g r e a t e ffo rts to w in o v e r T u r k e y . In
M a r c h 1941 th e T u rk is h A m b a ssa d o r in B e rlin w as in fo rm e d o f
S o v ie t aim s in th e S tra its, as sta ted b y M o lo to v d u r in g his B e rlin
c o n v e r sa tio n s.1 T u r k e y w as, h o w e v e r, a n x io u s to a v o id b e in g
d ra w n in to th e c o m in g G e r m a n - S o v ie t c o n flic t. O n 25 M a r c h 1941
a jo in t T u r c o -S o v ie t d e c la ra tio n w a s p u b lish e d . I t sta te d th a t
rep orts in th e fo reig n press th a t i f T u r k e y w e re le d to e n te r th e
w a r th e S o v ie t U n io n w o u ld a tta c k h e r, 'i n n o w a y co rre s p o n d
to th e p o sitio n o f th e U .S . S . R . ’ T u r k e y c o u ld in th e e v e n t o f w a r
‘ co u n t on th e fu ll u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d n e u tr a lity o f th e U . S . S . R . ’ ,
a n d th e U .S .S .R . o n T u rk is h n e u tr a lity . In fa c t, h o w e v e r, T u r k is h
n e u tr a lity in a G e rm a n -S o v ie t w a r w as o f g re a te r a d v a n ta g e to
G e r m a n y th a n to th e S o v ie t U n io n , fo r it re m o v e d a n y la n d
th re a t to th e G e r m a n sou th -ea st fla n k a n d p re v e n te d a n y B ritish
a tte m p t to fo rc e th e A e g e a n a n d b rin g h e lp to R u ssia th ro u g h th e
B la ck S e a . In J u n e 1941 a G e r m a n - T u r k is h n o n -a g g re ssio n p a c t
w as sig n e d , a few d a y s b e fo re th e G e r m a n tro o p s in v a d e d R u ssia .
It w as a n u n d o u b te d su ccess fo r G e r m a n d ip lo m a c y a n d a b lo w
to th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e S o v ie t le a d e rs h a d b ro u g h t it o n th e m ­
selves b y th e ir b u lly in g o f T u r k e y in 1939 a n d th e ir g re e d in th e
G e rm a n -S o v ie t c o n v e rsa tio n s o f N o v e m b e r 1940.
A t th e last m o m e n t th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h a d v a in ly a tte m p te d
to a p p e a se H itle r. O n 28 A p r il th e G e r m a n A m b a s s a d o r S c h u le n ­
b u r g p e rs o n a lly exp re sse d to H itle r th e o p in io n t h a t th e S o v ie t
le a d e rs h a d n o h o stile in te n tio n s to w a r d s G e r m a n y , a n d w e re

1 S e e a rtic le in Foreign Affairs, N e w Y o r k , A p r il 1949, b y the T u r k is h F o re ig n

M in is te r, N e c m e d d in S a d a is, en title d ‘ T u r k e y faces th e S o v ie ts/
 T H E C O NQ U E S T OF E A S T E R N EUROPE 69
r e je c tin g a ll a d v ic e o ffere d b y th e B r itis h .1 O n 6 M a y S ta lin
h im s e lf fo r th e first tim e to o k th e office o f P rim e M in ister.
S c h u le n b u r g in te rp re te d this as a su p re m e e ffo rt to im p ro v e
G e r m a n - S o v ie t re la tio n s b y g iv in g a ll his p e rso n a l p restige to the
w o rk o f c o n c ilia tio n . E v id e n c e o f this w as th e e x p u lsio n from
M o s c o w o f th e le g a tio n s o f B e lg iu m , N o r w a y a n d Y u g o s la v ia
(w ith w h ic h o n ly o n e m o n th e a r lie r S ta lin h im s e lf h a d sign e d a
tr e a ty o f frie n d sh ip ), th e d ec isio n to e stab lish d ip lo m a tic rela tio n s
w ith th e p r o -G e r m a n g o v e rn m e n t o f R a sh id A li in I r a q , an d
p ro p o sa ls fo r fu rth e r G e r m a n - S o v ie t e c o n o m ic co-operation.®
B u t a ll this a p p e a s e m e n t w a s to o la te. G e rm a n m ilita r y p la n s
h a d g o n e to o fa r. T h e R u m a n ia n s 3 a n d F in n s h a d b een ta k e n in to
G e r m a n c o n fid e n c e a n d tro op s w e re disposed fo r th e a tta c k .
P e rh a p s th e fin a lly d e c isiv e fa c to r w as H it le r ’s p e rso n a l h a tre d o f
b o th R u ssia a n d c o m m u n ism , w h ic h h e h a d w ith in cre a sin g
d iffic u lty su p p ressed d u r in g th e p r e c e d in g m on th s. S ta lin ’s last
p a th e tic g e stu re , th e in c re d ib le T a ss c o m m u n iq u e o f 14 J u n e
d e n y in g a n y d e te rio ra tio n in G e r m a n - S o v ie t re la tio n s, w a s a
fa ilu re . O n th e 12 9 th a n n iv e rs a ry o f N a p o le o n ’s in va sio n , the
G e r m a n a r m y crossed th e S o v ie t b o r d e r .4 T h e S e c o n d W o r ld W a r
e n tered a n u tte r ly n e w p h ase.

1 Mazi-Soviet Relations, p p . 3 3 0 -2 . * I b id ., p p .3 3 6 0.
* T rial o j the M ajor German IVar Crim inali, Par« 6 , p p . 2 7 3 -4 .
4 F o r an a c c o u n t o f the atm o sp h e re in S o v iet o fficial a n d d ip lo m a tic circles in
M o sco w in ihe«e d a y s , sec G a fe n c u , o p . c it .. p p . 2 1 0 -1 3 .
 CHAPTER FOUR

T H E A X IS N EW ORDER

H E first E ast E u ro p e a n c o u n tr y o c c u p ie d b y th e G e rm a n s
w a s C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . T h is is n o t th e p la c e to d iscu ss th e
p ro vin ce s a n n e x e d b y G e r m a n y u n d e r th e M u n ic h a g re e ­
m en t, w h ic h w e re in c o rp o ra te d in th e T h ir d R e ic h a n d sh a red its
fa te u n til th e en d o f th e w a r , o r S lo v a k ia , w h ic h fro m its p r o c la m a ­
tio n o f ‘ in d e p e n d e n c e ’ in M a r c h 1939 u n til th e risin g o f S e p te m ­
b e r 1944 w as n ot g o v e rn e d d ir e c tly b y th e G e rm a n s. T h e fo llo w in g
d e s crip tio n a p p lie s o n ly to th e ‘ P r o te c to r a te B o h e m ia - M o r a v ia ’ ,
th e m u tila te d C z e c h la n d s.
In th e P r o te cto ra te th ere w e re tw o a u th o ritie s, G e r m a n a n d
C z e c h , th e la tte r su b o rd in a te to th e fo r m e r .1 H it le r ’s re p r e s e n ta ­
tiv e w as th e R e ic h P r o te c to r . F ro m A p r il 1939 to S e p te m b e r 1941
this office w as h eld b y B a ro n v o n N e u r a th , fo rm e r R e ic h F o re ig n
M in iste r . I m m e d ia te ly u n d e r h im w as th e S ta te S e c r e ta r y , K . H .
F ra n k , a fo rm e r le a d e r o f H e n le in ’ s S u d e te n G e r m a n P a r ty , w h o
w as also c h ie f o f th e G e r m a n p o lic e a n d S .S . in th e P r o te c to r a te .
T h e P r o te c to r’s o ffice h ad a n u m b e r o f d e p a r tm e n ts , c a lle d
G r u p p e n , c o rr e s p o n d in g to th e C z e c h m in istries. In e a ch
m in istry th ere w as a G e r m a n d e le g a tio n re p re s e n tin g th e c o rre s­
p o n d in g G r u p p e . T h e d e le g a tio n su p e rv ise d th e m in is try ’ s w o rk
a n d in te rv e n e d w h e n it w ish e d in th e a p p o in tm e n t o f p e rso n n e l.
T h e r e w as also in th e C z e c h P r e m ie r’s o ffic e a C o -o r d in a tin g
C o m m itte e , w h ic h w as th e c h ie f lin k b e tw e e n th e C z e c h g o v e r n ­
m en t an d th e P r o te c to r’ s O ffic e . T h e C z e c h M in is te r o f th e
I n te rio r a n d C z e c h p o lic e w e re s u b o rd in a te d to K . H . F r a n k
th ro u g h a G e r m a n liaiso n o ffic e r a p p o in te d b y h im . P r o v in c ia l
a u th o ritie s w e re su p e rv ise d b y n in e te e n G e r m a n p r o v in c ia l
officers, th e O b e r la n d r ä te . T h e o ld C z e c h o s lo v a k a r m y w a s d is­
b a n d e d , a n d a g o v e rn m e n t m ilitia n u m b e r in g som e 7,000 fu lfille d
o n ly c e re m o n ia l fu n c tio n s. T h e C z e c h P re s id e n t, D r . E m il
H a c h a , w a s a p ow erless c e re m o n ia l fig u r e . G e r m a n a r m y u n its
w e re o f co u rse sta tio n e d in th e P r o te c to r a te in su fficie n t n u m b e rs

1F o r a d e ta ile d d e scrip tio n o f th e P ro te c to r a te r e g im e u p to th e b e g in n in g o f 19 42,

sec S h ie la G ra n t D u ff, A German Protectorate: the Czechs under N a z i Pule.
70
 T H E AXI S N E W O R D E R 71
to en su re G e r m a n s u p re m a c y . T h e r e w e re tw o system s o f la w -
c o u rts, G e r m a n a n d C z e c h . C z e c h s c a m e u n d e r G e r m a n la w in
a ll cases a risin g o u t o f th e G e r m a n C r im in a l C o d e , in a ll eases
w h e r e o n e p a r t y to a d isp u te w as a G e r m a n , a n d in a ll cases
a ris in g o u t o f a n y a c tio n c o m m itte d on o fficia l G e r m a n prem ises.
T h e cla ss w h ic h su ffered m ost fro m this re g im e w as th e in te lli­
g e n tsia . It w as a d e lib e r a te a im o f G e r m a n p o lic y to d e p riv e
th e C z e c h n a tio n o f its b ra in s. O n 28 O c t o b e r 1939, th e a n n iv e r­
s a r y o f n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e , th ere w as a sm a ll d em o n stra tio n
in P r a g u e . G e r m a n tro o p s fired on th e c ro w d a n d o n e m a n w as
k ille d . A t this m a n ’ s fu n e ra l u n iv e rsity stu d e n ts o rg an ise d a
p ro te st d e m o n stra tio n . T h e G e rm a n s th en a rrested a n u m b e r o f
stu d e n ts a t th e ir h o m es, sh ot n in e o f th e m , a n d closed th e C z e c h
u n iv e rsitie s . T h e n u m b e rs o f C z e c h se c o n d a ry sch ools w e re also
r e d u c e d , a n d d u r in g th e y e ars o f o c c u p a tio n th e c o m p u ls o ry use o f
th e G e r m a n la n g u a g e w as re p e a te d ly e x te n d e d to n e w fields.
A m o n g C z e c h s a rre ste d fo r crim e s a g a in st th e R e ic h , o r as
h o sta g es, m em b e rs o f th e in te llig e n tsia w e re v e r y n u m e ro u s. T h e
m id d le class as a w h o le , in c lu d in g sh o p k eep ers a n d p u b lic officials,
su ffe re d b o th e c o n o m ic a lly a n d p h y s ic a lly u n d e r th e G e rm a n
re g im e . T h e rest o f th e p o p u la tio n fa re d b e tte r. T h e G e rm a n s
m a d e efforts to w in o v e r th e in d u stria l w o rk e rs, an d w e re not
e n tir e ly u n su ccessfu l. T h e m u c h -v a u n te d N a tio n a l S o c ia list
w e lfa re o rg a n isa tio n m a d e so m e im p ression . D u rin g th e N a z i-
S o v ie t a llia n c e , th e G e rm a n s p ro fite d fro m th e a n ti-w e stern
a ttitu d e o f th e c o m m u n ists. A fte r J u n e 19 4 ! o f co u rse co m m u n ists
w e re fie rc e ly p e rs e c u te d , b u t w o rk e rs w h o k ep t o u t o f p o litics
e n jo y e d fu ll e m p lo y m e n t a n d c o m p a r a tiv e ly g o o d w ag es. T h e
a llie d b o m b a rd m e n ts o f G e r m a n y ca u sed in d u stry to b e tra n s­
fe rre d to th e P r o te c to r a te . T h e p e a san ts to o e n jo y e d to le ra b le
m a te r ia l co n d itio n s. In th e last p a rt o f th e w a r m a n y d id w ell
o u t o f th e b la c k m ark e t.
T h e C z e c h s w e re a llo w e d a sin g le p o litic a l o rg a n isa tio n , th e
N a tio n a l C o -o p e r a tio n ( N a ro d n í S o u ru c é n s tv f). I t w as d o m in ­
a te d b y re a c tio n a rie s, in c lu d in g som e p e o p le w h o h a d b e en a c tiv e
in th e o ld A g r a r ia n P a rty . In M a y 1939 it w as a llo w e d to h o ld a
p le b isc ite , a t w h ic h it re c e iv e d , in a p p ro v e d to ta lita ria n sty le ,
9 9 2 5 p e r ce n t o f th e v o tes. Its p r o g ra m m e w as stro n g ly n a tio n a list,
C h r is t ia n , m ild ly a n ti-lib e ra l a n d s tro n g ly a n ti-so cia list. It w as
t re a te d w ith su sp ic io n b y th e few c o n v in c e d C z e c h fascists, led b y
G e n e r a l G a jd a , a n d b y th e G e rm a n s th em selves. In th e su m m e r o f
1940 tw o o f its lo c a l b ra n c h e s w e re d isso lv ed for h o stility to th e
 72 T H F. EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

R e ic h , a n d its E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e w a s re o rg a n ise d . In M a y

1941 th ere w as a fu rth e r p u rg e , a n d a c e rta in F o u se k , c h a ir m a n
o f th e S o c ie ty for C o lla b o r a tio n w ith th e G e rm a n s , w as
a p p o in te d its p resid e n t. In th e n e x t few m o n th s it w as th o ro u g h ly
p u rg e d , a n d b e c a m e sim p ly a n in stru m e n t fo r th e p r o p a g a tio n o f
N a z ism . In its e a r lie r y e a rs it h a d b e e n to le ra te d b y m a n y
p a trio tic C z e c h s , w'ho c o n sid e re d it a m ean s o f k e e p in g th e C z e c h
n a tio n a l sp irit a liv e : n o w it w as o b v io u s ly a to o l o f th e e n e m y .
In th e a u tu m n o f 1941 G e r m a n rep ression b e c a m e s u d d e n ly
m o re severe. In S e p te m b e r th ere w e re b ig e xp lo sio n s a t a m u n i­
tions w o rk s a n d a p o w e r sta tio n . O n 28 S e p te m b e r R e in h o ld
H c y d r ic h , th e h e a d , u n d e r H im m le r, o f th e S e c u r ity P o lic e o f th e
w h o le R e ic h , w as a p p o in te d P r o te c to r . A sta te o f e m e rg e n c y w as
p r o c la im e d , th ere w e re m a n y arrests a n d e x e c u tio n s. A m o n g those
arrested w as th e C z e c h P re m ie r h im self, G e n e r a l E lia ś, w h o w as
a ccu sed o f c o n sp ir in g a g a in st th e R e ic h in a g re e m e n t w ith th e
C z e c h exiles. F o r e ig h t m o n th s H e y d r ic h c o n d u c te d a re g im e o f
terro r, w ith firin e-sq u a d s, c o n c e n tr a tio n c a m p s a n d d e p o rta tio n s
to fo rced la b o u r . O n 26 M a y 1942 a b o m b w a s th ro w n a t his c a r
b y a C z e c h w h o h ad b e e n d ro p p e d b y p a r a c h u te fro m a B ritish
p la n e , w ith in stru ctio n s from th e C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t in
e x ile to e x e c u te th e P r o te c to r . A w e e k la te r H e y d r ic h d ie d fro m
his w o u n d s. T h is w as th e sig n a l fo r th e w o rst re ig n o f te rro r yet
e x p e rie n ce d in th e C z e c h la n d s. A sta te o f e m e rg e n c y w a s a g a in
p r o c la im e d , p e rs o n a l d o c u m e n ts w e re c h e c k e d a ll o v e r th e
c o u n tr y a n d strict c u rfe w re g u la tio n s im p o se d . T h e S .S . G e n e r a l
D a lu e g e too k o v e r H e y d r ic h ’s p o w e rs. L id ic e , a m in in g v illa g e
n e a r K la d n o w ith 1,500 -2,0 0 0 in h a b ita n ts, w as d e s tro y e d , a ll its
m a le a d u lts e x e c u te d a n d its w o m e n a n d c h ild re n d e p o r te d . T w o
w eeks la te r th e v illa g e o f L e z a k y , th irty m iles n o rth -e a st o f P r a g u e ,
w ith 100 p e o p le, su ffered th e sa m e f a t e .’ In b o th v illa g e s it w a s
b e lie v e d th a t th e assassins o f H e y d r ic h h a d re c e iv e d h e lp . B y th e
en d o f J u ly a b o u t 1,300 persons m o re h a d b e e n e x e c u te d . O n ly a t
th e en d o f A u g u s t w as th e sta te o f e m e rg e n c y fo r m a lly c o n c lu d e d ,
D a lu e g e ’s m ission d e c la re d e n d e d , a n d F r ic k , a fo r m e r R e ic h
M in iste r o f In te rio r, a p p o in te d P r o te c to r . T h e last y e a r s o f th e
G e r m a n re g im e w e re p e rh a p s s o m e w h a t m ild e r. B u t th e h a tre d o f
th e C z e c h p e o p le fo r th e G e rm a n s d id n o t d im in ish . In th e
g o v e rn m e n t o f D r. K r e jć i, w h o h a d s u c c e e d e d th e a rre ste d E liaS

1 It is o f co u rse tru e th at Y u g o s la v ia , G re e c e , P o la n d , A lb a n ia a n d n o rth I t a ly h a d

m a n y Lidices- T h e d e a th -ro ll o f th e C z e c h s w as lo w e r th a n th a t o f o th e r c o n q u e re d
p eo p les. B u t this in n o w a y lessens th e h o rro r o f th e crim e.
 T H E AXI S N E W ORDER 73

(e x e c u te d in M a y 19 4 2 ), th e m ost im p o rta n t a n d m ost d etested

m in is te r w a s C o lo n e l M o r a v e c , M in is te r o f E d u c a tio n . A form er
C z e c h o s lo v a k G e n e r a l S t a f f O ffic e r w ith p ro -w e ste rn sy m p a th ie s,
h e h a d d e c id e d a fte r M u n ic h to c m b r a c c th e G e r m a n ca u se, and
w a s th e m ost e n th u sia stic e x p o n e n t o f th e N a z i id e o lo g y . In
J a n u a r y 1945 K r e j i i w as re p la c e d b y B ic n e rt, a pro fessio n al
b u r e a u c r a t o f c o lo u rless c h a ra c te r. M o r a v e c k e p t his post.
I t m ig h t seem fro m th is a c c o u n t th a t, a p a r t fro m th e sa v a g e ry
o f th e e le v e n m o n th s’ te rro r o f H e y d r ic h a n d D a lu c g e , th e G e r ­
m a n re g im e in th e P r o te c to r a te , th o u g h op p re ssiv e , w as n ot
u tte r ly in to le ra b le . B u t th e fu ll h o rro r o f th e N a z i re g im e b ecom es
c le a r fro m th e d o c u m e n ts p r o d u c e d a t th e N ü r n b e r g tria l, sh o w ­
in g th e G e r m a n lo n g -te rm p la n s fo r th e c o u n try . A n o ffic ia l
c o n fe re n c e h e ld in th e P r o te c to r ’s O ffic e o n 9 O c t o b e r 1940 c o n ­
sid e re d th re e p o ssib le 's o lu tio n s fo r th e C z e c h p r o b le m ’ . T h e first,
to g e rm a n ise M o r a v ia a n d le a v e a ‘ re sid u a l B o h e m ia ’ as a
C z e c h isla n d , w a s re je c te d as in a d e q u a te . T h e se co n d , d e p o rta tio n
o f a ll C z e c h s , w a s re je c te d as n o t p r a c tic a b le ‘ w ith in a re a so n a b le
p e rio d o f t im e ’ . T h e th ird so lu tio n , re c o m m e n d e d b y th e c o n ­
fe re n c e a n d su b se q u e n tly ch o sen b y th e F ü h re r, w as to a ssim ilate
h a lf th e C z e c h p o p u la tio n a n d to e lim in a te th e o th e r h a lf ‘ b y all
sorts o f m e th o d s ’ . E lim in a tio n a p p lie d p a r tic u la r ly to ‘ th e r a c ia lly
M o n g o lo id p a rt a n d to th e m a jo r p a rt o f th e in te lle c tu a l c la s s ’ . 1
O n ly b o m b d a m a g e to in d u str y in th e R e ic h , an d sh o rta g e o f la b o u r
th r o u g h o u t N a z i-h e ld E u ro p e , m a d e it necessary1 to tre a t th e C z e c h
w o rk e rs a n d p e a san ts m o re m ild ly as lo n g as th e w a r lasted . I f th e
G e rm a n s h a d w o n , th is fa n ta stic p la n w o u ld h a v e b een c a rrie d ou t.
T h e G e r m a n re g im e in P o la n d re se m b led th a t in th e C z e c h
la n d s, b u t w a s m u c h sev erer. W e ste rn P o la n d w as in c o rp o ra te d
in th e R e ic h , in tw o G a u s — D a n z ig a n d th e W a r th e g a u . T h e
territory’ th u s a n n e x e d w a s c o n s id e ra b ly la rg e r th a n th e Polish
te rrito r y h e ld b y P ru ssia fro m 179 5 to 19 18 . It in c lu d e d e v e n th e
g r e a t te x tile c e n tre L o d z , w h ic h w as re n a m e d L itz m a n n s ta d t.
T h e rest o f P o la n d u p to th e M o lo to v - R ib b e n tr o p d e m a rc a tio n
lin e re c e iv e d th e n a m e G e n e r a l G o v e rn m e n t. A fte r th e G e r ­
m an s in v a d e d R u ssia , E a ste rn G a lic ia , w h ic h h a d b e en A u stria n
u p to 19 1 8 , w'as in c o rp o ra te d in th e G e n e r a l G o v e rn m e n t, bu t
th e rest o f th e te rrito r y o f P o la n d ce d e d to th e U .S .S .R . in 1939
w as k e p t se p a ra te , as p a rt o f N a z i-o c c u p ie d R u ssia .
In th e W a r th e g a u a n d D a n z ig a reas, a ll a v a ila b le in d u stria l

1 Trial o f the M ajor German War Criminals (h erea fter referred to as T rial), p a rt 2,
PP- 43 6 ~7 -
74 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
a n d a g r ic u ltu r a l resou rces w e re to be fu lly e x p lo ite d a n d e x p a n d e d
fo r th e b e n e fit o f th e R e ic h . A t th e sa m e tim e th e p o p u la tio n w as
to b e g e rm a n isc d . J e w s a n d th e m ost in tr a c ta b le P o les, e s p e c ia lly
m em b ers o f th e in te llig e n tsia , w e re d e p o rte d to th e G e n e r a l
G o v e rn m e n t. L a r g e n u m b e rs o f a b le -b o d ie d m a le P o les w e re
d ep o rte d to o th e r p a rts o f th e R e ic h to w o rk in fa cto rie s o r field s.
T h is served n o t o n ly to p r o v id e th e G e r m a n w a r e c o n o m y w ith
la b o u r , b u t also , to q u o te a c o n fid e n tia l re p o rt o f th e A c a d e m y o f
G e r m a n L a w d a te d J a n u a r y 19 4 0 ,1 to ‘ h a m p e r th e n a tiv e b io lo ­
g ic a l p r o p a g a t io n ’ o f th e Poles. P olish w o rk e rs e m p lo y e d in th e
R e ic h w e re c o m p e lle d to w e a r a y e llo w b a d g e w ith th e in itia l ‘ P ’
m a rk e d o n it. T h e ir p a y a n d ration s w e re co n s id e ra b ly lo w e r th an
those o f G e rm a n w o rk e rs. P o les r e m a in in g in th e a n n e x e d te rri­
tories d id n o t re c e iv e G e r m a n n a tio n a lity , b u t w e re d e c la re d b y
a d e c re e o f 12 D e c e m b e r 1940 to b e ‘ p r o te cte d p e rs o n s’ .
F o rm e r P olish su b jects from th ese te rrito ries w h o w e re o f G e r ­
m a n o rig in re c e iv e d p riv ile g e s. T h is a p p lie d n o t o n ly to m em b e rs
o f th e a ck n o w le d g e d p re -19 3 9 G e r m a n m in o r ity , b u t to those
w h o c o u ld b e ‘ re c la im e d fo r G e r m a n d o m ’ th o u g h th e y h ad
h ith e rto co n sid e re d th em selv es Poles. T h e task o f ‘ re g e rm a n -
is a tio n ’ w as p la c e d u n d e r th e p e rso n a l d ire c tio n o f th e R e ic h
S .S . le a d e r H im m le r, w h o re c e iv e d th e title o f R e ic h C o m ­
m ission er for th e C o n s o lid a tio n o f G e r m a n d o m . B y a d e c re e o f
12 S e p te m b e r 1940 H im m le r in a u g u ra te d a ‘ R a c ia l R e g is te r ’ ,
w h ich classified persons d e e m e d to b e o f G e r m a n e x tr a c tio n .
Persons b e lo n g in g to o n e o f these c a te g o rie s w h o c o n sid e re d
th em selves P oles, a n d d id n ot a p p ly fo r e n try in th e ‘ G e rm a n
e th n ic a l lis t ’ w e re sen t to c o n c e n tr a tio n c a m p s.
T h e P olish la n g u a g e w a s n o t p e rm itte d in a d m in istra tio n o r
sch ools w ith in th e a n n e x e d te rrito ries. A s a c e n tre fo r th e p r o p a ­
g a tio n o f G e r m a n c u ltu re , a G e r m a n u n iv e rsity w a s o p e n e d in
P o z n a n in A p r il 19 4 1. F in a lly it w as in te n d e d to settle G e r m a n
fa rm ers, w o rk ers an d o fficials in la rg e n u m b e r on th e p r o p e rty
seized fro m P oles o r J e w s. T h is p a rt o f th e p ro g ra m m e w a s n ot
fu lly ca rrie d o u t, as th e c o n tin u a n c e o f th e w a r m a d e it n ecessary
to use G e r m a n m a n p o w e r in th e a rm e d fo rces a n d th e fa c to rie s.
N e ve rth e le ss th e sy ste m atic p o lic y o f d e p o r ta tio n , c o n fisc a tio n ,
re g e rm a n isa tio n a n d se ttle m e n t o f G e rm a n s h a d m a d e its m a rk
on these p ro v in c e s b y th e en d o f th e w a r .
T h e G e n e ra l G o v e r n m e n t on th e o th e r h a n d w a s to b e left to
sta g n a te . A ll ra w m a te ria ls a n d in d u str ia l in sta lla tio n s u sefu l to
1 Trial, p a rt 2, p . 42 5.
 T H E AXI S N E W ORDER 75

th e G e r m a n e c o n o m y w e re to b e re m o v e d to th e R e ic h . O n ly
su ch e n terp rise s sh o u ld b e left as w e re ‘ a b so lu te ly n ecessary fo r
th e m ere m a in te n a n c e o f th e n a k e d e xisten ce o f th e p o p u la t io n ’ .
In th e w o rd s o f G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l H a n s F ra n k , ‘ P o la n d sh all be
tre a te d as a c o lo n y ; th e P oles sh all be th e sla ves o f th e G r e a te r
G e r m a n W o r ld E m p ir e ’ . 1 T h is p o lic y w a s n ot fu lly c a rrie d o u t,
as in th e la te r y e a rs o f th e w a r it w as fo u n d c o n v e n ie n t to use
in d u str ia l p la n t in sid e th e G e n e ra l G o v e rn m e n t as it w as less
a c cessib le to W e ste rn b o m b e rs. B u t th e u ltim a te in te n tio n w as c e r­
ta in ly to m a k e th e te rrito r y an a g r ic u ltu r a l c o lo n y . It w as realised
b y G e r m a n e x p e rts th a t this p o lic y , to g e th e r w ith m ass d e p o rta ­
tion s o f u n re lia b le P o les fro m th e a re as a n n e x ed to th e R e ic h ,
w o u ld c re a te a c o n d itio n o f ‘ d o u b le o v e r - p o p u l a t i o n T h e
G e rm a n s in fa c t n e v e r seem to h a v e m a d e u p th e ir m in d s e x a c tly
w h a t w as to b e d o n e w ith th e G e n e ra l G o v e rn m e n t. B y a d ec re e
o f J a n u a r y 1942 its in h a b ita n ts w e re d e c la re d ‘ stateless p e rso n s’ .
H im m le r sp o ke o f fu tu re h e a v y G e r m a n co lo n isa tio n a lo n g th e
riv e ts S a n a n d B u g , so as to e n c irc le th e P olish p o p u la tio n . In the
w in te r o f 1 9 4 2 -3 th ere w e re m ass e v ic tio n s o f P olish p e asan ts in
th e L u b lin a r e a , a n d se ttle m e n t o f G e rm a n s b e g a n . B u t th e
o p p o sitio n o f th e p o p u la tio n , led b y th e H o m e A r m y , a n d th e
m a n y o th e r p ressin g tasks o f th e w a r, p r e v e n te d a sy ste m atic
a p p lic a tio n o f th e p o lic y .
T h e a d m in istra tio n o f th e G e n e ra l G o v e rn m e n t resem b led th at
o f th e P ro te c to r a te , w ith th e im p o rta n t d iffe re n ce th a t th ere w as
n o t e v e n a p u p p e t P o lish g o v e rn m e n t. T h e P o les are rig h tly
p ro u d o f th e fa c t th a t in th e ir c o u n try th ere w a s n o q u islin g
g o v e rn m e n t. B u t w ith o u t in a n y w a y d e tr a c tin g from th e h ero ic
p a trio tism o f th e P oles it m ust be sa id th a t th e G e rm a n s th e m ­
selves seem n e v e r to h a v e c o n sid e re d c r e a tin g su ch a g o v e rn m e n t.
T h e tra d itio n a l Prussian h a tre d o f th e Poles, re in fo rced b y N a z i
ra c ia l id e as, a n d c o m p le te d b y ra g e th a t an in fe r io r ’ ra c e sh ou ld
h a v e d a re d to th w a rt th e w ill o f G r e a te r G e r m a n y , re q u ire d th at
th e P oles sh o u ld b e tre a te d m o re m ercilessly th an th e C z e c h s or
a n y o th e r su b je c t p e o p le.
A t th e h e a d o f th e G e n e ra l G o v e rn m e n t w as th e G o v e rn o r, the
fo rm e r R e ic h M in is te r o f J u stic e , H a n s F ra n k . U n d e r h im w ere
th e S ta te S e c re ta r y a n d a n O ffic e w ith tw e lv e C h i e f S ectio n s
c o rr e s p o n d in g to R e ic h M in istrie s.3 U n d e r th e G e n e ra l G o v e rn -
1 T ria l, p a rt 2, p. 423. * Ib id .. p . 425.
3 B u h le r, Das Generalgouvernement, seine Verwaltung und seint Wirtschaft (Cracow 1943 ).
B u h le r w as S t a tc -S c c r e ta r y u n d e r G e n e r a l- G o v e r n o r H a n s F ra n k , a n d the book is a
series o f le ctu re s b y h im se lf a n d se n io r o fficials o f his staff.
76 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
m e n t O ffic e w e re fo u r p r o v in c ia l g o v e rn o rs, e a c h o f w h o m h a d an
office w ith c o rre s p o n d in g d e p a rtm e n ts . B e lo w th e lo u r g o v e rn o rs
w e re six ty -fo u r d istric t a n d c ity h e a d s (H a u p tle u te ). T h e p o lice
w e re su b je ct to th e ‘ S .S . a n d P o lic e L e a d e r ’ , w h o a p p e a r s to
h a v e b e en resp o n sib le p a r tly to th e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l a n d p a r tly ,
o v e r his h e a d , d ir e c tly to H im m le r. A p a r t fro m re g u la r S .S . a n d
G e s ta p o p erso n n el, th ere w as a n a u x ilia r y p o lic e fo rc e re c ru ite d
from th e 100,000 G e r m a n m in o r ity in th e G e n e r a l G o v e r n m e n t,
k n o w n as th e S o n d e rd ie n st. I t w a s fo rm e d in M a y 1940 a n d
w as p la c e d u n d e r th e d istrict an d c it y h ead s. Its d u tie s in c lu d e d
e n fo rce m en t o f d e liv e rie s b y th e p e a san ts, c o lle c tio n o f tax es,
p r ic e su p e rv isio n , m easu res a g a in st th e b la c k m a rk e t, a n d th e
se c u rity o f th e ra ilw a y s . U n d e r th e o rd ers o f th e G e r m a n p o lic e
w e re th e P olish p o lic e , w h o n u m b e re d so m e 25,000. T h e system
o f la w co u rts w as e x tr e m e ly c o m p lic a te d . A s in th e P r o te c to r a te ,
th ere w e re G e r m a n a n d lo c a l co u rts. A ll c rim e s a g a in st th e R e ic h ,
o r a g a in st G e rm a n s, o r in w h ic h G e rm a n s w e re in v o lv e d , w e re
h a n d le d b y G e r m a n co u rts. S e v e re crim e s, o r c rim e s c a u sin g
p u b lic d istu rb a n c e , in v o lv in g o n ly Poles, c o u ld n e ve rth e le ss b e
b ro u g h t b e fo re G e r m a n co u rts i f th e G e r m a n p r o s e c u to r’ s d e p a r t­
m en t (S ta a ts a n w a lts c h a ft) so d e c id e d . T h e d e p a r tm e n t o f ju stice
in th e G e n e r a l-G o v c r n o r ’s o r p r o v in c ia l offices c o u ld in stru c t a
G e r m a n h ig h e r c o u rt (O b e r g e r ic h t) to e x a m in e v e r d ic ts passed
in P olish co u rts i f it c o n sid e re d this in th e p u b lic in te re st. A p a r t
from th e r e g u la r G e r m a n a n d P olish co u rts, th ere w e re M ilit a r y
C o u rts , S p e c ia l C o u r ts a n d P o lic e C o u r ts -M a r tia l, d e a lin g w ith
v a rio u s form s o f treaso n to th e G e rm a n a u th o rity .
T h e o u tb re a k o f w a r w ith R u ssia m a d e little d iffe re n c e to
G e r m a n tre a tm e n t o f P o les. I t w as to o la te to tr y to w in o v e r a
n a tio n w 'hich h a d b e en so o p p ressed a n d in su lte d . P o lish m a n ­
p o w e r b e c a m e m o re u rg e n tly n e ed e d . In A u g u s t 1941 th ere w a s a
fu lle r m o b ilisa tio n in th e a n n e x e d p ro v in c e s. T h o s e w h o h a d b een
a c c e p te d in th e R a c ia l R e g is te r an d so re c e iv e d G e r m a n c itiz e n ­
sh ip w e re c a lle d u p to th e a rm e d forces. O t h e r s w e re c o n scrip te d
in to a u x ilia r y la b o u r fo rces. In th e G e n e r a l G o v e r n m e n t in M a y
1942 a fo rm o f c o m p u lso ry la b o u r se rv ic e , u n d e r m ilita r y d isc i­
p lin e , ca lle d B a u d ie n st, w as in tro d u c e d fo r a ll n o n -J ew ish in h a b i­
tan ts b e tw e e n e ig h te e n a n d six ty y e a rs o f a g e w h o w e re n o t
G e r m a n su b je cts. In F e b r u a r y 1943 F ra n k m a d e a n a p p e a l to
in h a b ita n ts o f th e G e n e ra l G o v e r n m e n t to re g is te r as ‘ V o lk s ­
d e u ts c h e ’ an d jo in th e a rm e d fo rces in th e fig h t a g a in s t B o l­
sh evism . B u t n e ith e r th e p r iv ile g e s th e r e b y a tt a in a b le n o r th e
 T H E AXI S N E W O R D E R 77
a p p e a l to tra d itio n a l P olish d istru st o f R u ssia w e re a b le to a ttr a c t
m a n y v o lu n te e rs. P ro m in e n t P oles w o u ld n o t g iv e th e ir co -o p c ra -
tio n to th e G e rm a n s . T h e a d v is o r y c o m m itte e o f Poles u n d e r
C o u n t R o n e k e r , a n d o f U k r a in ia n s u n d e r Professor K u b y t o w ic z ,
set u p b y F r a n k ,1 w e re in e ffe c tiv e a n d u n re p re se n ta tiv e b od ies.
B y 194 4, w h e n th e S o v ie t a d v a n c e th re a te n e d th e G e rm a n
p o sitio n in P o la n d , th e P o lish n a tio n w a s to o fu ll o f h a tre d , and
th e P olish resista n ce m o v e m e n t w as too w e ll o rg a n ise d , for
r e c o n c ilia tio n w ith th e G e rm a n s to b e c o n c e iv a b le on e ith e r side.
A sp e cia l c h a p t e r o f h o rro r in th e G e r m a n o c c u p a tio n o f P o lan d
is th e m ass e x te rm in a tio n o f th e J e w s . T h e c o n c e n tr a tio n c a m p s o f
O ś w ię c im a n d M a jd a n e k b e c a m e ce n tre s fo r th e m u rd e r o f
th e J e w is h p o p u la tio n n o t o n ly o f P o la n d , b u t o f a la rg e p a rt o f
C e n t r a l E u ro p e a n d W e ste rn R u ssia . A c c o r d in g to th e G e r ­
m a n S e c u r ity S e rv ic e o fficia l W ilh e lm H o t t l,2 m o re th a n fo u r
m illio n J e w s m et th e ir d ea th s in th e c a m p s. T h e e n o rm ity o f
th is c rim e is p r o b a b ly w ith o u t p re c e d e n t in history'.
G e r m a n o c c u p a tio n p o lic y in th e B a lk a n p e n in su la , w ith the
e x c e p tio n o f e a ste rn S lo v e n ia , w a s n ot a im e d , as in C z e c h o ­
s lo v a k ia a n d P o la n d , a t g e rm a n isa tio n o f w h o le territories.
T h e S o u th S la v s a n d G ree k s w e re to b e a llo w e d to exist as
n a tio n s. B u t th e re g im e w a s n ot in p r a c tic e less h o rrib le .
T h e p a rtitio n o f Y u g o s la v ia g a v e h a lf o f S lo v e n ia to G e r m a n y .
In this territory' a p o lic y o f g e rm a n isa tio n w as in tro d u c e d .
N u m b e r s o f S lo v e n e s fled o r w e re d e p o rte d to th e I ta lia n zo n e
o r to S e r b ia . T h o s e w h o re m a in e d w e re d e p riv e d o f th e use o f
th e ir la n g u a g e in p u b lic o r in sch ools. G e r m a n A u stria n s w ere
b r o u g h t in a n d S lo v e n e p r o p e rty w as co n fisc a te d on a la rg e scale.
T h e rest o f S lo v e n ia w as a n n e x e d b y I ta ly . F a sc ist a d m in istra ­
tio n a n d m ilita r y o c c u p a tio n w e re op p re ssiv e , b u t th e S lo v e n e
la n g u a g e a n d n a tio n a lity w e re n o t p e rsecu te d as su ch to th e sam e
e x te n t as in th e G e r m a n z o n e . H u n g a r y took th e rich D a n u b e
p r o v in c e o f B a ik a , a n d th e sm all d istricts o f M e d ju m u r je and
P r e k o m u r je in th e n o rth -w e st. T he o ld d e n a tio n a lis in g p o lic y
p u rsu e d b y B u d a p e st b e fo re 19 18 w as re v iv e d w ith a n a d d e d
fa scist fla v o u r . T h e B a n a t w as p la c e d u n d e r a sp e cia l a d m in istra ­
tio n w ith th e lo c a l G e r m a n m in o r ity as th e p r iv ile g e d e le m e n t,
s u p p ly in g m ost o f th e p o lic e a n d a d m in istra tio n . M a c e d o n ia w as
a n n e x e d b y B u lg a r ia , w h ic h a lso a p p lie d a d e n a tio n a lis in g p o lic y .
T h e r e w a s to b e n o n on sen se a b o u t M a c e d o n ia n a u t o n o m y : th e
p e o p le o f th e lib e ra te d p r o v in c e w e re B u lg a ria n s , a n d w o u ld be
1 Trial, p a rt 12, p . 108. ! Ib id ., p a rt 2, p . 4 1 7 .
78 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
tre a te d as su ch . T h e w estern frin g e o f M a c e d o n ia , a n d th e
p r o v in c e o f K o s o v o in th e so u th -w e st o f S e r b ia , w e re in c o rp o ra te d
in I ta lia n A lb a n ia . T h e ir p o p u la tio n w as in fa ct m a in ly A lb a n ia n .
M o n te n e g ro w as m a d e in to a n a u to n o m o u s sta te u n d e r I ta lia n
a d m in istra tio n . O n th e D a lm a tia n co a st I t a ly a n n e x e d a n u m b e r
o f islan ds a n d sev eral strip s o f m a in la n d , in c lu d in g th e p orts o f
S p lit, D u b ro v n ik a n d K o to r . I ta lia n tro op s also o c c u p ie d a la rg e
zo n e o f th e in te rio r o f H e rc e g o v in a , B o sn ia a n d C r o a tia .
T h e r e re m a in e d , as a ru m p o f th e o ld Y u g o s la v ia , th e tw o
re sid u al states o f C r o a t ia a n d S e rb ia . A s th e A x is P o w e rs b e lie v e d ,
n o t w ith o u t reason , th a t th e coup d ’etat o f 27 M a r c h 1941 h a d
b e en p r in c ip a lly th e w o rk o f S erb s, th e y re g a rd e d th e S e rb s as
th e ir m a in en em ies a n d fa v o u re d th e C r o a ts. T h e a g e -o ld d re a m
o f th e C r o a tia n n atio n a lists seem ed to b e a c h ie v e d . T h e y h a d th e ir
o w n sta te. S o d e lig h te d w e re th e y th a t th e y in c o rp o ra te d th e w o rd
‘ in d e p e n d e n t’ in th e title o f th e n e w sta te , h o p in g p e rh a p s th a t
this w o u ld g u a r a n te e its re a lity . P r o b a b ly th e m ost o b s tin a te ,
fa n a tic a l an d rh e to ric a l h a ir-sp litters in E u ro p e , th e Z a g r e b
n a tio n a list la w y e rs in d u lg e d a sp a te o f e lo q u e n c e . B u t w h e n it
c a m e to th e se ttle m e n t o f th e ir fro n tiers th e ir e m o tio n s w e re
m ix e d . In th e E ast, th e A x is b a c k e d th em a g a in st S e r b ia . T h e
D r in a b e c a m e th eir fro n tie r, a n d a ll B o sn ia a n d H e r c e g o v in a , w ith
n e a rly 50 p er ce n t S e rb s a n d 30 p e r c e n t M o sle m s, w e re in c lu d e d in
C r o a tia . In th e n o rth th ey h a d to m a k e m in o r cessions to H u n g a r y .
B u t th e b itte r b lo w w as th e loss to I t a ly o f m ost o f D a lm a tia . It
d estro y e d m ost o f th e g o o d w ill w h ic h th e C r o a t ia n n a tio n a list
le a d e rs h a d fe lt fo r I t a ly , w h ic h h a d g iv e n th em re fu g e a n d tra in ­
in g as terrorists a n d co n sp ira to rs. E v e n th e d e c isio n to o ffe r th e
c ro w n o f th e K in g d o m o f C r o a t ia to an I t a lia n p r in c e d id n o t
sm o o th o v e r th e resen tm en t. T h e D u k e o f S p o le to n e v e r v isite d
his k in g d o m .
T h e C r o a tia n n a tio n a list le a d e r P a v e lic set u p a fascist sta te .
S id e b y side w ith his r e g u la r a r m y , th e D o m o b r a n , w h ic h w as
based o n c o n sc rip tio n a n d sent a few un its to se rv e o n th e R u ssia n
fro n t, th ere w e re th e a rm e d fo rm a tio n s o f th e U s ta s h ,1 w h ic h
co rre s p o n d e d to th e G e r m a n S .S . T h e U sta sh o rg a n is a tio n w as
fo u n d ed b y P a v e lic as a n u n d e rg ro u n d co n sp ir a to ria l m o v e m e n t
in th e reign o f K in g A le x a n d e r . Its m em b e rs w e re in d o c trin a te d
first w ith th e I ta lia n a n d th e n w ith th e G e r m a n b ra n d o f fascism .

1 I h a v e u v d th e a n g lic ise d form U sta sh th ro u g h o u t. In th e o r ig in a l S e rl)0 -C ro a t,

th e w o rd is spelt Ustala in th e sin g u la r a n d Ustase in th e p lu r a l. Its o r ig in a l m e a n in g
i> ‘ in s u r g e n t’ .
 T H E AXI S N E W O R D E R 7g
It w as th e U s ta sh b a n d s w h ic h o rg a n ise d th e m assacres o f S erb s
a n d J e w s , w h ic h a m o n g th e a tro c itie s o f H itle r ’s E u ro p e w e re
su rp a ssed o n ly b y th e e x te rm in a tio n ca m p s in P o la n d . T h e
C r o a t ia n m asses h a d fo r so lo n g h e a rd from th e ir le a d e rs th a t
‘ in d e p e n d e n c e ’ w o u ld so lv e a ll th eir tro u b le s, a n d h ad so g e n u in e
a d islik e o f th e G r e a te r S e rb d ic ta to ria l p o lic y p u rsu ed b y B e lg ra d e
g o v e rn m e n ts u p to 1939, a n d o n ly s lig h tly m od ifie d b y the
A u g u s t 1939 a g re e m e n t, th a t a t first th e y g re e te d th e P a v e lic
g o v e rn m e n t. T h e C r o a t ia n P e a san t P a r t y ’ s a ttitu d e w as u n c e rta in .
S o m e m em b e rs o f its rig h t w in g h ad a lw a y s sy m p a th ise d w ith the
U s ta sh , a n d n o w fo r m a lly w e n t o v e r to th em . Its left w in g w as
d e fin ite ly o p p o se d . M a ć e k h im s e lf re tire d from p o litic s, b u t at
first h e a n d his closest c o lle a g u e s a d v ise d th e C r o a tia n p e o p le to
o b e y th e new' g o v e rn m e n t. O n ly a fte r its a tro c itie s h a d d isgu sted
d e c e n t C r o a ts , a n d th e resista n ce w h ic h th e y p ro v o k e d b ro u g h t
th e g re a te r p a rt o f th e c o u n tr y to a n a r c h y , d id th e g re a t m a jo rity
o f th e old p a r t y ’s n a tio n a l an d lo c a l lead ers d e fin ite ly tu rn a g a in st
th e re g im e . B u t th e ir o p p o sitio n con sisted fo r th e first tw o y ears
in n o th in g m o re th a n g ru m b lin g .
In S e r b ia th e G e rm a n s a t first seem to h a v e in te n d e d a regim e
o f o c c u p a tio n , w ith o u t a n y S e rb ia n a u th o rity . B u t th e re v o lt o f
J u ly 1941 a la rm e d th em , a n d i f th e y w e re n ot to d iv e rt la rge
n u m b e rs o f troo p s fro m th e E astern F ro n t, it w as w o rth th eir w h ile
to e n list som e S e rb ia n su p p o rt for th e p re s e rv a tio n o f o rd er.
T h e y th e re fo re in A u g u s t p e rsu a d e d G e n e r a l M ila n N e d ić to
fo rm a g o v e rn m e n t ‘ o f n a tio n a l s a lv a t io n ’ . N e d ić co n sid e re d h im ­
s e lf th e te m p o r a r y re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e e x ile d K i n g P e te r u n til
th e w a r w as o v e r . H e w a s a llo w e d to form a sm all m ilita r y force
c a lle d th e S e rb ia n S ta te G u a r d . In a d d itio n to this, th ere w e re
‘ le g a l’ C h e tn ik u n iţs, led b y th e o fficia l h e ad o f th e Y u g o s la v
C h c t n ik o rg a n is a tio n , K o s ta P e ia n a c , w h o a t a b o u t th e sam e
tim e o ffe re d iiis c o lla b o r a tio n to th e G e rm a n s. A fu rth e r m ilita ry
fo rce w e re th e fo llo w e rs o f L jo tić , th e le a d e r o f th e sm all S e rb ia n
fascist p a r ly . T h e process b y w h ic h N e d ić , w h o sta rte d o u t w ith
p a tr io tic in te n tio n s, b e c a m e a p u p p e t o f th e G e rm a n s, a n d th e
re la tio n s b e tw e e n N e d ić a n d th e ‘ ille g a l’ C h c tn ik s led b y D r a ż a
M ih a ilo v ic , w h o m th e e x ile d k in g a n d g o v e rn m e n t reco gn ised
as th e ir o ffic ia l re p r e s e n ta tiv e a t h o m e , w ill be d e sc rib e d in a
la te r c h a p te r .
T h e o c c u p a tio n o f Y u g o s la v ia in e v ita b ly led to fric tio n b e tw e e n
th e tw o A x is p a rtn e rs. In th e su m m e r o f 1939 H itle r an d R ib b e n ­
tro p h a d to ld C ia n o th a t Y u g o s la v ia , as a M e d ite r r a n e a n c o u n try ,
8o THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

b e lo n g e d d e fin ite ly to th e Ita lia n sp h e re . B u t in p r a c tic e , eve n

i f th e y h ad in te n d e d to fu lfil this p ro m ise , th e y w o u ld h a v e b een
u n a b le to d o so. I f D a lm a tia , M o n te n e g ro a n d th e S lo v e n e
h in te rla n d w e re M e d ite rra n e a n la n d s, th e v a lle y s o f th e D r a v a ,
S a v a , D a n u b e , a n d M o r a v a b e lo n g e d to C e n tr a l E u ro p e , a n d
th e ra ilw a y s p a ssin g a lo n g th ese v a lle y s lin k e d th e R e ic h w ith
B u lg a ria , T u r k e y an d G r e e c e . T h e y w e re thus im p o rta n t b o th
for tr a d e (e sp e c ia lly fo r c h ro m e su p p lies from T u r k e y a n d
fro m B u lg a ria n -o c c u p ie d M a c e d o n ia ) a n d fo r c o m m u n ic a tio n s
w ith th e fronts in A fr ic a (P e ira e u s) a n d R u ssia ( V a r n a , B u rg a s
an d th e sea ro u te to C r im e a a n d S e a o f A z o v ) . T h e r e fo r e G e r ­
m a n y w as b o u n d to ta k e a d ire c t in te re st b o th in S e r b ia a n d
in th e n e w C r o a tia n sta te. A t th e sa m e tim e th e C r o a tia n
n atio n a lists, e m b itte re d b y th e loss o f so m u ch o f D a lm a t ia ,
p referred G e r m a n y to I t a ly . P a v e lic h im s e lf seem s to h a v e p r e ­
served som e sense o f g ra titu d e to M u sso lin i for p a st serv ice s, b u t
his close c o lle a g u e C o lo n e l S la v k o K v a t e r n ik , w h o m h e m a d e a
M a r s h a l an d M in is te r o f W a r , w a s m u c h m o re p r o -G e r m a n th a n
p r o -I ta lia n . K v a t e r n ik h ad b e e n a n o ffic e r o f th e A u s tr o - H u n g a r -
ia n a rm y . In h im , a n d in m a n y o th e r h u m b le r C r o a t n atio n a lists,
H itle r th e A u stria n w as a b le to e x p lo it th e o ld lo y a lty to V ie n n a .
T h e c o m m a n d e r o f th e G e r m a n tro op s in C r o a t ia w as G la ise -
H o rste n a u , o n c e an A u s tria n g e n e ra l, w h o c o n sid e re d h im s e lf a
frien d o f th e C r o a ts a n d w as c e rta in ly a n e n e m y o f th e Ita lia n s.
B u t m o re im p o rta n t w as th e G e r m a n m in ister in Z a g r e b , a N a z i
a n d a n S .A . o ffice r, K a s c h e , w h o d o m in a te d th e P a v e lic g o v e r n ­
m en t.
T h e A x is o c c u p a tio n o f Y u g o s la v ia w as th u s c o m p lic a te d b y
frictio n b e tw e e n th re e fo rces— I ta lia n p o lic y , G e r m a n m ilita r y
p o lic y a n d G e r m a n N a z i P a rty a n d G e s ta p o p o lic y .
I ta lia n p o lic y h ad fo r y e a rs su p p o rte d C r o a t ia n n a tio n a lism
a g a in st Y u g o s la v ia , w h ic h m e a n t in p r a c tic e a g a in s t S e r b ia n
n a tio n a lism . N o w , a w a r e o f th e a n g e r a n d ‘ r e v is io n is m ’ o f th e
C r o a t ia n n atio n a lists, w h o w e re d e te rm in e d to g e t D a lm a t ia b a c k ,
th e I ta lia n a u th o ritie s b e g a n to p r o te c t th e S erb s. S e r b ia n C h e t n ik
b a n d s w e re used b y th em first a g a in st C r o a t ra id e rs fro m P a v e lic ’s
te rrito ry , a n d th en a g a in st th e c o m m u n ist p a rtisa n s. I t a ly h a d n o
re a l q u a rr e l w ith th e S erb s. S h e o b je c te d o n ly to th e e x iste n c e o f a
la rg e S o u th S la v sta te. W h ile this sta te e x iste d , b e tw e e n th e W o r ld
W a rs, she h a d so u g h t to u n d e rm in e it, a n d as it w as d o m in a te d b y
S e rb n a tio n a lists she h a d used a g a in st it th e C r o a t n a tio n a lists w h o
w e re d isc o n te n te d . B u t I t a ly ’s o w n te r r ito r ia l c la im s w e re d ire c te d
 T H E AXI S N E W ORDER 8l
a g a in st C r o a t ia n , n ot S e rb ia n , te rrito r y . A s th e C r o a t n atio n a lists
w e re n o t c o n te n t w ith th e sta tu s o f a la n d -lo c k e d vassal o f Ita ly ,
th e I t a lia n a u th o ritie s in c lin e d to w a rd s c o -o p e ra tio n w ith th e
S e rb s, a n d b e g a n to th in k in term s o f a d ivisio n o f te rrito ry
b e tw e e n I t a ly a n d G r e a t e r S e rb ia .
O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e G e rm a n s, w h o sin ce th e fo rm a tio n o f the
B e rlin -R o m e A x is h a d o n th e w h o le d a m p e d d o w n I ta lia n a rd o u r
a g a in st Y u g o s la v ia , a n d h ad fo r lo n g b e lie v e d th a t th e S e rb -
d o m in a te d Y u g o s la v ia c o u ld b e w o n o v e r as a w h o le for th e A x is
ca u se , w e re now' th e im p la c a b le e n em ies o f th e S erb s w h o o n 27
M a r c h 1941 h a d d a re d to d e fy th e G r e a te r R e ic h . T h e y th erefore
c a m e fo r w a rd as p a tro a s o f th e C r o a ts . T h e y e sp e c ia lly o b je c te d to
th e I ta lia n flirta tio n w ith M ih a ilo v ic in th e first m o n th s o f 1943.
O n th e o th e r h a n d th e G e r m a n m ilita r y c o m m a n d e rs o n th e spot
w e re less a n ti-S e rb a n d less p r o -C r o a t th a n th e N a z i le a d e rs in
B e rlin o r th e re p resen ta tiv e s o f th e S ic h e rh e itsd ie n st in Y u g o s la v ia .
T h e y h a d n o o b je c tio n to lo c a l c o -o p e ra tio n , a g a in st th e P a rtisa n
fo rces, w ith lo c a l S e rb C h e tn ik u n its, e v e n i f th e c o m m a n d e rs o f
th o se u n its th e o r e tic a lly re c o g n ise d as th e ir c h ie f M ih a ilo v ic , the
o ffic ia l re p resen ta tiv e s o f th e e n e m y Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t in e xile.
T h u s , a t a tim e w h e n H itle r w as w r itin g a n g r ily to M u ssolin i
u r g in g h im to b re a k w ith th e C h e tn ik s , in d iv id u a l W e h r m a c h t
c o m m a n d e rs w e re c o n d u c tin g o p e ra tio n s a g a in st P a rtisa n s in c o ­
o rd in a tio n w ith C h e tn ik s.*
T h e su rre n d e r o f I t a ly in 1943 to so m e e x te n t re lie v e d the
G e r m a n s o f e m b a rra ssm e n t. A s o b lig a tio n s to w a rd s I t a ly w e re
c a n c e lle d b y V ic t o r E m m a n u e l’s ‘ t r e a c h e r y ’ , P a v e lic c o u ld be
allow 'ed to a n n e x th e I t a lia n p ie ce s o f D a lm a tia n co a st an d islan ds.
A ll S lo v e n ia w a s a n n e x e d to th e R e ic h , w h ic h a lso set u p a T r ie ste
G a u as p a r t o f th e T h ir d R e ic h . In A lb a n ia , w h e re th ere w e re
g o o d m em o rie s o f o ld A u s t r ia - H u n g a r y fo r H itle r to in h e rit, th e
G e r m a n s a p p e a r e d as lib e ra to rs fro m th e I ta lia n y o k e . B u t even
n o w it w a s n o t p ossib le to w o rk o u t a co n sisten t G e r m a n p o lic y for
Y u g o s la v ia . T h e r e h a d b e e n se v e ra l sign s th a t C r o a t ia w as not
re lia b le . In O c t o b e r 1942 P a v e lic h a d re m o v e d th e re lia b ly pro-
G e r m a n K v a t e r n ik fro m his post. In 1943 P a v e lic b e g a n to
n e g o tia te w ith th e C r o a t ia n P e a sa n t P a rty . T h e d e p u ty o f M a ć e k ,
th e e n g in e e r K o ś u t ić , refu sed th e o ffe r, b u t th e fa c t t h a t it h ad
b e e n m a d e a n n o y e d B e rlin . In th e su m m e r o f 1944 P a v e lic ’s
1 S e e th e M u ss o lin i-H i tie r co rre sp o n d e n ce (Hitler e M ussolini, R iz z o li, 19 4 6 ',
p p . 1 3 2 -6 , 1 4 2 - 3 , 1 5 6 - 9 ; D o n o sti, M ussolini e I'Europa, p . 2 7 1 ; a n d C liss o ld , W hirl­
wind, p p . 1 1 7 - 3 3 . W is k e m a n n , The Rome-Berlin A xis, g iv es a g e n e ra l p ic tu re in
c h a p te rs 17 a n d 18 o f G e r m a n - I ta lia n rela tio n s in o c c u p ie d E u ro p e .
82 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

F o re ig n M in is te r , L o rk o v ic , p lo tte d to b rin g C r o a t ia o v e r to th e
A llie s, b u t his c o n sp ir a c y w a s d isc o v ere d b y P a v e lic a n d h e h im ­
s e lf w as e x e c u te d . In spite o f th ese w a v e rin g s, a n d o f th e fa c t th at
b y n o w m ost o f th e te rrito ry o f P a v e lic ’s ‘ s t a t e ’ w a s h e ld b y T i t o ’ s
P a rtisa n s, K a s c h c , th e G e rm a n M in iste r in Z a g r e b , a p p e a r s to
h a v e su p p o rte d th e C r o a tia n ca u se . O n th e o th e r h a n d a G e r m a n
o fficia l o f e q u a l i f n ot h ig h e r statu s, N c u b a c h e r (a n o th e r A u s tr ia n ),
w h o h ad a g e n e ra l m ission w ith m in isterial ra n k o n H it le r ’ s b e h a lf
in th e w h o le B a lk a n p e n in su la , stro n g ly su p p o rte d th e S e rb ia n
n atio n a lists. T h u s , a ssu m p tio n o f p o w e r b y th e G e rm a n s o v e r th e
w h o le o f Y u g o s la v ia h a d n o t so lv e d th e c o n tra d ic tio n s. I t h a d
m e re ly c re a te d a p r o -S e rb a n d a p r o -C r o a t p a r t y w ith in th e
G e r m a n g o v e rn m e n t m a c h in e .
T h e o c c u p a tio n o f G r e e c e h a d a lso le d to G e r m a n - I t a lia n
frictio n . T h e p o litic a l re p resen ta tiv e s o f th e tw o P o w e rs, th e
Ita lia n d ip lo m a t G h ig i a n d th e G e r m a n co m m issa r A lt e n b u r g ,
w e re often in d isa g re e m e n t. A t th e tim e o f G r e e c e ’ s s u rre n d e r, th e
Ita lia n s w e re d etested a n d d espised b y a ll G re e k s, w h e re a s th ere
w as n o h a tre d fo r th e G e rm a n s e x c e p t a m o n g co n scio u s a n t i­
fa scists.1 B u t soon o p in io n c h a n g e d . T h e G e r m a n s ru th le ssly
e x p lo ite d w h a t e c o n o m ic reso u rces th ere w e re , a n d p r o g re ssiv e ly
ru in e d th e G r e e k e c o n o m y b y th e ir e x o r b ita n t d e m a n d s fo r p a y ­
m en t o f o c c u p a tio n costs. T h e y also fa ile d to ta k e p re c a u tio n s
fo r fe e d in g th e p e o p le u n til fa m in e w a s im m in e n t. T h e Ita lia n s
a t least a tte m p te d a m o re h u m a n e p o lic y . G h ig i su p p o rte d th e
p le a s o f th e q u islin g F in a n c e M in is te r G o tz a m a n is to M u sso lin i
w h e n th e D u c e visite d A th e n s in J u ly 1942. M u sso lin i e v e n w ro te
to H itle r a n d asked th a t so m e th in g sh o u ld b e d o n e , b u t w ith o u t
a n y e ffe ct. In 1941 th e g re a te r p a rt o f G r e e c e w as o c c u p ie d b y th e
I ta lia n s, b u t th ere w e re G e r m a n g a rriso n s in A th e n s a n d S a lo n ic a
a n d th e G e rm a n s h e ld th e A e g e a n Isla n d s a n d C r e te . B u lg a r ia
a n n e x e d G r e e k T h r a c e . A fte r S e p te m b e r 1943 th e G e r m a n s to o k
o v e r m ost o f th e I ta lia n z o n e , b u t in th e n o rth th e B u lg a r ia n z o n e
w as e x te n d e d from T h r a c e to in c lu d e e astern M a c e d o n ia . B o th
b e fo re a n d a fte r th e I ta lia n a rm is tic e , G r e e c e h a d a q u is lin g
g o v e rn m e n t. L ik e th e S e rb g e n e ra l N e d ić , th e G r e e k q u islin g s h ad
h o p e d to p r o te c t th e ir c o u n tr y ’ s in terests, b u t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
th e resistan ce m o v e m e n t in sid e G r e e c e a n d o f th e w a r o u tsid e
fo rced th em in to th e p o sitio n o f p u p p e ts. T h e G e r m a n a u th o ritie s
sh o w e d e v e r less c o n sid e ra tio n fo r th em .

1 F o r an Ita lia n v ie w o f G re e k rea ctio n s to Ita lia n a n d G e r m a n o c c u p a tio n , see

D o n o sti, M ussolini « /’ Europa, p p . 2 7 2 -4 .
 C H A P T E R FIVE

THE A X IS SATELLITES
H I L E th e g re a te r p a rt o f E astern E u ro p e w as d ire c tly

W o c c u p ie d b y th e A x is P o w ers o r ru le d b y p u p p e t
g o v e rn m e n ts set u p b y th e A x is, th re e states— R u m a n ia ,
H u n g a r y a n d B u lg a r ia — w e re w illin g a llie s o f th e A x is in its w a r
a g a in st R u ssia o r th e W e st. T h e sta te w h ic h m a d e th e g re a te st
c o n tr ib u tio n to th e A x is w a r e ffo rt w a s R u m a n ia , w h ic h in 1940
w a s d e p r iv e d o f la r g e te rrito ries b y A x is pressure. R u m a n ia w as
also th e first to b re a k w ith th e A x is . B y d o in g so she o p e n e d th e
w a y to th e R e d A r m y in to C e n tr a l E u ro p e . C o n s id e ra b le R u m a n ­
ia n forces a lso fo u g h t in th e last sta g e o f th e w a r o n th e R u ssia n
sid e a g a in s t th e G e rm a n s. H u n g a r y ’s c o n trib u tio n w as m u ch
sm a lle r, b u t she re m a in e d in th e A x is c a m p lo n g e r. T h is w as d u e
n o t to e n th u sia sm o f c ith e r h er g o v e rn m e n t o r h er p e o p le , b u t
to h e r u n fo rtu n a te g e o g r a p h ic a l p o sitio n . A n o p e n p la in im m e ­
d ia t e ly a d jo in in g G e rm a n (A u stria n ) te rrito ry , she w as a t th e
m e r c y o f th e G e r m a n a rm y . S h e m a d e a n a b o r tiv e a tte m p t to g e t
o u t o f th e w a r in th e w in te r o f 1943, an d a g a in in th e a u tu m n o f
194 4, b u t on b o th o cca sio n s G e r m a n c o u n te r -a c tio n w as to o sw ift
a n d to o p o w e rfu l. T h u s H u n g a r y felt th e fu ll fu ry o f b a ttle rig h t
a cro ss h e r la n d s a n d e s p e c ia lly in h e r g r e a t c a p ita l B u d a p e st.
T h e th ird a lly , B u lg a ria , c a m e o u t o f th e w a r m u c h m o re lig h tly .
H e r c o n tr ib u tio n con sisted o n ly in g a rriso n in g B a lk a n territo ries
c o n q u e r e d fo r h e r b y th e G e rm a n s, o f w h ic h a la rg e p a rt she w as
a b le to a n n e x . M ilit a r y o p e ra tio n s a g a in st Y u g o s la v P artisa n s d id
n o t e x a c t a h e a v y to ll. S h e n e v e r d e c la re d w a r on R u ssia . S h e
c a m e c o m fo r ta b ly o u t o f th e w a r a fte r K i n g M ic h a e l o f R u m a n ia ,
ta k in g re a l risks, h a d o p e n e d th e so u th -e a stern fro n t. H e r a rm ies
th en fo u g h t on th e R u ssia n sid e fo r se v en m o n th s. T h e ca su a ltie s
th u s su ffe re d w e re fa r g r e a te r th a n those re su ltin g fro m a n y
a c tio n a g a in s t th e A llie s , b u t th e y w e re still n ot la rg e . T h e p resen t
c h a p t e r w ill c o n sid e r th e th re e A llie s o f th e A x is in tu rn .

RUM A N IA
T h e g o v e r n m e n t fo rm e d a fte r th e a b d ic a tio n o f K i n g C a r o l II
in S e p te m b e r 1940 w a s o f m ix e d c o m p o sitio n . It re p resen te d a
83
84 the EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
co m p ro m ise b e tw e e n th e old r u lin g class a n d th e se m i-re v o lu tio n -
a r y Iro n G u a r d . A t its h e a d w as a g e n e r a l o f th e re g u la r a r m y ,
Io n A n to n e sc u . F in a n c e w as h eld b y a lib e ra l b a n k e r, C r e ţs ia n u .
T h e Iro n G u a r d ’ s le a d e r, H o r ia S im a , w as V ic e -P r e m ie r .
L ip se rv ice w as p a id to N a z i id e o lo g y in its Iro n G u a rd is t
version . B a n d s o f y o u th s m a rc h e d u p a n d d o w n th e streets o f
B u carest cla d in g re e n shirts sin g in g ‘ le g io n a r y ’ s o n g s .1 T h e gh o st
o f ‘ th e C a p t a in ’ , C o d r e a n u , w a s c o n sta n tly in v o k e d . A n to n e s c u
h im se lf p u t on a g re e n sh irt, a n d h ad h im se lf c a lle d th e ‘ L e a d e r ’ —
‘ C o n d u c ă t o r ’ in R u m a n ia n , a tra n s la tio n o f ‘ F ü h r e r ’ .
B u t rela tio n s b e tw e e n th e tw o sectio n s o f th e g o v e rn m e n t w e re
n e v e r g o o d . T h e G u a r d d id n o t tru st A n to n e sc u , n o r h e th em .
T h e y o u n g fascist id ealists o f th e G u a r d re a lly w a n te d to m a k e a
so cia l re v o lu tio n . T h e y to o k serio u sly th e slo g an s a b o u t la n d
reform ( ‘ o n e m a n , o n e a c r e ’ ), c le a n in g u p c o r r u p tio n , a n d
e lim in a tio n o f J e w s. T h e y w e re n o t c o n te n t to g o on w ith th e old
a d m in istra tio n a n d th e o ld d istrib u tio n o f w e a lth . T h e G u a r d
also w a n te d its re v e n g e o n th ose w h o a t C a r o l’ s o rd e rs h ad
m assacred th e ir le a d e rs in 1 9 3 8 -9 . F in a lly it c o n ta in e d a la rg e
n u m b e r o f m o re o r less c rim in a l typ es w h o sim p ly w a n te d lo o t.
In N o v e m b e r G u a rd ists m assa cred p o litic a l priso n ers in J ila v a
j a i l, in c lu d in g se v eral g e n e ra ls. A t th e en d o f th e m o n th th e y
m u rd e re d tw o d istin g u ish ed professors w h o h a d a lso p la y e d
a b ig p a rt in R u m a n ia n p o litics, th e h isto ria n I o r g a a n d th e
e co n o m ist M a d g e a r u . T h r o u g h o u t th e w in te r th ere w e re o u t­
ra ge s a g a in st J e w s . C h a o s re a c h e d a c lim a x a t th e e n d o f J a n u a r y
19 4 1. A n to n e sc u d e c id c d to suppress th e G u a r d w ith th e h e lp o f
th e r e g u la r a r m y . A fte r a fe w d a y s ’ s tre e t-fig h tin g in B u c a re s t th e
jo b w as th o ro u g h ly d o n e . D u r in g th e fig h tin g G u a rd is ts h a d
ca rrie d o u t m ass ro b b e rie s a n d h a d c o m m itte d h o rrib le a tr o c itie s
on J e w s. S o m e G u a r d is ts w e r e k ille d fig h tin g , o th e r s w e re e x e c u te d ,
o th ers e sca p e d to A x is co u n trie s.
G e r m a n tro o p s h a d e n tered R u m a n ia in O c t o b e r 1940. A t first
th ere w e re o n ly la rg e te c h n ic a l m issions to tra in th e R u m a n ia n
a rm y . A s M u ss o lin i’ s d iffic u ltie s in G r e e c e in cre a se d , G e r m a n
troop s p o u re d in to R u m a n ia , in o rd e r in d u e c o u rse to pass
th ro u g h B u lg a ria to a tta c k G r e e c e . B u t th e G e rm a n s w e re n e u tr a l
1 T h e Iro n G u a r d c h a n g e d its n a m e se ve ral tim es d u rin g its c a r e e r . A t o n e tim e it
w as ca lle d ‘ L é g ie n o f th e A r c h a n g e l M ic h a e l ’ . M e m b e rs o f th e G u a r d b e c a m e k n o w n
as ‘ le g io n a r ie s ’ . T h e ‘ b ib le ’ o f th e Iro n G u a r d w as C o d r e a n u ’s b o o k Pentru legionari
(‘ F o r le g io n a rie s ’ ). T he in v o ca tio n o f th e A r c h a n g e l M ic h a e l seem s to h a v e b e e n ta k e n
fro m th e R u ssia n ‘ b la ck h u n d re d s ’ , b a n d s o f a n ti-se m itic to u g h s w h o flo u rish e d
e s p e c ia lly in th e p ro v in ce s b o rd e rin g o n R u m a n ia in 19 0 5 -7 , a n d m a d e *requ en t
use o f th e a r c h a n g e l’s n am e.
 TH E A XI S S A T E L L I T E S 85

in th e A n to n e s c u -G u a rd is t fig h tin g . W h e n A n to n e scu h ad w o n ,

th e G e rm a n s b a c k e d h im . T h e G u a r d h ad b een m o re a n e m b a r­
ra ssm en t th a n a h e lp . I t w a s id e o lo g ic a lly m o re lo y a l th an
A n to n e sc u , b u t it w a s a w ild ra b b le . H itle r n e ed e d a d iscip lin e d
re g im e in R u m a n ia , fo r h e h a d a j o b for th e R u m a n ia n a r m y in
th e E a st. B u t G u a rd is t refu gees fo u n d h o sp ita lity in G e r m a n y :
o n e c o u ld n e v e r te ll w h e n th e y m ig h t be n eed ed .
A fte r th e su p p ressio n o f th e G u a r d R u m a n ia settled d o w n to
a re sp e c ta b le m ilita r y d ic ta to rs h ip . A n to n e s c u ’s su b seq u en t
c a b in e ts a ll h a d a m ilita r y c h a ra c te r. T h e o ld b u re a u c ra c y
re m a in e d , th ere w e re n o e x p e rim e n ts in so cia l refo rm , a n d th e
in terests o f business m en , la r g e la n d o w n e rs a n d pro sp erou s
p e a san ts w e re w ell p r o te c te d . T h e R u m a n ia n ru lin g class w as w e ll
c o n te n t w ith th e re g im e . T h e J e w s w h o h a d su rv iv e d th e m assacre
wre re n ot o n th e w h o le b a d ly tre a te d . T h e y su ffered p erson a l
in d ig n itie s, a n d w e re fo rced to d o w h a t w o rk th e a u th o ritie s
d ic ta te d . B y W e ste rn d e m o c ra tic sta n d a rd s it w as o p p ressio n , b u t
in H it le r ’ s E u ro p e it w as n o t in to le ra b le . In fa ct in v e r y m a n y
cases J e w s w e re h u m a n e ly tre a te d . A n to n e s c u ’ s a im w as to a vo id
u n n e ce ssa ry co n fu sio n , a n d to c o n c e n tr a te a ll o n o rd e rly and
e ffic ie n t c o n d u c t o f th e c o m in g w a r w ith R u ssia. In this h e h a d a
go o d d e a l o f p o p u la r su p p o rt. T h o u g h m ost R u m a n ia n s k n ew
little o f B e ssa ra b ia a n d S o u th B u k o v in a , th e y h ad resen ted th eir
a n n e x a tio n . V ic to r io u s w a r o n H itle r ’ s sid e w o u ld resto re th em .
S o m e a lso h o p e d — a n d A n to n e sc u w a s o n e o f th e m — th a t if
R u m a n ia m a d e a b e tte r w a r e ffo rt th a n H u n g a r y , H itle r w o u ld
re w a r d h e r b y g iv in g b a c k th e n o rth e rn p a rt o f T r a n s y lv a n ia
w h ic h o n A x is pressu re she h ad ce d e d to H u n g a r y in A u g u st
1940. T h e d e m o c r a tic le a d e rs o f th e N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a rty ,
M a n iu a n d M ih a la c h e , w e re sc e p tic a l a b o u t th e last p o in t, an d
th e y a lw a y s p referre d th e W e ste rn P o w e rs to th e A x is. B u t b o th
su p p o rte d th e w a r a g a in st R u ssia fo r re co n q u est o f B essa rab ia .
M ih a la c h e e v e n v o lu n te e re d fo r th e fro n t. W h e n th e R u m a n ia n
a rm ie s h a d a t a ll p o in ts re a c h e d th e D n ie str, h o w e v e r, M a n iu
d e c la re d th a t fu rth e r p a rtic ip a tio n in th e w a r w o u ld b e a ggressio n
a g a in s t R u ssia . T h e N a tio n a l P e a sa n t le a d e rs th en o p p o se d ,
th o u g h w ith o u t m u c h v ig o u r, th e w a r . A n to n e sc u ig n o re d th eir
protests, b u t tre a te d th em w ith c o u rte sy . T h e y re m a in e d at
lib e r ty , a n d M a n iu a n d A n to n e sc u e v e n fro m tim e to tim e
e x c h a n g e d lo n g -w in d e d letters o n th e m ilita r y o r p o litic a l
situ a tio n .
R u m a n ia ’s w a r e ffo rt w as su b sta n tia l. In 1941 a b o u t th irty
86 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
d ivision s w e re u sed. T h e R u m a n ia n s p la y e d a n im p o rta n t p a rt
in th e siege o f O d e ssa . W ith G e r m a n p e rm issio n , A n to n e sc u n ot
o n ly re c o v e re d B essa rab ia a n d N o rth B u k o v in a , b u t in c o rp o ra te d
in R u m a n ia th e la rg e te rrito ry b e tw e e n th e D n ie str a n d th e B u g ,
in c lu d in g O d e ss a itself. T h is te rrito ry re c e iv ed th e title ‘ T r a n sn is-
t r i a ’ . In re tu rn fo r these ga in s th e R u m a n ia n s w e re o b lig e d to c o n ­
tin u e fig h tin g a t H it le r ’s sid e. T h e h o p e o f re c o v e rin g p a rt o r a ll o f
N o rth T r a n s y lv a n ia w as still d a n g le d b e fo re th em , b u t w ith o u t
a n y d efin ite pro m ise. T h e siege o f S e v a sto p o l a n d th e c o n q u e st o f
th e C r im e a w e re la rg e ly th e w o rk o f th e R u m a n ia n s . D u r in g th e
w in te r o f 1 9 4 1 -2 a la rg e p a rt o f th e R u m a n ia n a r m y w as w it h ­
d ra w n , b u t in th e su m m e r o f 1942 it w a s a g a in in c re a se d . S o m e
fifteen d ivision s to o k p a rt in th e o ffen sive to w a rd s S ta lin g r a d , a n d
th e ir losses w e re h e a v y . In 1943 th e R u m a n ia n T h ir d A r m y w as
k ep t in th e C r im e a , b u t else w h ere th ere w e re o n ly a fe w sm all
garriso n s. T h e R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t resisted pressu re fro m th e
G e rm a n s to in crea se its m ilita r y h e lp . O n ly w h e n th e R e d A r m y
e n tered R u m a n ia n te rrito ry in 1944 w e re th e forces b r o u g h t u p
to som e tw e n ty d ivisio n s. A p a r t from m ilita r y h e lp , R u m a n ia w a s
o f g re a t e c o n o m ic v a lu e to G e r m a n y . H e r m ost im p o rta n t
resou rce w as o f c o u rse th e o il-field s. S h e a lso e x p o rte d la rg e
q u a n titie s o f g ra in . R u m a n ia n in d u stry w o rk e d to c a p a c it y .
G e r m a n y ’ s sh are in it h ad b e en in crea sed b y ‘ b u y i n g ’ a t lo w
p rices th e assets o f c o m p a n ie s from th e W e st E u ro p e a n o c c u p ie d
co u n trie s, e sp e c ia lly F re n c h a n d B e lg ia n . M a n y en terp rises fo r­
m e rly b e lo n g in g to J e w s h a d b een a c q u ire d u n d e r th e ‘ R u m a -
n ia n is a tio n ’ d ecrees b y m em b ers o f th e G e rm a n m in o r ity in T r a n ­
s y lv a n ia a n d th us passed u n d e r m o re d ire c t c o n tro l o f th e R e ic h
g o v e rn m e n t th a n those in e th n ic R u m a n ia n o w n e rsh ip .
T h e g o v e rn m e n t w as a lw a y s p r e o c c u p ie d w ith th e T r a n ­
sy lv a n ia n q u estio n . H u n g a r y , th o u g h a n a lly in th e w a r a g a in st
R u ssia , w as still c o n sid e re d a n e n e m y . A n to n e sc u so u g h t s u p p o rt
a g a in st H u n g a r y from th e tw o n e w A x is vassals, C r o a t ia a n d
S lo v a k ia , thus fo r m in g a sort o f n e w L ittle E n te n te . H e also so u g h t
th e su p p o rt o f I t a ly as a c o u n te r -b a la n c e to G e r m a n p r e d o m in ­
a n ce . Professor M ih a i A n to n e sc u , w h o b e c a m e V ic e -P r e m ie r
u n d e r th e su p re m e le a d e rsh ip o f th e C o n d u c ă t o r — n o w p r o ­
m o te d M a r s h a l— h ad W e ste rn sy m p a th ie s a n d w as d istru ste d b y
th e G e r m a n s .1
1 F o r d e ta ils o f M ih a i A n to n e sc u ’ s u n su ccessfu l a tte m p ts to p e rs u a d e M u sso lin i
to lead the allies o f G e r m a n y o u t o f th e w a r b y a se p a ra te p e a c e w ith th e W e s t, sec
th e m em oirs o f th e Ita lia n M in is te r in R u carcst at th a t tim e , B o v a S c o p p a , Colloqui
con due diliaton ( R u flo lo , 1949).
 THE AXIS SA TE L LI TE S 87

In 1943 th e R u m a n ia n p e o p le h ad g ro w n sick o f th e w a r. T h e
ca su a ltie s w e re a p p r o a c h in g h a lf a m illio n . T h e u n p a id G e rm a n
d e b t w as p ilin g u p as th e c o u n tr y ’s w e a lth w as d ra in e d a w a y .
B ig la n d o w n e rs a n d rich pea san ts, w h o h ad a n a p p re c ia b le
su rp lu s to sell, w e re m a k in g m o n e y from tra d e w ith G e rm a n y ,
b u t th e m u c h m o re n u m e ro u s sm a llh o ld e rs g a in e d n o th in g , w'hile
th e cost o f essen tial go o d s rose. T h e to w n sp e o p le , b o th w orkers
a n d S ta te e m p lo y e e s, su ffered b a d ly fro m risin g prices. G e rm a n
a r r o g a n c e a n d e x p lo ita tio n w e re e v e ry d a y m o re resen ted . M a n iu
c o n tin u e d to sen d w o rd y protests to M a rsh a l A n to n e sc u , and
v a g u e m essages o f g o o d w ill to th e A llie s b y o cc a sio n a l c o n ta cts
b e tw e e n t r a v e llin g R u m a n ia n s a n d E n g lish m en in n e u tral
c a p ita ls . M o re seriou s o p p o sitio n w a s a tte m p te d b y th e v e r y sm all
ille g a l C o m m u n is t P a rty . In th e su m m e r o f 1943 th e co m m u n ists
a p p ro a c h e d M a n iu w ith a p ro p o sa l fo r a ‘ P a trio tic F r o n t ’ , on
th e fa m ilia r P o p u la r F ro n t lin es, resista n ce to G e r m a n y a n d a
b ro a d p ro gre ssiv e so cia l a n d p o litic a l p ro g ra m m e . T h e stu m b lin g
b lo ck W'as B e ssa rab ia . M a n iu as a n u n c o m p ro m is in g n atio n a list
in sisted th a t R u m a n ia m ust k ee p th e ‘ lib e r a t e d ’ p ro v in c e , the
c o m m u n ists as u n c o m p r o m is in g su p p o rte rs o f M o sc o w insisted
th a t it m u st be ‘ re s to r e d ’ to th e S o v ie t fa th e rla n d . T h e talks
b ro k e d o w n . T h e P a tr io tic U n io n w as fo rm ed w ith o u t M a n iu ,
b u t w a s a w e a k o rg a n isa tio n . B esides co m m u n ists, th ere w e re
so m e in te lle c tu a ls an d p o litic ia n s o f left sy m p ath ie s. T h e m ost
e m in e n t o f th ese w as D r . P e tru G r o z a , a fo rm e r m in ister w h o in
th e th irtie s h a d b e c o m e asso cia te d w ith a ra d ic a l p e a san t g ro u p
in so u th -w e st T r a n s y lv a n ia , n a m e d th e P lo u g h m a n ’s F ro n t.
S o m e p ea san ts o f this g ro u p w e re also in v o lv e d in th e a ctivitie s
o f th e ‘ U n io n ’ , w h ic h su c c e e d e d in p r in tin g a n ille g a l n e w sp a p e r
Romania libera, a n d d istrib u tin g it in th e c a p ita l a n d som e p r o ­
v in c ia l ce n tre s. T h e r e w e re a fe w acts o f s a b o ta g e , b u t n o g e u rrilla
m o v e m e n t d e v e lo p e d .
In M a r c h 1944 a fo rm e r P re m ie r a n d le a d in g fig u re o f the
L ib e r a l P a rty in th e tw en ties, P rin ce B a rb u Ş tirb e y , a rriv e d in
C a ir o , h a v in g left R u m a n ia fo r T u r k e y w ith a le g a l p assp ort an d
th e p erm ission o f th e R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t. H e h a d b e en sent
b y M a n iu to d iscuss w ith th e A llie d P ow ers h o w R u m a n ia co u ld
b e b r o u g h t o u t o f th e w a r. T h e A n to n e sc u s d o u b tless k n e w o f his
p la n s. T h e ir p o sitio n w as th a t th e y h ad n o q u a rr e l w ith the
W e ste rn P o w e rs b u t m ust d efe n d th e ir c o u n tr y a g a in st th e
a d v a n c in g R u ssian s. M a n iu h im s e lf w o u ld h a v e lik ed to o b ta in
sp e cia l term s fro m th e W e ste rn P o w e rs, a n d to e n list th e ir su p p o rt
88 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
ag a in st R u ssian d em a n d s. H e rea lised , o f co u rse , th a t R u m a n ia
w o u ld h a v e to stop fig h tin g th e R u ssia n s, b u t h e w a n te d a p r e ­
lim in a ry g u a r a n te e from th e W e ste rn P o w ers th a t th e y w o u ld see
to it th a t she w as w e ll tre a te d b y th e R u ssia n s. H e a lso w ish e d to
a rra n g e fo r W e ste rn troop s to b e la n d e d b y a ir in R u m a n ia in
th e e v e n t o f h er su rre n d e r. L a t e r in th e y e a r th e A n to n e sc u
g o v e rn m e n t also b e g a n to m a k e o v e rtu re s to b o th th e W e ste rn
P o w ers an d th e S o v ie t U n io n th ro u g h n e u tr a l c o u n trie s. T h e
W e ste rn go v e rn m e n ts m a d e it p e rfe c tly c le a r th a t th e y w o u ld n ot
m ak e term s w ith R u m a n ia b e h in d th e ir S o v ie t a lly ’ s b a c k .
T h e y con sid e re d th a t R u m a n ia ’ s task w a s to m a k e p e a c e w ith
R u ssia , an d w e re w illin g to d o a n y th in g th e y c o u ld to fa c ilita te
this resu lt. B u t th e le a d in g p a rt in p e a c e talks m u st b e re se rv e d
fo r th e U .S .S .R . T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t w a s fu lly a n d im m e ­
d ia te ly in fo rm e d o f a ll R u m a n ia n o v ertu res. S u b se q u e n t assertion s
b y S o v ie t a n d R u m a n ia n c o m m u n ist p ro p a g a n d ists th a t th e
W e ste rn P o w ers in trig u e d w ith M a n iu a g a in st th e U .S .S .R . a re
d e lib e r a te lies.
T h e S o v ie t M in iste r in C a ir o , w h o spo ke to Ş tirb c y o n b e h a lf o f
his g o v e rn m e n t, g a v e h im th e S o v ie t co n d itio n s a t th e e n d o f
M a r c h . O n 2 A p r il M o lo to v m a d e a sta te m e n t o n S o v ie t p o lic y
to R u m a n ia , in w h ic h h e d isc la im e d on b e h a lf o f th e S o v ie t
g o v e rn m e n t a n y in te n tio n to in te rfe re w ith th e in te rn a l p o litic a l
o r so cia l system o f th e c o u n try i f it w o u ld tu rn a g a in st th e G e r ­
m an s. O n 4 A p r il th ere w as a h e a v y ra id b y b o m b e rs o f th e
A llie d M e d ite rra n e a n C o m m a n d o n B u ca rest. S o o n a fte r this th e
prop osed a rm istice term s, a g re e d b y th e th re e A llie d P o w e rs, w e re
h a n d e d to Ş tirb e y , w h o in his m essages to M a n iu s tro n g ly
a d v ise d q u ic k a c c e p ta n c e . O n 15 a n d 21 A p r il th ere w e re fu rth e r
b o m b a rd m e n ts o f B u carest. B u t M a n iu c o u ld n o t m a k e u p his
m in d to a c t, e ith e r to o v e r th r o w A n to n e sc u , o r to p e rs u a d e h im
to su rre n d e r on th e A llie d term s, o r h im se lf to le a v e R u m a n ia to
set u p a riv a l g o v e rn m e n t o u tsid e. H e c o m p la in e d a b o u t A llie d
b o m b in g , c o n tin u e d to ask fo r W e ste rn tro o p s to assist h im , a n d
tre a te d th e term s n o t as a n u ltim a tu m b u t as a basis o f discu ssion s.
H e insisted on se n d in g o u t a fu rth e r e m issary . T h e m a n ch o sen
w as C o n s ta n tin V iş o ia n u , a fo rm e r d ip lo m a t, a firm frien d o f th e
W e ste rn P o w e rs, a c o n v in c e d d e m o c ra t a n d fo r m a n y y e a rs a
c h a m p io n o f R u m a n ia n - S o v ie t frien d sh ip . B u t V iş o ia n u d id n ot
b rin g in fo rm a tio n o r p ro p o sa ls su fficie n t to m o d ify th e A llie d
a ttitu d e . C o m m u n ic a tio n s b e tw e e n C a ir o a n d B u c a re s t w e re
d ifficu lt. T h e la n d in g s in F ra n c e in c re a se d th e u r g e n c y o f th e
 THE AXIS S A T E L L I T E S 89
situ a tio n b u t also su sta in e d th e illu sion th a t term s c o u ld be
a rra n g e d w ith th e W e st o n ly .
D u r in g th e su m m e r th ere w e re fu rth e r c o n ta cts in sid e R u m a n ia
b e tw e e n th e co m m u n ists a n d M a n iu . T h e social d em o c ra ts and
th e lib e ra ls a lso took p a rt. In th e w in te r th e lead ers o f th e P a t­
rio tic U n io n , in c lu d in g G r o z a , h ad b e en arrested . B u t the
co m m u n ists still h a d u n d e rg ro u n d lea d ers. O n e w as E m il
B o d n ă ra ş, a R u m a n ia n su b je c t o f U k ra in ia n o rig in , w h o h ad
b e e n a lie u te n a n t in th e R u m a n ia n a rm y b u t h a d d eserted to
th e U .S .S .R . in 19 3 7. T h e p a r t y ’s le a d e r, G h e o r g h iu -D e j, th e
o rg a n ise r o f th e 1933 r a ilw a y strik e, e sca p e d from in te rn m e n t in
A u g u s t. A ll fo u r p a rtie s n o w a g re e d th a t a c tio n a g a in st the
G e rm a n s w a s im p e r a tiv e , b u t th e y still h e sita te d . It w as a g ro u p
o f a r m y officers a n d d ip lo m a ts from th e im m e d ia te e n to u ra g e
o f K in g M ic h a e l w h o p la y e d th e d ec isive r o le .1
K i n g M ic h a e l h ad su cc e e d e d to th e th ro n e w h en his fa th e r
a b d ic a te d in S e p te m b e r 1940. A t first he h ad b een c o m p le te ly
o v e r sh a d o w e d b y A n to n e sc u . B y 1944 h e b e g a n to sh ow a w ill o f
his o w n . H e d islik e d b o th A n to n e sc u a n d th e G e rm a n s, a n d s y m ­
p a th is e d w ith th e W e ste rn P o w ers. T h e in flu e n ce o f his m o th e r,
w h o re tu rn e d to R u m a n ia a fte r C a r o l’ s a b d ic a tio n a n d w as liv in g
w ith M ic h a e l, w as e x e rte d in th e sam e d ire c tio n . T h e y o u n g k in g
c o m m a n d e d th e d e v o te d lo y a lty o f th e a rm y . H e w a s in tou ch
w ith M a n iu , w h o also exp ressed his d e v o tio n . N ic u le sc u -B u z e şti,
a h ig h F o re ig n O ffic e o fficia l a n d a c o n fid a n t o f M a n iu , p la y e d a
le a d in g p a rt in p e rs u a d in g th e k in g to a c t. O n 23 A u g u s t th e k in g
in v ite d b o th A n to n e scu s to th e p a la c e a n d th en h ad th em
a rre ste d b y his g u a r d . D u r in g th e d a y tro op s w e re b ro u g h t in to
th e c a p it a l. In th e e v e n in g th e k in g ’s p r o c la m a tio n w as rea d o v e r
th e B u ca re s t ra d io . I t a n n o u n c e d th a t R u m a n ia w as no lo n g e r
a t w a r w ith th e A llie s, a n d in stru c te d th e a rm y to cease fir in g on
th e R e d A r m y . A n e w g o v e rn m e n t w as fo rm e d u n d e r G e n e ra l
S ă n ă te s c u . T h e d e p a r tm e n ta l posts w e re h eld b y ge n e rals, b u t
th e le a d e rs o f th e fo u r p a rtie s— M a n iu , C o n s ta n tin B ră tia n u ,
P ă tră ş c a n u (co m m u n ist) a n d T ite l P etrescu (so cia list)— en tered
th e c a b in e t as m in isters w ith o u t p o rtfo lio .
T h e a c tio n o f 23 A u g u s t 1944 w as o n e o f th e d ec isive even ts o f
th e S e co n d W o r ld W a r . I t o p e n e d a ll sou th -ea st E u ro p e to the
R e d A r m y . I t w as soon fo llo w e d b y th e d e fe ctio n o f B u lg a ria
a n d th e lib e ra tio n o f B e lg ra d e . K in g M ic h a e l d ete ste d th e G e r-

1 F o r fu rth e r d e ta ils o f th e 1944 coup d 'fla t, see B a rk e r, Truce in the Haitians, p p . 13 0 -2 ,

a n d M a r k h a m , Kumania under the S o iitl Yoke, p p . » 75 -8 3.
90 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
m an s, b u t a t first c o n sid e re d it d ish o n o u r a b le to tu rn his arm s
a g a in st th em . T h e y w e re th erefo re in fo rm ed th a t th e y w o u ld b e
a llo w e d to w ith d ra w p e a c e fu lly a n d in o rd e r fro m R u m a n ia .
T h e G e rm a n re a ctio n , h o w e v e r, w as to b o m b B u ca rest, sp e c ia lly
a im in g a t th e ro y a l p a la c e . T h e y also a tte m p te d a t th e last
m o m e n t to in stall an Iro n G u a r d re g im e . A ‘ F re e R u m a n ia n
G o v e r n m e n t ’ w as p r o c la im e d u n d e r th e e xile d F lo ria S im a . It
n e v e r h a d a n y a u th o r ity o r c o n tro lle d a n y te rrito ry . T h e R u m a n ­
ia n troop s lo y a lly o b e y e d th eir k in g . T h e y d isa rm e d G e r m a n
forces in th e g re a te r p a rt o f th e c o u n try . A s a resu lt o f th e b o m b in g
o f B u ca rest, M ic h a e l on 25 A u g u s t fo r m a lly d e c la re d w a r o n
G e r m a n y . R u m a n ia n troop s, a m o u n tin g to m o re th a n fifteen
d ivision s, fo u g h t b esid e th e R e d A r m y . T h e ir m a in o b je c tiv e w a s
th e re co n q u est o f n o rth e rn T r a n s y lv a n ia from th e H u n g a ria n s , b u t
th e y d id n ot stop w h e n this h a d b e en d o n e. T h e y fo u g h t on
th ro u g h n o rth e rn H u n g a r y a n d p la y e d a n im p o rta n t p a rt in th e
lib e ra tio n o f S lo v a k ia . H a v in g su ffered so m e h a lf a m illio n
ca su a lties fig h tin g fo r H itle r, th e R u m a n ia n a r m y n o w su ffered
a fu rth e r 150,000 fig h tin g a g a in st h im .
R u m a n ia ’s c h a n g e o f fro n t, to g e th e r w ith th e T e h e r a n d ec isio n
n o t to o p e n a fro n t in th e B a lk a n s, d e c id e d th e fa te o f C e n tr a l
E u ro p e , d e c id e d th a t th e S o v ie t U n io n sh o u ld d o m in a te th e
w h o le re g io n , th a t its n e w o rd e r sh o u ld b e a c o m m u n ist n e w
o rd e r. G e n e ra lissim o S ta lin th erefo re h ad g o o d rea so n la te r to
a w a rd to K in g M ic h a e l th e h igh est S o v ie t d e c o ra tio n , th e O r d e r
o f V ic to r y .

B U L GA RI A

B u lg a ria jo in e d th e T h r e e P o w e r P a c t on 1 M a r c h 1 9 4 1 .
D u rin g th e m o n th G e r m a n troop s p o u re d in to th e c o u n tr y
fro m R u m a n ia . B rita in b ro k e o f f d ip lo m a tic re la tio n s. O n
6 A p r il G e rm a n tro op s e n tered Y u g o s la v M a c e d o n ia from
B u lg a ria . B u lg a r ia ’s re w a r d for h er h e lp w a s th e a n n e x a tio n o f
la rg e territo ries fro m h e r tw o n e ig h b o u rs. Y u g o s la v M a c e d o n ia
a n d G r e e k T h r a c e w e re in c o rp o ra te d in th e B u lg a ria n sta te,
th o u g h th e A x is le a d e rs m a d e it c le a r th a t this w o u ld h a v e to b e
co n firm e d b y th e p e a c e tr e a ty a fte r fin a l v ic to ry . B u lg a ria n troop s
also o c c u p ie d a p a rt o f S e rb ia , a n d th e ir c o m m itm e n ts in cre a se d
in th e la te r stages o f th e w a r as G e rm a n troo p s w e re tra n sfe rre d
to o th e r fronts. G r e e k M a c e d o n ia w as a t first o c c u p ie d o n ly b y
Ita lia n o r G e r m a n troop s, b u t in 1943 th e B u lg a ria n z o n e w as
e x te n d e d w e stw a rd , first to th e S tru m a a n d th en to th e V a r d a r .
 TIIE AX IS SA TELLITE S gi

N e ith e r th is a r e a o f G r e e c c n o r th e o c cu p ie d zo n e o f S e rb ia w ere
in c o rp o ra te d in B u lg a ria .
K in g B oris re m a in e d th e re a l ru le r o f B u lg a ria u n til his d ea th
in A u g u s t 1943 - H e n e v e r lik e d th e A x is lea d ers, a n d th ey
n e v e r tru ste d h im . B u t h e felt h im se lf u n a b le to resist th e con stan t
pressu re o f B u lg a ria n n a tio n a list o p in io n , w h ic h in a n y case he
h im s e lf sh a red , in fa v o u r o f th e a n n e x a tio n o f M a c e d o n ia and
T h r a c e . T o resist b y fo rce th e A x is d e m a n d fo r p assage o f troops
w o u ld h a v e m e a n t fig h tin g on th e side o f B u lg a ria ’s p ro sp e c tiv e
v ic tim s a g a in s t th e p o w e r w h ic h w as o ffe r in g B u lg a ria p ieces o f
th e ir te rrito r y . T h is w o u ld h a v e b een m o re th an Boris c o u ld ask
o f his su b jects. B u t w h e n G e r m a n y d e c la re d w a r on R u ssia , b oth
th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d p u b lic o p in io n w e re m ost u n w illin g to assist
h e r. In th e p r e c e d in g tw o y e a rs th e fa ct o f th e G e rm a n -S o v ie t
p a c t h a d b e en o f g re a t v a lu e to G e rm a n o p h ile s in B u lg a ria . M ost
B u lg a ria n s w e re in s tin c tiv e ly p ro -R u ssia n . It is tru e th a t in h er
sh o rt h isto ry in d e p e n d e n t B u lg a ria h a d h a d sev eral q u a rre ls w ith
R u ssia a n d h a d o n c e fo u g h t a w a r a g a in st h er. B u t it w as g e n e ra lly
fe lt th a t th ese q u a rre ls h a d d o n e B u lg a ria n o g o o d , a n d th at
th o u g h th e R u ssia n s h ad so m etim es b e h a v e d b a d ly , th ey w e re
n e ve rth e le ss th e e ld e r b ro th ers o f th e B u lg a ria n s . T his a ttitu d e
w as b y n o m ean s co n fin e d to co m m u n ists, b u t w as w e ll e x p lo ite d
b y th e m . A s lo n g as R u ssia c o u ld be re p resen te d as G e r m a n y ’ s
frien d , p r o -G e r m a n p r o p a g a n d a in B u lg a ria w as m a d e easy.
T h e G e rm a n -R u s s ia n w a r m a d e m a n y B u lg a ria n s — in c lu d in g
m a n y w h o w e re fa r from b e in g c o m m u n ist— h ostile to G e rm a n y ,
a n d th e g re a t m a jo rity d esired n e u tra lity .
B u lg a r ia re m a in e d in fa c t o ffic ia lly n e u tr a l u n til th e last d a y s o f
th e re g im e . B u t a v e r y w id e in te rp re ta tio n w as p u t o n th e w o rd
‘ n e u t r a lit y ’ b y b o th sides. S o v ie t a irc ra ft d ro p p e d p a ra ch u tists
a n d S o v ie t su b m a rin e s la n d e d a ge n ts, m o stly B u lg a ria n s w h o h ad
liv e d in th e S o v ie t U n io n , c o m m u n ist exiles from B u lg a ria , o r
m em b e rs o f th e sm a ll B u lg a ria n m in o ritie s in S o u th R u ssia . T h e
B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n t spo n sored th e m ost v io le n t a n ti-S o v ie t
p r o p a g a n d a , a n d a n ‘ a n ti-B o lsh e v ik e x h ib it io n ’ o rg an ise d b y th e
G e rm a n s w a s sh o w n in th e la rg e r B u lg a ria n tow n s. O ffic ia l
pro tests w e re e x c h a n g e d on this a n d o th e r o cca sion s b e tw e e n th e
B u lg a r ia n a n d S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n ts.
D u r in g 1942 G e r m a n pressu re fo r g re a te r B u lg a ria n assistance
in cre a se d . T h e G e r m a n n a v y w as g ra n te d fa cilities a t th e B la ck
S e a po rts o f V a r n a a n d B u rg a s, a n d th e S o v ie t c o n su la te at V a r n a
w as clo se d . G e r m a n m ilita r y m issions, sign a ls p erson n el an d p o lice
92 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
e x p e rts c a m e to B u lg a ria , a n d th ere w as clo se co -o rd in a tio n
b e tw e e n th e G e rm a n a n d B u lg a ria n secret serv ices fo r th e
repression o f co m m u n ist o r o th e r su b v e rs iv e a c tiv itie s. B u t
th ere w e re n e v e r w h o le G e r m a n field u n its in B u lg a ria . B u lg a r ia
w as n ot a t a n y tim e a n o c c u p ie d c o u n try . T h e B u lg a ria n g o v e r n ­
m en t w a s a lw a y s in c o n tro l o f th e c o u n tr y . I f it h a d w ish e d to
a b a n d o n th e A x is, it c o u ld h a v e d o n e so, th o u g h it m ig h t th en
h a v e h ad to fa c e a n A x is in v a sio n . A p o lo g ists o f B u lg a r ia h a v e to
som e e x te n t su cce e d e d in c re a tin g th e im p ression in th e A llie d
w o rld th a t B u lg a ria w as a v ic tim o f A x is p o lic y . T h is is n ot
so. T h e B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n t w as a w illin g a lly o f th e A x is
a g a in st h er B a lk a n n e ig h b o u rs an d th e A n g lo -S a x o n P o w ers
a n d a n o n -b e llig e re n t h e lp e r a g a in st R u ssia . It w as fu lly res­
p o n sib le fo r its actio n s. Its m ilita r y c o n trib u tio n to th e A x is
ca u se w as m u ch sm a lle r th a n th ose o f R u m a n ia o r H u n g a r y ,
b u t its ch o ic e w as free r a n d its s y m p a th y a t least as g re a t. Its
e co n o m ic c o n trib u tio n w as a lso sm aller, as it w as a less d e v e lo p e d
a n d a p o o re r c o u n try . B u t su ch e c o n o m ic resou rces as B u l­
g a ria possessed w e re p la c e d a t th e d isp osal o f th e G e rm a n s.
A lr e a d y in th e e a r ly th irties G e r m a n y w as b y fa r th e m ost
im p o rta n t c u sto m e r o f B u lg a ria n exp o rts. B efore 1941 B u lg a ria n
to b a c c o a n d food stu ffs w e re p a id b y G e rm a n m a n u fa c tu re d
go o d s an d m a c h in e r y , m ost o f w h ic h w as o f real v a lu e to th e
B u lg a ria n e c o n o m y . B u t as th e w a r d ra g g e d o n , G e r m a n y b e c a m e
in cre a sin g ly u n a b le to d e liv e r to B u lg a ria , th o u g h B u lg a ria n
e xp o rts c o n tin u e d to p o u r in to G e r m a n y . T h e G e r m a n d e b t p ile d
u p , a n d th e B u lg a ria n e c o n o m y w as in e ffe c t ro b b e d .
A rm e d in te rv e n tio n b y B u lg a ria in th e w a r a g a in st R u ssia w as
n ot w ith o u t su p p o rte rs o n th e e x tre m e rig h t. A tte m p ts w e re m a d e
to raise a B u lg a ria n V o lu n te e r fo rce, b u t w ith n o su ccess. O u ts id e
th e g o v e rn m e n t c x -P re m ie r T s a n k o v w a s th e m ost p r o m in e n t
c h a m p io n o f c o m p le te su b se rv ie n c e to G e r m a n y . In s id e th e
c a b in e t th e m ost d e te rm in e d G e r m a n o p h ile w a s th e M in is te r o f
th e In te rio r G a b r o v s k y , w h o w as resp on sib le fo r th e e ffic ien t
a n d — e ve n b y B a lk a n sta n d a rd s— e x c e p tio n a lly c ru e l p o litic a l
p o lice . In A p r il 1942 six m inisters, in c lu d in g P o p o v ( F o re ig n
A ffa ir s), D a s k a lo v (W a r) a n d M ita k o v (J u stice ) re sig n e d . T h e
sa m e P rem ie r, Professor F ilo v , fo rm e d a n e w c a b in e t, h im s e lf
ta k in g F o re ig n A ffa ir s , w ith G e n e r a l M ih o v as W a r M in is te r an d
th e p r o -G e r m a n Z a h a r ie v as M in iste r o f C o m m e r c e . T h e n e w
g o v e rn m e n t c o n tin u e d th e p o lic y o f n e u tr a lity to w a rd s R u ssia .
T h e c h ie f a p o lo g is t in th e G e n e r a l S t a f f o f w a r w ith R u ssia ,
 THE AXIS SAT EL LI TE S 93
G e n e r a l L u k o v , h ad b e e n assassin ated on 13 F e b ru a ry . This w as
b e lie v e d to b e th e w o rk o f co m m u n ists, a n d w as fo llo w e d b y m ass
arrests. A t this tim e th e c e n tra l c o m m itte e o f th e B u lg a ria n
C o m m u n ist P a rty w as d iv id e d in tw o . I h e m ost a u th o rita tiv e
le a d e rs, D im itro v a n d K o la r o v , w e re in th e S o v ie t U n io n , b u t an
‘ in te rn a l le a d e r s h ip ’ led b y K o s to v an d A n to n I v a n o v o p e ra te d
u n d e rg ro u n d in sid e B u lg a ria . T h o u g h assassin ation is u su ally not
fa v o u re d b y co m m u n ists, e x c e p tio n s c a n be m ad e for en em ies o f
th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e assassin ation o f L u k o v w as fo llow ed b y
th a t o f th e c h a ir m a n o f the F o re ig n A ffa irs C o m m itte e o f P a r­
lia m e n t, Y a n e v (1 5 A p r il) , a n d th e c h a ir m a n o f th e M ilita r y
C o u r t o f th e S o fia re g io n , C o lo n e l P a n tc v (3 M a y ) . In th e p o lice
ra id s a n d m ass arrests w h ic h fo llo w e d these in cid en ts, th e w h o le
‘ in te rn a l le a d e r s h ip ’ o f th e C o m m u n ist P a rty w as c a p t u r e d .1
A n u m b e r o f d e a th sen ten ces w e re c a rrie d o u t d u r in g th e e a r ly
su m m e r. O n e v ic tim w as G e n e ra l Z a im o v , n o co m m u n ist, b u t a
clo se frien d o f V c lc h c v , th e le a d e r o f th e old ‘ M ilit a r y L e a g u e ’ .
Z a im o v w as e x e c u te d o n 2 J u n e fo r esp io n a g e o n b e h a lf o f the
U .S .S .R . A t th e sam e tim e a n ti-se m itic le gislatio n w as in tro d u c ed .
I n M a y J e w s w e re fo rb id d e n to reside in S o fia . O n 28 A u g u st the
c a b in e t a p p ro v e d th e c re a tio n o f a C o m m issa ria t o f J e w ish A ffa irs
u n d e r a ce rta in B e le v . E m p lo y m e n t o f J e w s w as restric ted , th ey
w e re fo rced to w e a r a y e llo w star, an d fu rth e r restrictio n s w ere
m a d e in th e p la ce s w h e re th e y m ig h t live.
R e p ressio n d id n ot en d resistan ce. B y th e su m m e r o f 1943 the
co m m u n ists, u n d e r n e w le a d e rs, w e re b e g in n in g to o rg an ise
g u e r r illa b a n d s in th e m o u n ta in s. T h e m ost successful b an d
o p e ra te d in th e S re d n a G o r a m o u n ta in s east o f S o fia a n d north
o f th e M a rits a V a lle y . O t h e r b an d s sp ra n g u p d u r in g th e su m m e r
in th e B a lk a n ra n g e a n d in th e so u th -w e ste rn m o u n ta in s. S in ce
th e w a r B u lg a ria n c o m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a h as e n o rm o u sly
e x a g g e ra te d th e ir n u m b e rs an d sig n ific a n c e . T h e y n e v e r ‘ fo u g h t
th e G e r m a n s ’ , as th ere w e re no G e rm a n un its in B u lg a ria to fig h t.
T h e y fo u g h t a g a in st B u lg a ria n p o lic e , a n d in c e rta in cases a rm y
un its. T h e y w e re o f som e v a lu e to th e A llie d ca u se as th e y held
d o w n p a rt o f th e a rm e d forces o f an e n e m y sta te. T h e y d a m a g e d
c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d d estro y e d a n u m b e r o f train s c a r r y in g good s

1 S e c O r lin V a s ilie v , Sufirvtiiata. T h is v o lu m in o u s anci so m e w h a t o p tim istic a c co u n t

o f B u lg a ria n resistan ce, w h ic h sets o u t to sh o w th e C o m m u n ist P a rty in th e m ost
h e ro ic p o ssib le lig h t, n everth eless co n ta in s a n u m b e r o f d o c u m e n ts w h ic h seem lik e ly
to b e g e n u in e . It n a tu ra lly p o rtra y s K o s to v as a h e ro . A t th e trial o f K o s to v for treaso n
in D e c e m b e r 1949 i t . b e lo w , p . 3 1 5 ), it w as c la im e d b y th e p ro se cu tio n th a t w h e n in
priso n a t this tim e K o s to v h a d p u rch a sed his life b y th e b e tra v a l o f his co m ra d e s.
94 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
to an d from G e rm a n y . T h e y also d estro y e d som e in d u stria l e q u ip ­
m en t, b u t for th e m ost p a rt m in o r en terp rise s, su ch as v illa g e
ch eese fa ctories a n d sa w m ills in re m o te h ill d istricts. T h e y
‘e x e cu te d fa scists’ , th a t is to s a y p r o -g o v e rn m e n t m a y o rs an d
v illa g e o fficials, a n d fre q u e n tly ra id e d a n d d estro y e d m in o r
o fficial a rc h iv e s. T h is a ll served to d em o ra lise an d d iso rg a n ise
th e a d m in istra tio n , as w e ll as to p r o te c t u n d e rg ro u n d c o m ­
m un ists— an d also co m m o n c rim in a ls— b y th e re m o v a l o f p o lice
record s. It a ll m ad e B u lg a ria a less u sefu l a lly fo r th e N a z is.
T h e u n d e rg ro u n d p o litic a l o p p o sitio n w as fo rm e d in to a c o a li­
tion c a lle d th e F a th e rla n d F ro n t. T h e id e a o f su ch a c o a litio n —
w h ic h co rresp o n d e d to th e tra d itio n a l c o m m u n ist ta c tic o f th e
P o p u la r F ro n t— w as u rg e d b y th e e xile d D im itro v ' in th e S o v ie t
press an d ra d io , a n d b e c a m e th e p r o g ra m m e o f a S o v ie t-c o n tro lle d
secret ra d io sta tio n b ro a d c a stin g in B u lg a ria n , c a lle d a fte r th e
B u lg a ria n n a tio n a l h ero H risto B o te v . T h e sa m e id e a w a s tak e n
u p b y sim ila r ra d io station s c o n tro lle d b y th e W e ste rn P o w e rs, a n d
la te r b y th e B .B .C . T h e B u lg a ria n g u e r r illa forces, o r p a rtisa n s,
w ere said to b e u n d e r th e ord ers o f the F a th e rla n d F ro n t. T h e F ro n t
con sisted o f co m m u n ists, le ft-w in g a g ra ria n s (led b y P e tk o v in th e
c o u n tr y an d b y D r. G . M . D im itro v in e x ile in th e M id d le E ast),
so cia l d em o c ra ts an d th e ‘ Z v e n o ’ p a r ty (a g ro u p o f p o litic ia n s
fo rm e rly a ssocia ted w ith V e lc h e v ’ s M ilit a r y L e a g u e a n d a d v o c a ­
tin g a re p u b lic o f a d e m o c ra tic sem i-so cialist ty p e ). A s th e le a d e rs
o f th e th ree n o n -c o m m u n ist pa rties w e re a ll w e ll-k n o w n p e o p le
liv in g le g a lly , th e y c o u ld n ot d o m u c h to o rg a n ise a rm e d re v o lt,
b u t th e y a p p ro v e d o f g u e rrilla a c tio n . T h e p r a c tic a l lin k b e tw e e n
th e to p p o litic a l le a d e rs o f th e F ro n t a n d th e fig h te rs in th e
m o u n ta in s w as p ro v id e d b y th e c o m m u n ist u n d e rg ro u n d o r g a n ­
isation . T h e le a d e rs o f th e b a n d s w e re m o stly co m m u n ists. T h e
ban d s h a d , as else w h ere in th e B a lk a n s, p o litic a l com m issars, an d
sp en t m u ch tim e w h en th e y w e re n o t fig h tin g in p o litic a l p r o p a ­
g a n d a o r ‘ e d u c a t io n ’ . T h e m em b e rs o f th e b a n d s w e re d isa ffe cte d
p ea san ts, o f w h o m som e w e re su p p o rte rs o f th e A g r a r ia n P a rty
an d som e h ad n o fix ed p o litic a l id e as. A p a r t fro m th e p a rtisa n
b a n d s, th e co m m u n ists also o rg a n ise d s a b o ta g e in th e fa cto rie s,
assassin ation s a n d su b ve rsio n in th e a rm y . In M a y u n su ccessfu l
a tte m p ts w e re m a d e on a n e n g in e e e r n a m e d Y a n a k ie v , w h o w as
in c h a rg e o f ra d io d ire c tio n -fin d in g , a n d in J u n e th e g o v e rn o r
o f P lo v d iv w as k ille d . D u r in g th e su m m e r a n u m b e r o f c o m m u n ist
se cre t ra d io tra n sm itte rs w e re fo u n d b y th e p o lic e a n d th ere w e re
m o re e x e c u tio n s a n d lo n g p riso n sen tences.
 THE AXIS S A TE L LI TE S 95

O n 28 A u g u s t 1943 K in g B oris s u d d e n ly d ie d soon a fter re tu rn ­

in g fro m a visit to G e r m a n y . A R e g e n c y C o u n c il w as fo rm ed o f
th e la te k in g ’ s b ro th e r P rin c e C y r il, th e P rem ie r F ilo v , and the
W a r M in is te r M ih o v . T h is w as a p p ro v e d b y p a rlia m e n t, c o n tra ry
to th e C o n s titu tio n o f 1879, w h ic h la id d o w n th at on such
o cca sio n s a sp e c ia l G r a n d N a tio n a l A ss e m b ly has to be ele cte d .
T h e n e w K in g S im e o n w as a b o y o f six. T h e n e w P rem ie r w as
B o z h ilo v , w h o h ad b e en M in iste r o f F in a n ce u n d e r P'ilov, G e n e ra l
R u s e v w as W a r M in iste r in succession to M ih o v , an d th e in te rio r
w a s g iv e n to H risto v . D u r in g th e a u tu m n FIristov o rg an ised
e n e rg e tic m easu res a g a in st th e p artisan s. T h o u g h th e ir a c tiv itie s
w e re n o t o f g re a t im p o rta n c e , th e p a rtisan s u n d o u b te d ly in ­
fu ria te d th e g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h b e c a m e m o re a n d m ore p re ­
o c c u p ie d w ith th e fig h t a g a in st th em . B y this a lo n e it m a y be
a rg u e d th a t th e y ju stifie d th eir e xisten ce . I n J a n u a r y 1944 a n ew
rep ressive o rg a n isa tio n w as cre a te d , th e S ta te G e n d a rm e rie ,
e q u ip p e d w ith h e a v ie r w e ap o n s th a n th e p o lice , an d m oto rised ,
ex p re ssly fo r fig h tin g p a rtisa n s.
T h e B u lg a ria n p a rtisa n s in th e su m m e r o f 1943 aro u sed the
in terest o f th e A llie d M id d le E ast an d M e d ite rra n e a n co m m a n d s.
In so fa r as th e y w e re h o ld in g d o w n e n e m y forces th ey w e re o f
v a lu e to th e A llie d w a r e ffo rt, an d d ese rve d m ate ria l h e lp such
as Y u g o s la v a n d G r e e k g u e rrilla s h ad re c e iv e d . B ritish liaison
officers w e re sent to Y u g o s la v a n d G r e e k g u e rrilla u n its in S e rb ia
a n d T h r a c e w ith in stru ctio n s to c o n ta c t B u lg a ria n b an d s. T h e
S e rb ia n b ase w as th e m o re im p o rta n t. T h e Y u g o s la v p a rtisan s
h e lp e d th e B u lg a ria n b a n d s o p e r a tin g on th e ir fro n tie r, a n d also
e n c o u ra g e d th e fo rm a tio n o f b a n d s from deserters from the
B u lg a ria n o c c u p a tio n forces. T h e se w e re in c re a sin g ly re p la c in g
G e r m a n forces in S e rb ia . T h e ir m o ra le w as lo w a n d th ey w ere
accessib le to c o m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a . S o m e B ritish arm s and
su p p lie s re a ch e d B u lg a ria n b a n d s. T h e y w e re d ro p p e d b y p a r a ­
c h u te to th e B ritish liaiso n o fficers at th e S e rb ia n a re a , a n d passed
b y th em to th e B u lg a ria n b a n d s. T h e h e lp w as v e r y sm all, fo r the
A llie d a ir forces in th e M e d ite rra n e a n th e a tre h a d e n o rm o u s
co m m itm e n ts, b o th to su p p o rt o th e r resistan ce forces a n d to
s u p p o rt r e g u la r m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s. In h e lp in g B u lg a ria n p a r ­
tisans tw o B ritish officers, M a jo r M o s ty n D a v ie s a n d M a jo r F ra n k
T h o m p s o n , lost th e ir liv e s .1 C o n ta c t w ith B u lg a ria n b an d s in the

1 A m em o ir o f F ra n k T h o m p s o n , e n title d There is aSpirit in Europe ( G o lla n c z , 1 9 4 7 ',

co n ta in s a n a c co u n t b y a B u lg a ria n p a rtisa n w h o took p art in the o p era tio n s o n th e
S e r b o - B u lg a n a n b o rd e r (p p . 1 73 ~ 7. , 83 “ 7 )-
g6 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
R h o d o p e m o u n ta in s w as estab lish ed from G r e e k T h r a c e in th e
su m m e r o f 1944, b u t b efore su p p lies c o u ld b e o rg a n ise d B u lg a ria
w as o u t o f th e w ar.
T h e B o z h ilo v c a b in e t resign ed on 21 M a y 1944. A fe w d a y s la te r
th e R e g e n t F ilo v v isited H itle r. O n his re tu rn a n e w g o v e rn m e n t
w as form ed u n d e r a fo rm e r a g ra r ia n , B a g ria n o v . It w as m a rk e d ly
less d ev o te d to th e A x is th an its pred ecessor. O n e o f its first acts
w as to release 15,000 p o litic a l prison ers a n d to set free re la tiv e s o f
p a rtisan s w h o w e re b e in g h eld as h ostages. C h a n g e s w e re m a d e in
th e person n el o f th e p o litic a l p o lice , a n d th e a n ti-J e w ish m easu res
w e re a p p r e c ia b ly re la x e d . O n 17 A u g u s t B a g ria n o v sp o k e in
p a rlia m e n t o f th e B u lg a ria n p e o p le ’s d esire fo r p e a c e . O n 22
A u g u st his F o re ig n M in is te r D r a g a n o v said th a t B u lg a ria w o u ld
seek p e a ce w ith th e W e ste rn P o w ers a n d w o u ld w ith d r a w from
th e S e rb ia n a n d G r e e k a re as o c c u p ie d b y B u lg a ria n troo p s, b u t
th a t M a c e d o n ia a n d T h r a c e w e re ‘ B u lg a ria n b y r i g h t ’ . B u lg a ria
h ad o f co u rse su ffered fa r less from th e w a r th a n th e o th e r A x is
allies. T h e r e h ad b e en som e A llie d a ir-ra id s o n S o fia , o f w h ic h
those o f 10 J a n u a r y a n d 30 M a r c h 1944 h ad b e en se v ere . B u t
B u lg a ria h ad n o t b e en su b je ct to d ire c t G e r m a n pressu re, an d
she co u ld h a v e c o m e o u t o f th e w a r e a r lie r i f she h a d ch o sen .
In fa ct she d id n ot a c t u n til a fter R u m a n ia . K in g M ic h a e l
arrested A n to n e sc u on 23 A u g u s t, B a g r ia n o v ’s e n v o y s d id n ot
re a ch C a ir o u n til 30 A u g u s t. T h e y w e re S to ic h o M o s h a n o v , a
p o litic ia n o f th e lib e ra l ce n tre , a n d a c o lo n e l, Z h e le z k o v . A s
B u lg a ria w as n o t at w a r w ith th e U .S .S .R ., th e W e ste rn P o w ers
w e re p e rfe c tly e n title d to re c e iv e h e r p e a c e e n vo y s. T h e S o v ie t
re p resen ta tive s in C a ir o w e re , h o w e v e r, fu lly in fo rm e d o f th e c o n ­
v ersatio n s. T h e assertion o f S o v ie t a n d B u lg a ria n c o m m u n ist
p r o p a g a n d a th a t th e W e ste rn P o w ers in trig u e d w ith th e B a g ­
ria n o v g o v e rn m e n t b e h in d th e b a c k o f th e ir S o v ie t a lly is a
d e lib e r a te lie.
W h ile M o sh a n o v w as in C a ir o , th e situ a tio n in B u lg a ria m o v e d
ra p id ly . O n 2 S e p te m b e r a n e w g o v e rn m e n t w as fo rm e d b y th e
R e g e n c y . Its P re m ie r w as th e rig h t- w in g a g r a r ia n M u r a v ie v . I t
co n ta in e d su ch e m in e n t e ld e r sta tesm en as th e D e m o c r a t P a r ty
le a d e r M u sh a n o v , a n d th e a g r a r ia n G ic h e v . I t re p resen te d th e
m o d e ra te d e m o c ra tic p a rtie s, w h ic h h a d o p p o sed th e G e r m a n
o rie n ta tio n o f B u lg a ria n p o lic y a lr e a d y in 19 4 1, b u t d istru sted
th e co m m u n ists, h a d n ot jo in e d th e F a th e rla n d F ro n t, a n d c o u ld
n o t b rin g th em selves to re n o u n c e a ll th e te rrito r y ta k e n from
Y u g o s la v ia an d G r e e c e . T h o u g h th e y h a d d islik e d a c c e p tin g these
 THE AXIS SA TE L LI TE S 97

la n d s as a gift from H itle r, th e y n on e th e less insisted th at ‘j u s t ic e ’

re q u ire d th a t M a c e d o n ia a n d T h r a c e , w h ic h B u lg a ria h ad
c la im e d b efore H itle r w as eve n b o rn , sh o u ld be B u lg a ria n . T h e
M u r a v ie v g o v e rn m e n t d e c la re d itse lf n o lo n g e r at w a r w ith the
A n g lo -S a x o n P o w e rs, a n d n e u tra l in th e G c r m a n -R u ssia n w ar.
T h is w as n o t g o o d e n o u g h for th e S o v ie t U n io n . In M o sc o w 's
v ie w th e a p p ro p ria te w a y fo r B u lg a ria to c o m e o u t o f th e w a r
w o u ld h a v e b e en to seek th e m ed ia tio n o f th e S o v ie t go v e rn m e n t,
w h ic h still h a d its le g a tio n in S o fia . A lth o u g h it w as tru e th at
B u lg a ria h a d to m a k e p e a c e o n ly w ith th e A n g lo -S a x o n P ow ers,
M o s c o w d id n o t lik e to see h e r a p p ro a c h th em d ire c t. In S oviet
eyes this lo o k ed lik e a p erfid io u s in trig u e b e tw e e n B u lg a ria n
re a ctio n a rie s a n d W e ste rn im p eria lists. I n o rd e r to m ak e it q u ite
c le a r th a t th e S o v ie t U n io n w as d ire c tly in terested in th e B u lg a ria n
se ttle m e n t, th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t su d d e n ly , a n d w ith o u t p re ­
v io u s ly in fo r m in g its W e ste rn a llie s, d e c la re d w'ar on B u lg a ria
on 5 S e p te m b e r. M u r a v ie v a t o n c e asked th e S o v iet le g a tio n for
p e a c e term s. T h e R e d A r m y h ad n o w re a c h e d th e R u m a n ia n -
B u lg a ria n fro n tie r in th e D o b r u d ja in fo rce. O n 6 S e p te m b e r
M u r a v ie v , seein g th a t n e u tr a lity w as n o lo n g e r possib le, d ec la re d
w a r on G e r m a n y . T w o d a y s la te r the R e d A r m y en tered B u lg a ria ,
m e e tin g w ith n o resistan ce. O n 9 S e p te m b e r th ere w as a coup
d'etat in S o fia . T h e F a th e rla n d F ro n t seized p o w e r. W o rk e rs’
d em o n stra tio n s a n d strikes in th e m ain cities, o rg an ise d b y the
u n d e rg ro u n d C o m m u n ist P a rty , p la y e d th eir p a rt. S o d id the
F r o n t’ s sy m p a th ise rs w ith in th e a rm y , e sp e c ia lly c e rta in officers
c o n n e c te d w ith th e M ilit a r y L e a g u e su ch as C o lo n e l K y r il
S ta n c h e v . T h e p a rtisa n s c a m e d o w n from th e m o u n ta in s, a n d
a rm s w e re d is trib u te d to n e w recru its, m a n y o f w h o m h ad d on e
little o r n o fig h tin g .
T h e n e w g o v e rn m e n t w as h e a d e d b y C o lo n e l K im o n G e o rg ie v ,
w h o h a d b e en P r e m ie r o f th e M ilita r y L e a g u e g o v e rn m e n t o f
1934. T h e co m m u n ists w e re rep resen ted b y tw o resistan ce leaders,
T a r p e s h e v a n d Y u g o v , w h o b e c a m e V ic e -P r e m ie r an d M in iste r o f
th e In te rio r. T h e o u tsta n d in g a g ra r ia n re p re se n ta tiv e w as P e tk o v,
w h o w as a lso V ic e -P r e m ie r . T h e W a r M in istry w e n t to V e lc h e v .
T h e B u lg a ria n a r m y in Y u g o s la v ia w as o rd e re d to jo in th e Y u g o ­
s la v p a rtisa n s in fig h tin g a g a in st th e G e rm a n s. I h ere w as no
seriou s d isa ffe c tio n in th e B u lg a ria n a rm y . T h e G e rm a n a tte m p t
to cre a te a ‘ F re e B u lg a ria n G o v e r n m e n t ’ u n d e r th e fascist
T s a n k o v (P re m ie r in 1 9 2 3 -5 ) w as as c o m p le te a fa ilu re as the
sim ila r a tte m p t a t a ‘ F re e R u m a n ia n G o v e r n m e n t ’ u n d e r H o ria
g8 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

S im a . B u lg a ria n troop s h a d som e h ard fig h tin g to ta k e S k o p lje

a n d N ish , a n d th en a d v a n c e d on th e left fla n k o f th e R e d A r m y
to B e lg ra d e, w h ic h w as lib e ra te d on 20 O c to b e r . T h e B u lg a ria n
a rm y co n tin u e d fig h tin g , sid e b y sid e w ith th e S o v ie t a n d Y u g o ­
s la v forces, th ro u g h C r o a tia an d H u n g a r y to V ie n n a . In these
o p e ra tio n s it h ad som e 30,000 d ea d .
T h e arm istice b e tw e e n th e A llie s a n d B u lg a ria w as sig n e d in
M o sc o w on 28 O c t o b e r 1944 b y re p resen ta tive s o f th e R e d A r m y
a n d o f th e S u p re m e A llie d C o m m a n d e r M e d ite rra n e a n .

HUNGARY
H u n g a r y h ad b e en d ra w n clo se r to th e A x is sin ce M u n ic h b y
th e a c q u isitio n o f so u th ern S lo v a k ia (19 3 8 ) a n d n o rth e rn
T r a n s y lv a n ia (194 0 ). B u t th e H u n g a r ia n le a d e rs h a d c o n sid e re d
these gain s a m ere re c o g n itio n o f H u n g a r y ’ s righ ts, a n d h a d d o n e
th eir best to a v o id a n y o b lig a tio n s to th e A x is P o w e rs. H u n g a r y
jo in e d th e T h r e e P o w e r P a c t in N o v e m b e r 1940, b u t sign e d a
tr e a ty o f frien d sh ip w ith Y u g o s la v ia in D e c e m b e r as a last
a tte m p t to re in fo rce h er n e u tr a lity . T h e fa ta l m o m e n t fo r H u n ­
g a ria n p o lic y w as A p r il 19 4 1, w h e n th e G e rm a n s insisted o n th e
passage o f th e ir tro o p s fo r a tta c k o n Y u g o s la v ia a n d also in sisted
o n H u n g a ria n c o -o p e ra tio n in th e a tta c k . T h e H u n g a r ia n a rm y
co m m a n d w as m u c h m o re p r o -G e r m a n th an th e p o litic ia n s.
T r a d itio n a l co n n e c tio n s w ith th e A u stria n a r m y h a d so m e th in g to
d o w ith this. A la rg e p r o p o rtio n o f th e H u n g a r ia n o ffic e r corp s
w e re p e o p le o f G e r m a n o rig in . Pressu re fro m his ge n e ra ls, to g e th e r
w ith th e b a it o f th e still 1 u n re d e e m e d ’ p r o v in c e o f B a ik a , ta k e n
fro m H u n g a r y b y Y u g o s la v ia in 19 19 , w e re to o m u ch fo r A d m ir a l
H o rth y . H is P rim e M in iste r c o m m itte d su ic id e , b u t h e m a rc h e d
w ith th e A x is. B rita in b ro k e o f f d ip lo m a tic rela tio n s w ith H u n ­
g a ry . T h is w as fo r m a n y H u n g a ria n s o f th e r u lin g class a h e a v y
g lo w , for th e y tre asu re d th e ir co n n e c tio n s w ith B r it a in .1 B u t th ey
b e lie v e d e ith e r th a t th e B ritish ca u se w as lost, o r th a t i f in the
en d B rita in sh o u ld w in H u n g a r y w o u ld fin d a n o p p o r tu n ity
b e fo re th en o f re in su rin g herself.
T h e H u n g a ria n G e n e r a l S t a f f p la y e d a still m o re im p o rta n t
p a rt in d r a g g in g H u n g a r y in to w a r w ith th e S o v ie t U n io n .
T e le k i’s su ccesso r w a s th e F o re ig n M in is te r B á rd o ssy , a c a re e r
d ip lo m a t w h o seem s to h a v e b een ch o sen p re c ise ly b e c a u se h e w as
colou rless, a n d so n ot u n a c c e p ta b le to a n y o n e. W h e n G e r m a n y
1 U lle in -R e v ic z k y , a sen io r o ffic ia l o f th e B u d a p est F o re ig n M in is try in 1941 an d
F lu n g a ria n M in is te r in S to c k h o lm in 1943 4 , states in his b o o k . Guerre alUmaruJe, pave
russe, p p 9 3 -4 , th a t it w as th e B ritish a t titu d e w h ic h ca u s e d T e le k i to c o m m it su icid e.
 T H E A XI S S A T E L L I T E S gg

d e c la re d w a r on R u ssia , B árdossy w ish ed a t first to rem ain

n e u tr a l, th en con sid e re d a b re a c h o f d ip lo m a tic relation s. H e w as
a g a in st m ilita r y a c tio n , a n d m a in ta in e d this v ie w a t a m ee tin g
o f th e c a b in e t on 24 J u n e d esp ite th e stro n g re c o m m e n d a tio n o f
th e C h ie f o f G e n e r a l S t a f f th a t w a r b e d e c la re d . T h e a rg u m e n t
o f th e ge n e ra ls w as th a t R u m a n ia w as fig h tin g , a n d i f H u n g a ry
d id n ot fig h t too H itle r m ig h t listen to R u m a n ia n requests fo r the
re sto ra tio n o f n o rth T r a n s y lv a n ia as a re w a rd . I f on th e o th er
h a n d H u n g a r y fo u g h t m o re e ffe c tiv e ly th an R u m a n ia , she
w o u ld h a v e a m o ra l cla im on G e r m a n y to g iv e h e r sou th ern
T r a n s y lv a n ia as w e ll. T h is use o f th e T r a n s y lv a n ia n b a it to sp u r
on b o th H u n g a r y a n d R u m a n ia to g re a te r m ilita ry effo rt w as a
c o n sta n t fe a tu re o f G e r m a n p o lic y th ro u g h o u t th e w a r w ith
R u ssia . In J u n e 19 4 1, h o w e v e r, it d id n ot a t first im press B árdossy,
w h o w ith th e su p p o rt o f his c o lle a g u e s refused th e G e n e ra l S tafT ’s
r e q u e s t.1 B u t o p p o sitio n w as o v e r c o m e tw o d a y s la te r, w h en
th e G e r m a n a n d H u n g a r ia n m ilita ry a u th o ritie s a n n o u n ce d th a t
S o v ie t a ircra ft h ad b o m b a rd e d th e H u n g a r ia n (e x -C z e c h o slo v a k )
b o rd e r c it y o f K a ssa (K o s ic e ) . T h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f this v io la tio n
o f H u n g a r ia n te rrito r y — w h o se tru th has n e v e r been e stab lish e d —
w as fo llo w e d b y a H u n g a ria n d e c la ra tio n o f w ar.
H u n g a r y ’s m ilita r y c o n trib u tio n w as sm aller, in p ro p o rtio n to
th e c o u n t r y ’s p o p u la tio n , th an th at o f R u m a n ia . In 1 g 4 1 o n ly
a sm all force too k p a rt in th e o p e ra tio n s in th e U k ra in e . A fte r
th e G e r m a n reverses o f th e w in ter, G e r m a n d em a n d s on H u n g a ry
in cre a se d . In J a n u a r y 1942 R ib b c n tr o p visited B u d a p e st, and
w as fo llo w e d soon a fte r b y K e ite l. A s a result o f these talks
a S e c o n d A r m y w a s c re a te d u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f G e n e ra l
J á n y , n u m b e rin g som e 150,000. It too k p a rt in th e o ffen sive
o f su m m e r a n d a u tu m n 1942, an d w as cu t to pieces at V o ro n e z h .
C a s u a ltie s w e re h e a v y a n d th ere w e re m a n y H u n g a r ia n prison ers.
A fte r this d isaste r H u n g a ria n o p in io n h a rd e n e d a g a in st th e w a r,
a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t stro n g ly resisted fu rth e r G e r m a n d em a n d s.
M o st o f th e r e m a in in g H u n g a r ia n troops w e re w ith d ra w n from
th e b a ttle a re a a n d g u a r d e d co m m u n ic a tio n s in th e W estern
U k ra in e a n d G a lic ia , fig h tin g U k ra in ia n p a rtisa n s (n a tio n a list
as w ell as c o m m u n ist), b u t e n g a g in g in no la rg e o p e ra tio n s.
But H u n g a r y ’s v a lu e to th e A x is w as not solely m ilita ry .
R a ilw a y c o m m u n ic a tio n s across H u n g a r y — w h o se n e tw o rk is
v e r y m u ch b e tte r d e v e lo p e d th a n in th e areas to the n orth
o r sou th — w e re v it a lly im p o rta n t to th e G e rm a n s for su p p ly -
1 U lle in -R e v ic z k y , G ueiit allemaruU, paix russe, p p . 10 3 -5 .
roo THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
in g th eir forces in R u ssia a n d in th e B a lk a n s a n d for tra n s p o rtin g
rein forcem en ts. H u n g a ria n in d u stry w as g r o w in g in im p o rta n c e .
U n til th e su m m e r o f 1944 it w as free from A llie d b o m b in g ,
an d p ro d u c e d v a lu a b le e q u ip m e n t. H u n g a ria n foodstufTs a n d
ra w m ate ria ls w e re also o f v a lu e to G e r m a n y . E x p o rts c o n ­
tin u ed u n til th e last stages o f th e w a r, w h ile G e r m a n d e liv e rie s
in p a y m e n t d w in d le d as a resu lt o f sh o rta ges a n d d islo ca tio n in th e
R e ic h . B y th e en d o f th e w a r th e G e r m a n d e b t to H u n g a r y w as
e n o rm o u s. In p r a c tic e this u n p a id d e b t c o n stitu ted a la rg e -sc a le
ro b b e ry b y th e G e rm a n s.
B árdossy w as re p la c e d as P re m ie r in M a r c h 1942. O n e o f th e
last im p o rta n t even ts u n d e r his g o v e rn m e n t w as th e m a ssa cre o f
S erb s an d J e w s b y H u n g a r ia n troo p s in th e B a ć k a to w n o f N o v i
S a d ( Ú jv id é k ) in J a n u a r y , in w h ic h se v era l th o u sa n d persons lost
th eir lives. H o rth y dism issed B árd o ssy b e cau se o f a d isa g re e m e n t
re g a rd in g th e su ccession o f his son S te p h e n to h im as R e g e n t. T h e
n e w p re m ie r w as C o u n t N ic h o la s K á lla y , a m e m b e r o f a v e r y old
H u n g a ria n fa m ily , a stro n g n a tio n a list w h o d islik e d th e G e rm a n s.
H u n g a r y still possessed p a rlia m e n ta ry ' in stitu tion s, th o u g h o f a
lim ite d c h a ra c te r. T h e r e w as m o re freed o m o f p o litic a l o p in io n
th an in a n y o th e r c o u n try o f A x is E u ro p e e x c e p t F in la n d . T h e
la rgest p a rty w as o f co u rse th e g o v e rn m e n ta l ‘ L ife P a r ty ’ ( M .E .P .) .'
T h is h ete ro g e n e o u s o rg a n isa tio n h a d a left, a rig h t a n d a c e n tre ,
a n d w as d iv id e d on b o th h o m e a n d fo reig n p o lic y . Its e x tre m e
r ig h t w as stro n g ly p r o -A x is a n d w ish ed to suppress th e p a rtie s o f
th e left, e sp e c ia lly th e so cia l d em o c ra ts. T h e left w in g o f M .E .P .,
th o u g h d e fin ite ly c o n se rv a tiv e in o u tlo o k , w ish e d to p reserv e th e
e x istin g d eg re e o f free d o m o f sp eech a n d fa v o u re d re sista n ce to
G e rm a n d em a n d s. It a im e d to b rin g H u n g a r y o u t o f th e w a r . It
w a s on th e w h o le p ro -B ritish . T h e m a in sp o k esm an o f th e rig h t
w as th e F in a n c e M in ister, R e m é n y i-S c h n e lle r ; o f th e left, th e
M in iste r o f th e In te rio r, K e re sz tcs-F isc h e r. K á lla y h im s e lf
in clin e d ra th e r to th e left th a n to th e rig h t w in g.
O u ts id e th e g o v e rn m e n t p a rty th ere w e re tw o m a in rig h t-w in g
g ro u p s. T h e P a rty o f R e b ir th , le d b y e x -p r e m ie r I m r e d y , w as
stro n g ly p r o -G e r m a n , b u t w as n o t id e o lo g ic a lly fascist. I m r e d y
w o u ld h a v e lik e d to suppress le ft-w in g o p in io n b u t to p reserve
p a rlia m e n ta r y in stitu tio n s w ith in n a r r o w e r lim its. T h e A r r o w
C ross P a rty led b y S z á la si w ish ed to d e stro y th e p a r lia m e n ta r y
re g im e a n d in tro d u c e a to ta lita ria n fascist sta te . S z á la si a lso h a d
som e v a g u e id e as a b o u t so cia l re v o lu tio n in g e n e ra l, a n d la n d
1 S e e a b o v e , p . 25.
 T H E A XI S S A T E L L I T E S 101
re fo rm in p a r tic u la r , w h e re a s I m r é d y w ish e d to preserve th e
e x istin g so cia l system , w ith its d o m in a tio n b y la n d o w n e rs and
b u sin ess m en . S z á la si w a s o f cou rse e v e n m ore p ro -G e rm a n th an
Im réd y.
T h e o p p o sitio n to th e g o v e rn m e n t on the left con sisted o f the
S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a rty , th e socialists a n d som e in d ep en d e n t
in te lle c tu a ls. A ll w e re stro n g ly a n ti-G e rm a n a n d p ro -B ritish . In
J u ly 1943 a m e m o ra n d u m b y th e S m a ll F a rm e rs’ P a rty , w ritte n
b y its a c tin g le a d e r, B a jc s i-Z silin sz k y , a c tu a lly stated th a t i f th e
c h o ic e w e re fo rced on H u n g a r y she w o u ld d o b e tte r to fig h t
a g a in s t th e G e rm a n s th an a g a in st th e B ritish . T h e p a r ty ’s le a d e r,
E c k h a rd t, w a s in th e U n ite d S tates. D u rin g 1942 th e lead ers o f the
S m a ll F a rm e rs a n d th e socialists b e g a n to co -o p e ra te m o re clo sely
th a n h a d e v e r b e en th e ca se b e fo re th e w a r . T h e tra d e u n ion s still
e x isted , a n d w e re c o n tro lle d b y th e socialists. T h e y h ad few
p o w e rs, b u t a t least th e y p ro v id e d a w o rk in g -class o rg an isa tio n
th ro u g h w h ich w 'orkers’ le a d e rs c o u ld b e form ed .
A t th e en d o f 1942 th e so cialist n e w s p a p e r Népszava b e g a n to
w rite a b o u t a ‘ P e o p le ’ s F r o n t ’ a n d a stru g g le fo r d e m o c ra c y and
in d e p e n d e n c e — stra n g e la n g u a g e in a c o u n try a llie d w ith H itle r.
T h o u g h th e socialists w e re to le ra te d b y th e a u th o ritie s, th e p o lice
a n d th e a rm y ( in c lu d in g p a r tic u la r ly th e S ta te D e fe n c e D e p a rt­
m en t o f th e G e n e r a l S t a f f u n d e r G e n e ra l U jszá szi) w e re a lw a y s on
th e lo o k -o u t fo r co m m u n ists. T h e r e w e re o f co u rse som e ra d ic a l
e le m e n ts in th e S o c ia list P a rty w h ic h sy m p a th ise d w ith th e S o v iet
U n io n , a n d w o u ld h a v e b e en o p e n co m m u n ists i f th at h ad been
p e rm itte d . A t th e en d o f 1942 a n u n d e rg ro u n d c o m m u n ist o rg a n ­
isa tio n p u b lish e d leaflets sign ed ‘ P e a c e P a r t y ’ . But th e b u lk o f the
H u n g a r ia n socialists h a d m ixe d feelin gs a b o u t th e U .S .S .R . and
lo o k e d ra th e r to th e la b o u r m o ve m e n ts o f th e W est. T h e y m ad e
n o se cre t o f th e ir h a tre d o f G e r m a n y . T h e y w e re p ro te c te d b y the
M in is te r o f th e In te rio r, K e re sz te s-F isc h e r, w h o resisted a tte m p ts
b y th e H u n g a r ia n rig h t to id e n tify th e w h o le w o rk e rs’ m o ve m e n t
w ith co m m u n ism a n d suppress it.
A m o n g th e in te lle c tu a l su p p o rte rs o f th e P e o p le ’s F ro n t id ea
w e re th e co n s e rv a tiv e h isto ria n P rofessor S zek fii a n d a g ro u p o f
y o u n g e r ra d ic a l w rite rs w h o a lr e a d y b e fo re th e w a r h ad m ad e
sp e c ia l stu dies o f th e a g r a r ia n q u estio n a n d h ad tried in 1939 to
fo u n d a N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a r ty w ith a p ro g ra m m e m o re ra d ic a l
th a n th a t o f th e S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a rty . A n o th e r d e m o c ra tic
o rg a n is a tio n w as th e P e a sa n t L e a g u e , fo u n d e d in 1941 b y F e re n c
N a g y , a le a d in g m e m b e r o f th e S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a rty . T h is w as
102 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
in te n d e d to be a class o rg a n isa tio n r a th e r th a n a p o litic a l p a r ty ,
to h e lp th e e d u c a tio n o f th e pea san ts, to o rg a n is e so cia l a n d c u l­
tu ra l a ctiv itie s in th e v illa g e s, sta rt lo c a l n e w s p a p e rs a n d e n c o u r­
a g e p easan ts to express v iew s in sp e e ch a n d w r itin g on m a tte rs o f
in terest to th em . It to o w as p ro te cte d b y K e re sz te s-F isch e r.
B y th e su m m e r o f 1943 m ost m em b ers o f th e H u n g a r ia n
g o v e rn m e n t, in c lu d in g K á lla y , w e re lo n g in g for an o p p o rtu n ity
to g e t o u t o f th e w a r . T h e su rre n d e r o f I t a ly ra ised th e ir h o pes.
Bu t w h en th ere w as n o B ritish la n d in g in th e A d r ia t ic , th e G e r ­
m an s o ccu p ie d m ost o f I t a ly , an d C ia n o a n d o th e r ‘ tra ito rs to th e
A x is ’ w e re e x e c u te d , o p tim ism o n ce m o re g a v e w a y to d ep ression .
T h e d ep ression w as in crea sed b y th e R u ssia n a d v a n c e . K á lla y w as
w illin g to su rre n d e r to th e W e ste rn P ow ers, b u t n ot to th e R e d
A r m y . T h e o ld H u n g a ria n d islik e o f R u ssia w as re in fo rc ed b y
m em ories o f th e 19 18 re v o lu tio n a n d fears for th e fu n d a m e n ta lly
w e ak and o u td a te d H u n g a ria n so cia l system . D u r in g th e s u m m e r
o f 1943 K á lla y m ad e c o n ta c t w ith th e re p resen ta tiv e s o f th e
W e ste rn P o w ers in sev eral n e u tra l c a p it a ls .1 H e h o p e d a t this
tim e w ith G e rm a n con sen t to w ith d r a w a ll H u n g a r ia n tro o p s to
the 1941 fro n tiers a n d tak e n o fu rth e r p a rt in th e w a r. H e w o u ld
b e g la d e ve n to h elp th e A n g lo -S a x o n forces p r o v id e d th a t th ey
w o u ld estab lish d ire c t p h y sica l c o n ta c t w ith his o w n th ro u g h I t a ly
an d C r o a tia . H e seem s to h a v e h o p ed th at th e R u ssia n s w o u ld
a d v a n c e a gain st G e r m a n y th ro u g h P o la n d , a n d b y -p ass H u n g a r y .
H e w a n te d to re m a in n e u tra l, b u t w o u ld e v e n fig h t th e G e rm a n s
as soon as th e A n g lo -S a x o n P o w e rs w e re in a p o sitio n to d efe n d
H u n g a r y from G e rm a n v e n g e a n c e . B u t th ere m ust b e n o S o v ie t
tro o p s on H u n g a ria n soil. T h e W e ste rn P ow ers p o in te d o u t th a t
th e U .S .S .R . w as th eir a lly , th a t th e y c o u ld n o t m a k e se p a ra te
p e a ce w ith H u n g a r y , a n d th a t i f H u n g a r y w ish e d to re g a in
A llie d g o o d w ill she m ust p ro v e h e r c h a n g e o f h e a rt b y a ctio n s
not w o rd s. T h e y in fo rm e d th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t o f th e p ro gre ss o f
the talks. S o v ie t a n d c o m m u n ist p ro p a g a n d ists h a v e a lle g e d th a t
th e W estern P o w e rs in trig u e d w ith K á lla y b e h in d th e b a c k s o f
th eir S o v iet a lly . T h e r e is n o m o re tru th in th ese a lle g a tio n s th a n in
th e sim ila r a lle g a tio n s w ith re g a rd to th e Ş tirb e y a n d M o s h a n o v
m issions, m en tio n e d a b o v e . In th e fa ce o f th e u n b e n d in g W e ste rn
a ttitu d e , K á lla y c o u ld o n ly h e sitate . T h e gh osts o f C ia n o a n d
B é la K u n w e re a lw a y s p resen t. M e a n w h ile G e r m a n m istru st o f
K á lla y g re w , a n d pressure in crea sed from th e fo llo w e rs o f I m r é d y

1 A n in c o m p le te b u t useful a c c o u n t o f these co n ta c ts is g iv e n in U lle in - R e v ic z k y ,

o p . cit.
 THE AXIS S A T E L L I T E S IO3
an d from th e rig h t w in g o f M .E .P . T h e la tte r g ro u p p ro d u c e d a
m e m o ra n d u m in F e b r u a r y 1944 in w h ich th e y b itte r ly criticised
th e P r e m ie r fo r to le ra tin g tre a so n a b le a g ita tio n b y socialists and
S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a r ty , fo r o v e r -e stim a tin g th e p o w e r o f th e A n g lo -
S a x o n forces a n d fo r ig n o rin g th e d a n g e r o f B olsh evism . T h e
e x p o n e n ts o f this p o in t o f v ie w in sid e th e c a b in e t w e re th e M in is­
ters o f F in a n c e , S u p p lie s an d W a r , R e m é n y i-S c h n e lle r , S zász
a n d C s a ta y .
W h e n th e R e d A r m y b ro k e in to B essa rab ia a t th e b e g in n in g o f
1944 th e G e r m a n c o m m a n d h a d to m ak e sure o f H u n g a ry ,
th ro u g h w h o se te rrito r y th e m ain c o m m u n ic a tio n s w'ent. O n 19
M a r c h G e r m a n tro op s m a rc h e d in to H u n g a r y from A u stria ,
S lo v a k ia a n d C r o a tia . T h e r e w as n o resistan ce. K á lla y took refu ge
in th e T u rk is h le g a tio n , th e b e st-k n o w n en em ies o f th e G e rm a n s
w e re a rre ste d o r w e n t in to h id in g , an d a n e w g o v e rn m e n t w as
fo rm e d u n d e r G e n e r a l S z to ja y , H u n g a r ia n M in is te r in B erlin and
a ‘ r e lia b le ’ sto o g e o f th e R e ic h . T h e th re e p r o -G e r m a n m em b ers
o f K á l l a y ’s c a b in e t k ep t th e ir posts. I m ré d y an d se v eral o f his
su p p o rte rs e n tered th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e S z to ja y c a b in e t w as the
la st p r o -G e r m a n reserve o f th e H u n g a r ia n regim e . I f it p ro ve d
in a d e q u a te , H itle r c o u ld o n ly fall b a c k on th e p se u d o -re vo lu tio n -
a r y fascist m o b o f S z á la si. B u t his e x p e rie n ce w ith th e R u m a n ia n
Iro n G u a r d m a d e h im u n w illin g to d o this. M e a n w h ile S z to ja y
a n d I m r é d y sh o w e d p le n ty o f g o o d w ill. T h e H u n g a ria n w a r effort
w as to b e in cre a se d . T r a d e u n io n s, S o c ia list an d S m a ll F a r m e rs’
p a rtie s w e re d isso lv e d . P e rsecu tio n o f J e w s w as b e g u n in earnest.
H ith e r to a n ti-sc m itic a c tio n b y th e H u n g a ria n g o v e rn m e n t h ad
n o t g o n e b e y o n d c o m p a r a tiv e ly m ild e c o n o m ic d isc rim in a tio n .
J e w s su sp ected o f c o m m u n ist sy m p a th ie s h ad alw 'ays b een w orse
tre a te d th a n n on -Jew s. S o m e h ad b een d ep o rte d to p e n a l la b o u r
b a tta lio n s o n th e R u ssia n F ro n t, a n d o f these m a n y h ad perished
m is e ra b ly . N o w , h o w e v e r, th e w h o le J e w ish c o m m u n ity in H u n g a ry
w as a tta c k e d . J e w is h p r o p e rty w as e x p ro p r ia te d an d h u n d re d s
o f th o u sa n d s o f J e w s w e re d ep o rte d to th e G e r m a n e x te rm in a tio n
c e n tre s in o c c u p ie d P o la n d .
R e g e n t H o rth y a n d his in tim a te a d v ise rs u n d o u b te d ly d islik ed
th e S z t o ja y g o v e rn m e n t. T h e successes o f th e A n g lo -S a x o n arm ies
in F r a n c e in th e su m m e r g a v e him n e w c o u ra g e . O n 7 A u g u s t he
dism issed I m r é d y a n d tw o o f his su p p o rters from th e c a b in e t.
O n 29 A u g u s t, u n d e r th e im p ression o f R u m a n ia ’ s su rre n d e r, he
d ism issed S z to ja y . T h e n e w g o v e rn m e n t w as led b y G e n e r a l
L a k a to s , a n d w a s m a in ly m ilita r y . T h e p r o -G e r m a n R e m é n y i-
104 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

S ch n e lle r, h o w e v e r, re ta in e d th e F in a n c e M in istry . B y n o w H o rth y

h a d d e c id e d to a b a n d o n G e r m a n y , a n d rea lised th a t h e m u st c o m e
to term s w ith R u ssia as w ell as w ith th e W e ste rn P o w e rs. H e b e g a n
secret n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e u n d e rg ro u n d le ft-w in g le a d e rs. T h e
sm all farm ers w e re led b y B a jc si-Z silin sz k y a n d T i l d y ; th e
socialists b y S zak asits, th e e d ito r o f Népszava (th e p a r t y ’ s o u t ­
sta n d in g le a d e r, P e y e r, h a v in g b e en arrested a n d sen t to M a u t h a u ­
sen c o n ce n tra tio n c a m p in A u s tria a lr e a d y in M a r c h ) ; a n d th e
com m u n ists n o w e m e rg e d as a m in o r g ro u p in B u d a p e st u n d e r a
ce rta in R a jk . H o rth y w as irreso lu te. H is c h ie f n e g o tia to r w as
G e n e ra l U jsz á sz i, h e a d o f th e S ta te D e fe n c e S e c tio n o f th e
G e n e ra l S ta ff, an d fo r m a n y y e a rs th e d ire c to r o f a n ti-c o m m u n ist
repression. H e n o w seem s to h a v e g o t on e x c e lle n tly w ith R a jk ,
both sh o w in g an a p titu d e fo r se n tim e n tal a n d d ra m a tic p h ra se ­
m o n g e r in g .1 O n pressure from th e u n d e rg ro u n d le a d e rs H o rth y
a g re e d to a rra n g e fo r arm s to b e g iv e n to w o rk e rs’ o rg a n isa tio n s
to h elp d efen d B u d a p e st a g a in st G e rm a n reprisals w h e n H u n ­
g a r y ’ s su rre n d e r w as a n n o u n c e d . B u t he k ep t p o s tp o n in g a c tio n ,
an d th e G e rm a n s, k n o w in g w e ll th a t so m e th in g w as b e in g p lo tte d ,
a n d possib ly b e in g eve n in fo rm e d o f d eta ils, m a d e th e ir p r e p a r a ­
tions. O n 15 O c t o b e r H o rth y su d d e n ly a n n o u n c e d his in te n tio n
to su rre n d e r a n d o rd e re d his troo p s to cease fig h tin g th e R u ssia n s.
N o p rep a ra tio n s w e re m a d e . T h e arm s w e re n o t h a n d e d o v e r to
th e w ork ers. S z á la si’ s fascists w ith G e r m a n h e lp to o k o v e r th e
ra d io sta tio n an d soon h e ld th e w h o le c a p ita l. T h e p a la c e g a rriso n
u n d e r a lo y a l g e n e ra l p u t u p som e resistan ce. T h e G e rm a n s
ca p tu r e d an d e x e c u te d B a jc s i-Z silin sz k y a n d se v eral g e n e ra ls,
H o rth y w as d e p o rte d to G e r m a n y , an d a g o v e rn m e n t o f fascist
fa n a tics w as fo rm e d , c o n tin u ity w ith th e p a st b e in g still re p r e ­
sen ted b y th e p lia b le R e m é n y i-S c h n e lle r .
T h e S zá la si re g im e w a s th e last an d m ost h o rrib le c h a p te r in
H u n g a r y ’s w a r -tim e tra g e d y . T h e H u n g a r ia n fascists c o m p e te d in
b e stia lity w ith th e ir R u m a n ia n c o m ra d e s o f 1940. M e a n w h ile th e
R e d A r m y w as a d v a n c in g , a n d H u n g a r y b e c a m e a b a ttle g r o u n d .
O n e H u n g a ria n a rm y c o m m a n d e r, G e n e r a l M ik ló s, w e n t o v e r to
th e R u ssian s an d too k som e o f his troop s w ith h im . T h e g re a te r
p a rt o f th e H u n g a r ia n a rm y o b e y e d th e o rd e rs o f S z á la si a n d th e
th re ats o f th e ir G e r m a n allies. T h e y c o n tin u e d to figh t th e R e d
A r m y a n d re tre a te d in to A u stria . T h e c a p ita l w as b e sie g e d for
tw o m onth s. In o n e p a rt o f it th e G e rm a n s a n d th e H u n g a r ia n
1 F o r an ac co u n t b y an ey e-w itn ess o f th e n eg o tia tio n s b e tw e e n H o rth y a n d the
u n d erg ro u n d o p p o sitio n , see Im re K o v á c s , Im Schatten der Sowjets. A fa irly re lia b le
an d in tere stin g C o m m u n ist a c c o u n t is G . K á lla i, .Ą magyar függetlenségi mozgalom,
B u d a p est, 1948.
 THE AXIS SATELLITES IO5

fascist g a n g s m u rd e re d a n d ro b b e d an d d estro y e d , in th e o th er
h a lf th e R e d A r m y ra p e d a n d ro b b e d a n d m u rd e re d . A r tille r y
p o u n d e d th e h isto ric c ita d e l o f B u d a to pieces. N o o th e r
E u ro p e a n c ity e x c e p t W a r s a w su ffered su ch horrors.
In th e e astern p ro v in c e s th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s e n c o u ra g e d the
fo rm a tio n o f a p ro visio n a l g o v e rn m e n t o f H u n g a r y . Its first
P re m ie r w as G e n e r a l M ik ló s. It w as b ased on a c o a litio n o f fo u r
p a rtie s— S m a ll F a rm e rs, S o cia lists, C o m m u n ists an d N a tio n a l
P e a sa n t P a rty . It w a s w ith re p resen ta tive s o f this g o v e rn m e n t
th a t th e th re e A llie d G r e a t P ow ers sign ed a n a rm istice in M o sco w
on 21 J a n u a r y 1945. T h e siege o f B u d a p se t w as o v e r b y 13 F e b ­
ru a ry , b u t th e G e rm a n s fo u g h t h ard in the w estern p ro vin ce s,
m a k in g a p o w e rfu l c o u n ter-o ffe n siv e n e a r S z é k e sfe h é rv á r in
M a r c h . H u n g a r y w a s n ot c o m p le te ly c le a re d o f G e rm a n s u n til
4 th A p r il. T h e g o v e rn m e n t fo r m a lly estab lish ed itse lf in B u dapest
on 14 A p r il 194 5. B o th th e c a p ita l a n d a la rg e p a rt o f th e co u n try
w e re in ruins.
 CHAPTER SIX

T H E R E S IS T A N C E M O V E M E N T S

RESISTANCE A ND C O L L A B O R A T I O N
H E tw o o p p osed n otion s o f resistan ce a n d c o lla b o r a tio n

T a rc p ro d u cts o f th e S e c o n d W o rld W a r . S m a ll s ca le
b a n d itry a n d fu ll-sca le g u e rrilla h a d o f co u rse b e en k n o w n
b efo re, e sp e c ia lly in th e th re e so u th ern p en in su las o f E u r o p e —
S p a in , I ta ly an d th e B a lka n s. B u t it w as u su a lly a c c e p te d in
E u ro p e a n w ars o f th e last ce n tu r y th a t in te rrito ry o c c u p ie d in
w a r th e c o n q u e r in g p o w e r estab lish ed a system o f g o v e rn m e n t
w ith recogn ised ru les, w h ic h w e re o b e y e d b y th e c iv ilia n p o p u la ­
tio n . T o o b e y th em w as n o t treaso n to th e la w fu l g o v e rn m e n t,
an d th ere w as n o o b lig a tio n to u n d e rta k e s a b o ta g e o r a rm e d
w a rfa re a g a in st th e o c c u p y in g forces. T h e c h a n g e is d u e to th e
‘ t o t a l’ n a tu re o f m o d e rn w a r a n d to th e id e o lo g ic a l n a tu re o f th e
N a z i G e r m a n regim e . R e g a r d in g S la v s a n d J e w s as ra c ia lly
in ferio r, a n d b oth lib e ra l an d M a rx is t id e as as heresies to b e
e x tir p a te d , th e G e rm a n s b e h a v e d in su ch a m a n n e r as to p ro v o k e
resistan ce. M o re o v e r th ey m et w ith n a tio n a list a n d re v o lu tio n a r y
fa n aticism n o less im p la c a b le th a n th e ir o w n . W h e n it is a d d e d
th a t b o th th e a n ti-G e rm a n P o w e r g ro u p s— th e A n g lo -S a x o n s an d
the S o v ie t U n io n — d e lib e r a te ly e n c o u ra g e d re sista n ce , a n d
su p p lie d som e o f th e m ean s to m a k e it e ffe c tiv e , th e g e n e ra l
reasons a re c le a r. B u t b e fo re d e s c rib in g th e m a in m o v e m e n ts, a
few g e n e ra l o b se rv a tio n s a re n e ed e d on th e typ es b o th o f ‘ c o l­
la b o r a t io n ’ an d o f ‘ re sis ta n c e ’ .
T h e w ord s ‘ q u is lin g ’ , ‘ p u p p e t ’ , ‘ t r a it o r ’ a n d ‘ c o lla b o r a t o r ’
a re o ften in d iscrim in a te ly used as term s o f a b u se . B u t at le a st five
d iffe re n t typ es c a n be d istin g u ish ed . F irst a re th ose w h o fro m
fascist sy m p ath ie s o r p e rso n a l a m b itio n e n te re d th e serv ices o f
th e A x is P ow ers a lr e a d y b e fo re th e in v a sio n , a n d assisted th em
d u r in g a n d a fte r co n q u e st. S u c h m en sim p ly c o m m itte d treaso n .
S e co n d are th ose w h o , b e lo n g in g to n a tio n a l m in o ritie s o r to
n atio n s d e p riv e d o f e q u a l statu s, felt n o o b lig a tio n to w a rd s th e ir
states an d h e lp e d th e A x is P o w ers in th e b e lie f th a t th e y w'cre
lib e ra tin g th e ir o w n n a tio n . T h is to o w as tre aso n , b u t w ith
106
 T H E R E S I S T A NC E MOVEMENTS I07
e x te n u a tin g circ u m sta n ce s. E x a m p le s a re th e C r o a tia n U stash
o r. th e S lo v a k p o p u lists. T h ir d a rc those w h o served th eir c o u n try
d u r in g th e in va sio n , b u t a fte rw a rd s, b e in g co n v in c e d th a t the
A x is h a d w o n th e w a r , th a t th e ir e x ile d ru lers w o u ld n e ve r retu rn ,
a n d th a t fascism w a s th e best form o f g o v e rn m e n t, d ec id e d to
c o lla b o r a te w ith th e o c c u p y in g forces in a d m in iste rin g th eir
c o u n try . H e re treaso n is n ot so e a sy to id e n tify , p a rtic u la rly in
th e ca se o f Y u g o s la v ia a n d G r e e c e , w h ose a rm y co m m a n d e rs had
sign e d fo rm a l a rm istices. T h e fo u rth ty p e a re those w h o a cc e p te d
office in th e sin cere b e lie f th a t th e y w o u ld p ro te c t th eir p e o p le
from o p p ressio n , in te rp o sin g th em selves an d th eir a d m in istra tio n
b e tw e e n th e c iv il p o p u la tio n an d th e fu ll rig o u r o f th e o c c u p y in g
P o w e r. T h e ir o rig in a l in te n tio n w as to p reserve w h a t w as possible
o f th e n a tio n ’s interests u n til th e v ic to ry o f th e A llie s an d the
re tu rn o f th e le g a l a u th o ritie s. G e n e ra l N e d ić , th e ‘ q u islin g
P r e m ie r ’ o f S e rb ia , w a s a n e x a m p le o f this ty p e. B u t co n d itio n s
in G e rm a n -o c c u p ie d E astern E u ro p e in 1 9 4 1 -4 w ere v ery
d iffe re n t fro m those in G e rm a n -o c c u p ie d W e ste rn E u ro p e in
19 14 18, w h ic h e n a b le d M a y o r M a x o f Brussels to p la y this p a rt
w ith th e a p p r o v a l a n d resp ect o f his fe llo w -c o u n try m e n . N e d ić
w as soon o b lig e d to ta k e a stand on th e tw o v ita l q u estio n s o f
su p p re ssin g th e resista n ce a n d s u p p ly in g la b o u r levies for G e r ­
m a n y . B y h e lp in g th e G e rm a n s in b o th , he p la c e d h im se lf on the
sid e o f th e e n e m y . T h e last c a te g o r y consists o f m a n y w h o d id th eir
d u ty d u r in g th e in va sio n c a m p a ig n , re m a in e d lo y a l to th eir
e x ile d go v e rn m e n ts a n d u tte r ly h a te d th e in va d ers, y et b e c a m e
in c re a s in g ly a la rm e d b y th e g ro w th o f resistan ce m o vem en ts
u n d e r n e w a n d r e v o lu tio n a ry le a d e rsh ip , a n d e v e n tu a lly assisted
th e o c c u p y in g a u th o ritie s a g a in st th e resistan ce. T h e y d id not
feel th a t th e y w e re b e tr a y in g th e ir fe llo w -c o u n try m e n , b u t m erely
th a t th e y w'ere c o m b a tin g re b e llio n . S u c h co n serv atism an d le g a l
n arro w -m in d e d n e ss w e re not p la in treason , b u t th e y w e re o f
c o u rse n o less h a te fu l to th e resisters.
R e sista n ce m o ve m e n ts v a rie d c o n sid e ra b ly , b u t c e rta in basic
c o n d itio n s w e re re q u ire d for a ll. T h e first w as w id esp re a d
n a tio n a l h a tre d o f a fo reig n in v a d e r as su ch . T h is w as a lm ost
u n iv e rsa l a m o n g C z e c h s , Poles, S erb s a n d G ree k s. It w as m u ch
less stro n g, p a r t ic u la r ly in th e first years, a m o n g S lo v a k s and
C r o a ts , w h o h ad re c e iv ed from th e G e rm a n s a n a tio n a l in d e ­
p e n d e n c e w h ic h w as n o t im m e d ia te ly felt to b e a sh am . It h a rd ly
e xisted a t a ll a m o n g R u m a n ia n s a n d B u lg a ria n s, w h o se states
w e re a llie d w ith th e A x is a n d w e re n ot su b je ct to o c c u p a tio n .
Io8 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

T h is w as also tru e o f H u n g a r y u p to M a r c h 1944, a fte r w h ic h

o p in io n u n d o u b te d ly c h a n g e d . A secon d c o n d itio n w a s a sta te
o f in to le ra b le o p p ression , su ch as to d riv e p e o p le in to a c tio n . T h is
e xisted in P o la n d a n d Y u g o s la v ia , an d as a resu lt o f th e fa m in e
o f 1 9 4 1 -2 it e xisted also in G r e e c e . O n c e resista n ce s ta rte d , it
b ro u g h t reprisals, an d these fu rth e r in cre a se d h a tre d . In C z e c h o ­
slo v a k ia , h o w e v e r, these c o n d itio n s d id n o t exist to th e sam e
e x te n t. T h e C z e c h p e asan ts a n d w o rk ers e n jo y e d m a te ria l p ros­
p e rity , an d thus sh o w e d little in c lin a tio n to re v o lt. P e rsecu tio n
w as co n c e n tra te d a g a in st th e in te lle c tu a ls, w h o re a cte d b y th e
m ean s at th eir d isposal b u t w e re n ot a b le to o rg a n ise a m ass
m o ve m e n t. T h is b rin gs us to th e th ird c o n d itio n , th e n a tu re o f
th e c o u n try . In m o u n ta in o u s a n d fo rested a re as, a rm e d re sista n ce
on a la rg e sc a le w as possib le, as th e re b els w e re a b le to ta k e
re fu g e in rem o te p la c e s w h ic h it w as too tro u b le so m e fo r th e
e n e m y , w ith th e tim e a n d p erso n n el a t his d isp o sa l, to e x p lo re .
Y u g o s la v ia , G r e e c e a n d A lb a n ia a b o u n d in su ch c o u n tr y , an d
P o la n d h as su ita b le forests. T h e C z e c h la n d s, h o w e v e r, a re th ic k ly
p o p u la te d a n d lo w - ly in g : in th e m o u n ta in o u s p a rts o f B o h e m ia ,
G e rm a n s p re d o m in a te d . W h e r e c o n d itio n s d o n o t fa v o u r a rm e d
resistan ce, s a b o ta g e , assassin ation s, e sp io n a g e a n d th e rescu e o f
esca p ed A llie d prison ers o r b a le d -o u t p ilo ts a re p o ssib le form s o f
resistan ce.
It soon b e c a m e o b v io u s th a t th e m ass resista n ce m o ve m e n ts
w e re fig h tin g n o t o n ly a g a in st th e G e rm a n s, b u t for aim s o f th eir
o w n . T h e s e ca n b e n o t u n fa ir ly sim p lified in to tw o a lte r n a tiv e s —
resto ra tio n o f th e p re-in v a sio n re g im e o r a so c ia l a n d p o litic a l
n e w d e a l. W h e n th e G e rm a n s in v a d e d R u ssia , a fu rth e r d ivisio n
a p p e a r e d , b e tw e e n those w h o lo o k ed fo r lib e ra tio n to th e A n g lo -
S a x o n P ow ers o r to th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e tw o d ivisio n s w e re n ot
id e n tic a l. A ll w h o lo o k ed to th e S o v ie t U n io n d esire d a n e w d e a l,
b u t n o t a ll w h o d esired a n e w d e a l lo o k e d to th e S o v ie t U n io n .
A ll w h o w ish ed to restore th e old re g im e p referre d th e A n g lo -
S a x o n s to th e S o v iets, b u t n o t a ll w h o sy m p a th ise d w ith th e
A n g lo -S a x o n s w ish ed to restore th e o ld regim ev
T h e se d iffe re n ce s a re e sp e c ia lly im p o rta n t in th e ca se o f P o la n d .
A u n ited resista n ce m o v e m e n t w as fo rm e d a t a tim e w h e n th e
S o v ie t U n io n still h a d fr ie n d ly re la tio n s w ith G e r m a n y , a n d
w ith in th e resista n ce th e ‘ n e w d e a l ’ ele m e n ts, re p resen te d b y th e
p e a san t m o v e m e n t a n d th e so cialists, w e re stro n g e r th a n th e
su p p o rte rs o f th e o ld o rd e r. M o r e o v e r th e P olish g o v e rn m e n t in
e x ile w as n o t le d b y re p resen ta tive s o f th e P ilsu d sk i-B e ck re g im e .
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 1 09
B y co n tra st, in Y u g o s la v ia resistan ce w as in a v e r y p rim itiv e
sta g e , a n d in G r e e c e it h ad n ot b e g u n , w h e n R u ssia w as in v a d e d .
R u ssia h a d a lw a y s b e en re g a rd e d b y th e p e o p le o f Y u g o s la v ia ,
e s p e c ia lly b y th e S erb s, as th eir n a tu ra l p ro te c to r, an d th e G reek s
h a d o fte n b e n e fited from R u ssia n frien d sh ip in th e past, w h ereas
to th e P oles R u ssia w as a tra d itio n a l e n e m y . T h u s a p o litic a l p a rty
lo o k in g to R u ssia w as lik e ly to w in stro n g su p p o rt in Y u g o s la v ia
a n d c o n sid e ra b le su p p o rt in G r e e c e , b u t h ad little p ro sp ect in
P o la n d . F o r th ese v a rio u s reason s th en th e co m m u n ists w e re a b le
in th e B a lk a n s to p u t th em selves at th e h e ad o f th e ‘ n e w -d e ale rs ’ ,
b u t w’e re u n a b le in P o la n d .
W h e n th e co m m u n ists b e g a n th eir resistan ce, th e y h ad the
sa m e a im as a lw a y s in th e p a st— p o litic a l p o w e r. T h is w as to be
o b ta in e d b y tw o m ea n s— b y s tre n g th e n in g th e d efe n ce o f the
U .S .S .R ., ‘ th e te rrito r ia l b ase o f th e w o rld r e v o lu tio n ’ , th ro u g h
d iv e rs io n o f G e r m a n troo p s from th e fro n t to cru sh re b e llio n in
th e ir re a r, a n d b y tu rn in g th e w a r o f lib e ra tio n a gain st the
o c c u p y in g forces in to a civ il w a r a g a in st th eir o w n ru lin g class.
In lib e ra te d a re as th e y set u p th e ir o w n a d m in istra tio n , w h ich not
o n ly o rg a n ise d su p p lies fo r th e fig h tin g m en b u t p rep a re d itself
to ta k e o v e r p o litic a l p o w e r in th e c o u n try w h en th e G e rm a n s
w e re d e fe a te d . A t first th e y h ad to fig h t, in a d d itio n to th e in ­
v a d e rs, o n ly th e q u islin g forces o f th e first fo u r ca te g o rie s d escrib e d
a b o v e . B u t as th e c o m m u n ists’ p o litic a l o rg a n isa tio n b e c a m e a
seriou s r iv a l to th e p re-in v a sio n o rd e r, so th e lo y a l su p p o rters o f
th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n ts g re w to re g a rd th e co m m u n ists as a m ore
d a n g e ro u s e n e m y th an the G e rm a n s. A n o th e r ca u se o f bitterness
w as e n e m y rep risals. T h e s e fell m ost se v ere ly on those w h o h ad
p r o p e rty to lose. D e str u c tio n o f p r o p e rty d id n ot w o rry the
c o m m u n ists m u c h , , b e c a u se m ost o f th e ir su p p o rte rs h ad little,
a n d a n y w e a k e n in g o f th eir fu tu re riv als w as o f a d v a n ta g e to
th em . B u t th e w e a lth y p easan ts fe a re d reprisals, a n d tried to
p r e v e n t a ctio n s w h ic h w o u ld in c u r t h e m .1 F ro m this it w as not
d iffic u lt to tak e th e fu rth e r step o f a rm e d c o lla b o ra tio n w ith the
o c c u p y in g forces a g a in st th e co m m u n ists.
F ig h tin g b e g a n b e tw e e n n atio n a lists an d co m m u n ists in Y u g o ­
s la v ia a lr e a d y in 19 4 1 , in G r e e c e a n d A lb a n ia in 1943. In P o lan d
th e sam e th in g h a p p e n e d w h e n P olish c o m m u n ist p a ra ch u tists,
d ro p p e d from S o v ie t a irc ra ft, a n d a c tin g in d e p e n d e n tly o f the
m a in resista n ce fo rces, p ro v o k e d G e r m a n reprisals. T h e sam e

1 F o r so m e in tere stin g refle ctio n s o n th e su b ject o f resistan ce m o v em en ts, see article

b y J u lia n A m e ry in T he Nineteenth Century and Ą/Ur, M a r c h 1949.
IIO THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

p a tte rn e x te n d e d e ve n to th e S o v ie t U k r a in e , w h e re a th re e-
co rn e re d stru g g le took p la c e b e tw e e n th e G e rm a n s , th e n a tio n ­
alist U k ra in ia n In su rge n t A r m y ( U .P .A .) a n d th e U k r a in ia n
co m m u n ist p a rtisa n s a c tin g on R e d A r m y o r d e r s .1 A s A llie d
v ic to ry a p p ro a c h e d , th e stru g g le fo r p o s t-w a r p o w e r to o k p r e ­
c e d e n ce o v e r th e stru g g le a g a in st th e G e rm a n s. T h e P o lish H o m e
A r m y g a lla n tly fo u g h t th e G e rm a n s to th e e n d , a lth o u g h its
forces w e re d isarm ed an d its le a d e rs m a ltre a te d b y th e a d v a n c in g
R e d A r m y . In G r e e c e th e forces o f Z e r v a s fo r th e m ost p a rt a n d
fo r m ost o f th e tim e k ep t c le a r o f ‘ c o lla b o r a t io n ’ . B u t th e M ih a il­
o v ic m o v e m e n t in Y u g o s la v ia , th e B a lli K o m b e ta r in A lb a n ia a n d
th e U .P .A . in th e U k r a in e w e re d r a w n in e x o r a b ly in to su p p o rt
o f th e d e c lin in g G e rm a n w a r e ffo rt.

PO LA N D
P olish resistan ce h a d a m ilita r y a n d a c iv ilia n o rig in . F ro m
th e officers a n d so ld iers w h o e sc a p e d th ro u g h R u m a n ia a n d
H u n g a ry to F ra n c e , a sm all P olish a r m y w a s c re a te d o n A llie d
soil. A t th e sam e tim e a n e w g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile w a s set u p , led
no lo n g e r b y th e p o litic ia n s o f th e P ilsu d sk i-B e c k re g im e b u t b y
th e g re a t so ld ie r G e n e ra l S ik o rsk i a n d th e re p resen ta tiv e s o f th e
tra d itio n a l P olish p a rtie s w h o h a d b e e n o p p o se d to th e old
re g im e — N a tio n a l D e m o c ra ts , S o c ia lists, P e o p le ’s (p e a sa n t) P a rty
a n d L a b o u r (C a th o lic ) P a r ty . A ft e r th e first p e rio d o f c o n fu sio n ,
co m m u n ic a tio n s b e g a n to b e e sta b lish e d b e tw e e n th e e xile s a n d
p a trio ts in sid e P o la n d . C o u r ie rs c o u ld pass th ro u g h S lo v a k ia a n d
H u n g a r y w ith o u t g re a t d iffic u lty , a n d ra d io c o m m u n ic a tio n s w e re
soon restored fo r sh o rte r m essages. P o litic a l id eas a n d o r g a n is a ­
tion p la n s b e g a n to b e e x c h a n g e d b e tw e e n P o la n d a n d th e free
w o rld . T h e su ccessive P olish g o v e rn m e n ts in e x ile n e v e r lost th is
c o n ta c t. A fte r th e P olish g o v e rn m e n t m o v e d fro m F r a n c e to
B rita in , a n d th e e n try o f I ta ly in to th e w a r re d u c e d th e v a lu e o f th e
S lo v a k ia -H u n g a r y ro u te , th ere w a s still c o n ta c t b y ra d io , a n d
c o u rie r lin es w e re o rg a n ise d , n ot o n ly to sen d sp e c ia l m essages
b u t also to e v a c u a te e sca p e d A llie d p r iso n e rs-o f-w a r, r ig h t
th ro u g h G e r m a n y , F ra n c e a n d S p a in to G ib r a lt a r . T h e P o lish
go v e rn m e n ts in e x ile w e re m o re c o n s ta n tly in to u c h w ith o p in io n
a t h o m e th a n a n y o f th e o th ers fro m E aste rn E u ro p e .
T h e o ffic ia l p o lic y o f th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t a n d o f th e le a d e rs
1 F o r an a c c o u n t o f th e U k r a in ia n n a tio n a list resistan ce , se r M ik o la L e b e d , Ukraiń­
ska Poislanska Armiya, 1946. In d e p e n d e n t e v id e n c e b e in g e n tir e ly la c k in g o n this
su b jec t, this w o rk o f a U k ra in ia n n a tio n a list m u st b e ta k e n w ith so m e c a u tio n , bu t
it is o f co n sid e ra b le interest.
 THE RE S I S TA NCE MOVEMENTS III
o f th e u n d e rg ro u n d m o v e m e n t w h ic h g r e w u p , w a s n o n -reco g -
n itio n o f th e G e r m a n a n d S o v ie t o c c u p a tio n s o f P o la n d . T h e
Polish sta te w a s co n sid e re d still e xistin g. T h e u n d e rg ro u n d
m o v e m e n t w as to b u ild u p a sc c rc t g o v e rn m e n t, a d m in istra ­
tio n , a r m y , press a n d e v e n la w co u rts a n d sch o ols. T h e a rm y
w as le d to som e e x te n t b y fo rm e r p rofession al officers, w h o
h a d e sc a p c d im p riso n m e n t b y e ith e r in v a d in g a rm y , b u t h a d not
b e en a b le to e sc a p e a b r o a d o r h a d d e c id e d to sta y . A s th e a rm y
h a d fo r m o re th a n ten y e a rs b e en p a c k e d w ith su p p o rte rs o f
P iłsu d sk i, a n d e a c h n e w g e n e ra tio n o f o fficers a fte r 1926 h ad been
b r o u g h t u p to h o n o u r th e M a rs h a l, a n d a fte r his d e a th his su c­
cessors, it w as to b e e x p e c te d th a t th e officers w o u ld h a v e m o re
s y m p a th y w ith th e o ld re g im e , a n d less e n th u sia sm fo r d e m o c ra c y ,
th a n o th e r e lem en ts o f th e p o p u la tio n . T h is w as in fa c t p r o b a b ly
th e ca se , b u t th e officers in th e H o m e A r m y ( A .K .) , as th e u n d e r­
g ro u n d m ilita r y o rg a n isa tio n c a m e to b e c a lle d , lo y a lly o b e y e d
th e o rd e rs o f th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t a n d its c iv il re p resen ta tive s
in sid e P o la n d .
T h e u n d e rg ro u n d c iv il a d m in istra tio n w as h e a d e d b y th e c h ie f
d e le g a te o f th e g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile . H e h a d tw e lv e d ep a rtm e n ts ,
c o rr e s p o n d in g to th e m a in m in istries o f a n o rm a l sta te. In
th e p ro v in c e s w e re re g io n a l d e le g a te s. T h e r e w as a n a d v iso ry
‘ p o litic a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n ’ , o r u n d e rg ro u n d p a rlia m e n t. A p a r t
fro m th e H o m e A r m y , th ere w as a d e p a r tm e n t k n o w n as th e
‘ D ir e c to r a te o f C iv il R e s is ta n c e ’ . O n e o f its m ost im p o rta n t tasks
w as to o rg a n ise u n d e rg ro u n d trib u n a ls to try P oles a c cu s e d b efore
it o f c o lla b o r a tio n w ith th e e n e m y . T h e a d m in istra tio n raised
in te rn a l lo a n s, issu in g to those w h o h a d su b scrib e d m o n e y ‘ b o n d s ’
c o n sistin g o f a p ro m ise to re p a y a fte r lib e ra tio n . I t w as n o fa u lt
o f th o se w h o issued th e ‘ b o n d s ’ th a t in 1945 th ere w as n o possi­
b ility o f re p a y m e n t. A s th e G e rm a n s h a d su ppressed u n iversities
a n d sta te s e c o n d a ry sch o ols, th e u n d e rg ro u n d a d m in istra tio n
o rg a n ise d se cre t sch o o ls a n d co u rses, e v e n e x a m in a tio n s at w h ich
q u a lifie d te a ch e rs a n d u n iv e rsity professors se c re tly in v ig ila te d .
T h e r e w e re m a n y u n d e rg ro u n d n e w sp ap e rs. T h e m ost im p o rta n t
in c lu d e d th e o ffic ia l o rg a n s o f th e C h ie f D e le g a te , The Polish
R epublic; o f th e H o m e A r m y , Polish News', a n d o f th e m ain
p o litic a l p a r t ie s .1
T h e p a rtie s e a c h o rg a n ise d a t a n e a r ly d a te th e ir o w n ille g a l
g ro u p s, in c lu d in g a rm e d d e ta c h m e n ts. T h u s th e P e a sa n t P a rty
h a d its p e a sa n t forces, s p e c ia lly su ite d fo r a rm e d a ctio n s in
1 F o r a n a c c o u n t b y a n e y e-w itn ess see K a rs k i, The Story o f a Secret Statt.
112 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
in accessib le c o u n try , a n d fo r p r o te c tin g th e p ea san ts a g a in st
G e rm a n p e rsecu tio n . T h e y p la y e d an im p o rta n t p a rt a t th e tim e
o f th e evictio n s o f P olish p easan ts in th e L u b lin a r e a d u r in g th e
w in te r o f 19 4 2 -3 . T h e P e a sa n t P a r t y ’ s n e w s p a p e r w as e n title d
Through Battle to Victory. T h e S o c ia list P a rty w as b e tte r q u a lifie d
for sa b o ta g e a n d in te llig e n c e in th e cities. A t th e b e g in n in g o f th e
o c c u p a tio n its u n d e rg ro u n d o rg a n isa tio n to o k th e n a m e * L ib e r t y ,
E q u a lity , In d e p e n d e n c e ’ ( W . R .N .) .1 T h e p u rp o se w a s to p r o te c t
those w h o m ig h t b e k n o w n to th e G e rm a n s as m em b e rs o f
th e S o cia list P a rty from arrest o n su sp icion o f u n d e rg ro u n d
a c tiv ity . T h e c a m o u fla g e w a s o f so m e v a lu e fo r th e first m o n th s.
B y th e tim e th e G e rm a n s realised th a t W .R .N . a n d P . P .S . w e re
th e sam e, th e b est-k n o w n m em b ers o f P. P .S . h a d go n e in to h id in g .
T h e G e rm a n s, h o w e v e r, c a p tu r e d an d e x e c u te d so m e o f th e best-
k n o w n P olish d e m o c ra tic lea d ers, in c lu d in g R a t a j o f th e P e a sa n t
P a r ty a n d N ie d z ia łk o w s k i a n d B a rlic k i o f P .P .S . T h e N a tio n a l
D e m o c ra tic P a rty , re cru ite d p a r tly from th e p e a sa n try a n d p a r tly
from th e u rb a n m id d le class, p r o v id e d m a n y o f th e te c h n ic ia n s
o f th e u n d e rg ro u n d m o v e m e n t. T h e L a b o u r P a rty p la y e d a
sm a ller b u t n o less h o n o u r a b le p a rt.
B y 19 4 1 th e fo u r p a rtie s w e re c o lla b o r a tin g clo se ly a n d lo y a lly .
A ll fou r recogn ised th e u n d e rg ro u n d a d m in istra tio n , a n d a ll fo u r
co n trib u te d th eir m en to th e H o m e A r m y . A ll fo u r a g re e d th a t
th e n e w P o lan d m ust be a d e m o c ra tic c o u n try , a n d p o stp o n ed
d eta ile d p o litic a l d iffe re n ce s u n til a fte r v ic to r y . T h e re je c tio n o f
th e p r e -w a r regim e h a d a lre a d y b e en c le a rly sta te d in th e 1940
M a y D a y p r o c la m a tio n o f th e S o c ia list P a rty . T h is h a d stressed
th e fa ilu re o f th e old r u lin g classes, a n d d e c la re d th a t th e fu tu re
b e lo n g e d to th e w o rk ers a n d p ea san ts. I t also sta te d th a t th e P oles
m ust liv e in h a rm o n y w ith th e J e w s, a n d ‘ le a rn to re sp e ct th e
a sp ira tio n to freed o m o f th e U k r a in ia n a n d W h ite R u th e n ia n
p e o p le s’ . A fo rm a l sta te m e n t sign e d b y th e fo u r p a rtie s to g e th er
on 15 A u g u s t 1943 em p h a sised th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s
o f th e fu tu re ‘ sh all b e free o f those e le m e n ts re sp o n sib le fo r th e
m istakes o f th e fo rm e r re g im e , a n d a lso free fro m a n y to ta lita ria n
le a n in g s ’ . I t u rg e d th a t im m e d ia te steps b e ta k e n a fte r lib e ra tio n
to c a r r y o u t a la n d refo rm ‘ in o r d e r to c re a te su ch d ivisio n s o f
a ra b le la n d as sh all en su re th e la rg e st p o ssib le n u m b e r o f e ffic ien t
stro n g o n e -fa m ily farm s, w h ic h w o u ld g u a r a n te e an a d e q u a te
s u p p ly o f food fo r th e w h o le n a t io n ’ . I t also u rg e d th a t th e fu tu re
g o v e rn m e n t sh o u ld ta k e o v e r in d u stria l estab lish m e n ts a d m in -
1 In P o lish , ‘ W o ln o ś ć , ró w n o ść , n ie p o d le g ło ś ć .’
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 113
istered b y th e G e rm a n s d u r in g th e o c c u p a tio n , a n d sta ted th at
la b o u r m ust b e re c o g n ise d as ‘ th e g re a te st so cia l v a lu e , an d the
fo u n d a tio n o f th e e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t an d w e lfa re o f the
c o u n t r y ’ . I he ‘ p o litic a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n ’ w as also re n a m e d d u r in g
194 3 th e C o u n c il o f N a tio n a l U n i t y .1
T h e G e r m a n in v a sio n o f th e S o v ie t U n io n g re a tly in crea sed th e
m ilita r y v a lu e o f th e P olish H o m e A r m y . D u rin g th e fo llo w in g
y e a rs th e P oles p e rfo rm e d v a lu a b le services b y d estro y in g ra il
co m m u n ic a tio n s in th e re a r o f th e G e rm a n arm ies. A t tim es th ey
e n g a g e d in c o n sid e ra b le b a ttle s w ith G e r m a n troop s. O w in g to
th e d iffe re n t n a tu re o f th e te rra in , these w e re n e v e r on th e sca le
o f th e b a ttle s o f th e B a lk a n resistan ce m o ve m e n ts. O n e o f th e m ost
im p o rta n t b a ttle s to o k p la c e n e a r K ie lc e in M a r c h 1944, w h e n a
fo rce o f som e 4,000 S .S . troop s w e re e n g a g e d . The Polish u n d e r­
g ro u n d m o v e m e n t also c a rrie d o u t sa b o ta g e in factories, and
passed v a lu a b le in fo rm a tio n to th e A llie s. A s Poles w e re e m p lo y e d
in in d u str y th ro u g h o u t th e R e ic h , th e y w e re a b le to in form the
A llie s a lso a b o u t c o n d itio n s in sid e G e r m a n y . A ll these a ctivitie s
o f co u rse b ro u g h t b r u ta l reprisals o n th e p o p u la tio n . A lr e a d y in
M a y 1940 th e G e rm a n s w e re su ffic ie n tly a la rm e d b y Polish
re sista n ce to c a r r y o u t a sp e cia l rep ressive m o v e m e n t, o f arrests
a n d e x e cu tio n s, k n o w n as th e ‘ A .B . A c t io n ’ .* T h e Poles d ec id e d
to fig h t rep risals w ith c o u n ter-rep risa ls. W h e n P olish patrio ts
w e re e x e c u te d P olish resisters e x e cu te d p ro m in e n t G e rm a n
o fficia ls. A m o n g th ose th us e x e c u te d w e re C o lo n e l G a ssier, h ead
o f S .S . in C r a c o w , a n d G e n e r a l K u ts c h e ra , m ilita r y c o m m a n d a n t
o f W a r s a w (1 F e b r u a r y 194 4). A n a tte m p t on G o v e rn o r-G e n e ra l
H an s F ra n k on 29 J a n u a r y 1944 w as u n su ccessfu l.
S p e c ia l m e n tio n sh o u ld be m a d e o f th e resistan ce o f th e J e w ish
g h e tto in W a r s a w from 19 to 28 A p r il 1943, w h ic h w as in d e p e n ­
d e n t o f th e H o m e A r m y ’s a ctio n s. O f th e 400,000 J e w s w h o h ad
in h a b ite d this g h e tto a t th e e n d o f 1940, som e 300,000 h a d been
d e p o rte d to e x te rm in a tio n ca m p s. T h e re m n a n t w e re b e in g slo w ly
sta rv e d . W h e n th e G e rm a n s d e c id e d to finish th em off, th e y resisted
d e s p e ra te ly , w ith n o w e ap o n s. O f 56,000 persons a c co u n te d for
in th e o fficia l G e r m a n re p o rt, 7,000 w e re k ille d fig h tin g , w h ile
a n u n k n o w n a d d itio n a l n u m b e r p erish ed in th e sew ers or in b u r n ­
in g b u ild in g s. G e r m a n losses w e re 15 d e a d . T h e G e rm a n c o m ­
m a n d e r sa w fit to c o n g r a tu la te his m en on th e ir h e ro ism .3
1 M ik o ła jc z y k , T łu Pattrm o f Soviet Domination, A p p e n d ix , q u o tes th e text o f the sta te ­
m e n t. * T rial, p a rt 12, p. 116 .
* T rial, p a rt 2. p p . 4 0 5 -7 . S ee K a rsk i, o p . c it., fo r a n a c c o u n t o f co n d itio n s in the
W a r s a w g h e tto som e m o n th s befo re th e en d .
114 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

T h e e n try o f th e R e d A r m y in to fo rm e r P o lish te rrito r y e a r ly in

1944 cre a te d d iffic u lt p ro b lem s. T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h ad
b ro k e n o f f rela tio n s w ith th e P o lish g o v e rn m e n t on 25 A p r il
1943, a n d d id n o t re co g n ise as P o lish a n y te rrito r y east o f th e
M o lo to v - R ib b e n tr o p lin e. M o r e o v e r in th e a d v a n c in g S o v ie t
forces th ere w e re P olish d ivisio n s, u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f G e n e r a l
B e rlin g , re co g n ise d b y th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s as b e in g th e tru e
Polish a r m y a n d o w in g so m e a lle g ia n c e to a b o d y c a lle d th e
U n io n o f P olish P a trio ts, set u p on S o v ie t in itia tiv e a m o n g th e
Polish su b je cts still resid en t in S o v ie t te rrito r y a fte r th e d e p a r tu re
o f th e a rm y o f G e n e r a l A n d e rs. I n O c t o b e r 1943 th e P o lish
g o v e rn m e n t h a d in stru c te d th e u n d e rg ro u n d le a d e rs to in te n sify
th e stru g g le a g a in st th e G e r m a n forces, to a v o id a ll co n flic ts w ith
th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s, a n d to c o -o p e ra te w ith S o v ie t c o m m a n d e rs
i f P o lish -S o v ie t re la tio n s sh o u ld b e re su m ed . B u t this in stru c tio n
h a d n o t o v e r c o m e d ifficu ltie s. F o r so m e tim e p a st th e R e d A r m y
h a d b een d r o p p in g p a ra c h u tists, so m e o f P o lish a n d so m e o f
R u ssia n n a tio n a lity , b e h in d th e G e r m a n lin es in P o la n d to c a r r y
o u t s a b o ta g e . T h e ir a ctio n s, w h ic h h a d n o t o f c o u rse b e e n c o ­
o rd in a te d w ith th ose o f th e H o m e A r m y , b r o u g h t d o w n re p risals
o n th e lo c a l p o p u la tio n . I n som e cases th e P o lish p e a san ts h a d
resisted th ese S o v ie t ‘ p a r tis a n s ’ . A n a rm e d P o lish o rg a n isa tio n
c a lle d N .S .Z . (N a tio n a l A r m e d F o rc e s), w h ic h d id n o t b e lo n g
to th e H o m e A r m y , a n d w as co m p o se d o f P o lish n a tio n a lists o f
m o re o r less fascist o u tlo o k , th e d e s ce n d a n ts o f th e N a tio n a l
R a d ic a ls o f b e fo re th e w a r, h a d fo u g h t a g a in st S o v ie t p a rtisa n s ,
to th e a d v a n ta g e o f th e G e rm a n s.
A t th e sam e tim e th e P olish c o m m u n ists b e g a n a c tiv it y . T h e
P o lish C o m m u n ist P a r ty , d isso lv ed in 1938 b y th e C o m in te r n
itself, w as r e v iv e d in 1942 u n d e r th e n a m e P o lish W o r k e r s ’
P a r ty ( P .P .R .) , a n d a le ft-w in g so cia list g r o u p , c la im in g to b e
th e tru e S o c ia list P a r ty , w as fo rm e d u n d e r a c e rta in O s ó b k a -
M o ra w s k i. T h is g ro u p to o k th e n a m e P o lish W o r k e r s ’ S o c ia list
P a r t y ( R .P .P .S .) . C o lla b o r a tio n b e tw e e n R .P .P .S . a n d P .P .R .
w as close, b u t n o t a lw a y s c o m p le te ly sm o o th . T h e fo r m e r w as
a ccu s e d b y P .P .R . o f c o n ta in in g fo r m e r T r o ts k y is ts a n d also
n a tio n a listic e le m e n ts .1 R .P .P .S . v io le n tly a tta c k e d th e o ld P .P .S .
n o w k n o w n as W .R .N . T h e c r im e o f W .R .N . w a s n o t a n y fa ilu re
to resist th e G e rm a n s o r to d e fe n d P o la n d , b u t its ‘ a n ti- S o v ie t
1 S e e F ra n c isz e k J ó z w ia k , ‘ N a c z e le w a lk i o w y z w o le n ie n a ro d o w e i sp o łe c zn e ( P .P .R .
w o kre sie o k u p a c ji) ’ (‘ A t th e h e a d o f th e figh t for n a tio n a l a n d s o c ia l lib e r a tio n
( P .P .R . in th e p e rio d o f o c c u p a t io n ) ’ ) , a r tic le in Nowe drogi, D e c e m b e r 19 48 , for th e
o ffic ia l P o lish co m m u n is t v ie w .
 THE RE S I S TA NCE MOVEMENTS Iig
a t t it u d e ’ , as sh o w n b y its refu sal to re co g n ise as S o v ie t th e
te rrito r y g iv e n b y R ib b e n tr o p to M o lo to v a n d b y its o cc a sio n a l
refe re n ce s to th e su fferin g s o f P oles u n d e r S o v ie t o c c u p a tio n in th e
y e a rs 1 9 3 9 -4 1 . F ro m th e su p p o rte rs o f P .P .R . an d R .P .P .S . w as
fo rm e d a P e o p le ’ s A r m y ( A .L .) , led b y ‘ R o l a ’ , w h o la te r tu rn ed
o u t to b e a fo rm e r g e n e ra l o f th e P o lish a r m y a n d p e rso n a l e n em y
o f P iłsu d sk i n a m e d Ż y m ie rsk i. In D e c e m b e r 1943 a secret m ee tin g
o f re p resen ta tiv e s o f th ese g ro u p s w as h e ld , w h ic h p ro cee d e d to
set u p a p ro v isio n a l ‘ p e o p le ’s p a r lia m e n t ’ , c a lle d th e N a tio n a l
C o u n c il o f th e H o m e la n d ( K .R .N .) . E a r ly in 1944 rep resen ta tives
o f th is b o d y re a c h e d M o sc o w . F rom th em a n d fro m th e U n io n o f
P o lish P a trio ts w as fo rm e d in J u ly 1944 th e ‘ L u b lin C o m m it te e ’
w h ic h e v e n tu a lly b e c a m e th e g o v e rn m e n t o f P o la n d .1
M e a n w h ile , o n in stru c tio n s fro m th e P o lish g o v e rn m e n t in
e x ile , th e u n its o f th e H o m e A r m y o p e r a tin g east o f th e M o lo to v -
R ib b e n tr o p lin e fo u g h t th e G e rm a n s a n d a n n o u n ce d th em selves
to th e R e d A r m y w h e n it a rriv e d . T h e R e d A r m y b a ttle un its w ere
g la d to co -o p e ra te w ith th e P oles a g a in st th e e n e m y , a n d to m ak e
u se o f th e ir lo c a l in fo rm a tio n . B u t w h e n areas w e re cle a re d o f
G e r m a n s , th e P o lish c o m m a n d e rs, th e ir id en tities a n d w h e re ­
a b o u ts n o w re v e a le d , w e re a rrested b y th e S o v ie t p o litic a l
a u th o ritie s. S o m e w e re s h o t.1
T h e c lim a x o f th e P olish resista n ce w a s th e b a ttle fo r W a rsa w .
J u s t as P a ris rose b e fo re th e a r r iv a l o f th e A m e r ic a n an d B ritish
fo rces a n d free d its e lf fro m th e G e rm a n s, so W a r s a w rose as th e
R e d A r m y a p p r o a c h e d . B u t th ere th e re se m b la n c e e n d e d . T h e
R e d A r m y d id n o t h e lp th e P o les, a n d a fte r six ty -th re e d a y s o f h eroic
re sista n ce , W a r s a w su rre n d e re d to th e G e rm a n s on 3 O c to b e r .
T h e reason s fo r this h o rrib le tra g e d y h a v e n e v e r b e en m a d e fu lly
c le a r . P e rh a p s th e R e d A r m y fa ile d to cross th e V is tu la b e cau se
it c o u ld n o t, b e c a u se G e r m a n re sista n ce w a s to o stro n g. B u t this
th e S o v ie t le a d e rs, a n d th e ir n a tiv e a n d fo reig n p ro p a g a n d ists,
c a n n o t a d m it: to th em th e in v in c ib ility o f th e R e d A r m y is a
d o g m a . O r it is p o ssib le th a t th e fro n t in P o la n d w as te m p o ra r ily
d e p le te d in o rd e r to sen d tro o p s ro u n d th ro u g h th e g a p in the
G e r m a n d efe n ce s left b y R u m a n ia ’ s d efe ctio n o f 23 A u g u st,
w h ic h o p e n e d a ll C e n t r a l E u ro p e to th e S o v ie t forces. T h is w o u ld
h a v e b e e n a p e rfe c tly d e fe n sib le m ilita r y m a n o e u v re , a n d w as
a lso r e c o m m e n d e d b y p o litic a l co n sid e ra tio n s, as it g a v e S o v ie t
tro o p s a c h a n c e to g e t in to th e B a lk a n p e n in su la b e fo re th eir
W e ste rn a llie s a n d riv als. B u t this a g a in h as n ot b e en g iv e n as th e
rea so n b y S o v ie t p r o p a g a n d a . T h is p r o p a g a n d a in stead has
1 S e e b e lo w , p . 155.
I 16 TIIE EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
d en o u n ce d G e n e ra l K o m a r o w sk i (‘ B ó r ’ ), th e P olish c o m m a n d e r-
in -ch ief, for p lu n g in g in to a n a d v e n tu re w ith o u t c o -o rd in a tin g his
a c tio n w ith th e S o v ie t c o m m a n d . It d oes n ot e x p la in h o w th e
g e n e ra l co u ld h a v e d o n e this, in th e a b se n ce o f d ip lo m a tic re la tio n s
b etw een his g o v e rn m e n t an d th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t, e x c e p t b y
askin g his g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile , w ith w h ic h h e h a d w ireless c o n ­
ta c t, to co m m u n ic a te th ro u g h th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t, a n d b y
a tte m p tin g to m ak e lo c a l c o n ta c t w ith M a rs h a l R o k o sso v sk y ’ s
forces. B oth these m ean s G e n e ra l B ó r used. A C a p ta in K a lu g in
o f R o k o sso v sk y ’s a rm y re a c h e d W a r sa w , an d sent a m essage to
S ta lin , th ro u g h th e L o n d o n ra d io lin k , e x p la in in g th e situ a tio n in
W a rsa w and th e needs o f th e d efen d ers. I t, a n d th e re p e a ted
rep resen tatio n s b y th e B ritish a u th o ritie s, re m a in e d u n a n sw e re d .
Y e t u p till th e o u tb re a k o f th e risin g th e P olish b ro a d ca sts o f th e
‘ K o ś ciu s zk o s ta tio n ’ , d ire c te d b y th e U n io n o f P olish P a trio ts
in th e U .S .S .R ., w e re u rg in g W a r s a w to rise a g a in st th e G e rm a n s.
T h e risin g sta rted on i A u g u s t. It w a s o rd e re d b y th e P olish
go v e rn m e n t in e x ile , w ith th e a g re e m e n t o f th e D e le g a te in P o la n d ,
th e H o m e C o u n c il o f M in isters u n d e r h im , th e C o u n c il o f N a tio n a l
U n ity , a n d th e C o m m a n d e r o f th e H o m e A r m y . 1 T h e r e g u la r
un its o f th e H o m e A r m y w e re th ree ‘ d iv is io n s ’ fo rm in g th e
‘ W a r s a w a rm y c o r p s ’ n u m b e rin g 35,000 troop s.* A b o u t on e-
th ird o f th eir arm s h a d b een d ro p p e d b y p a r a c h u te from B ritish
a n d P olish a irc ra ft based o n th e B ritish Isles, o n e -th ird p r o d u c e d
b y u n d e rg ro u n d arm s p la n ts o rg an ise d b y th e resistan ce, a n d th e
rest m a in ly c a p tu r e d fro m th e G e rm a n s in p rev io u s e n g a g e m e n ts .
A p a r t from these r e g u la r u n its, m ost o f th e c iv il p o p u la tio n , b o th
m a le an d fe m ale , jo in e d in th e risin g , a r r a n g in g h o sp ita ls,
su p p lies, im p ro v ise d fo rtifica tio n s a n d o th e r essen tial services. T h e
G e rm a n s used a g a in st th em fiv e d ivision s, in c lu d in g th e S .S .
‘ D e a th ’s H e a d ’ an d ‘ V i k i n g ’ d ivision s. A fte r a w e e k th ey h ad
su cce e d e d in sp littin g u p th e P olish forces in to fo u r section s.
In response to P olish requests fo r h e lp , th e A llie d go v e rn m e n ts
asked th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t to a llo w th e ir a irc ra ft to use S o v ie t
a ero d ro m e s in o rd e r to o p e ra te a ‘ sh u ttle s e r v ic e ’ to h e lp th e
in su rgen ts. W h e th e r from C onsideration s o f p r e s tig e ’ o r o th e r
x A c c o rd in g to G e n e ra l A n d ers, Army in E xile, b o th h e h im se lf a n d G e n e ra l So sn-
kow ski w ere o p p o srd to the rising.
* Z a re m b a , Powitanie sierpniowe, a p a m p h le t d e scrib in g th e risin g, w ritte n b y a
p ro m in e n t ex ile d so cialist an d based o n th e e x ile s’ sou rces o f in fo rm a tio n .
3 T h e sensitiveness o f th e R e d A r m y au th o ritie s in m atters o f p restig e , a n d u n ­
w illin g n ess to a llo w th e ir allies to see th e p rim itiv e co n d itio n s in w h ic h their tro o p s
liv e d , a m o u n ted alm o st to m a n ia . It is n o t in c o n c e iv a b le th at fe a r th a t A m e ric a n
airm en m ig h t see th e p rim itiv e airfie ld s u sed fo r su p p o rt o p e ra tio n s n e a r th e front
m a y h a ve been an im p o rta n t fa cto r in the refusal.
 THE RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS ny
reason s, th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t refused u n til 18 S e p te m b e r.
M e a n w h ile P olish, B ritish a n d S o u th A fr ic a n pilots based on
I t a ly m a d e s e v e ra l jo u rn e y s in u n u s u a lly risky c o n d itio n s and
w ith e x tr e m e ly h igh c a su a ltie s. T h is h e lp w as o f co u rse on fa r too
sm all a sca le to in flu e n c e th e b a ttle . In m id -S e p te m b e r th e R ed
A r m y c a p tu r e d P r a g a , th e s u b u rb im m e d ia te ly o p p o site W a rsa w
across th e V is tu la . C o n t a c t w as fo r a tim e estab lish ed , S o v iet
a rtille ry fire w as c o -o rd in a te d w ith P olish fig h tin g , an d a few
su p p lies w e re d ro p p e d b y S o v ie t plan es, m ost o f w h ich w ere
b ro k e n b e ca u se n o p a ra c h u te s w e re a tta c h e d . A t th e en d o f the
m o n th th e S o v ie t forces ceased th e ir fro n ta l a tta c k , a n d d ecid ed
to b yp a ss W a r s a w in th e ir a d v a n c e . T h e P olish sold iers w e re
re d u ce d to tw o iso late d g ro u p s, b o th c u t o il from th e riv e r.
W h e n a ll resistan ce b e c a m e h opeless, G e n e ra l B ó r su rre n d e re d ,
in th e h o p e o f p r o te c tin g th e s u rv iv in g c iv il p o p u la tio n . T h e
G e rm a n s h a d d e c id e d to reco gn ise th e H o m e A r m y as c o m ­
b a ta n ts , e n title d to p riso n e r-o f-w a r tre a tm e n t. E le v en th ousan d
sold iers, 942 officers a n d six ge n e ra ls w e re tak e n priso n er. A c c o r d ­
in g to th e co n d itio n s o f c a p itu la tio n , th ere w e re to be n o c o lle c tiv e
p e n a ltie s fo r th e c iv il p o p u la tio n , n o r w e re in d iv id u a l civ ilia n s
to b e p u n ish e d fo r resista n ce a ctiv itie s d u r in g o r b efore th e rising.
T h e s e co n d itio n s a p p e a r to som e e x te n t to h a v e been ob se rv e d .
B u t W a r s a w c iv ilia n s w e re sent to fo rced la b o u r in G e r m a n y in
c o n sid e ra b le n u m b e rs, an d som e w e re sent to O św ię c im c o n ­
c e n tra tio n c a m p , w h ic h w as little b e tte r th an a d ea th sen ten ce.
T h e fig h tin g its e lf h ad d estro y e d W a r sa w m o re th o ro u g h ly th an
a n y o th e r g re a t c ity in E u ro p e .
T h e W a r s a w risin g k ille d o f f th e flo w e r o f th e P olish resistan ce
m o v e m e n t. Y e t eve n a fte r these h o rro rs th e H o m e A r m y in the
in o rc w e ste rly p ro vin ce s c o n tin u e d th e stru g g le . D e sp ite th e
e v id e n c e o f S o v ie t in ten tio n s to w a rd s P o la n d , th e H o m e A r m y
u n lik e M ih a iio v ic o r the U k r a in ia n U .P .A . d oes n ot seem to h a v e
c o lla b o ra te d w ith th e G e r m a n s .1 In v ie w o f the S o v ie t a ttitu d e ,
th e P olish g o v e rn m e n t in D e c e m b e r 1944 fo rm a lly d isb a n d e d the
H o m e A r m y , b u t a secret n u cleu s re m a in e d , d ete rm in e d to d efen d
P o la n d ’s in d e p e n d e n ce a g a in st a ll w h o sh o u ld th re a te n it, in c lu d ­
in g th e R u ssia n s. In M a r c h 1945, w h en p o litic a l talks w e re b e in g

1 T h e P o lish co m m u n ists h a v e m a n y tim es accu sed the H o m e A r m y u f c o lla b o r a ­

tion w ith th e G e rm a n s . A t som e trials o f ‘ c o n s p ira to rs’— for in sta n ce, th at o f A d a m
D o b o szy n sk i in J u ly 1949— a lle g e d e v id e n c e o f su ch c o lla b o ra tio n ha< been p ro d u ce d .
In v ie w o f th e circu m sta n ce s su rro u n d in g these trials— D o b o szy n sk i, for in sta n ce, w as
in priso n tw o y e a rs befo re h e a p p e a re d in c o u rt— the assertions d o not c a r r y c o n ­
v ictio n .
I 18 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
p re p a re d on th e fo rm a tio n o f a u n ifie d P o lish g o v e rn m e n t, th e
R e d A r m y a p p ro a c h e d so m e m em b ers o f th e fo rm e r H o m e A r m y
w ith th e o ffer to tra n sp o rt th eir le a d e rs to M o s c o w to ta k e p a rt
in these talks. T r u s tin g this p ro m ise, th e C o m m a n d e r o f th e H o m e
A r m y , G e n e ra l O k u lic k i— w h o h a d su c c e e d e d th e c a p tu r e d B ó r-
K o m a r o w s k i— th e D e le g a te J a n k o w sk i (n a tio n a l d e m o c ra t) a n d
th e p o litic a l le a d e rs P u ż a k ( P .P .S .) , B ien (P e a s a n t P a r ty ) , an d
oth ers re v e a le d th em selves to th e N . K . V . D . 1 T h e y d is a p p e a r e d
fo r th re e m on th s. T h e n , d u r in g th e S a n F ra n c isco c o n fe re n c e o f th e
U n ite d N a tio n s, it w as a n n o u n c e d th a t th e y h ad b e en a rre ste d for
crim e s a g a in st th e R e d A r m y , a n d w o u ld b e trie d b y a S o v ie t
c o u rt. T h e tria l to ok p la c e in M o sc o w in J u n e 194 5, a t th e v e r y
tim e th a t th e u n fo rtu n a te e x -p r e m ie r M ik o ła jc z y k w a s in M o sc o w
d iscu ssin g th e n e w g o v e rn m e n t. O f th eir h o stility to th e U .S .S .R .
th ere w as n o d o u b t : th a t this sh o u ld be c o n sid e re d a c rim e ,
p u n ish a b le b y a S o v ie t c o u rt, w as a n e w p r in c ip le . O k u lic k i w a s
sen ten ced to ten y e a r s ’ im p riso n m e n t, J a n k o w s k i to e ig h t, th e
o th ers to sm a ller p e rio d s .2
T h u s th e g a lla n t resista n ce o f th e P oles to G e r m a n o c c u p a tio n ,
w h ic h h ad n e v e r fa lte re d an d h ad r ig h tly w o n th e a d m ir a tio n o f
th e d e m o c ra tic w o rld , h ad e n d e d w ith th e o b lite ra tio n o f th e ir
c a p ita l a n d th e e sta b lish m e n t, n o t o f th e free d o m fo r w h ic h th e y
h a d fo u g h t, b u t o f a n im p o sed g o v e rn m e n t w h ic h g a v e th e h eroes
o f resistan ce a c h o ice b e tw e e n e x ile , o u t la w r y o r c a p itu la tio n to
th e p u p p ets o f a fo reign p o w e r.

YUGOSLAVIA

T h e first e ffe c t o f d efe a t on th e Y u g o s la v s , a n d e s p e c ia lly on

th e S erb s, w a s d ep ression a n d b e w ild e r m e n t. T h e S e r b ia n A r m y ,
w ith its g lo rio u s tra d itio n s, h a d c r u m p le d u p in a few d a y s. T h e
sta te m a c h in e , w h ic h h a d seem ed to p o w e rfu l, a n d h a d b e e n so
h e a v y a b u rd e n on th e c itiz e n a n d p e a sa n t, w a s sm ash ed to pieces.
T h e p o litic a l pa rties d isin te g ra te d . F a m ilie s w e re d iv id e d b y n e w
fron tiers. T h e r e w as g e n e ra l d isillu sio n m e n t w ith th e o ld p o litic a l,
m ilita r y an d b u r e a u c r a tic ch iefs, w ith th e r u lin g cla ss as a w h o le .
T h e r e w as d isa p p o in tm e n t w ith B rita in , w h o m a ll h a d a d m ire d ,
1 P e o p le ’s C o m m isa ria t o f In te rn a l A ffa irs, in 1946 re n a m e d M in is tr y o f In te r n a l
A ffa irs ( M .V .D .) . W h e n first c re a te d in 19 18 it wa« k n o w n as th e E x tr a o r d in a r y
C o m m issio n ( C h e k a ', th en b e c a m e th e S ta te P o litic a l A d m in is tr a tio n ( C .P .U .) . T h e
M in is try is a state w ith in th e S o v ie t sta te, c o n tr o llin g la rg e te rrito rie s as w e ll as g re a t
n u m b ers o f em p lo y e es a n d p riso n ers. It h a s its o w n a rm e d forces, th e ‘ In te rn a l
T r o o p s ’ a n d th e ‘ F ro n tie r T r o o p s ', a n d its o w n u n its a tta c h e d to th e fig h tin g tro o p s
a n d o c c u p a tio n forces o f th e re g u la r a rm y .
* T he p ro ce ed in g s o f th e tria l h a v e bee n p u b lish e d in E n g lish u n d e r th e title Th*
T rial o f iht Polish Conspirators.
 THE RE S I S TA NCE MOVEMENTS II9
b u t w h ic h h a d g iv e n n o h e lp , a n d w h ic h n o w seem ed th reaten ed
b y g r e a t d a n g e rs o f its o w n .
In A p r il 1941 th e G e rm a n s w e re in too g re a t a h u r ry to push
o n in to G r e e c e , a n d la te r to p r e p a re th e ir in va sio n o f R u ssia , to
ta k e th o ro u g h m easu res fo r th e d isa rm a m e n t o f th e d efe ate d
Y u g o s la v a r m y . S m a ll u n its o f th a t a rm y , w ith th eir lig h te r
w e a p o n s, to o k to th e m o u n ta in s a n d forests a n d a w a ite d even ts.
O n e o f th ese u n its w as c o m m a n d e d b y C o lo n e l D r a ż a M ih a ilo v ic ,
w h o in th e e a r ly su m m e r m a d e his w a y from H e rc e g o v in a to
C e n tr a l S e rb ia .
T h e e a rlie st a c tiv e resista n ce w as in B osn ia, w h ere S erb s b e g a n
to d e fe n d th em selv es w ith a rm s a g a in st th e U sta sh b an d s o f
P a v e lic . T h e le a d e rs w e re in som e cases r e g u la r a rm y o r C h e tn ik
officers, in oth ers sim p ly lo c a l m en o f in itia tiv e a n d co u ra g e . T h e
g ro u p s in c lu d e d p e o p le o f a ll so cia l classes a n d m ost p o litic a l
op in io n s. T h e ir m o tiv e w a s p ro te c tio n o f th em selves an d th eir
fa m ilie s. In so fa r as th e y h a d a c o m m o n p o litic a l id e a , it w as
n a tio n a lism a n d h o stility to th e C r o a ts as su ch .
T h e w h o le situ a tio n w'as tra n sfo rm e d b y th e G e r m a n in vasio n
o f R u ssia . T h r o u g h o u t Y u g o s la v ia , a n d p a r tic u la r ly in the
S e r b ia n p ro v in c e s, s y m p a th y for R u ssia w as d e e p -ro o ted and
tra d itio n a l. T h e S e rb s n o t o n ly lo v e d R u ssia , b u t g r e a tly o v e r ­
e stim a te d h e r stre n g th . T h e m o od o f th e S e rb ia n p e o p le n o w
su d d e n ly c h a n g e d fro m b e w ild e r e d d e s p a ir to e x tr a v a g a n t
o p tim ism . N o w a t last th e S e rb s h ad a g re a t a lly on la n d , w h o
w o u ld d e s tro y th e G e rm a n s a n d lib e ra te Y u g o s la v ia w ith in a few
w eeks. M e a n w h ile it w as th e ir d u t y to d o w h a t th ey c o u ld b y
re sista n ce to h e lp th e ir ‘ b ig b r o t h e r ’ . T h e n e w m oo d w as fu lly
e x p lo ite d b y th e Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ist P a rty , w h ic h fo r som e
tim e h a d b e e n b u ild in g u p a n u n d e rg ro u n d m ilita r y o rg a n is a ­
tio n . T h e a tta c k o n R u ssia w as th e sig n a l fo r a ctio n .
In J u ly fig h tin g b e g a n in S e rb ia . I t w as d u e p a r tly to c o m ­
m u n ist p la n n in g a n d p a r tly to th e sp o n ta n eo u s re a ctio n o f th e
p e a san ts, w h o , ca rrie d a w a y b y p a trio tic fe rv o u r an d th e o p ti­
m ism o f th e m o m e n t, jo in e d a n y b a n d s in th eir n e ig h b o u r h o o d — •
c o m m u n ist, C h e tn ik , re g u la r a rm y re m n a n ts, o r a n y o th e r—
w h ic h seem ed lik e ly to fig h t th e G e rm a n s. T h e e n e m y w as tak e n
b y su rp rise , a n d his forces in S e r b ia w e re soon co n fin e d to th e
n e ig h b o u r h o o d o f B e lg ra d e a n d th e M o r a v a v a lle y .
T h e co m m u n ist forces took th e n a m e o f p a rtisa n s .1 T h e y w e re
1 T h e o rig in o f th e w o rd ‘ p a rt is a n ’ is u n c e rta in . It w as u sed in th e R u sso -F re n ch
c a m p a ig n o f 18 12 to d e sc rib e the. g u e rrilla forces o f D en is D a v id o v (see, inter alia,
Tolstoy’s War and Peace). It w as also used in th e A m e ric a n C iv il W a r.
120 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
d ire cte d b y a ‘ S u p re m e S t a f f ’ w h ic h took a ll p o litic a l an d m ilita r y
d ecision s. T h e le a d e r o f th e w h o le m o v e m e n t w a s J o s e p h B ro z,
th e S e c re ta r y -G e n e ra l o f th e p a rty , soon k n o w n b y his nőm de
guerre o f T ito . In a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e o fficia l C o m in te rn p o lic y o f a
P e o p le 's F ro n t o f a ll p a trio tic forces a g a in st th e in v a d e rs, th e c o m ­
m u n ist le a d e rs a p p ro a c h e d th e n a tio n a list resista n ce g ro u p s w ith
su ggestion s fo r c o m m o n a c tio n . T i t o h ad se v eral co n ve rsa tio n s
w ith C o lo n e l M ih a ilo v ic b e tw e e n S e p te m b e r a n d N o v e m b e r .
M ih a ilo v ic w as a g a in st la rg e -sca le a rm e d resista n ce, o n th e
gro u n d s th at th e Y u g o s la v s c o u ld n ot sta n d u p to th e G e rm a n s
w ith in a d e q u a te e q u ip m e n t, a n d th a t th e in v a d e rs w o u ld c a r r y
o u t m erciless reprisals o n th e civ il p o p u la tio n . H e b e lie v e d th a t
th e y sh ou ld h u sb a n d th e ir resou rces, a n d a w a it a m o re su ita b le
m om en t w h e n a g e n e ra l re v o lt c o u ld b e la u n c h e d . B u t w h e n ,
d esp ite his w ishes, fig h tin g b ro k e o u t on a la rg e sc a le , h e w as
fo rced to jo in in , a n d fo r a tim e his forces c o -o p e ra te d w ith th e
p artisan s.
T h is d id n ot last lo n g. T h e r e w e re m a n y m in o r causes o f c o n flic t
b e tw e e n th e p a rtisa n s a n d M ih a ilo v ic , b u t th e essen tial ca u se w as
th e in c o m p a tib ility o f th e ir p o litic a l o u tlo o k . T o M ih a ilo v ic ,
tra in e d as a re g u la r o ffic e r in th e a r m y o f K i n g A le x a n d e r , th e
com m u n ists w e re god less, law less a n d im m o ra l c rim in a ls , w ith
w h o m n o d e c e n t p a trio t c o u ld asso cia te. T h e co m m u n ists w e re n o
less in to le ra n t. T o th em M ih a ilo v ic re p resen te d th e ‘ r e a c tio n a ry
o ld r e g im e ’ . H e w as a sy m b o l o f m ilita r y d ic ta to rs h ip , a d m in is­
tra tiv e co rru p tio n , socia l a n d le g a l in ju stice , e x p lo ita tio n o f th e
p o o r. E a c h side a ccu sed th e o th e r o f h a v in g first a tta c k e d , a n d
it is im p o ssib le to say w ith c e rta in ty w h a t a rc th e fa c ts .1 B y th e
m id d le o f N o v e m b e r th e y w e re irr e c o n c ila b le e n em ies. F irst th e
p artisan s b e at M ih a ilo v ic . T h e n d u r in g N o v e m b e r th e G e rm a n s,
w h o h a d b ro u g h t u p c o n sid e ra b le re in fo rcem e n ts, a tta c k e d o n a
seriou s sca le , u sin g a rm o u r a n d a irc ra ft. B y th e en d o f th e m o n th
th e p a rtisan s w e re d riv e n from th e ir b a se a t U ż ic e , a n d fled in
co n fu sio n to th e so u th . M ih a ilo v ic ’ s forces also d isin te g ra te d , a n d
m a n y o f his m en jo in e d th e tro o p s o f G e n e r a l N ed id .
T h e su ppression o f th e re v o lt in S e rb ia w as fo llo w e d b y a
m assacre. T h o u s a n d s o f S erb s w e re sh o t o r h a n g e d , a n d th o u san d s
m o re w e re a rre ste d , m a ltre a te d a n d im p riso n e d o r d e p o rte d to
fo rced la b o u r . T h e w o rst a tro citie s o c c u rre d in th e in d u stria l

1 F o r a b a la n c e d v ie w o f this q u estio n see C liss o ld , Whirlwind, p p . 5 8 - 7 4 . F o r the

co m m u n ist v ersio n , see T it o , Report to the §th Congress o f the iugoslav Communift Party,
a n d fo r th e M ih a ilo v ic v ersio n , M a r tin , Ally Betrayed.
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 121
to w n o f K r a g u je v a c , w h ere 8,000 p e o p le a rc b e lie v e d to h a v e
b e en sh ot, in c lu d in g se v eral h u n d re d sc h o o l-c h ild re n . B itter
h a tre d w a s cre a te d a g a in st th e G e rm a n s, b u t th ere w as a t the
sa m e tim e re se n tm e n t a g a in st th e p a rtisa n s b e cau se th e y h ad
fa ile d to fu lfil th e ir h ig h h o pes, a n d h ad b ro u g h t su ffe rin g on
in n o c e n t p e o p le.
U n c o o r d in a te d fig h tin g a g a in st U sta sh b an d s c o n tin u e d in
B osn ia , b u t th e o n ly o th e r a re a besides S e rb ia w h ere a m a jo r
re v o lt to o k p la c e in 1941 w as M o n te n e g ro . H e re a risin g b ro k e
o u t on 13 J u ly , in w h ic h co m m u n ists a n d n ation alists fo u g h t side
b y sid e. T h e Ita lia n s w e re a t first d riv e n from a ll b u t th e co a stal
regio n s, b u t th en b ro u g h t rein fo rcem en ts a n d a irc ra ft, a n d re­
co n q u e r e d m ost o f th e p ro v in c e . D u r in g th e w in te r th e c o m ­
m un ists a n d n atio n a lists q u a rr e lle d . A s in S e rb ia , th e causes w e re
p a r tly id e o lo g ic a l a n d p a r tly c o n n e c te d w ith th e q u estio n o f
rep risals. T h e n atio n a lists w e n t o v e r to th e Ita lia n s an d h e lp e d
th e m ‘ k ee p o r d e r ’ a g a in st th e c o m m u n ists.1
T h e d e fe a t in S e rb ia ta u g h t th e p a rtisa n s th at th ey c o u ld not
fa c e th e G e rm a n s in o p e n c o u n try , an d th at it w as u n w ise to
o p e ra te in a re as w h e re th e y c o u ld not p ro te ct th e c iv il p o p u la ­
tio n . F ro m n o w o n w a rd s th e y a b a n d o n e d th e p la in la n d s, and
w ith d re w to th e c e n tra l m o u n ta in m a ssif o f B o sn ia, H e rc e g o v in a
a n d M o n te n e g ro .
T h r e e se p a ra te section s o f Y u g o s la v ia w e re o f stra te g ic in terest
to th e e n e m y — th e S la v o n ia n p la in , th e M o r a v a an d V a r d a r
v a lle y s, an d th e A d r ia t ic co ast. T h e first a ffe c te d c o m m u n ic a tio n s
b e tw e e n A u s tr ia a n d th e B la ck S e a , an d th e secon d c o m m u n ic a ­
tion s w ith G r e e c e a n d T u r k e y , w h ile th e th ird w as re g a rd e d as a
p ossib le o b je c tiv e fo r an A llie d la n d in g . B e tw ee n these th ree
section s la y th e m o u n ta in stro n g h o ld o f th e partisan s. W ith in
this a re a th e p a rtisa n s w e re a co n sta n t m en a c e to th e in v a d ers,
a n d fro m th e e n d o f 1943 o n w a rd s th ey e x te n d e d th eir a ctiv itie s
o u tsid e it, in to th e s tra te g ic areas. W ith in th e m o u n ta in a re a ,
m o v e m e n ts o f e n e m y troo p s a n d su p p lies a lw a y s n eed ed stro n g
g u a rd s . T h e fe w ra ilw a y s a n d ro ad s w h ic h cross th e m o u n ta in
b a r rie r, a n d lin k th e D a n u b ia n p la in w ith th e coast, w ere
co n s ta n tly cu t. A tta c k s w e re also m a d e , from th e n o rth B osn ian
ra n g e s a n d from th e o u tly in g b ase in th e S la v o n ia n h ills, on the
m ain Z a g r e b -B e lg r a d e r a ilw a y , th e m ost im p o rta n t sin gle lin e
in so u th -e a stern E u ro p e . F a c to rie s a n d m ines w e re ra id e d a n d
p u t o u t o f a c tio n fo r w eeks at a tim e. S m a lle r e n e m y units w ere
1 C liss o ld , o p . c it,, p p 7 7 -8 5 .
122 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
su rro u n d e d a n d d e s tro y e d , a n d arm s a n d a m m u n itio n stores
c a p tu r e d . C o n s id e ra b le n u m b e rs o f e n e m y tro o p s, d e a r ly n eed ed
on o th e r fron ts, w e re p e rm a n e n tly tied d o w n .1
T h e p a rtisa n s as fa r as possible a v o id e d e n g a g in g stro n g e n e m y
forces. B u t fro m tim e to tim e th e A x is C o m m a n d u n d e rto o k m a jo r
‘ c le a n in g - u p ’ o p e ra tio n s. T h e p a rtisa n s th en h a d to d efe n d th e m ­
selves, b re a k u p in to sm a lle r fo rm a tio n s a n d s c a tte r in to th e least
accessib le fastnesses. T h e s e e n e m y ‘ o ffe n siv e s’ ca u se d th e p a rtisa n s
h e a v y losses, an d o n o n e o c c a sio n a t le a st th e ir m a in fo rce
n a r ro w ly e sca p e d a n n ih ila tio n .* B u t e a c h tim e th e y su rv iv e d ,
a n d th e cost to th e e n e m y w as also severe.
O u ts id e th e c e n tra l m o u n ta in a re a th ere w e re th re e re g io n s in
w h ich p a rtisa n a c tiv ity w as o f p o litic a l as w e ll as m ilita r y im p o r­
ta n ce — S lo v e n ia , C r o a t ia a n d M a c e d o n ia .
In S lo v e n ia , a L ib e ra tio n F ro n t w as fo rm e d , le d b y c o m ­
m un ists b u t su p p o rte d b y v a rio u s lib e ra l a n d e v e n so m e C a t h o lic
org an isa tio n s. T h is fro n t o rg an ise d th e p a rtisa n forces, m a in ta in ­
in g close c o n ta c t w ith T i t o ’s h e a d q u a rte rs. In th e su m m e r o f 1942
th e Ita lia n s c o n d u c te d serious o p e ra tio n s a g a in st th em b u t d id
n o t d e stro y th em . A t th e tim e o f th e I ta lia n su rre n d e r in S e p te m ­
b e r 1943 th e y w e re in a p ositio n to ta k e o v e r th e g r e a te r p a r t o f
th e fo rm e r I ta lia n zo n e, a n d to e x te n d th e ir a c tiv itie s to th e
S lo v e n e -in h a b ite d areas o f V e n e z ia G iu lia , th e p r o v in c e ta k e n b y
I t a ly in 19 18 from A u s tria . T h e first flush o f v icto ry' g a v e th em
g re a t p o p u la rity . B u t a fte r a tim e th e o ld p o litic a l q u a rre ls
b e tw e e n c le ric a ls a n d left b ro k e o u t a g a in . T h e co m m u n ists
a b u sed th eir p o w e r, an d th e in flu e n c e o f th e p riests w a s tu rn e d

1 Ii is ol co u rse im p ossible to sa y w h a t p ro p o rtio n o f th e e n e m y tro o p s in Y u g o s la v ia

w e re tied d o w n b y pa rrisan a c tiv itie s, w h a t p ro p o rtio n b y the fear o f fu tu re M ih a ilo v ić
a c tivitie s, a n d w h a t p ro p o rtio n to en su re ag a in st p o ssib le fu tu re a llie d la n d in g s in th e
B a lk an s. T it o ’s p ro p a g a n d ists e x a g g e ra te th e ir n u m b e r, a n d c la im e v e r y e n e m y so ld ie r
se rvin g in Y u g o s la v ia as th e result o f th eir pro w ess. W rite rs d e te rm in e d to d e p ic t T it o
an d his m en as p itc h -b la c k v illa in s e .g . F . A . V o ig t , Pax Pritannica, d e n y th em a n y
m erit a t all in h o ld in g d o w n th e e n e m y . T h e tru th is o b v io u s ly , in g en e ra l term s, th a t
th e e n e m y w as b o u n d in a n y ca se to k eep so m e tro o p s th ere, b u t th a t th eir n u m b e r
w as n o ta b ly in creased as a result o f p a rtis a n a c tio n . It is a lto o f co u rse tru e t h a t if
T it o a n d M ih a ilo v ic ha<j not fo u g h t e a c h o th e r th e e n e m y w o u ld h a v e h a d to send
still m o re troops. T h e b la m e fo r this ca n n o t b e e x c lu s iv e ly p la c e d o n e ith e r sid e, but
in m y o p in io n m o re b la m e sh o u ld a tta c h to M ih a ilo v ic th a n to T it o .
* T h e p a rtisan s th em se lv es sp eak o f se ven m a in e n e m y ‘ o ffe n s iv e s’ . T h e first w as in
S e rb ia in 19 4 1, the se co n d in B o sn ia in e a r ly 19 42, th e th ird in M o n te n e g r o in J u n e
IQ42. th e fo u rth in H e r c e g o v in a a n d the D a lm a tia n a n d M o n te n e g rin h in te rla n d s in
J a n u a r y - A p r il 1943, the fifth in M o n te n e g ro in J u n e J u l y 1943. T h e sixth an d
seven th w e re in 1944, o n a co n s id e ra b le scale b u t in less c le a r ly d e fin ed areas. T h e
fou rth a n d fifth w e re th e most se vere. B ritish o fficers w e re w ith th e p a rtis a n forces
d u rin g th e first a n d th e fifth. F o r fu rth e r d e ta ils see C liss o ld , o p . c it. F o r e n e m y
ev id e n c e o n the fou rth o ffen sive see th e M u ss o lin i-H itle r c o rre sp o n d e n ce , p p . 13 2 - 5 ,
1 4 2 -3 . 1 5 6 - 9 . S e e also p. 128 belo w .
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 1 23
a g a in s t th em . D u r in g th e e a r ly w in te r o f 1 9 4 3 -4 (h c G e rm a n s
d ro v e th e p a rtisa n s from m o st o f th e te rrito ry th e y h ad g a in e d ,
a n d o rg a n ise d a q u is lin g S lo v e n e a rm e d fo rc e u n d e r th e fo rm e r
Y u g o s la v G e n e r a l R u p n ik , w h ic h e x te n d e d o v e r a ll S lo v e n ia , n o w
u n ite d w ith in th e G e r m a n R e ic h . B u t th e gain s d e riv e d b y th e
p a rtisa n s fro m th e I ta lia n su rre n d e r in th e form o f arm s an d
r e cru its w e r e o f la stin g v a lu e , a n d th e y w e re n e v e r a g a in th re a t­
e n ed w ith c o m p le te d estru c tio n .
In C r o a t ia a c o m m u n ist u n d e rg ro u n d o rg a n isa tio n existed from
th e b e g in n in g , b u t c o n sid e ra b le p a rtisa n forces d id n o t a p p e a r
u n til th e su m m e r o f 1942. T h o u g h at first m a in ly re c ru ite d from
th e S e rb ia n m in o r ity in D a lm a tia , th e y d id not w re a k v e n g e a n c e
o n C r o a ts as su ch , b u t p r e a c h e d th e u n ity o f S e rb s a n d C r o a ts in
re sista n ce to th e in v a d e rs an d th e ir h elp ers. T h e y also a p p e a le d
b y th e ir ra d ic a l so cia l slo g an s to th e r e v o lu tio n a ry tra d itio n s o f
th e C r o a t ia n p e a sa n t m o v e m e n t, w h ic h h ad b een so m e w h a t
n e g le c te d b y th e P e a sa n t P a rty le a d e rs sin ce th e d e a th o f the
R a d ić b ro th e rs, b u t h a d re m a in e d stro n g a m o n g th e p easan ts
th em selv es. A n d so g r a d u a lly th e C r o a tia n pea san ts, fin d in g
th em selv es fo rced to ta k e sides in th e stru g g le th a t w a s r a g in g
th ro u g h th e la n d , a n d p r e fe r rin g th e p a rtisa n s to th e ir riv als,
b e g a n to e n te r T i t o ’s ran ks.
In M a c e d o n ia th e e n tr y o f th e B u lg a ria n s h ad a t first been
re c e iv e d w ith e n th u sia sm , b u t this soo n g a v e p la c e to d isa p p o in t­
m en t. T h e S o fia g o v e rn m e n t tre a te d M a c e d o n ia as a sim p le
p r o v in c e o f B u lg a ria , a n d th ere w as n o m o re talk o f re g io n a l
a u to n o m y . T h e o ld S e rb ia n officials w e re e x p e lle d , b u t th eir
p la ce s w e re tak e n n ot b y lo ca l m en b u t b y B u lg a ria n s. E v e n th e
re tu r n in g M a c e d o n ia n e x ile s seem ed stra n ge rs. T h e B u lg a ria n
d ic ta to rs h ip w a s as o p p re ssiv e as th e Y u g o s la v h a d b een , a n d
e c o n o m ic co n d itio n s g r e w w orse as th e w a r d ra g g e d on . T h e r e
co u ld b e n o p o p u la r re a c tio n in fa v o u r o f th e o ld ‘ G r e a t S e r b ’
ch a u v in is m , b u t th ere w a s stro n g d isco n te n t w ith ‘ G r e a l B u l­
g a r i a n ’ ch a u v in is m . F o r a tim e th e u n d e rg ro u n d o rg a n isa tio n s o f
b o th th e Y u g o s la v an d th e B u lg a ria n C o m m u n ist P a rtie s c la im e d
th e rig h t to le a d th e c o m m u n ist m o v e m e n t in M a c e d o n ia . T h e y
a p p e a le d to th e a u th o r ity o f th e C o m in te r n in M o sc o w . It d e c id e d
in fa v o u r o f th e Y u g o s la v p a r t y .1 T h e Y u g o s la v p a r t y p u t forth th e
slo g a n o f a fe d e ra l Y u g o s la v ia , w ith h o m e ru le fo r th e ‘ M a c e d o n ia n
n a t io n ’ on a le v e l o f e q u a lit y w ith th e o th e r n atio n s. T h e slo g an

1 S e e E lisa b e th B a rk e r, M airdonia ( R . I . I .A ., 19 50 ), p p . 8 3 -1 0 9 , for relatio n s betw een

th e tw o c o m m u n is t p a rtie s.
124 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTIO N

b e ca m e p o p u la r. T h e u n d e rg ro u n d o rg a n isa tio n g re w , a n d in th e
su m m e r o f 1943 p a rtisa n b an d s w e re o p e ra tin g w est o f th e V a r d a r .
T h e y a c c e p te d th e le a d e rsh ip o f T ito , w h o sent his re p re s e n ta tiv e
V u k m a n o v ic (‘ T e m p o ’ ) to h e lp th eir o rg a n isa tio n . F ro m 1943
th e y m a in ta in e d liaison W'ith th e p a rtisa n s o f A lb a n ia ( L .N .C .) ,
G r e e c e ( E .L .A .S .) a n d B u lg a ria ( O .F .) .
In S e r b ia co m m u n ist sym p ath ise rs re m a in e d q u ie t th ro u g h o u t
1942 and 1943. In th e sp rin g o f 1944 th e y b e g a n a c tiv it y a g a in ,
a n d re ce iv ed m u ch h e lp from th e A llie s, w h o w e re e sp e c ia lly
in terested in the c o m m u n ic a tio n s system o f S e rb ia . In th e a u tu m n
stro n g forces o f T i t o ’ s m a in a rm y , led b y th e M o n te n e g rin
c o m m u n ist g e n e ra l P ek o D a p é e v ic an d c o n sistin g la r g e ly o f m en
from S e rb ia w h o h a d left th e ir h om es w ith th e p a rtisa n s in 1941
o r h ad la te r g o n e to B osn ia to jo in th em , lib e ra te d a ll W e ste rn
S e rb ia , w h ile th e R e d A r m y m a rch e d on B e lg ra d e . In th e
V o iv o d in a , th e n a tu re o f th e te rra in a n d th e e ffic ie n c y o f G e r m a n
a n d H u n g a ria n c o n tro l m a d e g u e rrilla w a r fa r e v e r y d iffic u lt.*
B u t m a n y S erb s fro m V o iv o d in a w e n t to B o sn ia , a n d fo rm e d th ere
a ‘ V o iv o d in a d iv is io n ’ to fig h t w ith th e m a in p a rtisa n forces.
A s th e N a tio n a l L ib e ra tio n M o v e m e n t d e v e lo p e d , a n d c o n ­
sid e ra b le territo ries w e re lib e ra te d , th e p r a c tic a l tasks o f c iv il
a d m in istra tio n b e c a m e u rg e n t. T o d e a l w ith th ese, N a tio n a l
L ib e ra tio n C o m m itte e s w e re c re a te d , for v illa g e s, d istricts an d
region s. In theory' th e y w e re e le c te d b y th e p o p u la tio n : in p r a c tic e
th e electors a n d c a n d id a te s w e re in e v ita b ly lim ite d to su p p o rte rs
o f th e p artisan s, w h o in som e lib e ra te d areas fo rm e d a m a jo rity ,
a n d in oth ers o n ly a sm a ll m in o rity . T h e tasks o f th e co m m itte e s
w e re to d ire c t a g ric u ltu re , p r im itiv e in d u stria l e n terp rise s, a n d
re cru itm e n t a n d su p p lies for th e a rm y . T h e y also o rg a n ise d a n ti-
illite r a c y c a m p a ig n s an d p o litic a l p r o p a g a n d a . S e v e ra l n e w s­
p a p ers w e re re g u la rly p u b lish e d .
N a tio n a l L ib e ra tio n C o m m itte e s w e re a lso c re a te d in e n em y -
o c c u p ie d a re as b y th e u n d e rg ro u n d C o m m u n is t P a r ty . T h e ir
fu n ctio n s in c lu d e d ra isin g o f fu n d s a n d re cru its fo r th e p a rtisa n
forces in th e m o u n ta in s, s m u g g lin g o f food a n d m e d ic a l su p p lies
in to lib e ra te d te rrito ry , a n d p ro visio n o f in fo rm a tio n o n e n e m y
in te n tio n s a n d m o ve m e n ts. T h e y a lso u n d e rto o k s a b o ta g e in so m e
in d u stria l cen tres a n d o n som e sectors o f e n e m y -c o n tr o lle d
ra ilw a y s . T h r o u g h o u t m ost o f th e w a r , th e m a in p a rtisa n fo rce

1 F o r a n eye-w itn ess a c co u n t see Basil D a v id so n , Partisan Picture, p p . 2 3 8 -7 0 . M r.

D a v id so n p erso n a lly to o k p a rt, as a B ritish liaiso n o ffic e r, in th e e x c e p tio n a lly h a z a r-
clous w o rk in H u n g a ria n -o c c u p ie d territo ry .
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 1 25
w as o p e r a tin g in th e so -ca lle d ‘ p assive r e g io n s ’ o f B osn ia, H e rc e ­
g o v in a , D a lm a t ia a n d M o n te n e g ro , region s w h ic h in n o rm al
tim es d o n o t p r o d u c e e n o u g h food to su p p o rt th e ir p o p u la tio n .
T h u s a p a rt o f th e p a rtisa n s’ su p p lies h ad to b e sm u g g le d , at g re a t
risk, b y th e p ea san ts fro m th e fertile p la in s o f th e S a v a in to th e
m o u n ta in s. T h is is in its e lf a n in te re stin g in d ic a tio n o f th e d eg re e
o f su p p o rt w h ic h th e p a rtisa n s a t this tim e e n jo y e d from the
p ea san ts.
A t th e b e g in n in g o f th e re v o lt in 19 4 1, th e p a rtisan s o b ta in e d
a c e r ta in q u a n t it y o f a rm s from Y u g o s la v a r m y stores. F ro m
S e p te m b e r to N o v e m b e r 1941 th e arm s fa c to ry in U ź ic e w o rk e d
fo r th e m . B u t a fte r th e d e fe a t in S e rb ia th e y w e re o b lig e d to
seek o p p o rtu n itie s o f su rro u n d in g sm all e n e m y garriso ns an d
c a p tu r in g a rm s d u m p s. In S e p te m b e r 1943 th e su rre n d e r o f
s e v e ra l I ta lia n d ivision s p ro v id e d m u c h g re a te r b o o ty , and
a llo w e d th e e q u ip m e n t o f la r g e n u m b e rs o f n e w recru its.
In N o v e m b e r 1942 at B ih a ć in B osn ia a co n fe re n c e w as h e ld
o f d e le g a te s fro m lib e ra te d , a n d also su p p o se d ly from o c c u p ie d ,
te rrito r y . T h e y in c lu d e d se v eral w e ll-k n o w n m em b ers o f the
C r o a tia n P e a sa n t, In d e p e n d e n t D e m o c ra tic , A g r a r ia n , D e m o ­
c r a tic a n d M o sle m p a rties, b u t th e m a jo rity , a n d th e m ost a c tiv e ,
w e re co m m u n ists o r c o m m u n ist sym p ath isers. T h e con gress
e le c te d a b o d y c a lle d th e A n ti-F a sc ist C o u n c il o f N a tio n a l
L ib e r a tio n o f Y u g o s la v ia , k n o w n b y th e in itials o f its S e rb o -
C r o a t w ord s as A .V .N .O .J . T h e C o u n c il w as in te n d e d to a c t as
a c e n tr a l o rg a n o f g o v e rn m e n t fo r a ll lib e ra te d te rrito ry , g iv e
d ire c tiv e s to th e lo c a l c o m m itte e s, a n d c o -o rd in a te th eir w o rk .
I t issued a six -p o in t p r o g ra m m e , w h ic h w as b ro a d c a st b y the
S o v ie t-c o n tro lle d ‘ F re e Y u g o s la v i a ’ ra d io s ta tio n ,1 a n d w h ic h
in c lu d e d re sp ect fo r p r iv a te p r o p e r ty ; p o stp o n em e n t o f ra d ic a l
so cia l c h a n g e s u n til n a tio n a l e le ctio n s c o u ld be h e ld a fte r v ic to ry
‘ e x c e p t for th e r e p la c in g o f r e a c tio n a ry v illa g e a u th o ritie s an d
g e n d a rm e s b y p o p u la r ly e le cte d r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s ’ in lib e ra te d
te r r ito r y ; a n d g u a r a n te e o f e q u a l n a tio n a l rig h ts to a ll ‘ peoples
o f Y u g o s la v ia ’ , s p e c ific a lly m e n tio n in g S erb s, C r o a ts , S lo v en es,
M a c e d o n ia n s a n d M o n te n e g rin s.

* T h e 'F r e e Y u g o s la v ia * sta tio n is b elie v e d to h a v e been lo ca te d in o r n e a r T iflis.

Its b ro a d ca s ts, th o u g h h ig h ly c o lo u re d w ith p ro p a g a n d a , g a v e circ u m sta n tia l a c co u n ts
o f g u e rrilla o p e ra tio n s a fe w d a y s a fte r th ey h a d tak e n p la c e. This seem s to m e c o n ­
c lu s iv e p r o o f th a t d ire c t ra d io c o n ta c t w as m a in ta in e d , d u rin g at least th e g rea ter
p a rt o f th e p a rtis a n w a r, b e tw e e n T i t o ’s h e a d q u a rte rs a n d th e S o v iet U n io n .
126 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e S e rb ia n n a tio n a list fo llo w ers o f M ih a ilo v ic a re often
d escrib e d as ‘ C h e t n ik s ’ . T h is w o rd re q u ire s a b r ie f e x p la n a tio n .
L ite r a lly it m ean s a m e m b e r o f a C h e t a , w h ic h is th e S e rb ia n
w o rd fo r an a rm e d b a n d . S u c h a rm e d b a n d s h a d p la y e d an
im p o rta n t p a rt in S e rb ia n h isto ry , e sp e c ia lly in irr e g u la r w a r fa r e
a g a in st th e T u r k s u p to a n d d u r in g th e B a lk a n w a rs. W h e n S e r b ia
b e ca m e Y u g o s la v ia , th e C h e tn ik s b e c a m e a n o ffic ia l o rg a n isa tio n .
L e d b y v ete ra n s o f ir r e g u la r w a rfa re , a n d clo se ly c o n n e c te d w ith
th e r e g u la r a rm y , th e C h e tn ik o rg a n isa tio n w a s in te n d e d to g iv e
its m em b e rs a tr a in in g in g u e r r illa a c tiv itie s. In 1941 th e le a d e r
o f th e C h e tn ik o rg a n isa tio n w a s K o s ta P e fa n a c , a h e ro o f th e
First W o rld W a r . H e p la y e d n o p a rt in th e b r ie f c a m p a ig n o f
A p r il 19 4 1, a n d in th e su m m e r h e w e n t o v e r to th e G e rm a n s,
an d a p p e a le d to his fo llo w e rs to b e h a v e in a ‘ lo y a l ’ m a n n e r
to w a rd s th e o c c u p y in g forces. T h o s e w h o fo llo w e d h im w e re
re co gn ise d b y th e N e d ić g o v e rn m e n t a n d th e G e rm a n s , a n d
o p e ra te d w ith th e title o f ‘ le g a l C h e t n ik s ’ u n til D e c e m b e r 1942,
w h e n th e y w e re fo r m a lly in c o rp o ra te d in to N e d ic ’ s o w n a rm e d
forces. T h o s e w h o re je c te d P e ia n a c ’ s a p p e a l w e re k n o w n as
‘ ille g a l C h e t n ik s ’ . It w as th e y w h o fo llo w e d M ih a ilo v ic .
In th e e a r ly p e rio d o f Y u g o s la v resistan ce, c o m m u n ic a tio n s
b e tw e e n th e p ro vin ce s o f th e d ism e m b ere d c o u n tr y w e re d iffic u lt
a n d slo w . T h e o n ly n o n -A x is so u rce o f n ew s w h ic h w a s accessib le
th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try w as th e B .B .C . n ew s in S e r b o - C r o a tia n .
It w as w h e n th e B .B .C . b e g a n to sp e a k o f M ih a ilo v ic ’ s su p p o sed
a ch ie v e m e n ts, in th e a u tu m n o f 1 9 4 1 , th a t his n a m e , h ith e rto
little k n o w n in th e c o u n try , b e c a m e a fo rce, a n d th a t p e o p le from
th e d iffe re n t p ro v in c e s a tte m p te d to g e t in to u c h w ith h im . T h is
te n d e n c y fu rth e r in cre a se d w h e n in J a n u a r y 1942 th e Y u g o s la v
g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile a p p o in te d M ih a ilo v ic its W a r M in iste r . T h is
a n n o u n c e m e n t c a m e a t a tim e w h en M ih a ilo v ic h a d b e e n b e a te n
b y th e p a rtisa n s a n d th en a tta c k e d b y th e G e rm a n s, m a n y o f his
m en h ad d ese rted to th e N e d ić fo rm a tio n s o r g o n e h o m e , a n d
o n ly a v e r y sm all n u m b e r re m a in e d u n d e r his c o m m a n d . It
w as a t this tim e th a t th e S e rb ia n n a tio n a lis t b a n d s o p e r a t n g in
D a lm a tia , B o sn ia , H e rc e g o v in a a n d M o n te n e g r o so u g h t c o n ta c t
w ith h im .
E v e r sin ce th e p a rtitio n o f Y u g o s la v ia , th e I ta lia n o c c u p a tio n
a u th o ritie s in D a lm a tia h a d sh o w n a c e rta in to le ra n c e to w a r d s
th e S e rb ia n n a tio n a lists, as a c o u n te r -b a la n c e a g a in st th e C r o a ts ,
w h o m ig h t b e e x p e c te d to b e irred en tists. S e r b ia n re fu gees from
B o sn ia w e re w e lc o m e d in th e I ta lia n z o n e . B o th th e re fu gees a n d
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 1 2 "]

th e S e r b ia n e le m e n t a m o n g th e resid en t p o p u la tio n o f th e zo n e
w e re a llo w e d to o rg a n ise b a n d s o f th e ir o w n , u n d e r Ita lia n
c o m m a n d , a n d w e re su p p lie d w ith fo o d , clo th es an d a rm s by
th e I ta lia n a r m y . A t first th e in te n tio n o f th e Ita lia n s w as to use
th ese S e rb s a g a in st a n y ra id in g U sta sh b a n d s from P a v e lic ’s
te rrito r y . B u t a fte r a tim e th e d a n g e r from th e U sta sh w as su r­
passed b y th e d a n g e r fro m th e p a rtisa n s, w h o b e g a n to be a c tiv e
in th e D a lm a tia n a n d H e rc e g o v in ia n m o u n ta in s. T h e Italia n s
th e n u sed th e S e rb ia n fo rm a tio n s a g a in st th e p artisan s. T h e y
re c e iv e d th e title A n ti-C o m m u n is t M ilitia . A sim ila r situ atio n
d e v e lo p e d in M o n te n e g ro , w h e re , as w e h a v e seen, th e n atio n a lists,
a fte r a n in itia l p h ase o f c o -o p e ra tio n w ith th e p a rtisa n s, h ad
q u a r r e lle d w ith th em . T h e se n atio n a lists c o -o p e ra te d e v e r m ore
c lo se ly w ith th e Ita lia n s, re c e iv in g from th em , like th e ir c o llea g u e s
in D a lm a t ia a n d H e r c e g o v in a , I ta lia n a r m y ra tio n s, arm s,
c lo th in g a n d id e n tity ca rd s.
W h e n these m en h e a rd th a t M ih a ilo v ic h a d b e en a p p o in te d
W a r M in iste r , th e y so u g h t c o n ta c t w ith h im . D e sp ite th eir
c o - o p e ra tio n w ith th e Ita lia n s, th e y still m o re o r less re g a rd e d
th e e xile s as th e ir g o v e rn m e n t. T h e y w e re n ot su re w h o w o u ld w in
th e w a r . A s lo n g as th e ir re la tio n s w ith th e Ita lia n s w e re g o o d ,
th e y w o u ld n o t su ffer u n d e r th e A x is o c c u p a tio n . O n th e oth er
h a n d , i f th e A llie s sh o u ld w in , th e y c o u ld ju s tify th em selves b y
p r o v in g th a t th e y h a d a c c e p te d M ih a ilo v id , th e n o m in e e o f
L o n d o n , as th e ir c o m m a n d e r. F o r his p a rt, M ih a ilo v id c o u ld n ot
a ffo rd to sp u rn th e ir h e lp . H e h a d fe w m en o f his o w n , a n d w ith ­
o u t th e p r o te c tio n o f th e c o lla b o ra tio n ist C h e tn ik le a d e rs co u ld
h a r d ly h o p e to su rv iv e . In re tu rn fo r th e ir fo rm a l a lle g ia n c e and
p r a c tic a l p r o te c tio n , h e a p p ro v e d th eir p o lic y o f co -o p e ra tio n
w ith th e I ta lia n s a g a in st th e p a rtisa n s. A s a m a tte r o f fa ct, h e w as
n o t a t a ll in c lin e d to o b je c t to this p o lic y . H is a p p o in tm e n t as
W a r M in is te r h a d co n fe rre d o n h im a p o litic a l r a th e r th a n a
m ilita r y sta tu s. H e felt h im se lf th e le g a l re p re s e n ta tiv e in the
h o m e la n d o f th e k in g an d th e g o v e rn m e n t, e n tru sted w ith the
d e fe n c e o f th e ir in terests. T h e o c c u p y in g forces w e re , in his v ie w ,
to o p o w e rfu l to resist at this sta g e o f th e w a r. T h e y w ou ld g o w h en
th e m a in G e r m a n a n d I t a lia n a rm ies w e re d efe a te d b y th e G r e a t
A llie s. B u t th ere w e re tw o p o litic a l en em ies w h o w o u ld not
a u t o m a t ic a lly d is a p p e a r w ith th e co lla p se o f th e A x is, an d w h o m
it w a s his d u ty as re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e g o v e rn m e n t to c o m b a t—
th e C r o a ts a n d th e co m m u n ists. I f h e lp c o u ld b e o b ta in e d fro m
th e Ita lia n s a g a in st th e m , it sh o u ld n o t be re je c te d . In re a so n in g
128 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

thus, it d oes n o t seem to h a v e o c c u rre d to M i h a ilo v ic ' th a t he

c o u ld be g u ilty o f treaso n , fo r to h im th e in te rn a l a n d th e fo reig n
e n e m y w e re o b jects o f e q u a l h a tre d . H e assu m ed th a t th is w as a lso
th e v ie w o f th e g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile , w h ic h h a d n e v e r re p ro a ch e d
h im fo r his a n ti- C r o a t a n d a n ti-co m m u n ist p o lic y , o f w h ic h h e
h a d reason to b e lie v e th a t it w as fu lly in fo rm e d . O n th e c o n tra ry ,
th a t sectio n o f th e B .B .C . Y u g o s la v b ro a d c a sts w h ic h w a s c o n ­
tro lled b y th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t u n re se rv e d ly c o m m e n d e d a ll his
actions.
T h e co -o p e ra tio n o f M ih a ilo v ic w ith th e Ita lia n s a g a in st th e
p a rtisan s w as m u c h m o re th a n a m a tte r o f ‘ a c c o m m o d a tio n s ’ .
In J a n u a r y 1943, C h e tn ik forces, c lo th e d , fed an d a rm e d from
Ita lia n a r m y su pplies, w e re tra n sp o rte d in Ita lia n a r m y tru ck s
o v e r la rg e d istan ces to fig h t th e p a rtisa n s in th e N e r e tv a v a lle y .
M ih a ilo v ic p e rs o n a lly d ire c te d th e o p e ra tio n s o f th e C h e tn ik s .
H e m o v e d his h e a d q u a rte rs to th e fro n t, a n d refu sed to a llo w
officers o f th e B ritish m ission to a c c o m p a n y h im .2 T h e fig h tin g in
the N e re tv a v a lle y w as th e b ig g e st m ilita r y e ffo rt p u t u p b y
M ih a ilo v ic ’s C h e tn ik s in th e w h o le w a r. A b o u t 15,000 m en fo u g h t
h ard a n d w e ll— on th e e n e m y sid e, as p a rt o f a la rg e -sc a le o p e r a ­
tion jo in t ly p la n n e d b y th e A x is C o m m a n d .5
In th e su m m e r o f 1943 M ih a ilo v ic left M o n te n e g r o , a n d w ith
a m u ch re d u c ed force, n o w a c c o m p a n ie d o n c e m o re b y th e
British m ission, set u p his h e a d q u a rte rs in so u th -w e st S e rb ia .
H e re h e m a d e firm e r c o n ta c t w ith those C h e tn ik c o m m a n d e rs w h o
h ad re m a in e d at la rg e in S e r b ia sin ce th e d isaste r o f a u tu m n 194 1.
T h e se m en h ad fo u g h t o c ca sio n a l skirm ish es w ith G e r m a n o r
B u lg a ria n troop s, b u t a v o id e d b a ttle w h e n e v e r possib le. T h e y h ad
seld om fo u g h t p a rtisa n s, b e c a u se th ere h ad b e en fe w p a rtisa n s in
S e rb ia . F ro m th e sp rin g o f 1943 British m issions h a d b e en
a tta c h e d to se v e ra l o f th eir h e a d q u a rte rs. W h e n I t a ly su rre n d e re d
1 C o lo n e l S . W . B a ile y , h ead o f th e British M issio n to M ih a ilo v ic in 19 4 2 -3 ,
d e c la re d that M ih a ilo v ic h a d m a d e to h im statem en ts to this effe ct in th e v illa g e o f
Li|>ova in M o n te n e g ro o n 23 F e b r u a r y 1943 (sta tem en t b y C o lo n e l B a ile y to the
Press. 14 J u n e 19 46 ). C o n sta n tin e F o tić , Y u g o s la v A m b a ssa d o r in the U n ite d S tates
d u rin g the w a r a n d a ferve n t S e rb ia n n atio n a list a n d su p p o rte r o f M ih a ilo v ic , m a in ­
tain s in his book The War u<e L o it th a t C o lo n e l B a ile y m isu n d ersto o d M ih a ilo v ić 's
rem arks a b o u t th e Ita lia n s. E v e n if — as is n o t v e ry p ro b a b le — C o lo n e l B a ile y ’s k n o w ­
led g e o f S e r b o - C r o a t let h im d o w n o n this p o in t, M r. F o tić ’s v ersio n in n o w a y
d isp u tes th e a ttitu d e to C ro a ts an d co m m u n ists d e scrib ed a b o v e n o r d e n ies th a t
M ih a ilo v ic p rev en ted th e B ritish m ission fro m a c c o m p a n y in g h im w h e n he left his
h e a d q u a rte rs for m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s. T h e s e o p e ra tio n s, as th e m ission la te r fo u n d o u t
d e sp ite th e silen ce a n d o b stru c tio n o f M ih a ilo v ic a n d his o fficers, w e re d ire c te d not
ag a in st th e in v ad ers bu t a g a in st th e p a rtisa n s, in clo se c o -o rd in a tio n w ith I ta lia n ,
G e r m a n a n d C r o a t ia n fascist forces.
* S ee B a ile y statem en t, 14 J u n e 1946. 3 T h e s e o p e ra tio n s co n s titu te d w h a t
th e p a rtisan s t a ile d the ‘ fo u rth o ffe n s iv e ’ . S e e al>o\e, p . 12 2 , fo o tn o te 2.
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 129
th e C h e tn ik le a d e rs w h o re m a in e d in D a lm a tia , H e rc e g o v in a an d
M o n te n e g r o b e lie v e d fo r a fe w w eeks th a t B ritish a n d A m e ric a n
troop s w o u ld la n d in - Y u g o s la v ia . B u t w h e n it b e c a m e c le a r th at
this w o u ld n o t h a p p e n , an d th a t m e a n w h ile th e p a rtisan s h ad
g r e a tly stre n g th e n e d th em selv es b y a c q u ir in g Ita lia n w a r m a te ria l,
th e y d e c id e d to c o -o p e ra te w ith th e G e rm a n s, w h o w ith th e
U sta sh n o w o v e r ra n th e fo rm e r I t a lia n zo n e. M ih a ilo v ic w as
p ressed b y th e A llie d C o m m a n d to u n d e rta k e som e o p e ra tio n s
a g a in st A x is c o m m u n ic a tio n s in S e rb ia . T h e o n ly resu lt a c h ie v e d
w as th e d e s tru c tio n o f a n im p o rta n t b rid g e o v e r th e L im east o f
V iS e g ra d , w h ic h w a s ca rrie d o u t b y M ih a ilo v ic ’s m en in th e p re ­
sen ce o f th e B ritish m ission officers in th e first w e e k o f O c to b e r
1 9 4 3 .1 B u t req u ests fo r a tta c k on th e m o re v ita l ra ilw a y s ru n n in g
th ro u g h S e r b ia w e re e v a d e d o r refu sed .
E v e n tu a lly a b r e a c h b e tw e e n th e A llie s an d M ih a ilo v ic b e c a m e
in e v ita b le . N o m a te ria l su p p o rt h a d b een g iv e n to h im sin ce the
s u m m e r o f 1943. A ft e r a n u m b e r o f d ela y s d u e to te c h n ic a l
d ifficu ltie s, in M a y 1944 th e B ritish m ission w as w ith d ra w n from
M ih a ilo v ic . A sm all A m e r ic a n m ission sta y ed so m e m o n th s lo n ger.
D u r in g th e su m m e r th e p e n e tra tio n o f th e p a rtisa n s in to S e rb ia
c a u se d e v e n th e in d e p e n d e n t S e rb ia n C h e tn ik s to c o lla b o ra te w ith
th e G e r m a n a n d B u lg a ria n o c c u p a tio n troops. W h e n th e R e d
A r m y e n tered S e rb ia , som e C h e tn ik u n its a t th e last m o m e n t
tu rn e d th e ir a rm s a g a in st th e G e rm a n s a n d w e n t o v e r to the
R u ssia n s. O th e r s re tre a te d w e stw ard s w ith th e G e rm a n s. W h e n
fin a lly in A p r il 1945 th e G e rm a n s a b a n d o n e d Y u g o s la v te rrito ry ,
som e C h e tn ik s re tre a te d w ith th e m , a n d su rre n d e re d to th e B ritish
o r A m e ric a n s in I t a ly o r A u s tria . O th e rs , in c lu d in g M ih a ilo v ic
h im self, re m a in e d in B o sn ia .2
I t w o u ld b e w r o n g to c o n c lu d e fro m these facts th a t M ih a ilo v ic ,
a n d th e C h e tn ik s w h o re c o g n ise d his le a d e rsh ip , w e re ‘ pro-
1 T h e V iS e g ra d e x p lo it w as a ttrib u te d in erro r to th e pa rtisan s b y a B .B .C . b r o a d ­
ca st. T h is m is ta k e ca u s e d g re a t ra g e a m o n g S u p p o rte n o f M ih a ilo v il (e.g. M a rtin ,
o p . c it., a n d V o ig t , o p . d t . ) . T h e y are p e rh a p s not a w a re th at in 1 9 4 1 -2 B .B .C .
b ro a d ca s ts a t tr ib u te d to M ih a ilo v ic ’s forces m a n y ex p lo its o f T it o . T h e B .B .C . w as also
u sed b y th e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile to a n n o u n c e d e co ra tio n s o f C h e tn ik officers
w h o w e re fig h tin g o n th e e n e m y sid e a n d d e g ra d a tio n s o f re g u la r Y u g o s la v a rm y
o fficers w h o w e re fig h tin g w ith th e pa rtisan s ag a in st th e e n e m y . T h u s th e B .B .C .
b ro a d ca s ts w o n th e h a tre d o f b o th sides in th e Y u g o s la v c iv il w a r. P erso n a lly I co n -
side? th a t th e B .B .C . d eserves little b la m e fo r this. It w as o b lig e d to a c c e p t th e in fo rm a ­
tio n g iv e n to it b y those m o re fa m ilia r w ith Y u g o s la v affa irs. T h e s e in tu rn h a d to rely
o n ir r e g u la r a n d im p e rfe ct so u rces o f in fo rm a tio n . In m y o p in io n th e services o f the
B .B .C . in m a in ta in in g th e m o ra le o f o c c u p ie d E u ro p e fa r o u tw e ig h its m istakes, a n d
those B ritish w h o a c c e p t w ith e n th u sia sm th e criticism s o f fo re ig n se ctio n a l interests
a g a in st th e B ritish ra d io o n ly e x p o se th e ir o w n la ck o f ju d g m e n t. (S ee also C h sso ld ,
o p . c it., p . 12 7.)
* C liss o ld , o p . c it., c h a p te r 15.
I JO the EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
G e r m a n ’ . H e h a te d th e G e rm a n s, a n d w as a frien d o f B rita in ,
w h ich h e b e lie v e d w o u ld w in th e w a r. H e b e lie v e d , h o w e v e r, th at
th e g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile , a n d its B ritish hosts, w ish ed h im to fig h t
th e co m m u n ists. H e sim p ly refu sed to b e lie v e th a t th e W e ste rn
P o w ers con sid e re d th e S o v iet U n io n as an a lly , o r w ish e d in
Y u g o s la v ia a u n ited fro n t o f a ll p a trio ts a g a in st th e A x is . W h e n
h e w as assured o f this o ffic ia lly , h e b ru sh e d it a w a y as a p ie c e o f
d ip lo m a tic c u n n in g b y th e B ritish to ‘ k eep th e S o v ie ts s w e e t ’ .
U p to th e e n d , h e g a v e c o n c re te p r o o f o f his s y m p a th y fo r th e
W e ste rn A llie s, o f w h ic h th e m ost im p o rta n t w as th e rescu e o f a
la rg e n u m b e r o f A llie d p ilo ts w h o h ad b a le d o u t o v e r Y u g o s la v ia
o n fligh ts to C e n tr a l E u ro p e . T h e s e m en w e re tre a te d w ith g re a t
h o sp ita lity , a n d d e liv e re d to th e A llie d a u th o ritie s e v e n a fte r th e
A llie d go v e rn m e n ts h a d b ro k e n re la tio n s w ith h im .1 F o r th e ir
p a rt, th e G e rm a n s n e v e r tru sted M ih a ilo v ic . In th e e a r ly p a r t o f
th e w a r th e y re g a rd e d h im as a d a n g e ro u s e n e m y . L a t e r , th e y
m a d e lo c a l a g re e m e n ts w ith in d iv id u a l C h e tn ik le a d e rs in B osn ia,
D a lm a tia a n d H e rc e g o v in a w h o m th e y m ust h a v e k n o w n o w e d
a lle g ia n c e to h im , b u t th e y refu sed to h a v e d e a lin g s w ith h im o r
re co g n isc his statu s as a co m m a n d e r. O n ly in th e last p h ase, w h e n
B e lg ra d e h ad fa lle n , d id th e y m a k e d ire c t c o n ta c t w ith h im , a n d th e
c o n ta c t d id n ot le a d to d ire c t c o lla b o ra tio n b e tw e e n h im a n d th e m .2
M ih a ilo v ic ’s p o lic y has b een d e fe n d e d on th e g ro u n d s th a t h e
w ish ed to sp a re th e S e rb ia n p e o p le rep risals a n d ca su a ltie s, a n d
th a t th e g u e rrilla m eth o d s used b y th e p a rtisa n s w a s te d v a lu a b le
lives. B u t in fa ct M ih a ilo v ic d id n o t sp a re S e rb ia n lives. H is d esire
to a v o id ca su a ltie s c o n flic te d w ith his p o litic a l a im , d e s c rib e d
a b o v e , o f d e s tro y in g th e p a rtisa n s. I t w as th e secon d m o tiv e w h ic h
p r e v a ile d . H e used his m en , a t th e co st o f h e a v y losses, to fig h t on
th e A x is side a g a in st T ito . T h e re su lt w a s to d o u b le S e rb ia n
c a su a ltie s, b e c a u se p a rtisa n S e rb s h a d to fig h t n o t o n ly th e
in v a d e rs b u t also C h e tn ik S e rb s.3 B ro th e r fo u g h t b ro th e r, a n d

1 W ith M ih a il o v a 's re a d y c o -o p e ra tio n , A m e ric a n a irc ra ft e v a c u a te d a irm e n fro m

la n d in g -strip s in his te rrito ry as la te as th e su m m er o f 1944.
* C lisso ld , o p . c it., p p . 2 1 3 - 1 7 .
* It has o ften been su g g ested th a t w h e re a s M ih a ilo v ić 's fo rces co n sisted o f S erb s,
those o f T it o w e re m o stly C ro a ts , S lo v e n es o r M a c e d o n ia n s . O n l y th e first p a rt o f this
s tatem en t is tru e. T h e first p a rtisa n forces, in S e r b ia in 19 4 1, co n sisted a lm o st e n tir e ly
o f S erb s, som e h u n d re d s o f w h o m , th e v e te ra n s o f th e fou r y e a n o f g u e r r illa w a r,
s u rv iv e d to the e n d , fig h tin g in v ario u s p a rts o f Y u g o s la v ia . A fte r 19 4 1, th e p a rtis a n
forces w e re m a in ly re c ru ite d in B o sn ia a n d M o n te n e g ro , b o th reg io n s o f p r e d o m in a n tly
S e rb ia n p o p u la tio n . E v e n in C r o a t ia p ro p e r, th e first p a rtis a n u n its w e re fo rm e d fro m
th e S e rb ia n m in o rity . O n ly fro m th e en d o f 1943 d id C ro a ts jo in th e p a rtis a n forces
in co n sid e ra b le n u m b ers. T h e tru th is th a t b o th th e stro n g est su p p o rte rs a n d th e
stro n gest en em ies o f T it o w e re S erb s. T h e w a r a g a in st th e A x is in v a d e rs w as also a
S e rb ia n c iv il w ar.
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS Igi

th e e n e m y ’ s m ilita r y c o m m itm e n ts in Y u g o s la v ia w e re lig h te n e d .

In c o n tra st to M o n te n e g ro a n d B o sn ia , th ere w e re pa rts o f
S e r b ia w h e re C h e tn ik s ru le d c o n sid e ra b le a re as, in d e p e n d e n tly
o f th e o c c u p y in g forces a n d o f th e N e d ić a u th o ritie s, w h o d id n ot
fin d it w o rth w h ile to in te rfe re w ith th em , as th ey w e re not
a tta c k e d b y th em . T h e s e C h e tn ik s fo rm e d a b u ffe r b e tw e e n the
G e rm a n s a n d th e c iv il p o p u la tio n . A t th e ir best, th e y g e n u in e ly
p r o te c te d th e p ea san ts, a n d w e re v e r y p o p u la r. A t th eir w orst,
th e y w e re m ere lo c a l w ar-lo rd s, e x p lo itin g th e p ea san ts n o less
ru th le ssly fo r th e ir p e rso n a l a d v a n ta g e th a n d id th e G e rm a n s
fo r th e ir s .1 T h is sta te o f a ffa irs c a m e to an en d in th e sp rin g o f
1 9 4 4, w h e n th e S e rb ia n C h e tn ik s b e c a m e in v o lv e d in m ilita ry
a c tio n a g a in st th e re v iv e d S e rb ia n p a rtisa n s. O n th e o th e r h a n d ,
fro m 1943 o n w a rd s th e p a rtisa n s m a d e g re a t efforts to p ro te ct
th e c iv il p o p u la tio n , b y th re a te n in g c o u n ter-rep risa ls on c a p tu r e d
A x is p e rso n n e l, b y e v a c u a t in g a n d c a r in g fo r c iv ilia n s w h e n th ey
a b a n d o n e d a n a re a , a n d b y sp e cia l efforts to p re v e n t w o u n d e d
o r sick p ersons fro m fa llin g in to e n e m y h an d s.

GREECE
A fte r th e d e fe a t o f A p r il 19 4 1, G r e e c e w as o c c u p ie d b y troop s
o f th re e P o w e rs. T h e g r e a te r p a rt o f th e c o u n tr y w as ru le d b y the
Ita lia n s . T h e G e rm a n s h e ld C r e te an d som e o f th e o th e r islan ds
a n d th e p r o v in c e o f E vro s on th e T u rk is h fro n tie r. T h e y also h ad
ga rriso n s in S a lo n ic a a n d A th e n s . T h e B u lg a ria n s h a d eastern
M a c e d o n ia a n d T h r a c e . In o n e sense th e B u lg a ria n o c c u p a tio n
w a s th e w o rst: th e B u lg a ria n s w e re p e rm a n e n t n e ig h b o u rs, an d
in te n d e d to k ee p th e te rrito r y th e y h ad a c q u ire d . T h e y b e g a n to
e x p e l G re e k s from T h r a c e a n d to re p la c e th em w ith B u lg a ria n
co lo n ists, som e o f w h o m h a d c o m e from T h r a c e in 1 9 1 3 a n d h ad
sin ce liv e d as refu gees in B u lg a ria . B u t fo r b r u ta lity in a d m in is­
tra tio n th ere w a s little to ch o o se b e tw e e n th e th re e o c c u p y in g
P o w e rs. I t c o u ld be e x p e c te d th a t, w h a te v e r th e o u tc o m e o f th e
w a r , th e G e rm a n s a n d Ita lia n s w o u ld g o — th o u g h I t a ly w o u ld
p r o b a b ly k eep som e islan d s to ro u n d o f f h e r p ositio n in th e
A d r ia t ic a n d D o d e c a n e se , an d m ig h t a n n e x p a rt o f E p iru s to
A lb a n ia — w h erea s th e B u lg a ria n s w o u ld sta y , B u t m e a n w h ile a ll
th re e w e re e q u a lly op p re ssiv e . T h e G e rm a n s a ffe c te d so m e su p e r­
fic ia l p o liten e ss a n d a re sp ect fo r G r e e k civ ilisa tio n , b u t in p ra c -
1 T h e best ty p e o f C h e m ik co m m a n d e r is d e scrib ed in R o o th a n l, M issfirt. M r.
R o o t h a m sp e n t a y e a r as a liaiso n o fficer w ith C h e tn ik u n its in n o rth -ea st S e rb ia .
A n e x a m p le o f th e ‘ w a r - lo r d 1 ty p e w as K e s e ro v ic , w h o fo r a lo n g tim e ru led th e
K o p a o n ik a r e a o f w estern S e r b ia .
1 32 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
tice th e y w e re ruth less to a n y sign o f o p p o sitio n . T h e Ita lia n s w e re
m o re a rro g a n t, a n d i f th e ir repression w as less e ffic ien t th a t
w o n th em little s y m p a th y from th e G ree k s.
In th e first y e a r o f o c c u p a tio n th e G ree k s su ffered m o re from
eco n o m ic th a n from m ilita r y causes. G r e e c e c o u ld n e v e r feed its
p o p u la tio n . T h e o c c u p ie rs m a d e little p ro visio n to feed th e
co n q u e r e d , a n d b la m e d th e results on th e A llie d b lo c k a d e . In th e
w in te r o f 1 9 4 1 -2 th ere w as s ta rv a tio n in A th e n s . A t th e pressin g
req u est o f th e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t in e xile , th e W e ste rn A llie s
a g re e d to m ak e an e x c e p tio n . G r a in w as su p p lie d fro m C a n a d a
a n d th e U n ite d S tate s, a n d d istrib u te d w ith G e r m a n p erm ission
b y th e In te rn a tio n a l R e d C ross. In 1942 th ere w as a n e c o n o m ic
re co v e ry . C o n s tru c tio n w o rk s fo r th e o c c u p y in g a rm ie s g a v e
e m p lo y m e n t, a n d b o th w ag es a n d profits w e re g o o d . T h e p r o ­
fessional class a n d c iv il se rv an ts fa re d less w e ll. B y 1943 in fla tio n
o f th e c u rre n c y b e c a m e seriou s, a n d in 1944 it le a p e d a h e a d . A s
u su a l in su ch situ atio n s, th e m id d le class sufTcred m ost.
T h e d efe a t o f th e G r e e k a rm y h ad also b e en th e d e fe a t o f th e
M e ta x a s ro y a list d icta to rs h ip , w h ic h h ad h a d m a n y en em ies.
T h e A x is P ow ers w e re a b le fo r a tim e to e x p lo it this to th e ir
a d v a n ta g e . T h e y sh o w e d som e to le ra n c e to re p u b lic a n s. T h o u g h
th e la tte r sy m p a th ise d stro n g ly w ith th e W e ste rn P o w e rs, th e fa c t
th a t th e y w e re n ot m a ltre a te d b y th e o c c u p ie rs a t least re m o v e d
a n in c e n tiv e to a c tiv e resistan ce. It w as th e s ta rv a tio n o f th e first
w in te r w h ic h c re a te d b itte r h a tre d o f th e A x is , e s p e c ia lly in th e
tow n s. T h e o rg a n isa tio n best fitte d fo r a c tiv e resista n ce w a s th e
C o m m u n ist P a rty . L ik e its sister p a r t y in Y u g o s la v ia , it h ad
op p osed ‘ im p e ria list w a r -m o n g e r s ’ o f e ith e r sid e u n til J u n e 19 4 1 ,
b u t in th e last m o n th s it h a d b e en so m e w h a t m o re a n ti-A x is th a n
an ti-B ritish . B oth th e o b v io u s fa cts a n d th e m o od o f th e p e o p le
sh o w e d th at those w h o m ost g r a v e ly th re a te n e d th e G r e e k p e o p le
w e re th e A x is. W h e n H itle r a tta c k e d R u ssia th e c o m m u n ists’
d o u b ts w e re re m o v e d . T h e y b e g a n to o rg a n ise a P o p u la r F ro n t to
o p p ose th e A x is. In S e p te m b e r 1941 w as fo r m a lly fo u n d e d th e
N a tio n a l L ib e ra tio n F ro n t ( E .A .M .) . It in c lu d e d th e C o m m u n ist
P a rty ( K .K .E . ) , th re e c o m m u n ist-c o n tro lle d p u p p e t p a rtie s, an d
tw o sm all b u t g e n u in e p a rtie s .' It p u t fo rw a rd th e u su al P o p u la r
F ro n t p ro g ra m m e o f n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e , d e m o c ra tic lib e rtie s
a n d resistan ce to th e e n e m y . I t w as to o rg a n ise c iv il a n d a rm e d
resista n ce— strikes, n o n -co -o p e ra tio n a n d g u e rrilla b a n d s.

1 T h e m ost im p o rta n t w as th e so cialist ţţroup led b y P rofessor S v o lo s a n d M r.

T siriin o k o s .
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 133

G u e r r illa w a s a n o ld G r e e k tra d itio n . T h e G r e e k m o u n ta in s

h a v e p r o b a b ly n e v e r b e en e n tire ly free o f b a n d its. W h e n th e
G r e e k a r m y su rre n d e re d , a g o o d m a n y a rm s w e re h id d e n . D u rin g
1942 a rm e d b a n d s c a m e in to b e in g in c e n tra l G r c c c e . In A p r il
1942 E .A .M . a n n o u n c e d th e fo rm a tio n o f a P e o p le ’ s L ib e ra tio n
A r m y ( E .L .A .S .) b u t this d id n ot re a lly ta k e sh ap e u n til th e
fo llo w in g y e a r . In th e a u tu m n o f 1942 th e m ost im p o rta n t b an d s
w e re le d b y a c o m m u n ist, V c lo u c h io tis , w h o b o re as a p se u d o n y m
th e n a m e o f th e o ld G r e e k w a r -g o d A re s, a n d b y C o lo n e l N a p o le o n
Z e rv a s . A r e s ’s b a n d w as th e n u cleu s from w h ic h d e v e lo p e d
E .L .A .S ., th e C o m m u n is t P a r t y ’ s p r iv a te a r m y . Z e r v a s ’ s forces
o w e d a so m e w h a t u n c e r ta in a lle g ia n c e to a p o litic a l o rg a n isa tio n
c a lle d E .D .E .S . ( N a tio n a l D e m o c r a tic G r e e k U n io n ). T h e
n o m in a l h e a d o f E .D .E .S . w a s G e n e r a l P la stira s, th e re p u b lic a n
o ffice r w h o h a d m a d e th e coup d'etat o f 1922, a n d w as liv in g in
e x ile in V ic h y F ra n c e . E .D .E .S . stoo d fo r a re p u b lic a n , d e m o ­
c r a tic , n o n -so cia list re g im e . T h e c o u rse o f th e resistan ce w a r, an d
th e g r o w in g p o w e r o f th e c o m m u n ists, m a d e it m o re a n t i­
c o m m u n ist th a n a n y th in g else. T h e r e w as a lw a y s a c e rta in
d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n E .D .E .S . le a d e rs in A th e n s an d Z e r v a s ’s
c o m m a n d in th e m o u n ta in s. T h is d iffe re n c e b e c a m e w id e r as
tim e w e n t on.
I n th e a u tu m n o f 1942 a p a r ty o f B ritish p a ra ch u tists w as
d ro p p e d in G r e e c e , a n d m a d e c o n ta c t w ith b oth A rc s an d
Z e rv a s . O n 24 N o v e m b e r th e co m b in e d b a n d s a tta c k e d the
im p o r ta n t r a ilw a y b rid g e o v e r th e G o r g o p o ta m o s riv e r, an d
B ritish sa p p e rs b le w it u p . In th e fo llo w in g m o n th s B ritish parties
w e re d ro p p e d to a series o f b a n d s in G r e e c e . A s in Y u g o s la v ia ,
w ireless c o n ta c t w ith M id d le E ast h e a d q u a rte rs m ad e possible
th e s u p p ly o f a rm s, exp lo siv e s a n d o th e r su p p lies b y a ir. B y th e
s u m m e r o f 1943 th ere w e re tw o la rg e resistan ce forces in the
c o u n try .
E .L .A .S . h a d p e rh a p s 20,000 m en . It w as w e ll o rg an ise d in th e
P in d u s, w estern T h e s s a ly a n d c e n tra l M a c e d o n ia , an d h a d som e
forces in th e P e lo p o n n e se . It h a d a c e n tra l h e a d q u a rte rs, to
w h ic h w a s a tta c h e d a B ritish m ission, w ith a u th o rity o v e r th e
B ritish m issions a tta c h e d to v a rio u s re g io n a l E .L .A .S . c o m ­
m a n d s .1 T h e c o m m a n d e r o f th e B ritish m ission fo r th e first y e a r
w as B rig a d ie r E . M y e r s , a n d for th e secon d y e a r C o lo n e l C . M .

1 T h e m o st a u th o rita tiv e w o rk in E n g lish o n th e G re e k resistan ce an d G re ek

p o litics im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e w a r is C . M . V Voodhouse, Apple o f Discord. A useful
sh o rter a c c o u n t is M a c N e ill, The Creek Dilemma.
134 THE EA S T E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
W o o d h o u se . E .L .A .S . co m m a n d s a t re g io n a l a n d n a tio n a l le v el
w e re o rg an ise d o n a trip a rtite basis. T h e r e w a s a m ilita r y
c o m m a n d e r, a p o litic a l re p re s e n ta tiv e , a n d a ‘ k a p e ta n io s ’ . T h e
k a p e ta n io s w as resp on sib le fo r su p p lies a n d m o ra le , th e m ilita r y
co m m a n d e r fo r th e c o n d u c t o f o p e ra tio n s, w h ile th e p o litic a l
re p re se n ta tiv e w as th e re a l c h ie f o f th e w h o le fo rce. A t E .L .A .S .
h e a d q u a rte rs th e m ilita r y c o m m a n d e r w a s G e n e r a l S a ra fis, a
r e g u la r o ffic e r o f r e p u b lic a n sy m p a th ie s, w h o h a d le d a b a n d o f
his o w n , w as c a p tu r e d b y E .L .A .S ., a n d g iv e n th e a lte r n a tiv e o f
d e a th o r c o m m a n d o f th e ir forces. T h e k a p e ta n io s w a s A re s . T h e
p o litic a l re p re se n ta tiv e w as S ia n to s, a v e te ra n c o m m u n ist w h o
h ad b e en g e n e ra l se c re ta ry o f K . K . E . in th e tw e n tie s a n d h a d
esca p e d from I ta lia n im p riso n m e n t in 19 4 1. T h e p a r t y ’s g e n e ra l
se cre ta ry in th e th irties h ad b e en Z a c h a r ia d e s , w h o w a s in
D a c h a u c o n c e n tr a tio n c a m p from 1941 u n til th e e n d o f th e w a r.
T h e forces o f Z e rv a s w e re less n u m e ro u s, less w e ll o rg a n ise d ,
a n d h a d n o su ch c o m p lic a te d h ie ra r c h y . T h e ir stro n g h o ld w as
E p iru s. T h e r e w e re a lso som e m in o r resista n ce o rg a n isa tio n s in
o th e r a reas. E . K . K . A . w as led b y C o lo n e l P saros, a n d a y o u n g
p o litic ia n K a r ta lis . It h a d a r e p u b lic a n a n d d e m o c r a tic p r o ­
g ra m m e sim ila r to th a t o f E .D .E .S. P .A .O . w a s a n a tio n a list an d
rig h t-w in g o rg a n isa tio n in S a lo n ic a . It w as m o re p o litic a l th an
m ilitary'. I t n e v e r a c h ie v e d m u ch a rm e d e ffo rt. In T h r a c e th ere
w a s a n a tio n a list b a n d led b y a n a r m y se rg e a n t n a m e d A n to n
T s a o u s. T h e r e w as su rp risin g ly little a rm e d a c tiv it y in T h r a c e .
K a v a la , w ith its to b a c c o -w o rk in g in d u str y , h a d a lw a y s b e e n a
co m m u n ist stro n g h o ld . B u t E .L .A .S . n e v e r h a d im p o rta n t forces
h ere. In th e a u tu m n o f 1941 th ere h a d b e e n a co m m u n ist risin g ,
in w h ic h b o th G ree k s a n d B u lg a ria n s h a d ta k e n p a rt, a n d w h ic h
th e B u lg a ria n a rm y h a d su p p ressed . A ft e r th a t th ere w a s little .
I t is possib le th a t a reaso n fo r this w a s u n c e r ta in ty in th e m in d s o f
G r e e k co m m u n ist le a d e rs w h e th e r a fte r th e w a r T h r a c e w o u ld be
in G r e e c e o r B u lg a ria . C e r ta in ly th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t w as u n ­
ce rta in a b o u t this, a n d it is n o t u n lik e ly th a t th e u n c e r ta in ty w as
re flecte d in c o m m u n ist p o lic y .1
T h e im m e d ia te c o n c e rn o f th e B ritish C o m m a n d in th e M id d le
E ast w as to in c re a se th e co m m itm e n ts o f th e A x is tro o p s a ll o v e r
th e M e d ite rra n e a n a re a . P eira eu s w as u sed b y A x is sh ips s u p p ly ­
in g th e a r m y in L ib y a . G r e e k o rg a n isa tio n s w e re e n c o u ra g e d to
sa b o ta g e this sh ip p in g . T h e A x is b y 1943 su ffered fro m a n a ll­
ro u n d sh o rta g e o f m a n p o w e r. E v e r y a d d itio n a l u n it tied d o w n in
1 N azi-Soviet Relations. p . 246.
 THE RE S I S TA NCE MOVEMENTS 135
G r e e c e re la x e d pressure on th e A llie s in N o rth A fr ic a a n d in
R u ssia . M o r e o v e r th e A x is h a d to re ck o n n ot o n ly w ith G ree k
re sista n ce b u t also w ith th e p o ssib ility o f an A llie d la n d in g on the
G r e e k co a st. In th e su m m e r o f 1943 th e British C o m m a n d o rd ered
a sp e cia l e ffo rt o f g u e rrilla w a r fa r e a n d s a b o ta g e o f c o m m u n ic a ­
tion s, in o rd e r to a ttr a c t a m a x im u m o f A x is troop s in to G r e e c e .
T h e d e fe a t o f th e A x is in T u n is ia w as c le a rly to be fo llo w ed b y a
la n d in g so m e w h e re in th e M e d ite rra n e a n . T h e g u e rrilla o p e ra ­
tion s in G r e e c e w e re to b e a ‘ c o v e r p la n ’ to m ak e th e A x is
e x p e c t a c tio n in G r e e c e w h ile a c tio n w as in fa ct b e in g p rep a re d
for S ic ily . M a x im u m g u e rrilla e ffo rt re q u ire d m a x im u m u n ity
b e tw e e n th e b a n d s. T h e B ritish m ission th erefo re pressed the
G re e k s to m a k e a ‘ N a tio n a l B a n d s A g r e e m e n t ’ fo r c o m m o n a c tio n
a g a in s t th e e n e m y , d esp ite p o litic a l d isag reem en ts. E .L .A .S . at
first co n se n te d , b u t th en refused to sign . I n d iv id u a l b an d s, h o w ­
e v e r, in c lu d in g lo c a l E .L .A .S . b an d s, w ith th e a d v ic e an d in som e
cases le a d e rsh ip o f British officers, d id su b sta n tia lly h a rr y th e
e n e m y a n d so h e lp A llie d m ilita r y p lan s.
A s th e tid e o f w a r tu rn e d , it b e ca m e m o re im p o rta n t fo r
E .L .A .S . to e lim in a te th e ir riv als th an to c o m b a t th e e n e m y , w h o
w as c le a r ly n o t g o in g to w in . U ltim a te p o litic a l p o w e r in G r e e c e
re q u ire d a lso th a t E .L .A .S . sh o u ld m in im ise its ca su a lties. F ro m
th is tim e o n w a rd s, E .L .A .S . sh ow ed g ro w in g re lu c ta n c e to c a rry
o u t th e o p e ra tio n s p rop o sed b y th e B ritish m ission. Z e rv a s on the
o th e r h a n d w as c o -o p e ra tiv e . W ith 5,000 m en to 20,000 o f
E .L .A .S ., a n d c o n c e n tr a tc d in a s tra te g ic a lly u n im p o rta n t p a rt o f
G r e e c e , h e c o u ld n ot h o p e to w in p o st-w a r p o w e r u n a id e d .
B ritish h e lp w as essen tial to h im , so he m ust g a in B ritish g ra titu d e .
B e h in d th ese m ilita r y reasons fo r frictio n b e tw e e n th e B ritish
a n d E .L .A .S ., a n d B ritish su p p o rt to Z e rv a s , la y d e e p e r p o litic a l
reason s. A ll co m m u n ists h a te d B rita in as th e g rea test Im p e ria l
P o w e r, a n d G r e e k co m m u n ists w e re n o e x c e p tio n . British soldiers
m ig h t g e t o n w e ll w ith in d iv id u a l co m m u n ists, b u t th e British
g o v e rn m e n t c o u ld n o t fa v o u r th e estab lish m e n t o f a co m m u n ist,
R u ssia n -in flu e n c e d g o v e rn m e n t in th e E astern M e d ite rra n e a n .
P e rh a p s m o re im p o rta n t e v e n th an this w as th e fa c t th at
B rita in h a d o b lig a tio n s to K in g G e o rg e I I o f G r e e c e . T h e K in g
h a d d e c id e d to c o n tin u e th e w a r a t B rita in ’ s side a fte r th e G e r ­
m an s h a d d e c id e d to s u p p o rt I t a ly , th o u g h th e p ro sp ects w ere
d a r k , a n d m a n y c o n se rv a tiv e G ree k s w o u ld h a v e p referre d su r­
re n d e r . T h e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t in g e n e ra l, a n d M r. C h u r c h ill in
p a r t ic u la r , fe lt b o u n d to see th a t th e k in g re tu rn e d to G r e e c e .
136 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
W h a t th e G ree k s sh o u ld th en d e c id e w as th e ir a ffa ir, b u t B rita in
m ust n ot let d o w n a g a lla n t A llie d m o n a rc h . B u t th e stre a m o f
refu gees a n d in fo rm a tio n fro m G r e e c e to th e M id d le E a st sh o w e d
m o re an d m o re c le a r ly th a t o p in io n in G r e e c e w as stro n g ly fo r a
re p u b lic . T h is o p in io n also p re d o m in a te d in th e G r e e k c o m ­
m u n ity in E g y p t a n d th e L e v a n t , fro m w h ic h th e G r e e k a rm y
in th e M id d le E ast w as la r g e ly re c ru ite d .
T h e P re m ie r o f th e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile , T s o u d e ro s, w as
a m a n o f u n sta b le v iew s, s w in g in g fro m left c e n tre to r ig h t ce n tre ,
from m o n a rc h y to re p u b lic . In F eb ru ary ' 1942 th e k in g fo r m a lly
a b o lish ed th e d ic ta to rs h ip in tro d u c e d in 1936. B u t this d id not
p la c a te o p in io n a t h o m e. In M a r c h a g ro u p o f p r o m in e n t p o li­
ticia n s in A th e n s sign ed a m an ifesto u rg in g th a t th e k in g sh o u ld
n ot re tu rn u n til a p le b isc ite h a d b e en h e ld . M e a n w h ile p o litic a l
fa ctio n s g re w in th e a rm y . In th e sp rin g o f 1943 th ere w as a
m u tin y , led b y a r e p u b lic a n le a g u e o f officers. It w as a p p e a s e d b y
th e a p p o in tm e n t o f re p u b lic a n officers to th e position s o f c o m ­
m a n d . B u t m e a n w h ile E .A .M . p r o p a g a n d a sp re ad in th e ran ks,
u sin g th e r e p u b lic a n officers as an u n co n scio u s scre e n . In A u g u s t
1943 a d e le g a tio n o f re p resen ta tive s o f E .A .M ., E .D .E .S . an d
E . K . K . A . w as b ro u g h t to C a ir o . T h e y su ggested p o stp o n em e n t
o f th e k in g ’s re tu rn u n til a fte r a p le b iscite , b u t n e ith e r h e n o r th e
B ritish g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld con sen t to this. In D e c e m b e r T s o u d e ro s
sent a secret e m issary to selected p ersons in A th e n s , su g g e stin g a
te m p o ra r y R e g e n c y u n d e r th e A r c h b is h o p o f A th e n s , D a m a -
skinos. W h e n th e e x p e c te d fa v o u ra b le rep lies w e re r e c e iv e d , he
su ggested it to th e k in g . T h e k in g h a d a lr e a d y in N o v e m b e r
m a d e a p u b lic sta te m e n t to T s o u d e ro s th a t h e w o u ld ‘ e x a m in e
a n e w th e q u e s tio n ’ o f his re tu rn , b u t th a t w'as as fa r as h e w o u ld
go. T s o u d e ro s’ s m a n o e u v re n a tu r a lly u n d e rm in e d c o n fid e n c e
b e tw e e n k in g a n d p rem ie r.
M e a n w h ile th e situ a tio n in G r e e c e h a d g ro w n w o rse. W h e n the
I ta lia n a rm y su rre n d e re d in S e p te m b e r 1943, som e o f th e I ta lia n
u n its in G r e e c e d e c id e d to g o o v e r to th e g u e rrilla s . I t w as
E .L .A .S . w h ic h g o t th e ir a rm s. B e in g n o w v e r y m u c h stro n g e r,
E .L .A .S . w as less d e p e n d e n t o n B ritish su p p lies o f a rm s, and
th erefo re less b o u n d to plea se th e B ritish . N o w w as th e tim e to
d e a l w ith its riv als. In O c t o b e r E .L .A .S . a tta c k e d Z e rv a s .
N o m o re B ritish su p p lies o f arm s w e re sen t to E .L .A .S ., th o u g h
B ritish m issions re m a in e d , a n d foo d a n d c lo th in g w e re still
d ro p p e d to E .L .A .S . u n its. B ritish su p p lie s to Z e r v a s w e re
in cre a se d . It w as o n ly this w h ic h sa v e d his fo rces fro m a n n ih ila ­
 THE RE S I S TA NCE MOVEME NTS 1 37
tio n . T h e c iv il w a r c a m e to an en d in F e b r u a r y 1944, w h e n
B ritish pressu re p e rs u a d e d E .L .A .S . to sign th e P la k a a g re e ­
m e n t, d e lim itin g th e re sp e c tiv e te rrito r ia l zo n es o f E .L .A .S .
a n d E .D .E .S .1 T h is o n ly sto p p ed th e sh o o tin g . T h e tw o sides
re m a in e d im p la c a b ly o p p o sed .
T h e o p p o sitio n to E .L .A .S . w as also re in fo rced from a n ew
so u rce . T h e G e rm a n s c o u ld n o t sp a re tro o p s to re p la c e th e Ita lia n
d ivisio n s. T h e y th erefo re re c ru ite d ‘ se c u rity b a t ta lio n s ’ o f G ree k s
to fig h t E .L .A .S . T h e q u is lin g g o v e rn m e n t o f R a llis (P re m ie r
sin ce A p r il 1943) c o n c e n tr a te d its efforts o n a n ti-co m m u n ist
p r o p a g a n d a . I t w a s fo rtu n a te in re c ru itin g G e n e r a l G o n a ta s,
th e v e te ra n re p u b lic a n a n d P la stira s’ s c o lle a g u e o f 1922. G o n a ta s
w as a le a d in g m e m b e r o f E .D .E .S . T h e c iv ilia n E .D .E .S . o r g a n i­
sa tio n n o w su p p o rte d th e se c u rity b a tta lio n s, an d so a t least
in d ire c tly ‘ c o lla b o r a t e d ’ w ith th e G e rm a n s. Z e rv a s th erefo re
fo r m a lly b ro k e w ith it, a n d g a v e his fo rce a n e w n a m e . In fact,
th o u g h Z e r v a s lo y a lly o b e y e d B ritish in stru ctio n s, h e n o w
re g a rd e d th e co m m u n ists as his m a in en em ies, as th e y h im .
W h e th e r Z e r v a s c a m e to a rra n g e m e n ts w ith th e G e rm a n s is
u n c e r ta in . T h e c o m m u n ists o f co u rse asserted it. I f he h im se lf
d id n o t, it is q u ite p o ssib le th a t som e o f his u n d e rlin g s d id . C e r ­
t a in ly th e d iv id in g lin e b e tw e e n se c u rity b a tta lio n s a n d n a tio n a l­
ist b a n d s (Z e rv a s , T s a o u s o r oth ers) b e c a m e v er)' b lu r r e d .2
D u r in g 1944 a c o m m u n ist sta te g r e w u p w ith in G r e e c e .
E .A .M . h a d a lw a y s b e e n a c o m m u n ist o rg a n isa tio n , b u t n o w the
c a m o u fla g e w h ic h h a d c o n c e a le d it w o re th in . T h e c o m m u n ist
o rg a n isa tio n w a s sim ila r to th a t in Y u g o s la v ia , b u t less e fficien t.
P r o p a g a n d a w a s c o n tro lle d b y th e p a rty . V illa g e s h a d th eir c o m ­
m ittees to o rg a n ise su p p lie s fo r th e b an d s a n d essen tial w o rk o u t­
sid e th e b a ttle a re a . F o o d a n d re cru its w e re re q u isitio n e d from the
p e a s a n try . O p p o s itio n w as u n h e sita tin g ly , a n d o ften v e r y c ru c lly ,
su p p ressed . A g re a t p a rt o f th e peasan try' a n d m ost o f th e c le rg y
w e re a n ta g o n ise d . T h e se c u rity b a tta lio n s re c e iv e d a go o d d e a l o f
g e n u in e p o p u la r s u p p o rt as a resu lt o f c o m m u n ist a tro citie s. O n
th e o th e r h a n d it is c e rta in th a t E .L .A .S . h ad m u c h w illin g an d
e n th u sia stic su p p o rt fro m a ll classes. Y o u n g p easan ts jo in e d it
fro m a p a trio tic d esire to fig h t th e e n e m y a n d also b e c a u se th ey
w ish e d fo r a n e w d e a l a fte r th e w a r , fo r th e h e lp o f th e sta te
a g a in st p o v e r ty , redress from b u r e a u c r a tic in ju stice , a n d a c h a n c e
1 T h e texts o f th e N a tio n a l B an d s A g re e m e n t a n d th e F la k a a g re e m e n t are co n tain ed
in W o o d h o u s c , o p . cit.
* F o r a discu ssion o f th e e v id e n c e o n Z e rv a s ‘ c o l l a b o r a t i o n s e e W o o d h o u s e ,
o p . c it., p p . 7 5 - 8 1 .
138 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

o f e d u c a tio n , w h ic h th e o ld regim e, in p r a c tic e i f n ot in th e o ry , h ad

so la rg e ly d e n ie d th em . P e o p le w e re sick o f th e o ld p a r ty strife
b e tw e e n re p u b lic a n s a n d ro y a lists, w h ic h h ad lost its m e a n in g
an d o n ly served to re ta rd reform s. T h e c o m m u n ist a rg u m e n t, th a t
th e o ld p a rty stru ggle w as a stru g g le b e tw e e n r iv a l b o u rg e o is
c liq u e s for th e o p p o rtu n ity to e x p lo it th e p e o p le , c o n ta in e d m u ch
tru th , an d w on m u ch su p p o rt. I t is sig n ifica n t th a t m a n y stu ­
d en ts a n d y o u n g te ach e rs w e re a m o n g th e se co n d -ra n k E .L .A .S .
leaders.
T h e p o litic a l crisis a d v a n c e d a sta g e fu rth e r in th e sp r in g o f
1944. In M a r c h th e k in g w e n t fro m C a ir o to L o n d o n to p le a d his
case. In th e M id d le E ast a serious m u tin y took p la c e . S h o rtly
b e fo re this E .L .A .S . h ad p ro c la im e d a p ro v isio n a l g o v e rn m e n t, o r
C o m m itte e o f L ib e ra tio n ( P .E .E .A .) 'i n th e m o u n ta in s o f G r e e c e ’ .
Its first p resid en t w as a d istin gu ish ed re p u b lic a n o fficer, d e c o ra te d
w ith th e B ritish D .S .O . in th e F irst W o r ld W a r , C o lo n e l E u rip id e s
B a k ird zis. A m o n th la te r h e w as re p la c e d b y a m o re p o litic a l
fig u re, a so cialist professor o f A th e n s U n iv e r s ity , S vo lo s. T h e
m u tin o u s G r e e k forces d e m a n d e d th e p o stp o n em e n t o f th e k in g ’s
re tu rn to G r e e c e p e n d in g a p le b isc ite , a p u rg e o f ‘ fascist o ffic e rs ’
in th eir ran ks, a n d re c o g n itio n o f P .E .E .A . as th e p r o v in c ia l
g o v e rn m e n t. T h e a ctio n w as a ll th e m o re a w k w a r d as it o c c u rre d
o n th e e ve o f th e d e p a rtu re o f th e first G r e e k b rig a d e to I t a ly to
fig h t th e e n em y . B ritish troop s h a d to b lo c k a d e th e G r e e k u n its.
T h e y su rren d ered a t th e en d o f A p r il w ith o u t b lo o d sh ed . A n e w
g o v e rn m e n t h a d b e en fo rm ed u n d e r S o p h o c le s V e n iz e lo s , son o f
th e g re a t sta tesm an . But his n a m e p ro v e d in su fficien t to restore
u n ity , a n d it b e c a m e p e rfe c tly c le a r th a t r e p u b lic a n officers w e re
n o lo n g e r a b le to c o n tro l th e troo p s, w h o h a d b e en w e ll in d o c ­
trin a te d w ith E .A .M . p r o p a g a n d a . V e n iz e lo s w as su c c c e d e d as
P rem ie r b y P a p a n d re o u , a p o litic ia n o f th e left c e n tre , w h o c a lle d
h im se lf a social d e m o c ra t. H e h ad m a d e a g o o d im p ression on
B ritish officers in G r e e c e , an d h a d b e en b ro u g h t o u t to lea d a
c a b in e t o f u n ity .
It w as n o w d e c id e d to su m m o n a co n gress o n A llie d te rrito ry
to try to th rash o u t p o litic a l p ro b lem s. It m et in th e L e b a n o n
m o u n ta in s in M a y . T h e r e w e re d ele g a te s from E .A .M . a n d from
th e A th e n s p o litic a l p a rtie s an d th e exiles. A ‘ L e b a n o n c h a r t e r ’
w as p ro c la im e d , w h ich in c lu d e d u n ific a tio n o f a ll g u e r r illa forces,
a n e n d to ‘ te rro r ism ’ , g u a ra n te e s o f p o litic a l lib e rty , a n d p u n ish ­
m en t o f tra ito rs a n d ‘ e x p lo ite rs o f th e p e o p le 's m is e r y ’ . T h e
E .A .M . d e le g a tio n re tu rn e d to G r e e c e , b u t E .A .M . fo r som e
 THE RE S I S TA NCE MOVEMENTS I39
w eeks w o u ld n o t r a tify th e a g re e m e n t. M e a n w h ile in trigu es
d e v e lo p e d b e tw e e n th e p o litic ia n s o f th e L ib e r a l P a r ty a n d th e
P a p a n d r e o u g ro u p . A fo rm a l d e n u n c ia tio n o n 7 S e p te m b e r b y
P a p a n d re o u o f th e s e c u rity b a tta lio n s p a r tly p la c a te d E .A .M . In
S e p te m b e r E .A .M . re p resen ta tiv e s e v e n tu a lly jo in e d the g o v e rn ­
m e n t. A c c o r d in g to a la te r sta te m e n t b y Professor S vo lo s, this w as a
re su lt o f a d v ic e g iv e n th e m b y th e S o v ie t M in iste r in C a i r o .1
T h e r e h a d b e en a S o v ie t m ilita r y m ission w ith E .L .A .S . sin ce
A u g u s t 194 4. I t h a d a rriv e d fro m Y u g o s la v ia w ith o u t a n y p r e ­
v io u s a n n o u n c e m e n t to th e A llie d g o v e rn m e n ts. I t d id n ot seem to
p la y m u c h p a rt in th e a ffa irs o f E .A .M .
T h e c o lla p se o f th e G e r m a n positio n s in th e B a lk a n s, resu ltin g
fro m R u m a n ia ’ s d e fe c tio n , m a d e th e e v a c u a tio n o f G r e e c e a
m a tte r o f d a y s. T h e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t m o v e d to I ta ly . A n a g re e ­
m en t w a s sign e d in C a s e rta b y S arafis an d Z e rv a s . B o th g u e rrilla
g ro u p s re co g n ise d th e a u th o r ity o f th e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t, an d th e
G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t p la c e d a ll G r e e k forces u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f
th e B ritish G e n e r a l S c o b ie . A p a r t from th e forces in sid e G r e e c e ,
th ere w e re a t this tim e tw o G r e e k r e g u la r a rm e d u n its, the
‘ R im in i B r ig a d e ’ a n d th e ‘ S a c r e d S q u a d r o n ’ . B oth con sisted o f
p erso n n el scre e n e d a fte r th e m u tin y , a n d so th o ro u g h ly lo y a l to
th e g o v e rn m e n t. It is o n ly a m ild e x a g g e r a tio n to d escrib e th em as
a p r iv a te a r m y o f th e G r e e k rig h t. T h e y h ad fo u g h t w e ll in Ita ly .
In O c t o b e r B ritish tro op s la n d e d in G r e e c e . T h e G e rm a n s retired ,
E .L .A .S . d o in g little to h a m p e r th e ir w ith d ra w a l. B ritish troop s
w e re w ild ly a c c la im e d in A th e n s . T h e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t a rriv e d
o n 18 O c t o b e r . T h e g r e a te r p a rt o f G r e e c e w as h eld b y E .L .A .S .,
w h ic h w a s a lso v e r y stro n g in th e c a p ita l. R e la tio n s b e tw e e n
B ritish a n d E .L .A .S . forces w e re c o rre c t, a n d at th e lo w e r levels
c o r d ia l. B u t n o c o n tro v e rsia l issue h a d b e en so lved .

A L B A N IA
A lb a n ia b e tw e e n th e w a rs d iffe re d from th e g e n e ra l so cia l and
p o litic a l p a tte r n o f E a ste rn E u ro p e sk e tch e d in th e first tw o
c h a p te rs . I f th e o th e r B a lk a n co u n trie s w e re in m a n y respects
b a c k w a r d , A lb a n ia h a d h a r d ly c h a n g e d sin ce th e fiftee n th c e n ­
tu ry . T h e r e w e re im p o rta n t d iffe re n ce s b e tw e e n th e n o rth an d
so u th . The n o rth e rn ers (G h e g s) sp o ke a s o m e w h a t d iffe re n t
d ia le c t fro m th e so u th ern e rs (T o sk s). M o re im p o rta n t w as th e
d iffe re n c e o f so cia l a n d p o litic a l o rg a n isa tio n . T h e G h e g s form ed
a trib a l so cie ty , c o m p a r a b le to th a t o f th e S co ttish cla n sm e n b efore
1 M acN eiM , o p . c il.
1 40 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
th e ’ F o rty -fiv e . M o st w e re M o sle m , b u t o n e im p o rta n t trib e , th e
M irid ite s , led b y th e M a r k a g jo n i fa m ily , w e re C a th o lic s . T h e la n d
o f th e tribes w as m o u n ta in o u s, p o o r an d re la tiv e ly o v e r -p o p u ­
la ted . T h e T o sk s w e re led b y b ig la n d o w n e rs, o r b eys. T h e
la n d w as m o re fe rtile in th e ir te rrito ry , e sp e c ia lly th e c o a s ta l p la in
w ith its su b sta n tia l tow n s T ir a n a , D u r a z z o a n d V a lo n a . T h e
system o f lan d te n u re w as a M o sle m ty p e o f fe u d a lis m . T h e
m a jo rity o f th e T o sk p o p u la tio n o w n e d little o r n o la n d . In d u s try
w as v e r y b a c k w a r d , b u t su ch as it w as, it w a s in th e T o s k re g io n .
A n Ita lia n c o m p a n y h ad b e g u n to e x p lo it o il w ells n e a r th e co a st.
T h e r e w as som e re g u la r la b o u r in th e d o ck s o f D u r a z z o an d
V a lo n a , an d in sm all en terp rises in T i r a n a a n d K o r c h a (K o r its a )
on th e G r e e k fro n tie r. T h e T o sk s to o w e re m o stly M o sle m s , b u t
th ere w as a n O r th o d o x e le m e n t, to som e e x te n t su b je c t to G r e e k
in flu e n ce . T h e r e w as a sm all G r e e k m in o r ity in so u th A lb a n ia a n d
a n A lb a n ia n m in o rity sca tte red o v e r G r e e c e . T h e la rg e st A lb a n ia n
m in o rity o u tsid e A lb a n ia w as in Y u g o s la v ia , in th e K o s o v o a r e a o f
th e fo rm e r N o v i B a z a r p ro v in c e o r ‘ S a n d ja k ’ .
A lb a n ia h a d n o p o litic a l p a rtie s. P o litics w as a m a tte r fo r th e
ch ie fta in s a n d th e b eys. A h m e d B ey Z o g u , w h o b e c a m e K i n g Z o g
in 192 7, w as a m em b e r o f a p o w e rfu l fa m ily fro m th e M a ti
re g io n in c e n tra l A lb a n ia . H e h a d seized p o w e r in 1924 b y o v e r ­
th ro w in g th e O r th o d o x B ish op F a n N o li. T h e B ish o p h a d trie d to
c a rry o u t so cia l reform s, e sp e c ia lly a re d istrib u tio n o f la n d , a n d
so u n ited th e b e y s a g a in st h im self. H is se c re ta ry , M a lle s h c v a , w as
a co m m u n ist. In th e th irties th ere W'as a g r o u p o f A lb a n ia n
co m m u n ist stu d en ts in F ra n c e . O t h e r y o u n g A lb a n ia n s le a rn e d
co m m u n ist sy m p a th ie s at B e lg ra d e U n iv e rsity . A fe w visite d
M o sco w . T h e r e w e re also som e A lb a n ia n s a m o n g th e fo reign
v o lu n te e rs for th e S p a n ish R e p u b lic . A sc h o o lm a ste r in K o r c h a
n a m e d E n v e r H o x h a w as th e le a d in g A lb a n ia n c o m m u n ist. B u t
th ere w as n o t y e t an o rg a n ise d C o m m u n is t P a rty .
W h e n th e Ita lia n s o c c u p ie d A lb a n ia , th e y m a d e P r e m ie r a b e y
n am e d S h e v k e t V r la c i, w h o h a d o n c e b e en a s u p p o rte r o f Z o g .
In th e I ta lo -G re e k w a r som e A lb a n ia n forces fo u g h t u n d e r I ta lia n
c o m m a n d . T h e v ic to rio u s A x is a n n e x e d to A lb a n ia th e w h o le
K o s o v o a re a an d th e w e ste rn frin g e o f M a c e d o n ia . In b o th a re as
th e p o p u la tio n w as m o stly A lb a n ia n . B u t th ese g a in s d id n ot
re a lly p o p u la rise th e Ita lia n s. T h e A lb a n ia n m o u n ta in e e rs
resen ted a n y sort o f c e n tra l a u th o r ity , a n d i f it w as fo reig n th e
re se n tm e n t w as g re a te r. M o r e o v e r a g e n e ra tio n o f re la tiv e
in d e p e n d e n c e h ad sh o w n th em th a t th e m a in e n e m y o f th eir
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 14 1

c o u n tr y w a s I t a ly . T h u s th e A lb a n ia n s w e re in th e rig h t m o o d for
r e s is ta n c e : th e y o n ly n e ed e d a n o rg a n ise r.
T h is w as p r o v id e d b y th e sm a ll g ro u p o f c o m m u n ist in te lle c ­
tu als, e d u c a te d in F ra n c e , I t a ly , Y u g o s la v ia o r R u ssia , a n d h a v in g
c o n t a c t w ith th e m o re p o w e rfu l c o m m u n ist o rg a n isa tio n s o f
Y u g o s la v ia a n d G r e e c e . In a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e o v e r a ll C o m in ­
te rn d ir e c t iv e t o fo rm P o p u la r F ro n ts, th e co m m u n ists su m m o n e d a
m e e tin g o f A lb a n ia n p a trio ts a t P e z a in S e p te m b e r 1942. A t this
m e e tin g w a s fo u n d e d th e N a tio n a l L ib e ra tio n M ovem ent
( L .N .C . ) . It h a d th e u su al p ro g ra m m e o f a rm e d re sista n ce to
th e in v a d e rs a n d p o litic a l a n d so cia l d e m o c r a c y a fte r v ic to ry .
A m o n g its le a d e rs w e re B a b a M u s ta fa F a ja , th e h e a d o f a m o n a s­
te r y o f th e M o sle m sect o f th e B e k ta s h i; M y s lim P e z a , a g u e rrilla
le a d e r w h o h a d b e en a n o u tla w a lr e a d y fo r ten y e a rs; a n d A b b a s
K u p i, a la n d o w n e r fro m n e a r K r u ja a n d su p p o rte r o f Z o g , w h o
h a d o ffere d a lm o st th e o n ly resista n ce to th e I ta lia n la n d in g in
19 3 9 . T h e m ost im p o rta n t c o m m u n ist le a d e rs w e re E n v e r H o x h a , a
fo r m e r sch o o lm a ste r fro m th e so u th ern to w n o f K o r c h a , M a lle -
sh e v a , G jin ish i a n d N a k o S p iro . T h e last tw o h a d o rg an ise d
co m m u n ist g ro u p s in T i r a n a a n d D u r a z z o re sp e c tiv e ly . G jin ish i
h a d liv e d fo r som e tim e in B e lg ra d e , w h e re h e h a d b e en in to u ch
w ith B ritish o rg a n is a tio n s .1
S o o n a fte r th e P e z a m e e tin g an d fo u n d a tio n o f L .N .C ., th e
c o n s e rv a tiv e A lb a n ia n o p p o sitio n to th e Ita lia n s o rg a n ise d itse lf
in a N a tio n a l F ro n t (B a lli K o m b e ta r ) . T h is w as led b y p r o m in ­
e n t person s w h o b e fo re th e I ta lia n in va sio n h a d o p p osed K in g
Z o g . T h e m o v e m e n t w as re p u b lic a n a n d m ild ly lib e ra l. It w as also
stro n g ly n a tio n a list, a n d w ish e d to k eep fo r A lb a n ia th e p ro vin ce s
a n n e x e d to it b y th e A x is in 194 1.
A s n ew s o f th e A lb a n ia n resista n ce tric k le d th ro u g h to A llie d
te rrito r y , th e B ritish m ilita r )’ a u th o ritie s in th e M id d le E ast b e g a n
to ta k e a n in te re st. T h e o ffic ia l a ttitu d e o f th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t
to A lb a n ia n in d e p e n d e n c e h ad b e en sta ted b y M r . E d en . But
as Y u g o s la v ia an d G r e e c e , B rita in ’ s allies, h a d lost te rrito ry
to A lb a n ia , a n d so m e o f th e ir le a d e rs h o p e d to a n n e x A lb a n ia n
te rrito r y e v e n b e y o n d th e fro n tiers o f A p r il 19 4 1, A lb a n ia ’s
situ a tio n a fte r u ltim a te A llie d v ic t o r y re m a in e d o b scu re . T h e
B ritish C o m m a n d th erefo re d e c id e d to e stab lish c o n ta c t w ith

1 .See J u lia n A m e r y , Sons o jth e Eagle. T h is g iv es a c le a r a n d re v e a lin g p ic tu re o f the

n o rth e rn trib es a n d n a tio n a list p o liticia n s. It w e ll c o n v e y s b o th th e a tm o sp h e re o f
B a lk a n g u e rrilla a n d th e sp e cia l A lb a n ia n so c ial a n d c u ltu ra l scen e. T h e r e is no
c o m p a r a b le l»ook o n th e A lb a n ia n pa rtisan s. A n o v e l. Eight Hours from England, b y
A n t h o n y Q u a y le , b ased o n p erso n al e x p e rie n c e , is o f interest.
1 42 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

A lb a n ia n rcsisters an d h e lp th em to m a k e th em selv es a n u isa n ce

to th e A x is , b u t to a v o id p o litic a l c o m m itm e n ts. T w o B ritish
officers, M a jo r M a c le a n a n d C a p ta in S m ile y , w e re p a ra c h u te d
to n o rth e rn G r e e c e , a n d th en c e m a d e th e ir w a y in to A lb a n ia .
T h e y first m et su p p o rte rs o f th e B a lli K o m b e ta r , a n d th en
re a ch e d I ..N .C . te rrito ry . T h e y a tte n d e d a L .N . C . c o n fe re n ce
at L a b in o t n e a r E lb a sa n in J u ly 1943. B y this tim e c o m m u n ist
co n tro l o f L .N .C . w as a lr e a d y v e r y stro n g . T h e r e w e r e a lso clo se
lin ks w ith th e Y u g o s la v p a rtisa n s. L . N .C . w e re b e c o m in g m o re
p r e o c c u p ie d w ith th e stru g g le a g a in st th e ir in te rn a l B alli riv als
th an w ith th e fig h t a g a in st th e Ita lia n s, w h o w e re o b v io u s ly lo sin g
th e w a r. T h e B ritish m ission w a s c o n c e rn e d to a tta c k th e e n e m y ,
a n d for this p u rp o se d id n o t m in d w h e th e r B a lli o r L .N .C . forces
d id th e fig h tin g . B u t H o x h a a n d his frien d s v ie w e d w ith su sp icio n
a n y B ritish h e lp to B a lli forces, b e lie v in g th a t this w as d ire c te d not
a g a in st th e Ita lia n s b u t a g a in st th em selves. T h e B ritish m ission
w'ished to u n ite B alli a n d L .N .C . in c o m m o n resista n ce to th e
e n em y . T h is also co m m e n d e d its e lf to A b b a s K u p i, still a m e m b e r
o f th e L .N .C . c e n tra l co m m itte e . A t K u p i ’ s su gge stio n a c o n ­
fe re n ce o f d ele g a te s from b o th m o ve m e n ts m et at M u k a i n e a r
T ir a n a in J u ly 1943. T h e n ew s o f th e o v e r th r o w o f M u sso lin i
rou sed th em a ll to a p a trio tic e n th u sia sm in w h ic h m u tu a l
su sp icion s w e re fo r a tim e sw e p t a w a y . T h e y a g re e d to fig h t
to g e th e r a g a in st th e Ita lia n s a n d to fo rm a d ir e c tin g c o m m itte e
w ith an e q u a l n u m b e r o f m em b ers from e a c h sid e.
T h e co lla p se o f I t a ly b ro u g h t a n a tio n a l re v o lt. R e c ru its p o u re d
in to th e g u e rrilla fo rces. A la rg e p a rt o f th e c o u n tr y , in c lu d in g
su ch lesser tow n s as K o r c h a , E lb a s a n a n d B e ra t, w as lib e ra te d .
T w o I ta lia n d ivisio n s w e n t o v e r to th e g u e rrilla s , w h o to o k th e ir
a rm s. O n ly th e ports a n d T i r a n a a n d S c u ta r i w e re still in e m e n y
h an d s. A t this p o in t th e G e rm a n s in te rv e n e d . T h e y c o u ld n ot
le a v e th e A d r ia t ic co a st o p e n to a n A llie d la n d in g : th e y m ust
th erefo re tak e o v e r th e o c c u p a tio n o f A lb a n ia . A t th e e n d o f
S e p te m b e r G e r m a n tro o p s e n tered th e c o u n tr y b y a ir a n d from
M a c e d o n ia . S o o n th e g u e rrilla s w e re d riv e n o u t o f th e to w n s a n d
b a c k in to th e hills.
U n a b le to sp a re m a n y troop s, th e G e rm a n s d e c id c d to p a c ify
A lb a n ia b y p o litic a l c o n c ilia tio n . H e re th e y h a d c e rta in a d v a n ­
tag es. T h e G e r m a n R e ic h w a s th e su ccesso r o f A u s tr ia , w h ic h h a d
in th e p a st b e frie n d e d A lb a n ia . T h e p e o p le h a d n o u n p le a s a n t
m em ories o f th e G e rm a n s. T h e G e rm a n s n eed n ot u se th e p u p p e ts
on w h o m th e Ita lia n s h a d re lie d , n o r th e c re a tu re s o f e x - K in g Z o g .
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS I43
T h e y m a d e th e ir a p p e a l to th e ty p e o f A lb a n ia n n atio n a list and
r e p u b lic a n re p resen te d in th e B a lli K o m b e ta r . T h e y set u p a
R e g e n c y C o u n c il o f th re e — M e h d i F ra sh e ri (b ro th e r o f th e B alli
le a d e r M id h a t F ra sh e ri), L e f N o si a n d A n to n H a r a p i, w h o
fo rm e d a g o v e rn m e n t o f m en w h o h a d n o t c o lla b o ra te d w ith th e
Ita lia n s. T h e g o v e rn m e n t re p e a le d th e I ta lia n fascist co n sti­
tu tio n , g a v e a n a m n e sty to a ll w h o h a d fo u g h t th e Ita lia n s,
in tro d u c e d a m ea su re o f c iv il lib e rtie s, a n d p r o c la im e d A lb a n ia
n e u tr a l. T h e p resen ce o f G e r m a n troop s w as c o m p a r e d w ith th e
p re s e n ce o f B ritish tro o p s in n e u tra l E g y p t. T h e G e rm a n s d id not
in te rfe re in in te rn a l p o litics in th e a r e a c o n tro lle d b y th e g o v e rn ­
m e n t— w h ic h a m o u n te d to th e c o a sta l p la in an d a few tow n s.
In th e m o u n ta in s c h ie fta in s o r g u e rrilla s w e re su p rem e.
T h e n e w g o v e rn m e n t a ttr a c te d th e su p p o rt o f th e B a lli, a n d w as
a c c e p ta b le to m a n y o f th e c h ie fta in s. L .N .C . n o w w ith som e
ju s tific a tio n a c c u s e d th e B a lli K o m b e ta r o f c o lla b o ra tio n w ith the
in v a d e rs, refu sed to ra tify th e M u k a i a g re e m e n t, an d co n c e n ­
tra te d o n d e s tro y in g its m a in r iv a l fo r p o s t-w a r p o w e r. In O c to b e r
E n v e r H o x h a o rd e re d his forces e v e ry w h e re to a tta c k th e B a lli.
T h is su ite d th e G e rm a n s w e ll e n o u g h , as w a r b e tw e e n A lb a n ia n s
w 'ould re d u c e th e pressu re o n th e ir o w n m en . I t b ro u g h t a b re a ch
b e tw e e n L .N .C . a n d A b b a s K u p i. In D e c e m b e r 1943 K u p i held
a co n gre ss o f su p p o rte rs in H e rri, n o rth o f T ir a n a , an d fo u n d ed a
th ird m o v e m e n t, th e L e g a lit y M o v e m e n t. It p r o c la im e d its
lo y a lt y to e x - K in g Z o g a n d its d e te rm in a tio n to c o n tin u e the
s tru g g le a g a in st th e G e rm a n s . K u p i o ffere d to c o lla b o r a te w ith
L .N .C ., b u t th e y re p lied b y c a llin g h im a tra ito r an d e x p e llin g
h im fro m th e ir o w n ran ks.
D u r in g th e w in te r , th e n u m b e r o f g u e rrilla s fell. T h e e n la rg e d
B ritish m ission , u n d e r B rig a d ie r D a v ie s , w as a m b u sh e d in J a n u a r y
1944 b y A lb a n ia n q u islin g s a n d m ost o f its m em b e rs w e re c a p ­
tu re d . K u p i d issolv ed his forces an d re m a in e d at la rg e w ith o n ly
a sm all g ro u p . T h e L .N .C . forces w e re m o stly c o n c e n tr a te d in the
so u th . T h is h a d a lw a y s b e en th e ir m ost p ro m isin g re g io n , as w id e
so cia l d iffe re n c e s a n d th e p e n e tra tio n o f som e E u ro p e a n p o litic a l
id e a s m a d e th e p e o p le a c c essib le to th e ir p r o p a g a n d a . In the
n o rth , p e rso n a l lo y a lty to th e c h ie fta in re m a in e d th e m a in fo rce.
In th e sp r in g L .N .C . re n e w e d its efforts, an d fo u g h t a gain st
G e rm a n s as w e ll as riv a l A lb a n ia n s . In M a y th ere w as a b a ttle
a g a in st a m ix e d G e r m a n - B a lli fo rc e n u m b e rin g som e 2,000. A t
this tim e it w'as e stim a te d th a t L .N .C . h a d som e 13,000 tro op s in
r e g u la r u n its a n d se v e ra l th o u sa n d m o re in sc a tte red gro u p s.
 144 THE EA S T E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
L .N .C . forccs w e re b e c o m in g so m e th in g lik e a n a r m y , o n th e
m o d e l o f th e Y u g o s la v p a rtisa n s. T h e y n o w to o k th e title N a tio n a l
L ib e ra tio n A r m y , a d o p te d b y T i t o ’s p a rtisa n s m o re th a n a y e a r
e a rlie r. In M a y th e y also set u p a n A n ti-F a s c is t C o u n c il o f
N a tio n a l L ib e r a tio n — m o d e lle d o n th e Y u g o s la v A . V . N . O . J . —
an d a co m m itte e w h ic h fo rm ed a p ro v isio n a l g o v e rn m e n t. E n v e r
H o x h a b e c a m e th e h e ad o f this g o v e rn m e n t. L ik e th e Y u g o s la v s
a t J a jc e in N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 3 ,1 th e A lb a n ia n C o u n c il in th e ir M a y
m ee tin g , h eld a t P e rm e t, d e n o u n c e d th e e x ile d k in g a n d fo r b a d e
h im to re tu rn u n til th e p e o p le h a d free ly d e c id e d w h e th e r it
w a n te d a m o n a rc h y o r a re p u b lic . Z o g w a s d e n o u n c e d as h a v in g
b e en a d ic ta to r a n d a h e lp e r o f fascist I ta ly . I t w a s q u ite c le a r
w h ich w a y E n v e r H o x h a in te n d e d ‘ th e p e o p le ’ to d e c id e .
M e a n w h ile th e G e rm a n s trie d to g e t w h a t th e y c o u ld o u t o f
A lb a n ia . B y a c o m m e rc ia l tre a ty o f D e c e m b e r 1943 th e A lb a n ia n
g o v e rn m e n t a g re e d to m a k e a p a y m e n t to w a rd s th e cost o f G e r ­
m a n o c c u p a tio n troo p s. T h e A lb a n ia n g o ld rese rv e w a s m o v e d
from R o m e to B e rlin . A lb a n ia w as to p r o v id e fix e d m o n th ly
a m o u n ts o f c h ro m e o re a n d o il fo r e x p o r t to G e r m a n y . A n
A lb a n ia n a rm y w as fo rm e d , u n d e r G e n e r a l P re n k P rev isi, to
assist th e G e r m a n forces. T h e r e w as also a g e n d a rm e rie u n d e r th e
M in iste r o f th e In te rio r X a fe r D e v a . T h is m a n w a s a n a tiv e o f
K o s o v o , th e a re a a n n e x e d from Y u g o s la v ia . T h e G e rm a n s
e n c o u ra g e d th e fo r m a tio n in this a re a o f a n a sso cia tio n o f lo c a l
ch ie fta in s c a lle d th e P r iz r e n L e a g u e , o f w h ic h D e v a w as
p resid en t. T h e y re cru ite d fro m th e K o s o v o A lb a n ia n s fo u r b a t ­
talio n s, w h ic h w e re p la c e d u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f a G e r m a n
o fficer. L a t e r th e y w e re e x p a n d e d in to a sp e c ia l S .S . d iv is io n ,
n a m e d a fte r S k a n d e r b e r g , A lb a n ia ’ s n a tio n a l h e ro in th e fiftee n th
c e n tu r y . S .S . S k a d n e r b e r g d iv isio n w as used in o p e ra tio n s b o th
a g a in st L .N .C . a n d a g a in s t forces o f T i t o in M o n te n e g ro . N o t a ll
K o s o v o A lb a n ia n s su p p o rte d th e G e rm a n s. A ‘ K o s m e t ’ b r ig a d e
w a s a lso fo rm e d w ith in th e a r m y o f T ito . L .N .C . a n d T i t o ’ s a r m y
h a d b e en in c o n ta c t sin ce 1942. T i t o ’ s re p re s e n ta tiv e in M a c e ­
d o n ia , S v e to z a r V u k m a n o v ic , k n o w n as ‘ T e m p o ’ , w a s resp o n sib le
fo r lia iso n w ith th e co m m u n ist-le d re sista n ce m o v e m e n ts o f
A lb a n ia , G r e e c e a n d B u lg a ria . T h e G e r m a n forces in A lb a n ia h a d
to b e in cre a se d o w in g to th e g r o w in g pressu re fro m L .N .C . In
J u n e 1944 th e F irst M o u n ta in D iv is io n , a first-class G e r m a n u n it,
w a s b r o u g h t from G r e e c e in to A lb a n ia .
H ith e r to L .N .C . h a d m a d e little im p ressio n a m o n g th e n o rth e rn
G h e g s. T h e n o rth w as d o m in a te d b y fiv e g ro u p s o f c h ie fta in s. T h e
1 See b e lo w , p . i C i .
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS I 45
m ost p o w e rfu l w a s led b y A b b a s K u p i, a n d based on th e M a ti
p r o v in c e a ro u n d T ir a n a . T h e o th e r ch iefs w e re M a r k a g jo n i,
le a d e r o f th e M ird ite s in th e n o rth -w e st; th e K r y e z iu b ro th ers,
fro m D ja k o v o in th e n o rth -e a st, to w a rd s K o s o v o ; M u h a r re m
B a ira k ta r , fro m th e M a c e d o n ia n fr o n tie r; a n d F iq ri D in e , from
D ib r a , a d jo in in g M u h a r r e m in th e so u th . O f these K u p i an d
K r y e z iu w e re d e fin ite ly p r o -A llie d , M a r k a g jo n i h ad su p p o rte d th e
I ta lia n s a n d w as n o w c o lla b o r a tin g w ith th e G e rm a n s, w h ile th e
o th e r tw o w e re u n c e r ta in . In A p r il 1944 a B ritish m ission w as sent
to K u p i to p e rs u a d e h im to fig h t th e G e rm a n s, to w in o v e r as m a n y
as p ossib le o f th e G h e g ch iefs, a n d to tr y a n d re c o n c ile th em w ith
L . N . C . 1 B u t th e m ission h a d to c o m p e te w ith G e r m a n d ip lo m a c y .
In J u n e th e first G e rm a n -sp o n so re d g o v e rn m e n t le d b y R e x h e p
M it r o v ic a re sig n e d . N e u b a c h e r , H it le r ’ s p o litic a l e x p e rt for
B a lk a n p ro b le m s, c a m e to T ir a n a . H e p e rsu a d e d F iq ri D in e to
fo rm th e n e x t g o v e rn m e n t. K u p i refu sed F iq ri D in e ’ s re q u est to
j o in th e g o v e rn m e n t. B u t a t th e e n d o f J u n e L .N .C . la u n c h e d an
a tta c k a g a in s t K u p i’ s te rrito r y . T o d efe n d h im self, K u p i fo u g h t
to g e th e r w ith F iq ri D in e ’ s tro o p s. T h e first L .N .C . a tta c k w as
re p e lle d , b u t th e se c o n d , in A u g u s t, w as su ccessful. K u p i’ s m en
w e re d r iv e n o u t o f m ost o f M a t i p ro v in ce .
A t th e e n d o f A u g u s t it b e c a m e c le a r th a t th e G e rm a n s w o u ld
so o n h a v e to e v a c u a te th e w h o le B a lk a n p e n in su la . O n 29 A u g u st
F iq ri D in e re sig n e d . H e a n d th e ‘ c o m m a n d e r - in -c h ie f’ P ren k
P rev esi jo in e d K u p i a n d p ro m ise d to a tta c k th e G e rm a n s. B u t th eir
forces m e lte d a w a y . In T i r a n a th e G e rm a n s in stalle d as P re m ie r a
c e r ta in I b r a h im B ię a k u , w h o se o n ly q u a lific a tio n w as th a t he
p la y e d p in g - p o n g w ith th e G e r m a n m in ister.* D ib r a w as o v e rru n
b y T i t o a n d L .N .C . K u p i ’s p la n s fo r a last d e c isiv e a tta c k o n th e
G e rm a n s c a m e to n o th in g . L .N .C . forces a d v a n c e d fro m th e sou th .
T h e o n ly G h e g c h ie f w h o w as a b le to p u t u p a re a l fig h t a g a in st the
G e rm a n s w a s G a n i B e y K r y e z iu . H e fo u g h t a series o f b ra v e
g u e r r illa a c tio n s in th e D ja k o v o a re a fro m J u ly to S e p te m b e r.
In m id -S e p te m b e r, h o w e v e r, L .N , C . fo rces re a c h e d his a re a . T h e y
a rre ste d th e B ritish o ffic e r a tta c h e d to his troop s, a n d c ru e lly
m u r d e re d his p o litic a l a d v ise r, a n e x -c o m m u n ist n a m e d F u n d o .
G a n i B e y ’s b ro th e r S a id w a s lu re d to L .N .C . h e a d q u a rte rs a n d
ta k e n p riso n e r, b u t la te r su c c e e d e d in e sc a p in g . L a te r G a n i B ey
h im s e lf w a s a rre ste d b y th e Y u g o s la v s , a n d c o n d e m n e d b y o n e o f
* I t co n sisted o f L t .- C o l. M a c le a n a n d M a jo r S m ile y (w h o h a d m a d e th e first
c o n ta c ts w it h A lb a n ia n g u e r r illa fo rces in 1943) a n d G a p t. J u lia n A m c r y . Its sto ry
is to ld in A m c r y , o p . c it.
* A m e ry , o p . c it., p . 263.
146 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T i t o ’ s ‘ p e o p le ’ s c o u r t s ’ to fiv e y e a rs’ im p riso n m e n t as a ‘ re a c tio n ­
ary’.
T h e G e rm a n s left A lb a n ia in O c t o b e r . T h e ir re a rg u a r d s w e re
e n g a g e d b y L .N .C . troop s a n d strafed b y A llie d a irc ra ft an d
su ffered ca su a lties. B u t th e ir best tro op s, in c lu d in g th e F irst
M o u n ta in D iv isio n , g o t a w a y . L .N .C . w a ite d till th e y w e re g o n e ,
an d th e n w a lk e d in to V a lo n a in O c t o b e r , a n d T ir a n a , D u r a z z o
a n d S c u ta ri in N o v e m b e r . A b b a s K u p i a n d so m e o th e r G h e g
le a d e rs e sca p e d across th e A d r ia t ic . E n v e r H o x h a a n d his c o m ­
m un ists c o n tro lle d th e cou n try'.

C Z E C H O S L O V A K IA

T h e m a in resistan ce effo i 1 in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w as p e rfo rm e d b y

th e S lo v a k s in 1944. T h e n o rth a n d c e n tre o f S lo v a k ia , b e in g
m o u n ta in o u s, sp a rse ly p o p u la te d an d p o o r in c o m m u n ic a tio n s,
p ro v id e d g o o d te rra in . A s th e R e d A r m y a p p ro a c h e d th e S lo v a k
fron tiers, en th u sia sm fo r th e ‘ S la v b r o th e r s ’ g re w . It w as fostered
b y th e u n d e rg ro u n d co m m u n ists a n d b y R u ssia n p a ra c h u tists.
P a rtisa n b a n d s b e g a n to a p p e a r . S o m e w e re led b y R e d A r m y
officers, a n d on e w as stiffen ed b y a n u m b e r o f e sc a p e d F re n c h
priso n ers-o f-w a r, w h o s p e c ia lly d istin g u ish ed th em se lv e s. In th e
cities th e c o m m u n ist o rg a n isa tio n b e c a m e m o re a c tiv e in p r o p a ­
g a n d a an d in re c ru itm e n t o f p a rtisa n s.
T h e com m u n ists w e re n o t th e o n ly fo rce in S lo v a k ia o p p o se d to
th e A x is. A n im p o rta n t m in o rity o f th e S lo v a k m id d le class an d
p e a sa n try h a d b e fo re 1938 su p p o rte d th e A g r a r ia n P a r ty . T h e
S lo v a k a g ra ria n s h ad w ish ed to p reserv e th e C z e c h o s lo v a k
re p u b lic , th o u g h w ith g r e a te r a u to n o m y fo r S lo v a k ia w ith in it.
W h e n th e ir riv a ls, th e fascist P e o p le ’ s P a r t y , o b ta in e d p o w e r w ith
H itle r ’ s h e lp , a n d th e ‘ in d e p e n d e n t s t a te ’ o f M g r . T is o w a s set
u p , th e y d id n ot c h a n g e th e ir v ie w . T h e y h a d m ost s u p p o rt a m o n g
th e P ro testa n t m in o rity in c e n tra l S lo v a k ia , e sp e c ia lly in T u r ie c
c o u n ty , th e b irth p la c e o f n in e te e n th -c e n tu r y S lo v a k n a tio n a lism .
S o m e o f th e ir le a d e rs c o m m u n ic a te d fro m tim e to tim e b y secret
c h a n n e ls w ith th e C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile . A s th e G e r ­
m an s re tre a te d o n a ll fronts, a n d in c re a se d th e ir d e m a n d s fro m
S lo v a k ia , e v e n th e le a d e rs o f th e S lo v a k fascist re g im e g re w restiv e.
M a c h , th e M in is te r o f th e In te rio r a n d o n c e th e m ost fa n a tic a l o f
th e S lo v a k fascists, d e lib e r a te ly o v e rlo o k e d th e a c tiv itie s o f
th e u n d e rg ro u n d co m m u n ists a n d th e m id d le -c la ss p r o -C z e c h
p o liticia n s. T h e c o m m a n d e r - in -c h ie f o f th e S lo v a k a r m y , G e n e r a l
C a tlo S , to y e d w ith th e id e a o f t a k in g his forces o v e r to th e R u ssia n s.
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 147

T h r e e c o lo n e ls— G o lia n , V e s e l a n d F c r e n fik — p la n n e d a risin g o f

th e a r m y a g a in st th e G e rm a n s.
T h e e n d o f A u g u s t w a s a c ritic a l m o m e n t fo r th e G e rm a n s.
R u m a n ia h a d d ese rted th em , B u lg a ria w as p r e p a rin g to d o th e
sa m e , H o r th y h ad d ism issed th e p r o -G e r m a n P re m ie r S z to ja y .
W it h th e R e d A r m y a d v a n c in g o v e r th e C a r p a th ia n s , it w as
essen tial to m a k e su re o f S lo v a k ia . O n 29 A u g u st G e r m a n troop s
m a rc h e d in . T h e S lo v a k resista n ce w a s n ot re a d y . A la rg e p a rt o f
th e S lo v a k forces a c c e p te d G e r m a n o rd ers. T is o h im se lf o rd e re d
his p e o p le to h e lp th e G e rm a n s. T h e v a lle y o f th e V a h w as soon
in G e r m a n h an d s. In th e ce n tre , h o w e v e r, a c o n sid e ra b le te rrito ry
w as e sta b lish e d as F re e S lo v a k ia .
D u r in g th e w in te r o f 1 9 4 3 -4 , w h e th e r a t the T e h r a n co n fe r­
e n ce o r a fte r, it seem s to h a v e b e en d e c id e d th a t th e R e d A r m y
sh o u ld h a v e th e re sp o n sib ility fo r lib e ra tin g C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . T h e
W e ste rn P o w e rs h a d o th e r co m m itm e n ts. A few' a irc ra ft flew from
I t a ly to a S lo v a k a irfie ld , an d B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n m issions
w e re sen t to k ee p th e A llie d C o m m a n d in fo rm e d o f even ts. B u t
m a te ria l h e lp fro m th e W e st w a s n e g lig ib le .
T h e R u ssia n s on th e o th e r h an d h ad th e o p p o rtu n ity an d the
o b lig a tio n to h e lp . T h e ir e ffo rts w e re d isa p p o in tin g . A tte m p ts h ad
b e en m a d e in m id -A u g u s t to c o -o rd in a te th e a c tio n o f th e S lo v a k
forces w ith th a t o f th e R e d A r m y , th ro u g h th e C z e c h o s lo v a k
g o v e rn m e n t. T h e R u ssia n s h a d b e en e v a siv e . W h e n th e risin g h ad
b e g u n , th e y sen t th e a irb o rn e b r ig a d e o f C o lo n e l P rik ry l, p a rt o f
th e C z e c h o s lo v a k forces in th e S o v ie t U n io n .1 P r ik r y l’s m en fo u g h t
b r a v e ly , b u t th e y w'ere too fe w . T h e S o v ie t a ttitu d e to th e S lo v a k
risin g w a s less b r u ta lly c y n ic a l th an to th e W a r s a w risin g w h ich
w a s g o in g 011 a t th e sa m e tim e , b u t in p r a c tic e it a m o u n te d to th e
sa m e th in g . T h e S lo v a k p a trio ts, lik e those o f W a r s a w , w e re left
to th e ir fate.
F re e S lo v a k ia h ad a t first o n e a d v a n ta g e , th a t its fro n tie r in the
so u th w a s safe. T h e H u n g a ria n s , at this tim e e n g a g e d in p re p a rin g
th e ir su rre n d e r, d id n o t a ct a g a in st S lo v a k ia , a n d n o G e rm a n
tro o p s passed th ro u g h H u n g a ria n te rrito ry to a tta c k . D u rin g
O c t o b e r , h o w e v e r, th e G e rm a n s m a d e a serious a tta c k on F ree
S lo v a k te rrito r y , an d a fte r th e S z á la si coup d'etat o f 15 O c t o b e r th ey
c o u ld use H u n g a r ia n te rrito r y as w e ll. O n 27 O c t o b e r B an sk a
B y stric a , th e ‘ c a p i t a l’ o f F’ ree S lo v a k ia , w as tak e n . A fte r this o n ly
g u e r r illa re sista n ce w a s p ossib le. T h e r e g u la r a rm y u n its w h ich
h a d jo in e d th e risin g w e re d e m o ra lise d a n d m elte d a w a y . T h e
a d v a n c in g G e rm a n s w re a k e d s a v a g e rep risals, m a ssa crin g civ ilia n s
1 S ee b e lo w , p . 163.
1 48 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

a n d b u r n in g v illa g e s. T h e S lo v a k p a rtisa n s a n d th e re m n a n t o f
P r ik r y l’s fo rte s too k to th e m o u n ta in s. D u r in g th e w in te r th e y
su ffered te rrib le p riv a tio n s, b u t som e su rv iv e d u n til th e R e d A r m y
a d v a n c e d in M a r c h . A m o n g those w h o p erish ed w e re th e officers
an d m en o f th e B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n lia iso n m ission s, le d b y
M a jo r S e h m e r an d L ie u te n a n t G r e e n . T h e y w e re c a p tu r e d b y th e
G e rm a n s in u n ifo rm , b u t sh o t, c o n tr a r y to th e ru les o f w a r . T h e
G e rm a n s also c a p tu r e d an d e x e c u te d b o th G o lia n a n d G e n e r a l
V ie st, w h o m th e e xile d g o v e rn m e n t h a d sen t to c o m m a n d th e
risin g .
D u rin g th e tw o m on th s o f free d o m , B a n sk a B y stric a h a d b e en
th e scen e o f m u ch p o litic a l a c tiv ity . A S lo v a k N a tio n a l C o u n c il
h a d b een set u p , w ith a B o a rd o f C o m m issio n e rs— o r te m p o r a r y
re g io n a l m inisters. P o w e r w a s sh ared b e tw e e n tw o p o litic a l
p a rtie s— co m m u n ists a n d d em o c ra ts. T h e c o m m u n ists h a d p e r­
su ad ed th e S lo v a k so cia l d e m o c ra ts to fuse w ith th em . T h e r e h ad
o f cou rse b een n o o p p o r tu n ity to co n su lt th e m em b e rs o f th e
S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rty , b u t a few le a d e rs h ad tak e n th e d ec isio n
on th e ir o w n re sp o n sib ilty . T h e d e m o c ra ts w e re b ase d o n a
n u cleu s o f P ro testan ts from c e n tra l S lo v a k ia w h o h a d fo r m e rly
su p p o rte d th e A g r a r ia n P a rty . T h e ir le a d e r w a s J a n U r s in y , a
b a n k e r from th e sm all to w n o f T u r ć ia n s k y S v ä t y M a r t in . A n o th e r
p ro m in e n t fig u re w a s D r . S ro b a r, o n e o f th e fo u n d ers o f C z e c h o ­
s lo v a k ia in 19 18 a n d a c h a m p io n o f g r e a te r c e n tra lism th a n
U rsin y . F re e S lo v a k ia d id n o t last lo n g e n o u g h fo r p o litic a l
frictio n to d e v e lo p fa r. E le m e n ts o f th e fa m ilia r M ih a ilo v ic - T it o
p a tte r n w e re th ere, in th e d iffe re n t v ie w s on re sista n ce h e ld b y
th e r e g u la r forces u n d e r G o lia n a n d th e p a rtisa n s le d b y th e
co m m u n ists. B u t th e G e r m a n m e n a c e k e p t th e p o litic a l fro n t
u n ited .
D e m o cra ts a n d c o m m u n ists a p p o in te d a j o in t d e le g a tio n w h ic h
flew to L o n d o n to e x p la in to P resid e n t B en eś a n d his g o v e rn m e n t
th e v iew s o f th e S lo v a k p a trio ts. T h e d e le g a te s sta te d th e ir d esire
th a t th e C z e c h o s lo v a k re p u b lic sh o u ld b e re sto re d , b u t in sisted
th at it m ust b e re co g n ise d as th e h o m e o f tw o s e p a ra te S la v
n atio n s, C z e c h s a n d S lo v a k s. The o ld th e o ry o f C z e c h n a tio n a lists,
s u p p o rte d b y a few S lo v a k s, o f a c o m p o site C z e c h o s lo v a k
n a tio n , m ust be a b a n d o n e d . S lo v a k ia m ust h a v e a w id e a u t o ­
n o m y w ith in th e n e w re p u b lic . T h e s e v ie w s w e re u n w e lc o m e to
P resid en t B en es, w h o h a d a lw a y s b e e n o n e o f th e c h a m p io n s o f th e
‘ C z e c h o s lo v a k ’ th eo ry . B u t h e w as fo rc e d to a d m it th a t th e S lo v a k
sense o f n a tio n h o o d w as a fa ct. The c o n v e rsa tio n s b e tw e e n
 THE RESI STANCE MOVEMENTS 14g

d e le g a te s an d g o v e rn m e n t w ere o f v a lu e , b u t m u ch still rem ain e d

to b e cle a re d u p . 1'h e S lo v a k N a tio n a l C o u n c il a n d its B o ard o f
C o m m issio n e rs w e re re co g n isc d as re p resen tin g S lo v a k o p in io n .
In th e C z e c h P r o te c to r a te co n d itio n s d id not fa v o u r a rm ed
resista n ce. T h e r e w as a n u n d e rg ro u n d o rg a n isa tio n , in fa irly
re g u la r c o n ta c t w ith th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t. In fo rm a tio n w as
passed to th e A llie s w h ic h m a y h a v e b e en o f v a lu e . It is also
possib le th a t p a ssiv e resista n ce an d ‘ g o - s lo w ' tactics b y th e C z e c h
w o rk e rs h a rm e d th e e n e m y . T h is c a n n o t b e p ro v e d . T h e in d u strial
w o rk e rs w e re r e la tiv e ly p r iv ile g e d u n d e r th e N a z i regim e. M a n y
seem to h a v e ca rrie d on th eir jo b s w ith o u t b o th e r in g a b o u t
p o litics, w a itin g fo r th e G r e a t P o w ers to lib e ra te th e ir c o u n try for
th em . T h e co m m u n ists w e re a gain st resistan ce u n til R u ssia w as
a tta c k e d . T h e n th e y w e re for s a b o ta g e o f th e G e r m a n w a r effort.
B u t n o t v e r y m u ch sa b o ta g e seem s to h a v e b e en d o n e. T h e
p ea san ts to o , w h ile re m a in in g C z e c h p a trio ts a t h e a rt, su b m itte d
to th e o c c u p a tio n , a n d m a te ria lly d id q u ite w e ll ou t o f it. T h o s e
w h o resisted m o st, a n d su ffered m ost, w e re th e in te lle ctu a ls an d
th e c iv il se rv a n ts a n d a rm y o fficers o f th e o ld re p u b lic . M a n y
w e re a rre ste d , to rtu re d , sen t to c o n c e n tr a tio n ca m p s o r e x e c u te d .
T h e 38,000 e x e c u tio n s o f C z e c h s d u r in g th e six y ears o f N a z i ru le
c a m e m o stly fro m th e m id d le class. I f it seem s t h a t th e C z e c h
resista n ce e ffo rt w as less h e ro ic th an th at o f Poles o r S o u th S la vs,
a n d e v e n th a t m a n y C z e c h s p ro sp ered in th e la n d fu rth est
re m o v e d fro m a ll th e fronts, it m ust n ot be th o u g h t th a t life w as
ea sy fo r th em . P h y sic a l a n d m e n ta l w o u n d s o f th e C z e c h p e o p le
w ill ta k e a lo n g tim e y et to h eal.
T h e m ost se n sa tio n a l a c t o f resistan ce w as th e assassin ation o f
H e y d r ic h in M a y 1942. C a r r ie d o u t b y p a ra ch u tists sent from
E n g la n d , it wras a b rillia n t stro k e, b u t it cost th e C z e c h p eo p le
d e a r in reprisals. In th e su m m e r o f 1944 p a rtisa n b an d s b e g a n to
a p p e a r in th e M o r a v ia n h ills. T h e y w e re m o stly o rg a n ise d b y
co m m u n ists. A m o n g th em w e re R e d A r m y p a ra c h u tists an d e ve n
so m e e sc a p e d B ritish p riso n e rs-o f-w a r. I h e ir stru g g le w as h ard
a n d b r a v e , b u t th e to ta l e ffe ct o f th e ir a ctio n s w as sm all. T h e
c lim a x w a s th e risin g in P r a g u e in M a y 1945.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

G R E A T A N D S M A L L A L L IE S

E V E L O P M E N T S in th e o c c u p ie d co u n trie s w e re a ffe c te d

D b y th e a c tiv itie s o f th e g o v e rn m e n ts in e x ile , w h ic h from

th e ir p la c e o f re fu g e on A llie d te rrito ry a tte m p te d to
in flu e n ce even ts a t h o m e a n d also to rep resen t th eir p e o p les w ith
th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f th e m a jo r A llie d P o w ers. In th e first p e rio d o f
th e w’a r th e ir p ro b lem s w e re o n ly w ith th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t.
T h e e n try o f th e U .S .S .R . an d th e U n ite d S tate s in to th e w a r
c o m p lic a te d e v e ry issue. E s p e c ia lly a fte r th e tu rn o f th e tid e a t
S ta lin g ra d an d in N o rth A fr ic a , d isp u tes b e tw e e n th e th re e g re a t
A llie s co n c e rn in g the p o litics o f th e sm a ll A llie s b e c a m e e v e r m o re
b itte r a n d m o re im p o rta n t. W e sh all h e re c o n sid e r th e re la tio n s o f
th e A llie d go v e rn m e n ts to P o la n d , Y u g o s la v ia a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia .
T h e p ro b lem s o f G r e e c e w e re , as lo n g as th e w a r la ste d , less
im p o rta n t in in ter-A U ied re la tio n s, a n d th e re la tio n s o f th e G r e e k
e xile d g o v e rn m e n t w ith th e m o ve m e n ts a t h o m e h a v e a lre a d y
b e en m en tio n ed in th e section on G r e e k resistan ce.

PO LA N D

T h e G e rm a n in v a sio n o f R u ssia m a d e n ecessary a P o lish -S o v ie t

re co n cilia tio n . T h e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t w a s k ee n to b r in g its
old an d n e w a llies to g e th e r. In an a g re e m e n t o f 30 J u ly 19 4 1 ,
sign e d in L o n d o n b y S ik o rsk i a n d th e S o v ie t a m b a s sa d o r M a is k y ,
th e R ib b e n tr o p - M o lo to v a g re e m e n t o f 19 3 9 w a s fo r m a lly
re p u d ia te d , b u t n o th in g w as said o f w h e re th e fro n tie r b e tw e e n
P o la n d a n d R u ssia sh o u ld b e . T h e P oles o ffic ia lly in te rp re te d th e
a g re e m e n t as re c o g n itio n b y th e U .S .S .R . o f th e p r c -1 9 3 9 lin e , b u t
th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t d id n o t c o m m it itself. T h is u n c e r ta in ty d id
not satisfy th e P olish F o re ig n M in iste r , C o u n t Z a le s k i, w h o
resign ed in p rotest. In a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e a g re e m e n t, th e S o v ie t
P resid en t K a lin in a n n o u n c e d a n ‘ a m n e s t y ’ to a ll P o les d e p r iv e d
o f th e ir freed o m on S o v ie t te rrito r y as p riso n e rs-o f-w a r o r c iv ilia n
in tern ees. O n 14 A u g u s t a P o lish -S o v ie t m ilita r y a g re e m e n t w as
sig n e d . A P olish a r m y w a s to b e fo rm e d fro m th e re le a se d P olish
prison ers. I t w a s to fo rm a n in te g ra l p a rt o f th e a rm e d forces o f
150
 G R E A T A ND S MALL A LLI E S igi
th e so v e re ig n re p u b lic o f P o la n d , a n d w as to b e c o m m a n d e d b y
G e n e r a l W ła d y s ła w A n d e rs. It w as to be u n d e r th e o p e ra tio n a l
c o m m a n d o f th e R e d A r m y , an d its m em b ers w e re to re c e iv e p a y
a n d ra tio n s as in th e R e d A r m y . P a rt o f th e e q u ip m e n t su p p lie d
b y th e W e ste rn P o w ers to th e S o v ie t U n io n w as to be g iv e n to th e
P o lish forces. D u r in g th e a u tu m n th e lib e ra te d P oles b e g a n to
assem b le a t B u z u lu k , n o t fa r fro m th e te m p o ra r y c a p ita l o f
K u ib y s h e v o n th e V o l g a . 1
T h e lib e ra te d P oles h ad b e e n so b a d ly tre a te d in th e p r e c e d in g
tw o y e a rs th a t a lm o st a ll h a d a b itte r h a tre d o f th e S o v iet
U n io n .2 T h is w a s tru e o f a ll from G e n e ra l A n d e rs d o w n to the
p r iv a te sold iers. A c c o m m o d a tio n in th e B u zu lu k c e n tre w as
in a d e q u a te , a n d th ere w e re th e u su al endless d ifficu ltie s w ith th e
S o v ie t a d m in is tra tiv e a u th o ritie s. T h e fa ct th at th e S o v ie t c iv ilia n
p o p u la tio n su ffered e q u a l, o r p e rh a p s eve n g re a te r, h ard sh ip s d id
n ot m a k e th e P o les a n y less d isco n te n te d . B u t th e c h ie f ca u se o f
P o lish h o stility w as th a t m a n y o f th e P oles k n o w n to h a v e b een
c a p tu r e d in 1939 d id n o t a p p e a r a t th e c e n tre . In p a rtic u la r, from
h is o w n p e rso n a l k n o w le d g e a n d th e d eta ile d in fo rm a tio n o f his
m en , A n d e rs h a d p r e p a re d a list o f P olish officers w h o h ad been
c a p tu r e d in 1939 a n d w h o n o w a p p e a r e d u n tra c e a b le .
I n D e c e m b e r 1941 G e n e ra l S ik orsk i visite d M o sc o w , a n d h ad
co n v e rsa tio n s w ith S ta lin at w h ic h A n d e rs w as presen t. T h e
m issin g officers w e re m e n tio n e d , b u t S ta lin a n d M o lo to v co u ld
g iv e n o e x p la n a tio n . D u r in g these talks th e P o lish -S o v ie t fro n tier
issue arose in d ir e c tly w h e n th e S o v ie t le a d e rs o b je c te d to th e
re c ru itm e n t in to th e P olish forces o f persons o f n o n -P o lish o rig in
( G a lic ia n U k r a in ia n s , W h ite R u ssia n s o r Je w s) from th e 1939
P o lish te rrito ries o n th e gro u n d s th a t these w e re S o v ie t citizen s.
S ik orsk i su ggested se n d in g P olish c iv ilia n s, a n d su ch soldiers as th e
S o v ie t a u th o ritie s m ig h t find it d iffic u lt to e q u ip , to P ersia, w h ere
th e W e ste rn A llie s w o u ld lo o k a fte r th em . S ta lin ch ose to in te rp re t
this as a d esire o f th e P oles to ru n a w a y from th e R u ssia n front and
o f th e B ritish to re c ru it fu rth e r fo reig n ca n n o n -fo d d e r. In M a rc h
1942 th e ra tio n s o f th e P o lish forces w'ere su d d e n ly re d u c ed .
A n d e rs w a s in v ite d b y S ta lin to discuss this, an d w as to ld th at
su p p lie s h a d b e en h a m p e re d b y J a p a n e s e in te rfe re n c e w ith

1 F o r the co n d itio n s in w h ic h this a r m y w as fo rm e d , see A n d ers, Army in Exile, an d

C ie c h a n o w s k i, D tjeat in Victory. T h e a u th o r o f the la tte r w as P olish A m b a ssa d o r in the
U n ite d S tates.
1 F o r a p ic tu re o f this tre a tm e n t see th e co m p o s ite w o rk o f te stim o n y b y P olish
in tern e es in th e U .S .S .R . e n title d The Dark Side o f the M oon, w ith p refa c e b y M m e .
S ik o rsk a .
IJ2 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
A m e r ic a n vessels sa ilin g to V la d iv o s to k . S ta lin n o w a g re e d th a t
44,000 P oles sh o u ld b e g iv e n fu ll R e d A r m y ra tio n s, a n d th a t th e
rest sh ou ld be e v a c u a te d to P ersia. In A p r il a n d M a y A n d e rs
v isited th e M id d le E ast a n d B rita in , a n d p e rs u a d e d S ik o rsk i th at
it w as d esira b le to e v a c u a te th e w h o le force. A n d e rs n a tu r a lly
resisted pressure from th e S o v ie t m ilita r y c o m m a n d th a t his
forces be sen t in sm a ll un its to th e fro n t, in w h ic h ca se th e y w o u ld
h a v e lost th e ir n a tio n a l id e n tity an d m e r e ly se rv e d as a d d itio n a l
ca n n o n -fo d d e r to b e e x p e n d e d . F in a lly , o n 7 J u ly th e S o v ie t
g o v e rn m e n t co n se n ted to th e e v a c u a tio n o f th e w h o le force.
T h e w h o le e x p e rie n c e o f th e A n d e rs a r m y in R u ssia le ft a b itte r
taste on b o th sides. S o v ie t p r o p a g a n d a h as sin ce a c c u s e d th e P oles
o f ru n n in g a w a y a t th e tim e o f th e g r e a t G e r m a n o ffe n siv e in th e
sou th . T h e P o les a ccu sed th e R u ssian s o f s ta rv in g th e m o f food
a n d c lo th in g . I t is tru e th a t fro m th e b e g in n in g th e P oles d is­
tru sted a n d h ate d th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s, b u t c o n sid e rin g h o w th e y
h ad b e en tre a te d this is h a r d ly su rp risin g. O n th e o th e r h a n d , to
th e S o v ie t le a d e rs, a n d th eir sy m p ath ise rs in th e w est, it is su ffi­
c ie n t to d u b som eon e ‘ a n t i- S o v ie t ’ to d a m n th e m u tte r ly . W h e n
A n d e rs left R u ssia , th ere w as still n o n ew s o f th e m issin g officers.
A n o th e r d istu rb in g e v e n t w a s th e d is a p p e a r a n c e o f tw o P olish
J e w ish so cia list le a d e rs, E h rlic h a n d A lte r , a rre ste d on u n k n o w n
gro u n d s a fte r th e y h a d b e en re le a se d fro m p rison for som e m on th s.
T h e A n d e rs a rm y w as tra in e d in th e M id d le E ast, a n d p la y e d a
h e ro ic p a rt in th e la te r c a m p a ig n s in I t a ly , th e r e b y e q u a llin g th e
h ig h re p u ta tio n a lr e a d y w o n b y th e P oles in th e R .A .F . in B rita in ,
th e sold iers o f th e first e m ig ra tio n o f 19 3 9 -4 0 . M e a n w h ile re la tio n s
b e tw e e n th e P olish a n d S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n ts w e re c o ld . In D e c e m ­
b e r 1942 L itv in o v , n o w S o v ie t A m b a ssa d o r in W a s h in g to n ,
in fo rm ed M r . G r e e n o f th e A m e r ic a n F e d e ra tio n o f L a b o u r th a t
E h rlich a n d A lt e r h a d b e en sh ot fo r ‘ w o rk a m o n g th e R e d A r m y
a n d S o v ie t c iv il p o p u la tio n o n b e h a lf o f H it le r ’ . T o a n y o n e w h o
k n e w the tw o m en ’ s reco rd s this w as in c re d ib le . In J a n u a ry 1943
it w as a n n o u n c e d th a t a ll P olish d ep o rte e s r e m a in in g o n S o v ie t
te rrito r y w o u ld be tre a te d as S o v ie t citize n s. O n 4 F e b r u a r y an
a p p e a l w as p u b lish e d in K u ib y s h e v to P o les still in th e S o v ie t
U n io n to jo in a P olish a rm y to be fo rm e d o n S o v ie t soil. T h is
a rm y w as n o m in a lly led b y C o lo n e l B e rlin g , w h o h a d e a r lie r
se rv e d u n d e r A n d e rs. B y 1944 it h a d th re e d ivisio n s. M o st o f its
o fficers w e re e ith e r R u ssia n s o r S o v ie t c itiz e n s o f P o lish o rig in .
T h e m en w e re m o stly fo rm e r P olish prison ers.
In A p r il th e G e r m a n C o m m a n d a n n o u n c e d th a t it h a d d is­
 G R E A T A ND S MAL L A L L I E S 153
c o v e re d a m ass g r a v e o f P o lish officers in th e forest o f K a t y n , n ear
S m o le n sk , w h o h a d b e en m assa cre d b y th e R u ssian s in th e su m m e r
o f 1940. T h e P o lish g o v e rn m e n t ra sh ly asked th e In te rn a tio n a l
R e d C ross to in v e stig a te o n its b e h a lf, th o u g h o f co u rse su ch
in v e stig a tio n w o u ld h a v e h a d to b e c o n d u c te d w ith th e perm ission
o f th e G e r m a n C o m m a n d . T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t a ccu sed the
G e r m a n s o f th e m a ssa cre , a n d b ro k e o f f d ip lo m a tic rela tio n s w ith
th e P olish g o v e rn m e n t, a c c u s in g it o f h e lp in g G o e b b e ls ’ p r o p a ­
g a n d a . T h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t th e K a t y n a ffa ir w as a su ccess for
G e r m a n p r o p a g a n d a . Y e t it is h a r d ly fa ir to b la m e th e Polish
g o v e rn m e n t fo r th e b re a c h . T h e p a rtic u la rs o f th e d ea d officers
a n d th e d a te o f th e ir d e a th fitted w ith th ose o f o n e o f th e th ree
c a m p s in w h ic h th e m issin g P o lish o fficers h ad b een im p riso n ed .
O f th e in m a te s o f th e o th e r tw o c a m p s n o th in g h as e v e r b e en , o r
p r o b a b ly e v e r w ill b e, h e a rd . N o g o v e rn m e n t c a n b e e x p e c te d to
sh o w in d iffe re n c e to th e fa te o f th o u san d s o f its officers, least o f
a ll w h e n it n eed s e v e r y tra in e d m an to fig h t fo r his c o u n t r y .1
F o r th e fo llo w in g m o n th s B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n d ip lo m a c y
m a d e g r e a t b u t u n su ccessfu l effo rts to re c o n c ile th e ir tw o allies.
T h e y w e re fa c e d w ith tw o g r e a t d ifficu ltie s. T h e first w as th e
t e r rito r ia l d isp u te b e tw e e n P o la n d a n d R u ssia , th e secon d th e
s u p p o rt w h ic h M o s c o w n o w b e g a n to g iv e to a g ro u p o f P olish
c o m m u n ists w h ic h it w as p r e p a r in g to tak e o v e r th e g o v e rn m e n t o f
lib e r a te d P o la n d .
T h e P o lish -S o v ie t fro n tie r o f 19 2 1 h a d n o t co rresp o n d e d to the
e th n ic a l b o u n d a r y o f P o la n d in th e ca st. I t is tru e th a t b efore
1 7 7 2 , th e d a te o f th e first p a rtitio n o f h isto ric a l P o la n d , Polish
te rrito r y h a d stre tc h e d fa r fu rth e r east th an th e 1921 lin e. Polish
n a tio n a lists in 1921 h a d m a in ta in e d th a t th e y w e re b e in g e x ­
tre m e ly g e n e ro u s to R u ssia in r e n o u n c in g th e 1772 fro n tie r. B u t
th e a r e a in w 'hich P oles w e re a m a jo rity o f th e p o p u la tio n sto p p ed
fa r to th e w e st o f th e 1921 lin e , a p p r o x im a te ly a t th e so -called
‘ C u r z o n lin e ’ p ro p o se d in 1 9 19 b y th e British F o reign S e c re ta r y
as a basis o f discu ssion s a t th a t tim e . E ast o f th e C u r z o n lin e,
h o w e v e r, w e re tw o g re a t citie s w h o se p o p u la tio n a n d h isto rica l
tra d itio n s w e re w ith o u t d o u b t P o lish — L w ó w a n d W iln o . Polish
p u b lic o p in io n w a s m o re o r less u n a n im o u s on th e n eed to restore
th e m to P o la n d . T h e p ro v in c e s a ro u n d L w ó w h a d a m a in ly
U k r a in ia n p o p u la tio n , b u t w e re o f g re a t e c o n o m ic im p o rta n c e to

1 T h e a c c o u n ts o f G e n e r a l A n d e rs a n d o f M ik o ła jc z y k , 7 /r* PatUrn o f Sovitt Domina­

tion, p p . 2 7 - 4 2 , p resen t a p o w e rfu l ca se ag a in st the S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h the
la tte r h a s d o n e little to d isp el.
ig4 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
P o la n d o w in g to th e ir o ilfie ld s. T h e r e w as a lso a P olish p o p u la ­
tio n a m o u n tin g to n e a rly fiv e m illion s in th e w h o le te rrito r y
b e tw e e n th e C u r z o n lin e an d th e 1921 fro n tie r. It m ig h t h a v e
b e e n h o p e d th a t a c o m p ro m ise c o u ld b e r e a c h e d , g iv in g R u ssia
th e g re a te r p a rt o f th e n o n -P o lish te r r ito r y b u t le a v in g VVilno,
L w ó w an d th e o il re g io n to P o la n d , an d g r a n t in g P o la n d c o m ­
p e n sa tio n in th e w est a t G e r m a n y ’ s e x p e n se. T h is w as th e
so lu tio n fo r w h ic h B rita in a n d A m e r ic a stro v e . B u t th o u g h b o th
th e S o v ie t an d P olish g o v e rn m e n ts w e re e a g e r th a t G e r m a n
te rrito ry b e g iv e n to P o la n d , th e y w e re u n c o m p r o m is in g on th e ir
m u tu a l fro n tie r. T h e P olish g o v e rn m e n t in sisted th a t th e 1921
fro n tie r be resto red , a n d th e P olish p e o p le be co n su lte d b y d e m o ­
c r a tic m ean s b e fo re a n y m o d ific a tio n wras m a d e . T h e S o v ie t
g o v e rn m e n t d e m a n d e d th e C u r z o n lin e , w h ic h w a s a p p r e c ia b ly
m ore fa v o u ra b le to P o la n d th an th e R ib b c n lr o p - M o lo t o v lin e a n d
o f cou rse h a d n ot su ch u n p le a s a n t a sso cia tio n s, y e t w as u n a c c e p t­
a b le to p u b lic o p in io n c ith e r in e xile o r in P o la n d . R e g a r d in g
o p in io n in P o la n d th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t w a s w e ll in fo rm e d ,
o w in g to its e x c e lle n t co n n e c tio n s b y w ireless a n d b y c o u rie r w ith
th e u n d e rg ro u n d m o v e m e n t.
T h e P olish p ro b le m seem s to h a v e b e e n discu ssed a t th e T e h r a n
c o n fe re n ce o f D e c e m b e r 1943. O n th e ir re tu rn th e B ritish P re m ie r
an d F o re ig n S e c r e ta r y a d v ise d th e P olish g o v e rn m e n t to a c c e p t
th e C u r z o n lin e, b u t h o p e d still to b e a b le to o b ta in L w ó w a n d
W iln o for P o la n d . G e n e ra l S ik orsk i h a d b e e n k ille d in a n a ir
a c c id e n t in J u n e 1943. T h e P olish P re m ie r w as n o w M ik o ła jc z y k ,
o n e o f th e le a d e rs b efore 1939 o f th e P e o p le ’ s P a r ty , a n d o n e o f th e
o rg a n ise rs o f th e fa m o u s p e a sa n t strik e o f 193 7, a g o o d d e m o c ra t
a n d p a trio t w h o h a d lo n g w ish e d fo r fr ie n d ly re la tio n s b e tw e e n
P o la n d a n d R u ssia . M ik o ła jc z y k c o u ld n o t b rin g h im s e lf to a c c e p t
th e B ritish a d v ic e . H e p la c e d his faith in A m e r ic a n su p p o rt. P resi­
d e n t R o o s e v e lt d id n ot c o m m it h im self, a n d re m in d e d th e P olish
P re m ie r th a t th e U n ite d S ta te s w a s tr a d itio n a lly a v e rse to p recise
te rrito r ia l co m m itm e n ts. B u t his p u b lic a n d p r iv a te c o r d ia lity ,
a n d his a d m ira tio n a n d sy m p a th y fo r P o la n d , ca u sed M ik o la c jz y k
to b e lie v e th a t R o o s e v e lt w o u ld s u p p o rt h im . H e a n d his c a b in e t
th e re fo re re m a in e d u n y ie ld in g .1
In th e w in te r th e R e d A r m y p assed th e 1921 fro n tie r. O n 5
J a n u a r y 1944 th e P olish g o v e rn m e n t c a lle d on th e H o m e A r m y to
c o lla b o ra te w ith th e R e d A r m y , a n d m a d e a n e w p ro p o sa l fo r th e
re sto ra tio n o f d ip lo m a tic re la tio n s w ith th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e
1C ie c h a n o w s k i, o p . c it., M ik o ła jc z y k , o p . c it.
 G R E A T A ND S MAL L A LLI E S 1 55
S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t re je c te d th e p ro p o sa l, an d p o in ted o u t th a t the
R e d A r m y w a s n o t y e t on P o lish soil, ‘ as th e S o v ie t co n stitu tio n
h a d e sta b lish e d a S o v ie t-P o lish fro n tie r co rre s p o n d in g w tih the
d esires o f th e p o p u la tio n o f w estern U k r a in e an d w estern W h ite
R u s s ia ’ . T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t c o n tin u e d to ig n o re th e Polish
g o v e rn m e n t a n d d e a lt w ith th e U n io n o f Polish P a triots, form ed
a lr e a d y th e p r e c e d in g y e a r b y th e P olish c o m m u n ist w o m a n
W a n d a W a s ile w s k a , th e w ife o f a m in ister in th e g o v e rn m e n t
o f th e U k r a in ia n S o v ie t re p u b lic ( K o r n e ic h u k ) , a n d w ith
th e c o m m a n d e rs o f B c r lin g ’s a rm y . In J a n u a r y 1944 it w as
a n n o u n c e d th a t re p resen ta tiv e s o f K . R .N ., th e ‘ tru e Polish
re s is ta n c e ’ , O s ó b k a - M o r a w s k i a n d B ieru t, h ad re a c h e d M o s c o w .1
In J u ly 1944 th e R e d A r m y crossed th e B u g , a n d so, in th e official
S o v ie t v ie w , e n tered P o la n d . O n 21 J u ly a P olish C o m m itte e o f
N a tio n a l L ib e r a tio n w a s set u p , u n d e r B ie ru t a n d O s ó b k a -
M o r a w s k i. A fe w d a y s la te r it e stab lish e d itse lf in th e lib e ra ted
c it y o f L u b lin . T h e R e d A r m y h a n d ed o v e r to it the civ il a d m in is­
tra tio n b e h in d th e fro n t, w h ile le a d e rs o f th e H o m e A i m y ,
w h o in a c c o r d a n c e w ith in stru ctio n s from th e Polish g o v e rn m e n t
in L o n d o n re v e a le d th em selves to th e R u ssian s, w e re arrested and
in so m e cases k ille d .
In J u n e 1944 M ik o ła jc z y k visite d R o o sev e lt in th e U n ite d
S tate s, b u t re c e iv e d o n ly exp ression s o f c o rd ia l frien d sh ip an d
re c o m m e n d a tio n s to g o to M o s c o w a n d c o m e to term s w ith the
R u ssia n s, w h o a fte r a ll a rc ‘ fiv e tim es as n u m e ro u s as th e P o le s ’ .
H e a r r iv e d in M o s c o w a t th e en d o f J u ly . A few d a y s la te r the
W a r s a w risin g b e g a n . M ik o la jc z y k ’s co n ve rsa tio n s w ith th e S o v ie t
le a d e rs a n d w ith re p re se n ta tiv e s o f th e ‘ L u b lin C o m m it te e ’
a c h ie v e d n o resu lts. T h e fa ilu re o f th e R e d A r m y to h e lp W a r sa w
in cre a se d th e b ittern ess on a ll sides. In O c t o b e r M ik o ła jc z y k
set o u t o n a se co n d v isit to M o s c o w , to c o in c id e w ith th a t o f
C h u r c h ill a n d E d e n . C h u r c h ill pressed th e P o lish P re m ie r to
a c c e p t th e C u r z o n lin e, p o in tin g o u t th a t this w as th e o n ly h o p e o f
d issu a d in g S ta lin from in sta llin g th e L u b lin C o m m itte e as th e
g o v e rn m e n t o f P o la n d . T h e L u b lin ite s w o u ld g iv e h im a ll he
w a n te d , b u t i f M ik o ła jc z y k a lso re sp ecte d S o v ie t w ish es th ere
m ig h t still b e so m e c h a n c e o f a re p re s e n ta tiv e g o v e rn m e n t fo r
lib e r a te d P o la n d . T h e n e w la n d s in th e w est w o u ld m o re th an
c o m p e n sa te fo r th e loss in th e ca st. T h e u n fo rtu n a te M ik o ła jc z y k ,
h o w e v e r, c o u ld n o t b r in g h im s e lf to a c c e p t this. H e p o in te d o u t
th a t th e P olish p e o p le h a d a rig h t to b e co n su lte d , an d h e k n e w
th a t b o th his c o lle a g u e s in L o n d o n a n d th e resistan ce le a d e rs at
1 S e c a b o v e , p. 115 .
156 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
h o m e w e re o p p o sed to th e C u r z o n lin e. H e re c e iv e d a h e a v y b lo w
w h en M o lo to v re v e a le d , in th e presen ce o f th e A m e r ic a n A m b a s ­
sa d o r H a r rim a n — w h o d id n ot d e n y h im — th a t a t T e h r a n
R o o s e v e lt h ad a lre a d y a p p ro v e d th e C u r z o n lin e .1 A ll th a t S ta lin
w o u ld a g re e to w as a sea t in th e n e w P olish c a b in e t fo r M ik o ł­
a jc z y k , b u t th re e -q u a rte rs o f th e c a b in e t posts to g o to L u b lin
m en . H e refu sed to su rre n d e r Lw 'ów a n d th e o il-field s to P o la n d .
O n his retu rn to L o n d o n , M ik o ła jc z y k re c o m m e n d e d to his c o l­
lea g u es th a t th e y sh ou ld a c c e p t th e C u r z o n lin e o n c o n d itio n th a t
L w ó w b e g iv e n to P o la n d , a n d exp ressed th e h o p e th a t eve n
d esp ite S ta lin ’s refu sal this m ig h t y e t b e a c h ie v e d , th a n k s to
A m e ric a n su p p o rt. B u t his c o lle a g u e s refu sed to c o n sid e r te r r i­
to ria l ch a n g e s, an d M ik o ła jc z y k re sig n e d th e p re m ie rsh ip on
24 N o v e m b e r.
M ik o ła jc z y k ’ s p o sition h a d n e v e r b e en v e r y stro n g . H e a n d th e
o th e r d e m o c ra tic p o litic ia n s, fro m th e P e a san t P a rty a n d th e
S o cia list P a rty , h ad b een served b y o fficials, d ip lo m a ts a n d a r m y
officers w h o se p o litic a l v ie w s h a d a lw a y s b e en m o re c o n se rv a tiv e ,
m a n y o f w h o m in fa ct w e re fo r m e r su p p o rte rs o f th e Piłsu dski
re g im e . T h e m ost o u tsta n d in g o f th ese w as G e n e ra l S o sn k o w sk i,
C h ie f o f G e n e ra l S tafT u n til S e p te m b e r 1944, w h o w a s a sp e cia l
ta r g e t o f S o v ie t a n d p ro -S o v ie t p r o p a g a n d a . T h is p r o p a g a n d a also
p o in te d o u t th a t th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t h ad refu sed to a b o lish the
1935 C o n s titu tio n , w h ic h w as n ot d e m o c ra tic a n d w h ic h h a d b e en
fo rced th ro u g h th e P olish p a rlia m e n t b y a tric k b y P ilsu d sk i’ s m en
in th e p r e -w a r d ic ta to r ia l e r a .2 M ik o la jc z y k ’ s refu sal to c h a n g e
this u n til th e Polish p e o p le h a d b e en le g a lly c o n su lte d w a s su re ly a
p o litic a l erro r, a n e x a m p le o f e xcessive fo rm a lism . M ik o ła jc z y k
h im s e lf h a te d this co n stitu tio n , from w h ic h his o w n p a r ty h ad
su ffered m o re th a n a n y . H is re lu c ta n c e to c h a n g e it w a s p re s u m ­
a b ly p a r tly d u e to his d e p e n d e n c e o n fo rm e r P ilsudskists.
M ik o la jc z y k ’ s su ccessor w as th e v e te ra n so cia list A rc isze w sk i,
w h o a ll his life h a d fo u g h t a g a in st R u ssia . H e h a d b e e n e v a c u a te d
in th e su m m e r from P o la n d , w h e re h e h a d b e e n o n e o f th e le a d e rs
o f resistan ce. U n d e r his le a d e rsh ip th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t m o v e d
to th e rig h t, a n d g re w m o re a n ti-S o v ie t th a n e v e r. B u t it m u st b e
said in fairn ess t h a t its a ttitu d e re p resen te d th e fe e lin gs o f th e
P oles n o t o n ly in e x ile b u t a t h o m e . S o v ie t tre a tm e n t o f th e W a r ­
sa w risin g a n d o f th e H o m e A r m y re v iv e d a ll th e b itte r m em o rie s
o f 17 9 5 , 1830, 1863 a n d 1939. T h e sta u n c h e st P o lish d e m o c ra ts
d esp a ire d o f c o -o p e ra tio n as e q u a ls b e tw e e n P oles a n d R u ssia n s.
1 M ik o ła jc z y k , o p . c it., p p . 10 7 -8 . 2 S e e a b o v e , p. 47.
 G R E A T A ND S MAL L A LLI E S I57

I t w a s n o w o b v io u s th a t th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld p la c e
p o w e r in th e h an d s o f th e L u b lin C o m m itte e . O n 31 D e c e m b e r
it d e c la r e d its e lf th e P ro visio n a l G o v e rn m e n t o f P o lan d . In spite
o f tw o p e rso n a l m essages from R o o se v e lt to S ta lin re q u e s tin g him
to p o stp o n e fo rm a l d ip lo m a tic re c o g n itio n , th e S o v ie t g o v e rn ­
m e n t re co g n ise d it on 5 J a n u a r y 1 9 4 5 .1 T h e Y a lt a co n fe re n ce in
F e b r u a r y d e c id e d th a t a co m m issio n sh o u ld b e set u p b y th e th ree
G r e a t P o w e rs in M o sc o w to discuss w ith P olish lead ers from
P o la n d a n d from th e e m ig ra tio n in w e st a n d east th e fo rm a tio n
o f a re p re s e n ta tiv e g o v e rn m e n t. F o r m o n th s th e com m ission
c o u ld n o t a g re e w h o sh ou ld b e in v ite d . P o lan d w as th us not
re p resen te d a t th e S a n F ra n c isc o co n fe re n c e in A p r il. T h e S o v iet
g o v e rn m e n t o n 21 A p r il sign ed a fo rm a l tre a ty o f a llia n c e w ith
th e L u b lin ‘ g o v e r n m e n t ’ . In te r-a llie d frictio n re a c h e d a c lim a x
o n 3 M a y , w h e n M o lo to v a n n o u n c e d th e arrest o f th e sixteen
Polish resista n ce le a d e rs fo r ‘ d iv e rs io n a ry a c tiv it ie s ’ a g a in st th e
R e d A rm y .* T h e d e a d lo c k w as b ro k en b y th e m ission o f H a r ry
H o p k in s to M o sc o w . T h e jo u r n e y killed H o p k in s, w h ose h e alth
h a d lo n g b een in d a n g e r. It led to a g re e m e n t on a list o f c a n ­
d id a te s fo r m e m b e rsh ip o f th e g o v e rn m e n t. O n 21 J u n e the n ew
g o v e rn m e n t w as fo rm e d . M ik o ła jc z y k , w h o h ad fo r th e third
tim e m a d e th e h u m ilia tin g p ilg rim a g e to M o sc o w , b e ca m e on e o f
th e v ice -p re m ie rs. B rita in a n d A m e r ic a g a v e re c o g n itio n on 5 J u ly .
T h e P o tsd a m d e c la ra tio n in A u g u s t p ro m ised th at th e A llie s
w o u ld h e lp r e p a tria tio n o f P oles w h o w ish ed to retu rn , in the
e x p e c ta tio n th a t th e y w o u ld h a v e ‘ p e rso n a l an d p ro p e rty rights
on th e sa m e basis as a ll P olish c itiz e n s ’ . It also to ok n o te o f the
g o v e r n m e n t’s a g re e m e n t to ’ h o ld free a n d u n fe tte red e le c tio n s ’
w ith u n iv e rsa l su ffra g e a n d secret b a llo t.

Y U G O S L A V IA

W h e n Y u g o s la v ia w as in v a d e d , B rita in h ad no o th e r a lly in the

fie ld e x c e p t G r e e c e . I t w as n a tu ra l th at B rita in sh ou ld feel a
s p e c ia l sense o f o b lig a tio n to th e n a tio n w h ic h h ad so b r a v e ly
d efie d H itle r, a n d , in M r . C h u r c h ill’ s w o rd s, h ad ‘ fo u n d h er s o u l'.
It w a s also n a tu ra l th a t th e e xile d g o v e rn m e n t sh ou ld go to L o n d o n
T h e p r in c ip le o f lo y a lt y b e tw e e n allies re q u ire d th a t the B ritish
g o v e rn m e n t sh o u ld in a ll m atte rs a ffe c tin g Y u g o s la v ia a c c e p t the
a d v ic e o f th e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t in e x ile . T h e r e seem ed th e
m o re rea so n to tru st th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t’s ju d g m e n t b ecau se

1 C ie c h a n o w s k i, o p . c it. S ee also The Memoirs o f Cordell H ull, v o l. a, an d th e Stale

papers o f Harry L . Hopkins, v o l. 2. * S ee a b o v e p. 1 13 .
15 8 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
it co n ta in e d re p resen ta tive s o f a ll th e m a in p r e -w a r p o litic a l
p a rtie s e x c e p t th e co m m u n ists, an d so h ad a g o o d c la im to be
con sid ered a g e n u in e c a b in e t o f n a tio n a l u n ity . T h is a p p e a r a n c e
p ro v e d , h o w e v e r, b e fo re lo n g to be d e c e p tiv e in tw o im p o rta n t
resp ects.
In th e first p la c e , th e S e rb ia n an d C r o a tia n m in isters w e re n o t
in a g re e m e n t. D r . K r n je v ic , re p re s e n tin g M a c e k ’ s C r o a tia n
P ea san t P a rty , w as d e te rm in e d to o b ta in re c o g n itio n from his
co lle a g u e s o f th e term s o f th e 1939 C v e tk o v ie - M a c e k a g re e m e n t.
T h is th e S e rb ia n m inisters h a d b e en re lu c ta n t to g iv e w h ile still
in B e lg ra d e , an d th e y b e c a m e still m o re e v a siv e in e x ile . In th e
la te su m m e r o f 1941 the first rep o rts o f th e m assacres o f S e rb s b y
U stash re a ch e d th em . It w as n a tu ra l th a t th e y sh o u ld b e h o rrifie d .
U n fo r tu n a te ly som e o f th em seem to h a v e d e c id e d to e x p lo it th e
n ew s fo r th eir o w n n a r ro w p o litic a l aim s. T h e y b e g a n a c a m ­
p a ig n o f h ate a g a in st th e C r o a ts as a n a tio n , an d in fa v o u r o f
‘ G r e a te r S e r b ia ’ , in th e o rg a n s o f p r o p a g a n d a u n d e r th e ir c o n tro l
on B ritish te rrito ry a n d e sp e c ia lly in th e U n ite d S tate s. T h e
C r o a tia n m inisters p la y e d in to th eir h an d s b y re fu sin g p u b lic ly to
co n d e m n th e m assacres, reports o f w h ic h th e y c o n sid e re d , p e r­
h ap s rig h tly , to b e m u c h e x a g g e ra te d . T h e g u lf th u s c re a te d
b e tw e e n th e S e rb ia n a n d C r o a tia n m in isters w as n e v e r b rid g e d
d u r in g th e w h o le p e rio d o f e x ile .
T h e secon d fa c to r w a s th e d o m in a tio n o f th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t
b y its m ilita r y a n d c iv ilia n o fficials. T h e m in isters w e re d e m o c ra ts,
b u t th e ir p o lic y w a s e x e c u te d b y d ip lo m a ts w h o h a d m a d e th e ir
ca re ers u n d e r th e d ic ta to rsh ip s o f A le x a n d e r a n d P a u l, an d c o m ­
m u n ica tio n s w ith Y u g o s la v ia w e re in th e h a n d s o f o fficers so m e
o f w h o m w e re u tte rly o p p osed to d e m o c ra tic id eas a n d m eth o d s.
T h e s e m en in trig u e d to g e t c o n tro l o f th e few Y u g o s la v a rm e d
forces in th e M id d le E ast, a n d w h e n C o lo n e l M ih a ilo v ic first
e stab lish e d w ireless c o n ta c t w ith th e exiles th ere w as a sc ra m b le
fo r co n tro l o f co m m u n ic a tio n s w ith h im . T h e e le v a tio n o f
M ih a ilo v ic to th e ra n k o f g e n e ra l, a n d his a p p o in tm e n t as W a r
M in is te r in th e c a b in e t o f P rofessor J o v a n o v ic , w h ic h re p la c e d
th a t o f G e n e ra l S i m o v ie in J a n u a r y 1942, w e re to so m e e x te n t a
p a rt o f this sc ra m b le fo r p o w e r a m o n g th e c liq u e s in e x ile . T h e
p o litic a l p ro b lem s o f th e Y u g o s la v e m ig ra tio n th u s re se m b led
th ose o f th e P olish , b u t on a sm a lle r a n d p e ttie r scale.
T h e B ritish m ilita r y a u th o ritie s, w ish in g to h e lp a n y a n ti-A x is
resistan ce, d e c id e d , as soon as th e y re c e iv e d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t
M ih a ilo v ic , to sen d a B ritish m ission to a rra n g e w ireless c o n ta c t
 G R E A T A ND S MALL A LLI E S 15g

b e tw e e n h im a n d th e B ritish C o m m a n d in th e M id d le E ast.
T h e first B ritish o ffice r, C a p t a in H u d so n , a rriv e d in O c t o b e r
19 4 1. H e w a s fo r a tim e w ith th e p artisan s, th en re tu rn e d to
M ih a ilo v ic a n d w e n t w ith h im to M o n te n e g ro . In th e w in te r o f
1942 th e B ritish m ission w a s re in fo rced , an d w as c o m m a n d e d b y
C o lo n e l B a ile y . T h r o u g h o u t this p e rio d few su p p lies c o u ld be
flo w n to M ih a ilo v ic , as a ll a v a ila b le a ircra ft w e re n eed ed to su p ­
p o rt o p e ra tio n s in th e W e ste rn D esert.
D u r in g th e w in te r o f 1 9 4 2 -3 th e repo rts o f th e B ritish m ission
w ith M ih a ilo v ic re v e a le d th e e x te n t o f M ih a ilo v ic ’ s co -o p e ra tio n
w ith th e Ita lia n s in M o n te n e g ro a n d th e co a stal p ro vin ce s. A t th e
sa m e tim e in fo rm a tio n from o th e r sou rces b e c a m e a v a ila b le w h ich
sh o w e d th a t th e p a rtisa n m o v e m e n t w as a m u c h m ore serious
fo rce th a n h a d b e en su p p o sed . T h e M id d le E ast C o m m a n d
d e c id e d to e stab lish c o n ta c t w ith T ito . A t th e en d o f M a y 1943
C a p t a in D e a k in re a c h e d T i t o ’ s h e a d q u a rte rs. In S e p te m b e r a
la r g e r m ission , h e a d e d b y B rig a d ie r F itz ro y M a c le a n , M .P .,
a r r iv e d .1 It w as d e c id e d to g iv e m a te ria l su p p o rt to th e partisans.
D u r in g th e w eeks fo llo w in g th e I ta lia n su rre n d e r, w h ile som e
D a lm a tia n islan ds a n d a strip o f m a in la n d co a st w e re in pa rtisa n
h a n d s, som e e q u ip m e n t w as sh ip p e d to th em from th e ‘ h e e l’ o f
I ta ly . B u t a fte r th e G e rm a n s cle a re d th e coast in N o v e m b e r , o n ly
a irb o rn e su p p lies c o u ld b e sen t, an d d u r in g th e w in te r fly in g w as
d iffic u lt. A p a rtisa n m ilita r y d e le g a tio n , h e a d e d b y C o lo n e l
V e le b it , c a m e to A le x a n d r ia to discuss fu tu re su p p lies w ith th e
c o m m a n d e rs -in -c h ie f o f th e th re e services in th e M id d le E ast,
b u t little c o u ld a c tu a lly b e d o n e till th e w in te r w as o v e r. T h e r e
is som e iro n y in th e fa c t th a t o n e o f th e fe w services re n d ered b y
th e B ritish to T i t o a t this p e rio d w as to c o n v e y to h im a S o v ie t
m ilita r y m ission , h e a d e d b y L ie u t.- G e n e r a l K o r n e e v .
S e rio u s A llie d h e lp to th e p a rtisa n s o n ly b e g a n in th e sp rin g o f
1944. I t is th erefo re q u ite u n ju st to d e s c rib e T i t o ’ s forces as ‘ a
B ritish c r e a t io n ’ . F o r th re e y e a rs th e p a rtisa n s h ad c o n d u c te d , in
c o m p le te p h y sic a l iso la tio n , a h e ro ic stru g g le , a n d in S e p te m b e r
1943 th e y h ad th em selv es o b ta in e d th e e q u ip m e n t o f sev eral
s u rre n d e rin g I ta lia n d ivisio n s. H o w e v e r , a fter A p r il 1944 th ere is
n o d o u b t th a t A llie d h e lp w as o f g re a t v a lu e . V e r y su b stan tia l
su p p lie s o f sm a ll a rm s, a u to m a tic w e ap o n s, m e d ic a l stores,
c lo th in g a n d b o ots, an d a c e rta in a m o u n t o f h e a v ie r a rm s, w e re
r e c e iv e d .1 A fu rth e r im p o rta n t fo rm o f h e lp w as th e e v a c u a tio n

1 F o r B rig a d ie r M a c le a n ’s o w n a c co u n t sec his l>ook Easiern Affptoathes. It is es p e ci­

a lly v a lu a b le fo r its a c co u n t o f th e ty p e a n d q u a n tity o f British h e lp to T it o .
l6o THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
b y a ir, from v a rio u s im p ro v ise d la n d in g -g ro u n d s, o f p a rtisa n
w o u n d e d , th e p ro te c tio n o f w h o m h ad p re v io u sly b een a h e a v y
b u rd e n as it h a d o c c u p ie d la rg e n u m b e rs o f h e a lth y m en n e ed e d
for b a ttle . D u rin g 1944 m o re th a n 10,000 m ilita r y -and 2,000
c iv ilia n ca su a ltie s w e re th u s e v a c u a te d . D u rin g a ll this p e rio d
S o v ie t su pplies, from th e S o v ie t m ission esta b lish e d in I t a ly u n d e r
A llie d o p e ra tio n a l c o n tro l, w e re q u ite n e g lig ib le .
A n im p o rta n t form o f A llie d h e lp w as p r o p a g a n d a . F ro m th e
b e g in n in g o f 1944 B .B .C . b ro a d c a sts u rg e d Y u g o s la v s to jo in T i to .
T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f g r o w in g n u m b e rs o f p a rtisa n s in B ritish b a ttle -
dress w as p r o o f th a t th e W e ste rn P o w ers w e re o n T i t o ’ s sid e. T h e
flo w o f recru its to T i t o ’ s forces th erefo re r a p id ly in cre a se d .
T h e A llie d M e d ite rra n e a n a ir forces also g a v e d ire c t su p p o rt
w h en possib le to p a rtisa n la n d forces. T h e m ost im p o rta n t e x a m p le
w as in J u n e 1944. T h e G e rm a n s m a d e a w e ll-p la n n e d p a ra c h u tist
a tta c k on T i t o ’ s h e a d q u a rte rs a t D r v a r in B osn ia . W ith in a few
h ours th e A llie d a ir forces h a d d e stro y e d , in th e a ir o r on th e
g ro u n d , th e G e rm a n a irc ra ft used fo r this a tta c k . A t v e r y su d d e n
n o tice A llie d a irc ra ft e v a c u a te d T it o a n d his s t a ff to I t a ly , w h e n c e
th e y w e re la te r tra n sp o rte d b y sea to th e D a lm a tia n isla n d V i s .1
T h is isla n d , d efe n d e d b y a jo in t Y u g o s la v a n d B ritish fo rce,
re m a in e d T i t o ’s h e a d q u a rte rs u n til th e R e d A r m y e n tered Y u g o ­
s la v ia in th e a u tu m n .
In J u n e 1943 th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n t o f Professor J o v a n o v ic
re sig n e d . H is successor, th e R a d ic a l P a rty le a d e r T r ifu n o v ic , w as
n o m o re su ccessful. K in g P e te r th en d e c id e d to fo rm a g o v e r n ­
m en t o f officials, le d b y th e fo rm e r M in is te r in P a ris, B o z id a r
P u ric . T h is g o v e rn m e n t to o m a in ta in e d a ‘ G r e a t S e r b ia n ’ o u t­
lo o k , w as d e v o te d to M ih a ilo v ic , a n d in c a p a b le o f c o m in g to term s
w ith th e p a rtisa n s. P u rić d id , h o w e v e r, m a k e a n a p p r o a c h to
M o sc o w . In th e sp rin g o f 1942 th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h a d
a p p ro a c h e d th e J o v a n o v ic c a b in e t w ith th e p ro p o sa l o f a tr e a ty o f

1 M a rs h a l T it o h im se lf o sten tatio u sly u sed th e o n e S o v ie t a irc ra ft w h ic h to o k p a rt

in th e e v a c u a tio n to g e th e r w ith sixteen A llie d a ircra ft. S o v ie t p r o p a g a n d a in 19 4 5 -4 8
tried to m a k e o u t th a t the S o v ie t a ir fo rc e sa v e d th e p a rtisan s. S o v ie t jo u rn a lis ts
to u red Y u g o s la v ia in 1946, in c lu d in g th e w e ll-k n o w n K o n s ta n tin S im o n o v , a n d sent
b a c k to th e ir readers in th e U .S .S .R . v ersio n s o f th e ex p lo its o f th e ‘ S o v ie t fa lc o n s ’ ,
a n d th e p e o p le ’s g r a t it u d e to th em , w h ic h at least d o cre d it to th eir re p u ta tio n s as
im a g in a tiv e w riters. M o re re c e n tly , h o w e v e r, d ie S o v ie t lin e has c h a n g e d . A t th e
tria ls o f R a jk a n d K o s to v in 1949, th e D r v a r e v a c u a tio n w as ‘ p r o v e d ’ b y th e ‘ c o n ­
fessions ’ o f w itnesses to h a v e bee n a p lo t b y w h ic h T it o p la c e d h im se lf in th e h a n d s o f
his ‘ m a s te rs ’ , th e B ritish se cret se rvic e. T h a t T it o w as a B ritish p u p p e t is, h o w e v e r,
h a r d ly co n firm e d b y th e fa ct th a t in th e a u tu m n he s u d d e n ly left V is b y a ir fo r an
u n k n o w n d e stin a tio n , w ith o u t w a rn in g to th e B ritish m ission, a n d th a t it w as n o t u n til
so m e w eek s la te r t h a t S ta lin h im se lf told M r. C h u r c h ill th a t he h a d b e e n in M o sc o w .
S ee M a c le a n , o p . cit.
 G R E A T A ND S MAL L ALLI ES 16 1
m u tu a l a ssistan ce. T h e o ffe r h a d b een p o lite ly refused o n the
g e n e ra l g ro u n d th a t th e lesser a llies sh o u ld n ot c o n c lu d e p e r­
m a n e n t a llia n c e s w ith th e a llie d G r e a t P ow ers u n til th e w a r w as
o v e r. T h is w as th e v ie w o f th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h h ad also
b e lie v e d th a t th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t took th e sam e v ie w . T h e
Y u g o s la v refu sal w'as, h o w e v e r, in te rp re te d in M o sc o w as d u e to
a n ti-S o v ie t p re ju d ic e . In O c t o b e r 1943 P u rić su ggested an
a llia n c e to M o sc o w . It w as refu sed a n d th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t
ch ose to use th e T a ss press a g e n c y , ra th e r th an d ip lo m a tic
ch a n n e ls, to exp ress its su rp rise th a t a g o v e rn m e n t w h ic h still
in c lu d e d th e fascist M ih a ilo v ic sh ou ld h a v e m ad e su ch a p ro p o sa l.
In N o v e m b e r 1943 a se co n d session o f th e pa rtisa n assem b ly
A .V .N .O .J . w as h e ld in J a jc e in B o sn ia. T h e a sse m b ly fo rm a lly
d e c la r e d i t s e l f ‘ th e su p re m e e x e c u tiv e a n d le g is la tiv e b o d y o f the
Y u g o s la v S t a t e ’ ; d e n ie d th e rig h t o f th e e xile d g o v e rn m e n t to
rep resen t Y u g o s la v ia ‘ a n y w h e re an d b e fo re a n y o n e ’ ; and
a n n o u n c e d its in te n tio n to ‘ e x a m in e ’ a ll in te rn a tio n a l c o m m it­
m en ts u n d e rta k e n b y th e exiles an d to re p u d ia te a n y c o m m it­
m en ts u n d e rta k e n b y th em in fu tu re . I t th en co n ferred on T ito the
title o f M a rs h a l, a n d e le cte d a p ro v isio n a l g o v e rn m e n t, en title d
N a tio n a l C o m m itte e o f L ib e r a tio n , w ith T i t o as P rem ie r, th ree
v ice -p re m ie rs, a n d th irte en ‘ tru ste e s’ c h a rg e d w ith d e p a rtm e n ta l
d u tie s. M o st se n sa tio n a l o f a ll w as a reso lu tio n fo r b id d in g K in g
P e te r to re tu rn to Y u g o s la v ia , a n d sta tin g th a t ‘ th e q u estio n o f
k in g a n d m o n a rc h y w ill b e settled b y th e p e o p le b y its o w n w ill
a fte r th e lib e ra tio n o f th e w h o le c o u n t r y ’ .
A t th e T e h r a n co n fe re n ce o r soon a fte rw a rd s th e ‘ B ig T h r e e ’
d e c id e d th a t A llie d su p p o rt sh o u ld b e tran sferred e n tire ly to T ito ,
a n d th a t th e B ritish m ission w ith M ih a ilo v ic sh ou ld be w ith d ra w n .
B u t d u r in g th e first m o n th s o f 1944 B ritish d ip lo m a c y m ad e
stren u o u s e ffo rts to a c h ie v e a c o m p ro m ise b e tw e e n T it o a n d K in g
P e te r. O n 1 J u n e 1944 th e k in g w a s p e rsu a d e d to re p la c e P u rić as
P r e m ie r b y D r . I v a n S u b a ś ić , th e fo rm e r G o v e r n o r o f C r o a tia ,
w h o h a d sp en t th e g r e a te r p a rt o f his e x ile in th e U n ite d S tates,
h a d k e p t o u t o f p a r ty p o litics, h a d stood u n sw e r v in g ly fo r Y u g o ­
sla v u n ity a g a in st b o th S e rb ia n a n d C r o a tia n se p a ra tism , a n d h ad
p u b lic ly e xp ressed s y m p a th y for th e p a rtisa n m o v e m e n t. D u rin g
th e su m m e r S u b a ś ić v isite d T it o o n V is . T h e y b o th m et M r.
C h u r c h ill a n d G e n e r a l W ilso n in I t a ly . S u b a ś ić to ok b a c k to
L o n d o n w ith h im tw o re p resen ta tiv e s o f th e N a tio n a l C o m m itte e
o f L ib e r a tio n , w h o e n te re d his c a b in e t.
B u t w h e n th e d e fe c tio n o f R u m a n ia an d B u lg a ria b ro u g h t the
162 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

R e d A r m y in to S e rb ia , it b e c a m e c le a r th a t th e S o v ie t U n io n w as
th e P o w e r w h ic h w o u ld h a v e th e la rg e st in flu e n c e in Y u g o s la v ia .
A t th e en d o f O c t o b e r S u b a ś ić fle w to lib e ra te d B e lg ra d e , a n d
w e n t on from th ere to M o sc o w . E a r ly in D e c e m b e r S u b a ś ić a n d
T it o sign ed a n a g re e m e n t in B e lg ra d e. A u n ited g o v e rn m e n t w as
set u p , w ith T i t o as P re m ie r a n d S u b a ś ić as F o re ig n M in iste r . A
R e g e n c y o f th re e w a s to be cre a te d to e x e rcise sta te so v e re ig n ty
u n til th e q u estio n o f m o n a rc h y o r re p u b lic w as d e c id e d . S u b a ś ić
th en re tu rn e d to L o n d o n , w h e re h e fo u n d th e k in g u n d e rs ta n d a b ly
re lu c ta n t to a c c e p t th e a g re e m e n t. A g o v e rn m e n t crisis lasted
th ro u g h J a n u a r y 1945. O n 29 J a n u a r y th e k in g a t la st co n se n ted
to tra n sfer his p re ro g a tiv e s to th e R e g e n c y . S o o n a fte rw a rd s
S u b a ś ić re tu rn e d to B e lg ra d e , a n d on 7 M a r c h 1945 th e u n ited
g o v e rn m e n t c a m e in to b e in g . T h u s th e lo n g stru g g le b e tw e e n
T i t o ’s com m u n ists an d th e re p resen ta tive s o f th e o ld re g im e h a d
e n d e d w ith th e c o m p le te v ic to ry o f th e form er, w h ic h h a d re c e iv e d
th e u n w illin g b u t fo r m a lly b in d in g sa n c tio n o f th e W e ste rn
P ow ers as w e ll as th e en th u sia stic s u p p o rt o f th e S o v ie t U n io n .

C Z E C H O S L O V A K IA

T h e B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n go v e rn m e n ts n e v e r re c o g n ise d th e
G e rm a n a n n e x a tio n o f B o h e m ia -M o ra v ia a n d th e c re a tio n o f an
in d ep en d e n t S lo v a k state. T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t d id b o th a fte r
the S o v ie t-G e rm a n p a c t. T h e C z e c h o s lo v a k le g a tio n in M o s c o w
w as closed , a n d a S o v ie t le g a tio n w as a p p o in te d to T is o ’ s fascist
g o v e rn m e n t in S lo v a k ia on 17 S e p te m b e r 1939.
The first step to w a rd s a re c o g n itio n o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia as a
b e llig e re n t a lly w as th e a g re e m e n t, sign ed o n 2 O c t o b e r 1939 b y
D a la d ie r for th e F re n c h g o v e rn m e n t a n d th e fo rm e r C z e c h o s lo v a k
M in is te r in P a ris, O su sk y , ‘ in th e n a m e o f th e P ro v isio n a l
G o v e rn m e n t o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k R e p u b lic ’ , fo r th e p u rp o se o f
c r e a tin g a n a u to n o m o u s C z e c h o s lo v a k a r m y , fig h tin g u n d e r its
o w n sta n d a rd s as a p a rt o f th e F re n c h forces. S h o r tly a fte rw a rd s
a C z e c h o s lo v a k N a tio n a l C o m m itte e w as fo rm e d , u n d e r th e
le a d e rsh ip o f e x -P resid e n t D r . B en eś. T h is c o m m itte e w as r e c o g ­
n ised as ‘ q u a lifie d to rep resen t th e C z e c h o s lo v a k p e o p le ’ b y the
g o v e rn m e n ts o f F ra n c e (1 4 N o v e m b e r 1939) a n d B rita in (20
D e c e m b e r 193 9 ). A fte r th e co lla p se o f F ra n c e th e C z e c h o s lo v a k
c o m m itte e a n d m ost o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k tro op s in F ra n c e w e re
e v a c u a te d to B rita in . In J u ly 1940 th e c o m m itte e d e c la re d its e lf
th e P ro visio n a l G o v e rn m e n t o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , w ith D r . B e n eś
as P resid e n t a n d M g r . S ra m e k as P re m ie r. I t re c e iv e d p r o ­
 G R E A T A ND S MAL L AL L I E S 163
v isio n al re c o g n itio n fro m th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t, and this w as
e x te n d e d to fu ll re c o g n itio n on i 8 J u l y 19 4 1. T h e U n ite d S tates
esta b lish e d fu ll d ip lo m a tic rela tio n s w ith th e P ro visio n a l C z e c h o ­
slo v a k G o v e rn m e n t o n 31 J u ly 19 4 1. A y e a r la te r a n im p o rta n t
r e m a in in g d o u b t w as re m o v e d . B rita in h ad reco gn ised th e
C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t, b u t w h a t w as m ean t b y C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
— th e re p u b lic o f 1 9 1 8 -3 8 , o r th e ru m p re p u b lic o f 19 3 8 -9 ? O n
5 A u g u s t 1942 M r. E d en o ffic ia lly in fo rm ed J a n M a sa ry k , the
C z e c h o s lo v a k F o re ig n M in iste r , th a t th e British g o v e rn m e n t w as
e n tire ly free from a n y e n g a g e m e n ts u n d e rta k e n at M u n ic h , a n d
t h a t ‘ a t th e fin a l se ttle m e n t o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k fron tiers . . . th ey
w ill n o t b e in flu e n ce d b y a n y c h a n g e s e ffe cte d in a n d sin ce 1 9 3 8 ’ .
O n 29 S e p te m b e r 1942 G e n e r a l d e G a u lle m a d e a sta tem en t to
th e sa m e e ffe c t in th e n a m e o f F r a n c e .1
I h e G e r m a n in v a sio n o f R u ssia b ro u g h t a revisio n o f S o v iet
p o lic y to C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . O n 18 J u ly th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t
e sta b lish e d d ip lo m a tic re la tio n s w ith the C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn ­
m en t, a n d c o n c lu d e d a m ilita r y a llia n c e a g a in st G e r m a n y w h ic h
a m o u n te d to a re n e w a l o f th e lap sed tre a ty o f 1935. A n a g re e ­
m en t w a s m a d e fo r th e o rg a n isa tio n o f C z e c h o slo v a k forces u n d e r
th e o p e ra tio n a l c o n tro l o f th e R e d A r m y b u t o w in g a lle g ia n c e to
th e C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t. T h e g ro u p o f C z e c h o s lo v a k c o m ­
m u n ist e xile s liv in g in M o sc o w , led b y G o ttw a ld a n d N é je d ly ,
re c e iv e d n o o fficia l statu s. T h is d id n ot, h o w e v e r, m ea n th a t th ey
ce a sed to c o u n t in th e b a c k g ro u n d . W h ile th e S o v ie t-G e rm a n p a c t
h a d la ste d , th e y h a d b itte r ly d e n o u n c e d B en es as a tool o f W e ste rn
im p e ria lists: n o w th e y e n e r g e tic a lly su p p o rte d th e w a r e ffo rt o f
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , a n d w o rk e d b u sily to in filtra te an d in d o c trin a te
th e u n its fo rm e d on S o v ie t soil. T h e r e w ere also com m u n ists
a m o n g th e exiles in th e W e st, th e m ost im p o rta n t b e in g th e C z e c h
N o se k a n d th e S lo v a k C le m c n tis.
B e n eś h ad a lw a y s b e en p ro -R u ss ia n . H e h ad b e lie v e d th at
e ve n ts w o u ld fo rce R u ssia o n to th e A llie d sid e, a n d n o w h e felt
h im s e lf p ro v e d rig h t. W h ile m a in ta in in g g o o d relation s w ith
B rita in a n d th e U n ite d S tate s, h e in e v ita b ly d re w n e a re r to th e
U .S .S .R . W h e n th e tid e tu rn e d on th e E astern F ro n t, it b e g a n
to seem p r o b a b le th at C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w o u ld be lib e ra te d from
E ast r a th e r th a n W est. T h e m e m o ry o f M u n ic h re m in d e d him
th a t it w as u n w ise to re ly on th e p ro te c tio n o f th e W e ste rn P ow ers

1 For d e ta ils o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t’ s form a l re la ’ ions w ith its allies, see

Táborsky, The Czechoslovak Cause. F o r a m o re perso n al re c o rd , see S ir R . B ru ce-
Lockhart in Slaionic Review, J a n u a ry 1950 .
164 the EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
a g a in st a p o w erfu l n e ig h b o u r, a n d S o v iet-P o lish re la tio n s w e re a
grim w a r n in g o f th e d a n g e rs o f a n ta g o n isin g M o sc o w . B en eä k n ew
th a t th e S o v ie t le a d e rs w e re h o ld in g G o ttw a ld a n d his frien d s in
reserve, to b e used i f n ecessary in th e sam e role as th e U n io n o f
Polish P atrio ts, S o he d e c id e d to visit M o sc o w in D e c e m b e r 1943
a n d sign a tre a ty o f m u tu a l assistance b e tw e e n C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n . H e a c te d a g a in st th e a d v ic e o f th e B ritish
g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h b e lie ve d th a t th e G r e a t P o w ers w e re p le d g e d
to a ‘ se lf-d e n y in g o r d in a n c e ’ a b o u t c o n c lu d in g a llia n c e s w ith
sm all allies w h ile th e w a r w a s o n . B u t B e n c ś fe lt th a t n o tim e
co u ld be lost.
H is a c tio n seem ed ju stifie d b y th e d ecision s o f th e G r e a t A llie s
d u r in g th e w in te r o f 19 4 3 -4 , w h ic h p la ce d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia in th e
S o v iet o p e ra tio n a l sph ere. A C z e c h o s lo v a k -S o v ie t a g re e m e n t
sign ed in 1944 p ro v id e d th a t th e R e d A r m y sh o u ld h a n d o v e r
c iv il a d m in istra tio n b e h in d th e fron t on lib e ra te d C z e c h o s lo v a k
te rrito ry to rep resen ta tives o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t.
Beneä sent a p ro m in e n t so cia l d e m o c ra t, N é m e c , as his re p r e ­
se n tativ e on lib e ra te d te rrito ry , w ith th e ra n k o f M in iste r . H e
m et w ith little co -o p e ra tio n from th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s on th e
sp o t, a n d w as u n a b le to p re v e n t th e co m m u n ists fro m o rg a n isin g
p r o p a g a n d a in R u th e n ia — th e first C z e c h o s lo v a k te rrito r y to b e
lib e ra te d — for th e in c o rp o ra tio n o f th a t p ro v in c e in th e U .S .S .R
N e ith e r N é m e c n o r B en es h im se lf w as a b le to p e rsu a d e th e S o v ie t
g o v e rn m e n t to g iv e e ffe c tiv e h e lp to th e S lo v a k risin g . W h e n th e
R e d A r m y fro n t a g a in m o v e d fo r w a rd e a r ly in 194 5, it seem ed to
B e n e i a m a tte r o f u rg e n c y to re tu rn to C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . I f th e le g a l
g o v e rn m e n t w e re n ot th ere w h e n S lo v a k ia w as lib e ra te d , a g it a ­
tio n m ig h t sta rt for th e in c o rp o ra tio n o f S lo v a k ia to o in th e S o v ie t
U n io n . In M a r c h 1945 th e P resid en t le ft E n g la n d fo r M o sc o w .
O n 22 M a r c h th e n e w C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t, w h o se P re m ie r
w as th e fo rm e r d ip lo m a tic re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e r e p u b lic in
M o sco w , an d a p lia b le in stru m e n t o f S o v ie t p o lic y , ’/ .d en ek
F ie rlin g e r, set its e lf u p in K o s ic e . T h is c ity g a v e its n a m e to th e
p o litic a l p ro g ra m m e o f th e first g o v e rn m e n t o f lib e ra te d C z e c h o ­
slo v a k ia .
T h e lib e ra tio n o f P r a g u e w a s d e la y e d b y c o n sid e ra tio n s o f
G r e a t P o w e r p restige. In th e first d a y s o f M a y , G e n e r a l P a tto n ’ s
forces w e re ru sh in g across c e n tra l G e r m a n y w h e n P r a g u e re v o lte d
a g a in st th e G e rm a n s. A t this tim e th e R e d A r m y w a s still h e ld
u p b y stu b b o rn G e r m a n re sista n ce in M o r a v ia . I t h a d b e e n
a g re e d b e tw e e n th e tw o c o m m a n d s th a t A m e r ic a n tro op s sh o u ld
 G R E A T A ND S MALL AL L I E S 165
n o t a d v a n c e b e y o n d a lin e from P lz e ń to B u d é jo v ic e . G e n e ra l
E ise n h o w e r sen t a p e rso n a l m essage to th e C h ie f o f th e S o v iet
G e n e r a l S ta ff, G e n e ra l A n to n o v , su g g e stin g th a t P a tto n m igh t go
o n a n d re lie v e P r a g u e . A n to n o v b itte r ly o p p o sed th e su ggestion
o n th e g ro u n d th a t P ra g u e m ust b e lib e ra te d b y S o v ie t troops.
S e v e ra l h u n d re d C z e c h s p a id w ith th e ir lives for this insistence
o n S o v ie t p restige . T h e p rice in b lo o d w o u ld h a v e been h ig h er
still i f th e forces o f th e S o v ie t re n e g a d e G e n e ra l V la s o v h a d not
tu rn e d a g a in st th e ir G e rm a n p a tro n s a t a c ritic a l m o m e n t. T h e se
fa cts d id n o t d e te r th e com m u n ists fro m la te r assertin g, th ro u gh
th e m o u th o f th e e gre gio u s Professor N é je d ly a n d o th ers, th a t the
A m e ric a n s h a d d e lib e r a te ly left P ra g u e to its fa te b ecau se th ey
h a te d th e C z e c h w o r k e r s .1
T h e in cre a se o f S o v ie t in flu e n ce in E astern E u ro p e , at th e
e xp e n se o f th e W e ste rn Pow'ers, d u r in g th e la st m onth s o f th e w a r
h as in e v ita b ly ca u sed b itte r c o m m e n t. S o m e m a in ta in , n o t o n ly
th a t B rita in b e tra y e d h e r best frien d s, e sp e c ia lly in P o la n d and
Y u g o s la v ia , b u t th a t th e b e tr a y a l w as d u e to th e in flu e n ce o f su b ­
v e rsiv e , sin ister a n d d islo y a l perso n s.2 This th e o ry is n o t c o n ­
v in c in g . It is tru e th a t th ere w e re im p o rta n t d ifferen ces b etw een
th e m ilita r y a u th o ritie s, w h o ten d ed to re g a rd a n y resistan ce
m o v e m e n t in o c c u p ie d te rrito r y as a p o te n tia l a lly , w h o w as ty in g
d o w n e n e m y tro op s a n d sh o u ld be g iv e n m a te ria l a id w h en
p h y s ic a l co n d itio n s p e rm itte d , a n d th e d ip lo m a ts, w h o w ere
u n w illin g to h e lp to w a rd s p o w e r a n y g ro u p s w h ose p o lic y m igh t
b e h o stile w h e n th e w a r w as o v e r. B u t th e decision s w'ere tak en
n e ith e r b y th e m ilita r y c o m m a n d e rs n o r b y th e d ip lo m a ts, b u t b y
th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f B rita in an d th e U n ite d S tates, w h ic h had
in fo rm a tio n from m a n y sou rces a n d to ok b o th m ilita r y and
p o litic a l fa cto rs in to a c c o u n t. I t c a n h a r d ly b e im a g in e d th at
C h u r c h ill a n d R o o s e v e lt w e re u n a w a r e o f th e p o te n tia l co n flic t
b e tw e e n m ilitary' n eed s a n d p o st-w a r aim s. T h e y d ec id e d to g iv e
p r io rity to th e first.3 T h e y k n e w w h a t th e y w e re d o in g , an d the
re sp o n s ib ility fo r th e resu lt lies w ith th em .
T h e W e ste rn m ilita r y c o m m a n d e rs b e lie v e d th a t v ic to ry c o u ld
b e m ost q u ic k ly w o n b y c o n c e n tr a tin g th eir m a in b lo w in F ra n c e .
I f a d iffe re n t co u rse o f a c tio n h ad ca u se d th e w a r to last lo n g e r, th e
1 D e a n e , Strange Alliance. G e n e ra l D e a n e w as h e a d o f th e U n ite d S la te s m ilita ry
m ission in M o sco w , a n d p e rs o n a lly d e a lt w ith G e n e ra l E isen h o w er’s m essage. Vlasov-
su rren d ered to th e A m e ric a n s, w h o la te r h a n d e d him o v er to th e S o v iet au th o rities,
at th e req u est o f th e la tte r. H e w as ex e c u te d .
* S e e V o ig t , Pax Bntannica, p p . 2 4 5 -fi
3 S e e th e in tere stin g a c c o u n t o f C h u r c h ill’s v iew o f th e Y u g o s la v p ro b lem in
B rig a d ie r M a c le a n ’s EasUrn Approaches, p p . 4 0 2 -3 .
16 6 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
p eo p le o f L o n d o n an d sou th ern E n g la n d w o u ld h a v e b een su b ­
je c te d to c o n tin u e d a tta c k b y V . I an d V .2 w e a p o n s. P e rh a p s it
w o u ld h a v e b e en b e tte r so. P e rh a p s th e W e ste rn a rm ies sh ou ld
h a v e la n d e d in th e B a lk a n s, sh o u ld h a v e d isc o u ra g e d K in g
M ic h a e l o f R u m a n ia from su rre n d e rin g to th e R e d A r m y , e v e n i f
th e y h ad h ad to le a v e th e C h a n n e l ports, w ith th e ir fiy in g -b o m b
an d ro ck e t bases, in G e r m a n h an d s. P e rh a p s B rita in m a y y e t h a v e
to p a y a h e a v ie r p rice th an this. B u t it is too m u c h to e x p e c t th a t
a British g o v e rn m e n t sh o u ld , fo r th e sake o f p r o b le m a tic fu tu re
d an gers, su b je ct its p e o p le to a v o id a b le su ffe rin g on this scale.
It w o u ld h a v e b een d ifficu lt, i f n o t im p ossib le, to w in th e w a r
a g a in st G e r m a n y an d J a p a n w ith o u t th e p a r tic ip a tio n o f th e
S o v ie t U n io n . D u rin g th e c o m m o n w a r e ffo rt, th e le a d e rs o f th e
S o v iet U n io n no d o u b t re g a rd e d us as en em ie s: su ch an a ttitu d e
w as n ot possible for th e le a d e rs o r th e .p u b lic in d e m o c ra tic
cou n tries. T o th e B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n p eop les it w as u n th in k a b le
in 1945 th a t th e n e w ly fo u n d a to m ic w e a p o n sh o u ld b e used to
force ou t o f E u ro p e those w h o m th e y h ad for fo u r y e ars re g a rd e d
as th eir allies. T h a t lead ers a n d p u b lic in B rita in a n d A m e r ic a
took an o p tim istic v ie w o f th e ir S o v ie t c o -b e llig e re n ts w as d u e to
th e g e n e ra l ig n o ra n c e o f th e n a tu re a n d aim s o f c o m m u n ism , fo r
w h ich th e m ain re sp o n sib ility m ust fa ll on th ose w h o ru le d th e
d em o cra c ie s b e tw e e n 1 9 1 7 a n d 1939. W e ste rn p o lic y from 1941
to 1945 w as n e ith e r v e r y c le v e r n o r v e r y n o b le , b u t w ith m ilita r y
facts an d p u b lic o p in io n as th e y w e re , it is h a rd to see h o w it co u ld
h a v e b een m u c h d ifferen t.
 Part Three

S O V IE T I S A T IO .N

C H A P T E R E IG H T

T H E S E IZ U R E O F PO W E R

TH E PATTERN

H E re g im e w h ic h h as arise n , w ith lo c a l v a ria tio n s, th ro u g h ­

T o u t th e z o n e o f S o v ie t d o m in a tio n in E astern E u ro p e has

b e co m e k n o w n as ‘ P o p u la r D e m o c r a c y ’ . T h o u g h this
ta u to lo g ic a l p h ra se is a n a b u se o f la n g u a g e , it is a c o n v e n ie n t
la b e l, a n d w ill b e used in th e rest o f this b oo k . A p o lo g ists o f the
re g im e , b o th in E aste rn E u ro p e an d in th e W est, e sp e c ia lly those
W e ste rn fe llo w -tra v e lle rs w h o se task is to p e rsu a d e th e ir c o m ­
p a trio ts th a t th e re g im e is an im p ro v e d versio n o f w estern so c ia l­
ism , a n d e ve n d e riv e s from th e lib e ra l tra d itio n , insist on th e
o r ig in a lity o f ‘ P o p u la r D e m o c r a c y ', a n d th e d ifferen ces b e tw e e n
it a n d th e re g im e p r e v a ilin g in th e U .S .S .R . B u t e v e ry n ow an d
th e n a n E ast E u ro p e a n c o m m u n ist o f u n im p e a c h a b le a u th o rity
lets th e c a t o u t o f th e b a g . In his sp eech to th e 5 th C o n g re ss o f
th e B u lg a ria n C o m m u n is t P a rty , d e liv e re d on 25 D e c e m b e r 1948,
G e o r g e D im itr o v , fo rm e r G e n e r a l S e c r e ta r y o f th e C o m in te rn a n d
P r e m ie r o f B u lg a ria , 19 4 6 -9 , d e c la r e d : ‘ T h e S o v ie t re g im e and
th e P o p u la r D e m o c ra tic re g im e a re tw o form s o f on e a n d th e sam e
system o f g o v e rn m e n t, b a se d on th e u n ion b e tw e e n th e to w n and
a g r ic u ltu r a l w o rk e rs. B o th a re b ased on the d ic ta to rs h ip o f the
p r o le ta ria t. S o v ie t e x p e rie n c e is th e o n ly a n d th e best p a ttern for
th e b u ild in g o f so cia lism in o u r c o u n tr y as w ell as in o th er
co u n trie s o f P o p u la r D e m o c r a c y .’ A n d M a tth ia s R á k o s i, le a d e r
of" th e H u n g a r ia n co m m u n ists, a C o m in te rn v e te ra n o f n o less
a u th o r ity th a n D im itro v , a n d o n e o f th e few' m en liv in g w h o c a n
c la im to h a v e b e en a m e m b e r o f a c o m m u n ist g o v e rn m e n t as
e a r ly as 1 9 1 9 , re c e n tly d escrib e d ‘ P o p u la r D e m o c r a c y ’ in th e
p a r t y p a p e r Szabad N ép as ‘ d ic ta to rs h ip o f th e p r o le ta ria t w ith o u t
th e S o v ie t fo r m ’ . S o v iets, R á k o s i a rg u e d , w e re a fo rm o f g o v e rn ­
m e n t a risin g o u t o f c iv il w a r , b u t th e E ast E u ro p e a n states h ad
b e en sp a re d c iv il w a r b e ca u se th e S o v ie t a r m y , a d v a n c in g th ro u g h
167
1 68 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
th eir te rrito ry , h a d n o t o n ly d e fe a te d th e G e r m a n a r m y b u t h ad
sh attered th e old p o litic a l stru c tu re , a n d d isarm e d th e o ld ru lin g
classes, o f E astern E u ro p e . T h u s R á k o si a d m itte d , w h a t fe llo w -
tra v e lle rs in th e W est h a v e tak e n su ch p a in s to d e n y , th a t th e
1949 v ersio n o f ‘ p ro le ta ria n d ic ta to r s h ip ’ w as im p o se d r e a d y ­
m a d e b y th e R e d A rm y .
R á k o s i’s sta te m e n t is in fa c t an o v er-s im p lific a tio n . H is re fe r­
en ces to th e ‘ so v ie t fo r m ’ w ill be discu ssed in a la te r c h a p t e r .1
A t this p o in t, h o w e v e r, w e m ust p o in t o u t th a t tw o c o u n trie s in
E astern E u ro p e — Y u g o s la v ia a n d A lb a n ia — w e re n o t sp a re d a
c iv il w a r, a n d th a t a th ird , P o la n d , e x p e rie n c e d a kin d o f p e r­
v erted fo re ig n -im p o rte d c iv il w a r. R á k o s i’s e x p la n a tio n o f th e
o rig in o f th e n e w version s o f * p r o le ta ria n d ic ta to r s h ip ’ is th ere ­
fore o n ly a p p lic a b le to fo u r c o u n trie s— R u m a n ia , H u n g a r y ,
B u lg a ria an d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . B u t th e w o rd s o f D im itro v are
a p p lic a b le to a ll th e regim es w h ic h h a v e arisen from th e p o litic a l
stru ggles in E aste rn E u ro p e sin ce th e e n d o f th e w a r.
In Y u g o s la v ia a n d A lb a n ia , as w e h a v e seen , th e A x is in v a d e rs
d estro y e d th e o ld p o litic a l stru c tu re , a n d c o u ld fill th e g a p o n ly b y
th eir in c o m p e te n t an d u n p o p u la r q u islin gs. T h e co m m u n ists th en
fo u g h t n ot o n ly a n a tio n a l w a r a g a in st th e in v a d e rs a n d q u islin gs,
b u t also a c iv il w a r a g a in st th e p a trio tic se ctio n o f th e c o n se rv a tiv e
forces— -M ih a ilo v ic , th e B a lli K o m b e ta r a n d th e Z o g ists. T h e y
ca m e o u t o f th e d o u b le wra r W'ith a m o re o r less ‘ m o n o lit h ic ’
regim e . C o m m u n ist d o m in a tio n o f th e ‘ a n ti-fa scist fr o n ts ’ in b o th
co u n trie s h ad b e e n secu red d u r in g th e fig h tin g . T e m p o r a r y
a c c e p ta n c e b y T i t o o f som e lib e ra l exiles fro m th e W e st m a d e n o
re a l c h a n g e , w h ile E n v e r H o x h a d id n o t e v e n h a v e to m a k e this
fo rm a l con cession . T h e p o litic a l b a ttle h a d b e e n w o n .
T h e co u rse o f e ve n ts in P o la n d in so m e w a y s re se m b led th a t in
Y u g o s la v ia . T h e G e rm a n in va d ers sm ash ed th e o ld p o litic a l
stru ctu re , an d sh o w e d sp e cia l sa v a g e ry to th e e d u c a te d class. B u t
th e e d u c a te d class an d th e c o n s e rv a tiv e forces w e re stro n g ly re p r e ­
se n te d , to g e th e r w ith th e w ork ers a n d p ea san ts, in th e H o m e
A r m y . T h e resistan ce m o v e m e n t in P o la n d fo u g h t o n ly a n a tio n a l
w a r , n ot a civ il w a r . B u t w h e n th e R e d A r m y e n te re d P o la n d it
fo u g h t a d o u b le w a r , fo r it c o n sid e re d n o t o n ly th e G e rm a n s b u t
also th e P olish resistan ce m o ve m e n ts as its en em ies. T h e S o v ie t
le a d e rs k n e w h o w d e e p a n im p ression th e K a t y n case h a d m a d e .
T h e y k n ew h o w h ostile to th e m w as th e P o lish a r m y in th e W e st,
w ith its fin e w a r re c o rd , an d c o n se q u e n t h ig h p restig e b o th in
P o la n d a n d a m o n g th e A llie s. T h e y c re a te d still fu rth e r b ittern ess
1 S e e b elo w , p . 299.
 T H E SE I Z UR E OF P O W E R 169
b y th e ir fa ilu re to sa v e in su rg e n t W a r sa w . H a v in g ch osen th eir
p o lic y , th e y to o k pa in s to use w illin g Poles to a c h ie v e th eir aim s.
T h e P olish civ il w a r w as im p o rte d from R u ssia, an d its co m m u n ist
b e llig e re n t w as c re a te d in R u ssia . T h e R e d A r m y , th e Polish
d ivisio n s in its ran ks, an d th e Polish se c u rity forces o f th e L u b lin
C o m m itte e to g e th e r d isarm e d an d h o u n d e d d o w n th e H o m e
A r m y . T h e d estru c tio n o f th e o ld so cia l an d p o litic a l regim e , w h ich
w as a c h ie v e d in Y u g o s la v ia an d A lb a n ia p a rtly b y the G e rm a n s
a n d p a r t ly b y a g e n u in e c iv il w a r , w as a c h ie v e d in P o lan d p a rtly
b y th e G e rm a n s a n d p a r tly b y th e R e d A r m y .
T h e resu lt w as n o t q u ite th e sam e. In b o th Y u g o s la v ia and
P o la n d , d e m o c ra tic e xile s re tu rn e d from th e W est as a resu lt o f
pressu re b y th e W e ste rn P o w ers. B u t w h erea s in Y u g o s la v ia th ey
h a d n o c h a n c e o f o rg a n isin g th em selves in to a force, in P olan d
th e y w'ere for a tim e su ccessful. M ik o ła jc z y k re g ro u p e d his g re a t
p a rty , a n d fo r tw o y e a rs fo u g h t a b itte r re a rg u a rd a ctio n . T h e
reason s for th e d iffe re n c e a re th a t th e P olish P ea san t P a rty w as a
fa r m o re p o p u la r a n d liv in g o rg a n isa tio n th a n w e re th e o ld d e m o ­
c r a tic p a rtie s in Y u g o s la v ia ; th a t th e Y u g o s la v p a rtisa n m o ve m e n t
w as a g e n u in e p o p u la r m o v e m e n t, w h ile th e L u b lin C o m m itte e
w as b o g u s; an d th a t th e Y u g o s la v com m u n ists h a d b u ilt u p an
e ffic ien t p o lice a p p a ra tu s o f th e ir o w n , w h ile th e Polish c o m ­
m un ists h ad to re ly a t first on th e R u ssian m ilita ry a n d p o lice
m ach in es.
In th e o th e r fo u r c o u n trie s th ere h ad b e en n o c iv il w a r. G e rm a n
p e rsec u tio n h a d ca u se d h e a v y losses to th e C z e c h in te llige n tsia ,
b u t th e C z e c h m id d le class— b o th business a n d p rofession al—
w as fa r to o stro n g a n d n u m e ro u s to be d estro y e d . In S lo v a k ia ,
H u n g a r y , R u m a n ia a n d B u lg a ria th e socia l stru c tu re w as little
d iffe re n t in 1945 fro m w h a t it h ad b e en in 1939. In a ll fo u r
c o u n trie s th erefo re th e p o st-w a r p e rio d b e g a n w ith c o a litio n
g o v e rn m e n ts, a n d so v ie tisa tio n w as o n ly a c h ie v e d b y th re e stages.
T h e first sta g e w as th e g e n u in e c o a litio n . S e v e ra l p o litic a l
p a rtie s, d iffe rin g in so cia l basis, id e o lo g y a n d lo n g -te rm p ro ­
g ra m m e , a n d possessing e a c h its o w n p a r ty o rg a n isa tio n , c o m b in e d
on a c o m m o n sh o rt-te rm p r o g ra m m e , w h ic h n o m in a lly in c lu d e d a
p u rg e o f fascists, fa irly ra d ic a l so cia l reform s, p o litic a l freed o m an d
a fo re ig n p o lic y fr ie n d ly to b o th th e U .S .S .R . an d th e W estern
P o w e rs. R e a l fre e d o m o f sp eech a n d m ee tin g e xisted , an d th ere
w a s little p o litic a l ce n so rsh ip e x c e p t on o n e su b je c t- th e U .S .S .R .
N o t o n ly m ig h t S o v ie t p o lic y n ot to b e c ritic ise d , b u t it w as h a rd ly
p ossib le to w rite a n y th in g a b o u t a n y asp ect o f R u ssia w h ich d id not
170 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
co in cid e w ith th e o fficia l S o v ie t lin e. B u t this seem ed a sm all p r ic e
to p a y . A p a r t from th is, a w id e v a r ie ty o f o p in io n s, re p resen tin g
v a rio u s p o litic a l v iew s a n d so cia l ca te g o rie s, c o u ld b e fre e ly
exp ressed . N e verth eless a lr e a d y d u r in g th e first s ta g e th e c o m ­
m un ists seized c o n tro l o f m ost o f th e ‘ lev ers o f p o w e r ’— in p a r ­
t ic u la r th e se c u rity p o lice , th e a r m y g e n e ra l s t a ff a n d th e publicity-
m a ch in e. T h e first sta ge lasted o n ly a sh o rt tim e in R u m a n ia
a n d B u lg a ria . T h e fo rced re sig n a tio n o f D r . G . M . D im itr o v from
th e se cre ta ry sh ip o f th e A g r a r ia n U n io n in J a n u a r y 1945 w a s th e
d ec isive m o m e n t in B u lg a ria . T h e p r a c tic a l b re a k d o w n o f th e
first sta ge b e c a m e c le a r w h e n th e A g r a r ia n a n d S o c ia l D e m o c ra t
P a rtie s w e re ‘ c a p t u r e d ’ b y c o m m u n ist n o m in ees in M a y , an d
w as fo rm a lly c o m p le te d b y th e re sig n a tio n o f P c tk o v a n d his
c o llea g u e s in A u g u s t. In R u m a n ia th e c h a n g e c a m e su d d e n ly in
M a r c h 1945, w h e n V y sh in s k i fo rced K in g M ic h a e l to g iv e p o w e r
to G r o z a ’ s ‘ N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic F r o n t ’ g o v e rn m e n t. H u n gary'
passed m ore slo w ly o u t o f th e first sta g e . T h e d e c isiv e crisis w as
th e arrest b y th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s o f B éla K o v á c s in F e b r u a r y
19 4 7, an d th e tran sitio n w as c o m p le te d w h e n N a g y w a s re p la c e d
as P re m ie r b y D in n y é s fo u r m o n th s la te r. C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
re m ain e d in th e first sta ge u p to G o t t w a ld ’ s ‘ F e b r u a r y (p olice-)
r e v o lu tio n ’ o f 1948.
T h e secon d stage m a y b e d escrib e d as th e b o g u s c o a litio n . T h e
g o v e rn m e n ts still c o n ta in n o n -co m m u n ist p a rtie s, b u t th ese a re
re p resen te d b y m en ch osen n o lo n g e r b y th e p a r t y m e m b e rsh ip
b u t b y th e co m m u n ists. T h e essen tial fe a tu re o f this sta g e is th at
th e p ea san t p a rties, a n d a n y b o u rg e o is p a rtie s w h o m a y h a v e b e en
to le ra te d at th e b e g in n in g , a rc d riv e n in to o p p o sitio n . In this
sta ge op p o sitio n is still to le ra te d , b u t b e c o m e s in c re a s in g ly
d ifficu lt. O p p o s itio n n ew sp ap ers m a y b e p u b lish e d , b u t th e ir
d istrib u tio n b e co m e s d a n g e ro u s in th e c a p ita l a n d a lm o st im ­
possible ou tsid e it. C e n so rsh ip is exe rcise d not o n ly b y th e g o v e rn ­
m en t b u t also b y th e c o m m u n ist-c o n tro lle d p rin te rs’ tra d e u n ion s,
w h ich ‘ in d ig n a n tly refuse to p rin t r e a c tio n a ry c a lu m n ie s a g a in st
th e p e o p le ’s a u th o ritie s ’ . O p p o s itio n m ee tin gs a rc b ro k e n u p b y
lo rry lo a d s o f co m m u n ist to u gh s, w h ile th e p o lic e ‘ o b je c t iv e ly ’
tak e no a c tio n a g a in st aggresso rs o r aggressed . In P o la n d this sta g e
existed from th e ‘ lib e r a t io n ’ o n w a rd s, th o u g h it w a s o n ly fo r­
m a lly estab lish ed in th e su m m e r o f 194G w h e n M ik o ła jc z y k
fo rm a lly left th e g o v e rn m e n t o f w h ic h h e h ad b e e n 110 m o re th an
a fo rm a l m em b e r. It c a m e to a n en d in th e a u tu m n o f 194 7. In
B u lg a ria an d R u m a n ia it la sted fro m th e sp r in g o f 1943 to th e
 T H E S EI Z URE OK P O W E R I7I

a u tu m n o f i <>4 7 - T h e in tro d u c tio n in to th e G r o z a g o v e rn m e n t o f

o n e re p r e s e n ta tiv e e a c h o f th e tw o m ain o p p o sitio n p a rties, as a
resu lt o f th e M o sc o w co n fe re n ce o f D e c e m b e r 1945, m ad e n o
d iffe re n c e , as th ese m en w e re n ot c o n su lte d b y th eir c a b in e t
‘ c o lle a g u e s ’ a n d w ie ld e d n o p o w e r. In H u n g a r y th e secon d stage
la sted fo r a b o u t a y e a r (sp rin g 1947 to sp rin g 1948), an d w as not
fin a lly liq u id a te d u n til th e arrest o f C a r d in a l M in d sz e n th y and
d isso lu tio n o f B a rá n k o v ic s ’ C a th o lic P a rty a t th e en d o f 1948.
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia in 1948 le a p e d a lm o st d ire c tly from th e first to
th e th ird sta g e , fo r a fte r th e ‘ F e b r u a r y (po lice-) r e v o lu tio n ' 110
o p p o sitio n w a s to le ra te d .
T h e th ird sta g e is th e ‘ m o n o lith ic ’ re g im e . T h e r e is a sin gle
c o m m u n ist-m a n a g e d ‘ fr o n t ’ , w ith o n e h ie ra r c h y , on e cen tralised
d isc ip lin e a n d o n e o rg a n isa tio n . A n im p o rta n t fe a tu re o f this stage
is th e e n fo rce d fusion o f th e w e ll-p u rg e d so cia l d em o cra ts w ith the
c o m m u n ists in a U n ite d W o rk e rs’ P a rty . T h is is o f course
m o re im p o r ta n t in th e th ree C e n tr a l E u ro p e a n co u n trie s, w h ere
so cia l d e m o c r a c y h as a stro n g tra d itio n , th an in th e fo u r so u th ­
e a ste rn co u n trie s, w h ere it h as n ot. In R u m a n ia a n d B u lg a ria th e
so cia l d e m o c ra ts p la y e d a m in o r b u t n ot in sign ifican t p a rt
b e tw e e n ‘ lib e r a t io n ’ a n d a b so rp tio n : in Y u g o s la v ia an d A lb a n ia
th e y d id n ot a p p e a r a t a ll. In th e th ird sta ge a ll o p en o p p o sition
is su p p ressed , an d its le a d e rs e ith e r e sca p e a b ro a d o r are arrested
as ‘ spies o f th e W e ste rn im p e ria lis ts ’ an d e ith e r e x e c u te d or
se n te n ce d to lo n g p rison term s. T h is th ird sta ge w as estab lish ed
in Y u g o s la v ia an d A lb a n ia a lr e a d y in 19 4 5 : in the o th e r cou n tries
its p r e p a ra tio n w'as p u sh ed ra p id ly a h e a d a fte r the fo u n d a tio n o f
th e C o m in fo r m , a n d it w as c o m p le te d b y th e en d o f 1948. T h e
m a in la n d m a rk s in this sta ge w e re th e trials o f I’ e tk o v a n d M a n iu
a n d th e flig h t o f M ik o ła jc z y k (all in th e a u tu m n o f 1 9 4 7 ); the
p u rg e o f th e H u n g a r ia n S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rty ( M a r c h 1948) and
th e liq u id a tio n o f ‘ b o u rg e o is d e m o c r a c y ’ b y G o t t w a ld ’s p o lice.
T h e m ost e lo q u e n t a n d tra g ic sy m b o ls o f th e c h a n g e a re the
d e a th s o f J a n M a s a r y k a n d E d u a rd B en eś.

POLAN D
T h e P o lish P ro v isio n a l G o v e rn m e n t re co gn ise d b y the G r e a t
P o w ers in J u ly 1945 w'as n o m in a lly a co a litio n . N o less th an
fiv e p a rtie s to o k p a rt in it— P olish (C o m m u n ist) W o rk e rs’
P a r ty ( P .P .R .) , P olish S o c ia list P a rty ( P .P .S .) , D e m o c ra tic
P a r t y , L a b o u r P a r ty , a n d P e o p le ’s (P e asan t) P a rty . M ik o ła jc z y k
w as a v ic e -p r e m ie r a n d also M in iste r o f A g r ic u ltu r e , an d on e o f
172 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
his m ain follow ers, K ie r n ik , w as M in is te r o f P u b lic A d m in is tr a ­
tion . In fa c t, h o w e v e r, th e co m m u n ists h ad w e ll u sed th e p e rio d o f
‘ lib e r a t io n ’ b y th e R e d A r m y , an d o f th e I.u b lin C o m m itte e , to
in stall th em selves in th e k ey positions a n d to p la c e th e ir tru sted
a gen ts o r h elpless tools in k ey p osition s w ith in th e o th e r p a rties.
T h e p o lic e w e re co n tro lle d b y th e co m m u n ists fro m th e sta rt.
T h e M in istry o f th e In te rio r w as d iv id e d in to tw o m in istries,
P u b lic A d m in is tra tio n an d S e c u rity . T h e fo rm e r, u n d e r K ie r n ik ,
d e a lt o n ly w ith ro u tin e b u re a u c ra tic m atters. T h e la tte r c o n tro lle d
th e a rm e d se c u rity o rg an isa tio n s. It w a s h e a d e d b y th e p ro m in e n t
co m m u n ist R a d k ie w ic z , an d its sen io r p erson n el w e re soon a lm o st
e x c lu s iv e ly co m m u n ist. I t h a d th ree o rg a n isa tio n s— th e S e c u rity
O ffic e ( U .B .) , th e In te rn a l S e c u rity C o rp s (K .B .V V .) a n d th e
V o lu n te e r C itiz e n s ’ M ilitia R e se rv e ( O . R .M .Ö . ) . T h e U .B . w as
th e secret p o litic a l p o lice , th e b ra in s o f th e system . T h e K .B .V V .
w as a m ilita r y o rg a n isa tio n , w h ic h c a rrie d o u t o p e ra tio n s in close
co -o p e ra tio n w ith R e d A r m y u n its a g a in st th e re m a in in g g u e rrilla
forces, an d used its o p p o rtu n itie s to te rro rise th e p ea san ts, c a r r y ­
in g ou t su m m a ry e x e c u tio n s a n d d e s tro y in g houses as reprisals.
T h e O .R . M . O . w as c re a te d o n ly in A p r il 1946. Its m em b e rsh ip
e x c e e d e d 100,000. I t w as re c ru ite d m a in ly from in d u stria l
w o rk e rs, an d w as c o m m a n d e d from th e b e g in n in g b y co m m u n ists,
w h o in d o c trin a te d its m em b ers so t h a t th e y fo rm e d a p r iv a te
a r m y o f th e C o m m u n ist P a rty . It w as in e ffe ct a p a rt-tim e
m ilita r y o rg a n isa tio n , fo rm in g a p o litic a lly re lia b le reserve fo r th e
re g u la r a rm e d forces.
T h e r e g u la r a r m y its e lf w a s o f co u rse a lso c o n tro lle d a t least
a t th e to p b y co m m u n ists. V e r y fe w fo rm e r P o lish officers w e re
a v a ila b le . M a n y fo rm e r officers w e re in p riso n e rs’ ca m p s in
G e r m a n y , m a n y h a d b e en m assa cred at K a t y n o r h a d d isa p p e a re d
else w h ere in R u ssia , oth ers w e re in th e P o lish a r m y in e x ile , oth ers
h ad served at h o m e in th e H o m e A r m y a n d so w e re re g a rd e d w ith
su sp icio n . T h o se fo rm e r officers w h o w e re a c c e p te d in th e n ew
a r m y con sisted m a in ly o f those w h o h a d se rv e d in th e d ivision s
c o m m a n d e d b y B e rlin g in 1 9 4 4 -5 . T h e y in c lu d e d a la rg e n u m b e r
o f R e d A r m y officers seco n d ed to th e P o lish forces, som e o f w h o m
w e re o f P olish o rig in . T h e M in iste r o f W a r a n d C o m m a n d e r -in -
C h ie f w as M a rsh a l Ż y m ie rsk i. T h e n e w o ffic e r co rp s in c lu d e d
R u ssian s w h o se k n o w le d g e o f th e P olish la n g u a g e w as im p e rfe ct.
A n o t h e r so u rce o f c o m m u n ist stre n g th w a s c o n tro l o f th e w e ste rn
territories a c q u ire d from G e r m a n y . A t th e en d o f 1945 a se p a ra te
M in is try o f R e g a in e d T e r rito rie s w as set u p , a n d w as e n tru ste d to
 TH E SE I Z UR E OF P O W E R 17 3
th e co m m u n ist v ic e -p r e m ie r an d g e n e ra l se c re ta ry o f P .P .R .,
G o m u łk a . T h e r e b y a ll a d m in istra tio n o f these areas w as tak en ou t
o f th e h a n d s o f K ic r n i k a n d his M in istry o f P u b lic A d m in is tr a ­
tio n . T h e n e w te rrito ries w e re rich in a g r ic u ltu r a l la n d , farm
e q u ip m e n t an d in d u stria l jo b s , w h o se d istrib u tio n g a v e th e c o m ­
m un ists m a g n ific e n t o p p o rtu n itie s o f p a tro n a g e . Peasan ts from
th e o v e r -p o p u la te d p a rts o f c e n tra l P o la n d , se e k in g n e w la n d , h ad
to o b e y th e o rd e rs o f th e C o m m u n ist P a rty . T h e w estern region s
soon b e c a m e a c o m m u n ist sta te w ith in th e Polish state. T h e
co m m u n ists re c e iv e d su p p o rt from th e R e d A r m y , w h ich o f cou rse
o c c u p ie d this a re a in g re a t stren gth d u r in g a n d a fte r th e o p era tion s
a g a in st th e G e rm a n s. F o r a tim e la rg e tra cts o f la n d w e re g iv e n
as farm s to th e R e d A r m y , to su p p o rt p a rt o f th eir n eed s in foo d .
T h e re m o v a l o f th e G e r m a n p o p u la tio n w as sw ift a n d d rastic.
B e fo re 1939 th is te rrito r y h ad h ad b e tw e e n e ig h t an d n in e m illion
G e r m a n in h a b ita n ts. M o st fled as th e G e rm a n a r m y re tre a te d , b ut
som e tw o m illio n w e re e x p e lle d a fte r th e en d o f th e w a r. G r a d u a lly
th e e m p ty sp a ces filled u p . A c c o r d in g to Polish official figures, in
O c t o b e r 1948 th e p o p u la tio n w as 5,500,000 o f w h o m a b o u t
1,000,000 h a d b een th ere b e fo re th e w a r, a n d m ost o f these w ere,
o r d e c la re d th em selv es to b e , Poles. O f the n ew c o m ers, 1,800,000
c a m e fro m th e e astern p ro v in c e s ce d ed to the S o v ie t U n io n ,
100,000 from W e ste rn E u ro p e o r B rita in , a n d 2,500,000from o v e r­
p o p u la te d d istricts in c e n tra l P o la n d .
I'h e r e p a tria tio n o f P oles from th e W e st w as a ca u se o f c o n ­
sta n t frictio n w ith th e W e ste rn g o v e rn m e n ts, e sp e c ia lly w ith the
B ritish . P o lish g o v e rn m e n t p r o p a g a n d a b itte r ly a tta c k e d G e n e ra l
A n d e rs a n d th e c o m m a n d o f th e tro o p s in e x ile , a c c u s in g th em o f
u sin g b o th p r o p a g a n d a a n d pressure to p re v e n t th e ir m en from
r e tu rn in g h o m e , a n d th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t o f c o n d o n in g or
e v e n e n c o u r a g in g th eir a c tio n . O f th e h o stility o f A n d e rs an d his
officers to th e n e w P o la n d th ere w as n o d o u b t, b u t m ost P oles in
e x ile n e ed e d n e ith e r p r o p a g a n d a n o r pressure to p e rsu a d e th em
to sta y a b r o a d . T h o s e w h o h a d sp en t tw o y e a rs in th e U .S .S .R .
in th e first p a rt o f th e w a r w e re e sp e c ia lly u n w illin g to retu rn .
Polish g o v e rn m e n t re p resen ta tiv e s w e re , h o w e v e r, a llo w e d to p u t
th e ir ca se to P o lish troop s in B rita in , a n d in fa c t som e 110,000
d e c id e d to re tu rn . F o r th e rest it w as d e c id e d to c re a te a P olish
R e s e ttle m e n t C o rp s, w h ic h b e g a n re c ru itin g in J a n u a r y 1947.
A b o u t 100,000 o u t o f 142,000 jo in e d , an d b y th e en d o f 1947
m o re th an h a lf o f th em h a d o b ta in e d c iv il e m p lo y m e n t in B rita in .
A s lo n g as P olish forces h a d b een sta tio n e d in c o n sid e ra b le

13
I 74 THE EAST E U R O P E A N R E V OL U T I ON

n u m b ers in I t a ly , A u s tria a n d G e r m a n y , th ere w e re so m e g ro u n d s

fo r a la rm in W a r s a w . B o th th e P olish co m m u n ists a n d th e fo l­
low ers o f G e n e ra l A n d e rs seem to h a v e b e lie v e d th a t a n e w w a r
w o u ld soon b re a k o u t b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t U n io n a n d th e W e ste rn
P ow ers. In this e v e n t th e A n d e rs a r m y w o u ld h a v e p la y e d a ro le
sim ila r to P ilsu d sk i’ s legion s in 19 14 , a n d w o u ld h a v e re c e iv e d
h e lp from th e rem n a n ts o f th e H o m e A r m y w ith in P o la n d . It is
im p ossib le to ju d g e th e a c c u r a c y o f th e a ccu sa tio n s m a d e in th e
Polish press an d in th e v a rio u s tria ls o f a lle g e d su b v e rs iv e g ro u p s
w h ich to o k p la c e in th e first tw o y ears a fte r ‘ lib e r a t io n ’ . B u t it is
ce rta in th a t irr e c o n c ila b le g ro u p s o f g u e rrilla s re m a in e d for som e
tim e in th e P olish forests, a n d th a t th ere w e re assassin ation s o f
g o v e rn m e n t o fficials a n d p o lic e m e n . S o m e o f these g ro u p s m a y
h a v e h a d c o n ta c t b y c o u rie r o r w ireless w ith P olish forces in
G e r m a n y o r B rita in . D u rin g th e first m o n th s g u e rrilla a c tio n s
ca u sed real a n x ie ty to th e P o lish g o v e rn m e n t, b u t o n c e th e ir o w n
p o lice forces an d p o litic a l a rm ies w e re stro n g, th e e x iste n ce o f
gu e rrilla s b e c a m e a b lessin g to th em . T h e g u e rrilla d a n g e r w as
used as a n exc u se for rep ressive m easu res a g a in st th e le g a l P olish
P e o p le ’s P a rty o f M ik o ła jc z y k , T h e p e a san t le a d e r h im s e lf w as
a ccu sed o f secret d ea lin g s w ith th e ‘ u n d e r g r o u n d ’ a n d w ith
A n d e rs, on b e h a lf o f his m asters, th e B ritish im p eria lists.
T h e L u b lin C o m m itte e a lr e a d y in 1944 h a d c o n ta in e d re p r e ­
sen tativ es o f a ‘ P e o p le ’ s P a r t y ’ w h ic h c la im e d to b e th e c o n ­
tin u a tio n o f th e p r e -w a r p e a sa n t m o v e m e n t o f th a t n a m e . I t w as
in fa ct a m ix tu re o f g e n u in e m em b ers o f th e p r e -w a r p e a san t
m o v e m e n t a n d stooges o f th e co m m u n ists. W h e n M ik o ła jc z y k
re tu rn e d to P o la n d , h e c o n ta c te d its p resid e n t a n d g e n e ra l sec­
re ta ry , B a ń c z y k a n d Ś cib io re k . T h e y a g re e d w ith h im to re ­
o rg a n ise th e p a r ty o v e r th e w h o le c o u n tr y , w ith th e v e te ra n
le a d e r W ito s as p resid e n t a n d w ith M ik o ła jc z y k a n d B a ń c z y k as
th e tw o vice -p re sid e n ts. T h e c o m m u n ists o b je c te d stro n g ly to this,
a n d w h en B a ń c z y k c a lle d a m e e tin g o f th e S u p re m e C o u n c il o f
th e p a rty th e y p a c k e d it w ith th e ir m en a n d passed a re so lu tio n
e x p e llin g h im from th e p a rty . In these circ u m sta n c e s M ik o ła jc z y k
h ad n o a lte r n a tiv e b u t to o rg a n ise his p a r ty as a n e w p a r ty u n d e r
th e title P olish P e o p le ’ s P a rty ( P .S .L .) . M o st o f th e g e n u in e
su p p o rters o f th e p easan t m o v e m e n t jo in e d h im , a n d th e L u b lin -
ite P e o p le ’s P a rty ( S .L .) re m a in e d as a b o g u s p e a sa n t o rg a n is a ­
tion led b y n om in ees o f th e co m m u n ists. S h o rtly a fte rw a rd s a
m e m b e r o f th e e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e o f P .S .L ., K o jd e r , w a s
a b d u c te d a n d m u rd e re d b y co m m u n ists in P r ze m y śl. In D e c e m -
 T H E S E I Z UR E OF P OWE R 1 75
b c r S cib io re k w a s m u rd e re d b y m em b ers o f th e se c u rity p o lice in
u n ifo rm . T h e co m m u n ists at first refused M ik o la jc z y k ’s d em a n d
fo r a sp e cia l co m m issio n o f in v e stig a tio n on th e gro u n d th a t this
im p lie d la ck o f co n fid e n c e in th e M in iste r o f S e c u r it y ’ . L a te r th e
com m issio n w as a u th o rise d , b u t n e v e r o p e ra te d . A y e a r la te r a
tria l w a s h e ld o f som e p o lic e m e n a n d o f a w o m a n e m p lo y e d b y th e
U .S . E m b a ssy, a t w h ic h th e p o lic e m e n ‘ c o n fe sse d ’ th a t th e y h ad
m u rd e re d Ś cib io re k o n in stru ctio n s from th e ‘ u n d e r g r o u n d ’ , and
th e w o m a n th a t she h a d tried to sm u g g le th em o u t o f the c o u n try .
T h e first con gress o f P .S . I,, w a s h eld on 19 J a n u a r y 1946. It then
c la im e d to h a v e 600,000 m em b ers. W ito s h a d d ie d in O c to b e r
194 5. H e w as su c c e e d e d as P resid en t b y M ik o ła jc z y k . B esides a
p r o g ra m m e o f r a d ic a l so cia l reform , e sp e c ia lly in th e interests o f
th e p e a san ts, th e con gress issued reso lu tion s d e m a n d in g resp ect for
th e la w s, in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e la w -c o u rts a n d lo c a l se lf-g o v e rn ­
m en t. T h e c o m m u n ist re a c tio n to th e con gress w as in creased
pressu re o n P .S .L . to jo in th e g o v e rn m e n t b lo c — P .P .R ., P .P .S .,
S .L . a n d D e m o c r a tic P a r ty — w h ic h w as p r e p a rin g a jo in t list for
th e im p e n d in g e le ctio n s, e a c h p a r ty b e in g assign ed b e fo re h an d
its sh a re o f seats in th e fu tu re p a rlia m e n t. M ik o ła jc z y k resisted
th e p ressure, as h e w ish ed th e e le ctio n s to be a re a l test o f p u b lic
o p in io n . B e lie v in g s in c e re ly th a t h e h a d th e g re a t m a jo rity o f the
P olish n a tio n b e h in d h im , h e re p lied th a t he w o u ld o n ly jo in the
b lo c i f P .S .L . w as g iv e n th re e -q u a rte rs o f th e scats in th e fu tu re
p a r lia m e n t. I t is n o t u n lik e ly th a t this rep resen ted th e sta te o f
o p in io n , b u t th e d e m a n d w a s o f co u rse u n a c c e p ta b le to the c o m ­
m un ists.
T h e te rro r o f th e p o lic e forces a g a in st P .S .L . su p p o rters
in cre a se d in m a n y pa rts o f th e c o u n try . T h r o u g h o u t th e y e a r,
th o u g h P .S .L . n o m in a lly fo rm ed p a rt o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, it w as
tre a te d n o t o n ly as an o p p o sitio n p a r ty b u t as an o u tla w . M ik o ł­
a jc z y k w a s re p e a te d ly d e n o u n c e d b y th e c o m m u n ist press as a
‘ B ritish a g e n t ’ . In M a r c h a co n gress o f th e 'P e a s a n t S e lf- h e lp ’
c o - o p e r a tiv e o rg a n isa tio n w a s c a lle d in W a r s a w . O v e r 2,000
d e le g a te s w e re e le c te d , o f w h o m som e 800 a rriv e d , th e rest h a v in g
b e e n a rre ste d on th e ir w a y . T h e prem ises reserved fo r th e con gress
w e re filled b y U .B . o fficials an d c o m m u n ist n om in ees. W h e n
M ik o ła jc z y k , as M in is te r o f A g r ic u ltu r e , b e g a n to add ress the
m e e tin g , h e w a s sh o u ted d o w n b y th e c o m m u n ist stooges. H e
th e n left th e h a ll, a n d led th e g e n u in e d ele g ate s to th e c e n tra l
o ffice o f P .S .L ., w h e re th e m e e tin g w a s h eld . N e x t d a y th e p o lice
ra id e d th e P .S .L . o ffice, co n fisc a te d p a p e rs a n d a rrested so m e
176 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
em p lo ye e s. S o on a fter this th e ‘ P e a sa n t S e lf- h e lp ’ w as tak e n o v e r
b y co m m u n ist n om in ees.
D u r in g this tim e th e p ro v isio n a l p a rlia m e n t c o n tin u e d to be
th e C o u n c il o f the H o m e la n d ( K . R . N . ) , first fo rm e d in th e L u b lin
p erio d an d slig h tly e n la rg e d to g iv e P .S .L . re p resen ta tio n . A t th e
sp rin g session o f K ..R .N . B a iic z y k d e m a n d e d th at e le ctio n s be h eld
b y 28 J u ly , th e a n n iv e rsa ry o f th e P o tsd a m c o n fe re n c e , w h ic h
h a d spoken o f P olish electio n s w ith in a y e a r . T h e co m m u n ists,
h o w e v e r, d e c id e d first to h o ld a re fe re n d u m o n th re e q u estio n s—
fo r o r a g a in st th e a b o litio n o f a S e c o n d C h a m b e r (S e n a te ), th e
so cia l reform s (lan d refo rm a n d n a tio n a lisa tio n ), a n d th e n e w
w estern fro n tier. T h e ir a im w as to presen t a n im p ression o f
u n a n im ity a n d so in crea se th e a rg u m e n t in fa v o u r o f a sin gle list
fo r th e e v e n tu a l p a rlia m e n ta r y election s. M ik o ła jc z y k d e c id e d to
in stru ct his su p p o rters to v o te ‘ N o ’ o n th e first q u e s tio n , n ot
b e cau se h e h a d a n y g r e a t b e lie f in th e S e n a te , b u t sim p ly in o rd e i
to g iv e o p p o sitio n a c h a n c e to m an ifest itself. D u r in g th e e a r ly
su m m e r se v eral m on ster m eetin gs w e re h e ld b y P .S .L . E a r ly in
J u n e R a d k ie w ic z a n n o u n ce d th a t fo u r b ra n ch e s o f P .S .L . h a d
b een clo sed for c o lla b o ra tio n w ith th e u n d e rg ro u n d o rg a n isa tio n s
N .S .Z . o r V V .I.N .1 T h e p a p e r a llo c a tio n o f th e P .S .L . n e w s­
p a p e r Gazeta Ludowa w as c u t d o w n . B y th e en d o f J u n e M ik o ł­
a jc zy k cla im e d th a t 1,200 m em b ers o f his p a r ty w e re u n d e r arrest.
P o llin g took p la c e on 30 J u n e . T h e o fficia l e le c tio n results sh ow ed
a g o v e rn m e n t m a jo rity o f 68 p e r ce n t on th e first q u estio n .
M ik o ła jc z y k m a in ta in e d th a t th ere h a d b e e n sy ste m a tic falsi­
fica tio n o f results. In 2,805 p o llin g a re as in fo u rte e n p ro v in ce s,
w h ere th e v o tin g com m ission s h a d m a n a g e d to sa v e th e p o ll-b o x e s
from th e p o lic e , th e results w e re , M ik o ła jc z y k c la im e d , 83 p e r cen t
a g a in st th e g o v e rn m e n t. H e c la im e d th at this resu lt re p resen te d
th e o p in io n o f th e w h o le c o u n t r y .2
T h e n e x t sta ge w a s th e p r e p a ra tio n o f th e p a r lia m e n ta r y
e le ctio n fixed fo r J a n u a r y 1947. D u rin g th e su m m e r th e le a d e rs o f
P .P .R . a n d P .P .S . in tu rn v isited M o sc o w . T e r r o r a g a in st P .S .L .
co n tin u e d , a n d B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n n otes o f pro test w e re
ig n o re d . T h e S tu ttg a rt sp e e ch o f U .S . S e c r e ta r y o f S ta te B yrn es
in S e p te m b e r w as used b y th e g o v e rn m e n t as e v id e n c e t h a t th e
W e ste rn P o w e rs w o u ld b a c k G e r m a n y a g a in st P o la n d . M ik o ł­
a jc z y k w as a t th e tim e on an o ffic ia l m ission in D e n m a rk , a n d h eld

1 F o r N .S .Z . sec a b o v e , p. 1 1 4 . W .I .N . a r c ih e P olish in itia ls o f ‘ F r e e d o m a n d

in d e p e n d e n c e ’ {wolność i niepodległość).
* M ik o ła jc z y k , T he PatUrn o j Soviet Domination, p p . 18 0 -5 .
 THE S E I Z URE OF P OWE R 177
a press c o n fe re n c e critic is in g th e sp ce ch . B u t his rem ark s w e re not
p u b lish e d in P o la n d , a n d h e w as re p resen te d as th e w illin g tool o f
th e G e r m a n o p h ile W e ste rn P o w e rs. T h e L a b o u r P a rty led b y
P o p ie l w as a t this tim e seized b y c o m m u n ist n om in ees, led b y a
c e r ta in W id y -W ir s k i, a n d P o p ie l h im se lf e x p e lle d . T h e n ew
e le c to ra l la w p r o v id e d u n e q u a l co n stitu e n cie s, g iv in g d isp ro ­
p o rtio n a te re p resen ta tio n to th e w e ste rn territories, th e ‘ s a fe ’
co m m u n ist sta te w ith in th e sta te. O n 7 O c to b e r P .S .I., o ffic ia lly
d e c id e d to refu se to jo in th e g o v e rn m e n t b lo c.
A fte r this, p e rsec u tio n fu rth e r in cre a se d . T w o p o litic a l trials
w e re m a d e to in c rim in a te M ik o ła jc z y k . In th e first C o u n t
G r o c h o lsk i, a p e rso n a l frien d o f th e B ritish A m b a ssa d o r, w as c o n ­
d e m n e d for p a ssin g h im in fo rm a tio n o n b e h a lf o f th e ‘ u n d e r­
g ro u n d ’ , a n d h e w a s e x e c u te d . In th e secon d a fo rm e r H o m e A r m y
o ffice r, R z e p e c k i, ‘ c o n fe sse d ’ th at M ik o ła jc z y k h a d g iv e n h im
a d v ic e w h ic h h ad ca u se d h im to co n tin u e a rm e d resistan ce to the
g o v e rn m e n t w ith his g u e rrilla forccs, d esp ite th e a m n e sty .
G o v e r n m e n t p r o p a g a n d a c o n tin u a lly rep resen ted P .S .L . as th e
le g a l fa ţ a d e o f a re a c tio n a r y g u e rrilla u n d e rg ro u n d m o ve m e n t.
It a lso a tte m p te d to w in o v e r p e a san t v o ters b y a llo w in g tw o
m in o r p a rtie s to p u t u p c a n d id a te s in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e g o v e rn ­
m e n t b lo c. T hese w e re th e b o gu s L a b o u r P a rty o f W id y -W irs k i
a n d th e ‘ P olish P e o p le ’s P a r ty — N e w L ib e r a t io n ’ , led b y a c e rta in
R c k , w h o h a d b e en e x p e lle d fro m P .S .L . w h e n it w as d isco v ere d
th a t h e wras b e in g fo rced to w o rk w ith in it on b e h a lf o f th e c o m ­
m un ists. G o v e rn m e n t su p p o rte rs m a in ta in e d th a t this sp lin te r
g ro u p a n d th e b o g u s P e o p le ’ s P a rty ( S .L .) w e re th e tru e re p r e ­
se n ta tiv e s o f th e p e a sa n t m o v e m e n t, an d th a t M ik o ła jc z y k w as
w o rk in g fo r th e r e a c tio n a r y g e n e ra ls, la n d o w n e rs a n d ca p italists
a n d fo r th e ‘ W e ste rn im p e ria lis ts ’ . T h e o n ly e le m e n t o f tru th in
this a rg u m e n t is th a t c o n se rv a tiv e P o les w o u ld be m ore lik e ly to
v o te fo r P .S .L . th a n fo r a n y o th e r p a rty , as it w as th e least left-
w in g p a r ty a llo w e d to sta n d . B u t n e ith e r M ik o ła jc z y k n or his
c o lle a g u e s in th e p a rty le a d e rsh ip w e re in a n y sense re a ctio n a rie s.
T h e y stood fo r r a d ic a l reform s, resp ect for th e law’ , freed o m o f
o p in io n a n d n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e . T h e y w e re for close c o -o p e ra ­
tio n w'ith th e U .S .S .R . b u t also w ith th e W est. I t w as th e S o v iet
g o v e rn m e n t w h ic h re je c te d th e ir frien d sh ip , p re fe rrin g w h o le ­
h e a r te d ly to b a c k th e co m m u n ists. T h e m ass su p p o rt fo r M ik o ł­
a jc z y k , w h ic h wras u n m ista k a b le as lo n g as his p a rty w as a llo w e d
to h o ld m ee tin g s, c a m e fro m b o th p easan ts a n d to w n sm e n ,
in c lu d in g w ork ers.
178 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e e le ctio n s w e re p re c e d e d b y a series o f tric k d ec re es d esig n e d
to m ak e it d iffic u lt fo r P .S .L . to g e t its ca n d id a te s re c o g n ise d , an d
la rg e -sca le arrests an d to rtu re o f sponsors o f P .S .L . lists a n d o f
P .S .L . co u rie rs b e a rin g in stru ctio n s from c e n tra l o ffice. A c c o r d in g
to M ik o ła jc z y k , d u r in g th e c a m p a ig n p e rio d o v e r 100,000 p a r ty
m em b ers w e re in prison , a n d 142 o f th e p a r t y ’s c a n d id a te s w e re
arre ste d . In ten o u t o f fifty -tw o e le c to ra l d istricts, w ith on e-
q u a r te r o f th e c o u n t r y ’s p o p u la tio n , th e P .S .L . lists w e re d is­
q u a lifie d . ‘ V o lu n ta r y o p e n v o t in g ’ to o k p la c e in m a n y d istricts,
an d w ork ers in offices a n d fa cto rie s w e re fo rc e d to m a rc h to g e th e r
to th e p o llin g -b o o th to v o te d e m o n stra tiv e ly a n d p u b lic ly fo r th e
g o v e rn m e n t. T h e official results g a v e th e g o v e rn m e n t b lo c 394
seats, P .S .L . 28 an d th e p se u d o -in d e p e n d e n t p a rtie s 22. T h e n e w
g o v e rn m e n t w as h e a d e d b y th e so cia list C y r a n k ie w ic z . In th e n e w
p a rlia m e n t M ik o ła jc z y k w as a tta c k e d in in c re a s in g ly v io le n t
la n g u a g e . A p ro v isio n a l c o n stitu tio n , b ase d o n th e S o v ie t m o d e l,
w as a d o p te d on 19 F e b r u a r y 1947.
P ersecu tio n o f P .S .L . c o n tin u e d th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r . A fte r th e
refu sal b y th e E ast E u ro p e a n co u n trie s o f th e M a r s h a ll P la n , a n d
th e fo rm a tio n o f th e C o m in fo r m , in th e a u tu m n o f 19 4 7, th e
situ a tio n b e ca m e m o re d a n g e ro u s. M ik o ła jc z y k re c e iv e d in fo r m a ­
tion th a t h e w o u ld sh o rtly b e a rrested a n d c o n d e m n e d to d e a th .
H e d e c id e d th a t th ere w a s n o th in g m o re th a t h e c o u ld d o , th a t
to c o n tin u e th e p a r t y ’s a c tiv ity w as o n ly to exp o se P o les to useless
sa crifice , a n d th a t th e loss o f his o w n life w o u ld be o f n o v a lu e .
T h e tre a tm e n t o f P e tk o v a n d M a n iu in th e sam e m o n th s seem ed
to co n firm his fears. H e left P o la n d se c re tly a t th e e n d o f O c t o b e r .
T h e o n ly p a r ty w h ic h still h a d re m n a n ts o f in d e p e n d e n c e w a s
n o w th e S o c ia list P a rty ( P .P .S .) . F ro m th e ‘ lib e r a t io n ’ o n w a rd s
this h a d b e e n a p a le sh a d o w o f th e o ld P .P .S . S o m e o f th e p a r t y ’ s
le a d e rs w e re in e x ile (A rcis ze w sk i, K w a p iń s k i, C io łk o s z ) , o th ers
h a d b e en k ille d b y th e G e rm a n s. O n e o f th e m h a d b e e n a m o n g th e
six te en resistan ce le a d e rs a rrested b y th e R u ssia n s (P u ż a k ). T h e
re v iv a l o f P .P .S . w as in fa c t to le ra te d b y th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s in
1 9 4 4 -5 o n ly on c o n d itio n th a t th e o ld le a d e rs sh o u ld p la y n o p a rt.
T h o s e w h o h a d p la y e d a le a d in g p a rt in th e w a r tim e W . R .N .
w e re re je c te d . C y r a n k ie w ic z , a m in o r fig u r e in th e p a r t y b e fo re
1939, w a s m a d e g e n e ra l se c re ta ry o n his re tu rn from O ś w ię c im
c o n c e n tr a tio n c a m p . O s ó b k a - M o r a w s k i a n d his R .P .P .S ., w h ic h
m erg e d itse lf in th e re v iv e d P .P .S ., also p la y e d a le a d in g p a rt.
F ro m th e b e g in n in g th e n e w P .P .S . le a d e rs stressed th e ir d esire
to ‘ co -o p e ra te lo y a lly ’ w ith th e co m m u n ists. In N o v e m b e r 1946 a
 T H E S EI Z URE OF P O W E R 1 79
p o litic a l a llia n c e o f th e tw o p a rtie s w a s m a d e , w ith sp e cia l re fe r­
e n ce to th e e le ctio n s, b u t w ith a p rom ise b y b o th to rcsp cct e a ch
o th e r ’ s in d e p e n d e n t o rg a n isa tio n s. In D e c e m b e r 1947 P .P .S . h eld
a con gress in B re sla u . L ip se rv ice w as p a id to ‘ w o rk e rs’ u n ity ’ ,
b u t C y r a n k ie w ic z d e c la re d th e tim e h a d n ot y e t c o m c for fu sion . H e
c h a n g e d his m in d in M a r c h 1948, p r e s u m a b ly as a resu lt o f even ts
in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d H u n g a r y a n d p e rh a p s a fte r pressure from
C o m in fo r m . W ith o u t c o n su ltin g th e p a r t y ’ s e x e c u tiv e co m m itte e ,
h e s u d d e n ly in fo rm e d th e W a r s a w P .P .S . o rg a n isa tio n th a t he h ad
d e c id e d o n fu sion .
B efore this c o u ld tak e p la c e th e p a rty h a d to b e still fu rth e r
p u rg e d o f ‘ rig h t- w in g e r s ’ . T h e r e h a d a lr e a d y b e e n m a n y pu rg es
o f lo c a l o rg a n isa tio n s , e sp e c ia lly in N o v e m b e r 1946 an d J u n e
19 4 7. A fte r M a r c h 1948 th e p a c e q u ic k e n e d . T h e w h o le e x e c u tiv e
c o m m itte e o f th e P .P .S . in L ó d ż w as re m o v e d , a n d dism issals
to o k p la c e a ll o v e r th e c o u n try . A t last th e fu sion con gress w as held
in W a r s a w o n 15 D e c e m b e r 1948, a n d a P olish U n ite d W o rk e rs’
P a r t y w as fo rm e d , w ith a n e w p a r ty sta tu te clo se ly m o d e lle d on
th a t o f th e S o v ie t C o m m u n ist P a rty . F u sio n w as in fa c t a p o lite
n a m e fo r th e co n q u e st o f a g re a t Polish p a rty b y a p o w e r c liq u e o f
a g e n ts o f a fo reig n p o w e r, a c h ie v e d b y th re e y e ars o f pressure,
p u rg es a n d te rro r. A n d i f th e P .P .S . le a d e rs seem to h a v e been
w e a k , it m ust b e re m e m b e re d th a t th e y k n ew a lw a y s th at in the
b a c k g ro u n d w as th e m ilita r y m ig h t o f R u ssia. B y th e fusion
con gress th e P olish c o m m u n ists c o m p le te d th eir m o n o p o ly o f
p o litic a l p o w e r.

C Z E C H O S L O V A K IA
A c c o r d in g to th e R o s ie r p ro g ra m m e p ro c la im e d b y the n ew
g o v e rn m e n t on 22 M a r c h 1945, th e restored re p u b lic w as to be a
sta te o f C z e c h s a n d S lo v a k s. L o c a l g o v e rn m e n t w as to b e c o n ­
d u c te d b y p e o p le ’s co m m itte e s. T h e p ro p e rty o f a ll G e rm a n s an d
H u n g a ria n s w h o h a d n o t a c tiv e ly o p p osed th e o c c u p y in g p ow ers
w as to b e c o n fisc a te d . F o re ig n p o lic y w as to h a v e a S la v o rie n ta ­
tio n . T h e P e o p le ’ s F ro n t w h ic h fo rm ed th e g o v e rn m e n t w as a
co a litio n o f in d e p e n d e n t p a rtie s, n ot, as in Y u g o s la v ia , a sin gle
‘ m o n o lit h ic ’ o rg a n isa tio n . T h e C z e c h p a rtie s w e re C o m m u n ists,
S o c ia l D e m o c ra ts , N a tio n a l S o cia lists an d P e o p le ’s (C a th o lic )
P a r ty , a ll o f w h ic h h a d existed b efo re 1938. T h e S lo v a k p a rties
w e re C o m m u n ists a n d D e m o cra ts.
T h e p o w e r o f th e co m m u n ists w a s g re a te r th an a form al
d e s c rip tio n w o u ld in d ic a te . T h e y h eld th e M in istry o f th e In te rio r,
l8o THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

a n d so co n tro lled the p o lice . T h e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o r p s (S .N .B .)

w as p e n e tra te d b y th em from th e top d o w n w a rd s. T h e y c o n tro lle d
its p o litic a l sections from a n e a r ly sta ge. T h e a rm y led b y G e n e ra l
S v o b o d a on th e R u ssian F ro n t, h ad b een c o n sid e ra b ly in d o c trin ­
ated w h ile u n d e rg o in g tra in in g in the S o v ie t U n io n . T h e G e n e ra l
S ta ff, a n d p a rtic u la rly its I n te llig e n c e D e p a rtm e n t, w as a c o m ­
m un ist stro n gh o ld . T h e C o m m u n ist P a rty h eld th e M in is try o f
A g r ic u ltu r e , resp onsible for th e d istrib u tio n to p ea san ts o f la n d
seized from G e rm a n s o r ‘ c o lla b o r a to r s ’ . T h e M in istry o f I n fo rm a ­
tion , held b y th e co m m u n ist K o p e c k y , c o n tro lle d th e P ra g u e
ra d io an d th e U n io n o f C z e c h o slo v a k Y o u th ( S .C .M .) . B oth w e re
w e ll in filtrate d w ith co m m u n ists. A p ro m in e n t c o m m u n ist
in te lle ctu a l, Professor N fjc d ly , w as M in iste r o f E d u c a tio n .
P r o b a b ly th e m ost useful w e a p o n o f c o m m u n ist p o lic y w a s its
co n tro l o f th e b o rd e r areas. T h e flig h t o r e xp u lsio n o f th ree m illio n
G e rm a n s from B o h e m ia in e v ita b ly ca u se d con fu sio n . T h e v a c u u m
w as filled b y rep resen ta tives o f th e tw o c o m m u n ist M in isters o f
the In te rio r (N osek) a n d A g r ic u ltu r e ( D ’ uriS). T h e co m m u n ists
cre a ted in th e b o rd e r regio n s a p a r ty sta te w ith in th e state. N o t
o n ly d id the fo rm e r G e rm a n in h a b ita n ts su ffer h a rd sh ip — w h ich
m ost C z e c h s felt th e y ric h ly d ese rve d — b u t v io le n c e a n d in ju stice
w e re co m m itte d b y C z e c h s a gain st C z e c h s. T h e y w e re la r g e ly th e
w o rk o f re ce n t recru its to th e C o m m u n ist P a rty . N o t o n ly d id
S o v ie t successes ca u se a v a g u e en th u siasm fo r the co m m u n ists
a m o n g th e n a tu ra lly p ro -R u ssia n C z e c h p e o p le , b u t a w h o le host
o f op p ortu n ists an d a d v e n tu re rs le a p e d on to th e p a r ty b a n d -w a g o n .
T h e co m m u n ist lea d ers, e a g e r to w in m ass su p p o rt as q u ic k ly as
p ossib le, d id not d isc o u ra g e these recru its, th o u g h m a n y b ro u g h t
little cre d it to th e p a rty . C o n fisc a te d G e r m a n p ro p e rtie s w e re
p la ce d u n d e r ‘ n atio n a l a d m in istra to r s’ . T h e s e lu c r a tiv e po sition s
la y la r g e ly w ith in th e c o m m u n ist p a tro n a g e . T h e e xp u lsio n s w e n t
ra p id ly a h e a d . By O c t o b e r 1946 th ey w e re o ffic ia lly d e c la re d
e n d e d . A t this d a te 2 ,165,0 00 G e rm a n s h ad b e en e x p e lle d , an d
som e 500,000 r e m a in e d .1 D u r in g th e sam e p e rio d 1,800,000
C z e ch s m o ve d in. M ost w e re p easan ts, fo rm e r la n d less la b o u re rs or
d w a r f h old ers from th ic k ly p o p u la te d p a rts o f th e C z e c h in te rio r.
In th e b o rd e r region s th e y a c q u ire d w e ll-b u ilt G e r m a n fa rm s w ith
fin e liv estock an d e q u ip m e n t.
O n e o f th e first a ctio n s o f th e g o v e rn m e n t w as th e cession o f

1 I f these fig u res are c o rre c t, n e a rly 600,000 G e rm a n s h a d fled fro m C z e c h o s lo v a k

te rrito ry befo re th e w a r w as o v e r. T h e p re -w a r G e r m a n p o p u la tiu u o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
w as 3,230,000.
 T H E SE I Z UR E OF P O W E R l8l
S u b -C a r p a t h ia n R u th e n ia to th e S o v iet U n io n . F o r the first m on th
a fte r th e R e d A r m y lib e ra te d this p ro v in c e in O c to b e r 1944, th e
d e le g a te o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t, N ć m c c , had w o rk e d
sa tisfa cto rily w ith a sclf-co n stitu ted b o d y c a lle d the R u th e n ia n
N a tio n a l C o u n c il, led b y a c o m m u n ist c h a ir m a n , T u r ja n ic a .
W h e n in N o v e m b e r K ie v r a d io b e g a n to d e m a n d th e u n io n o f the
p r o v in c e w ith th e U k r a in ia n S .S .R ., th e C o u n c il su d d e n ly a b a n ­
d o n ed its p re v io u s p ro g ra m m e o f C z e c h o s lo v a k u n ity and
d e m a n d e d to b e in c o rp o ra te d in th e U .S .S .R . T h e R e d A r m y
a u th o ritie s im p e d e d N é m e c in his w o rk a n d h in d e re d his c o m ­
m u n ica tio n s w ith his g o v e rn m e n t. H e h ad n o c h o ice b u t to visit
M o s c o w to co n su lt th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t. M o lo to v then stated
th a t his g o v e rn m e n t lo u ld n ot re m ain d e a f to an a p p e a l from a
S la v b ro th e r n a tio n for u n io n . It seem s possible th at th e S o v iet
g o v e rn m e n t’ s su d d e n c h a n g e w a s in flu e n ce d b y its d isc o v e ry o f the
stre n g th o f U k r a in ia n n a tio n a l fe e lin g in eastern G a lic ia . It co u ld
n o t a ffo rd to le a v e a n y U k ra in ia n s o u tsid e th e S o v ie t frontiers.
T h e fo rm a l cession o f te rrito ry to ok p la c e in J u n e 1945.
T h e P ro v isio n a l P a rlia m e n t con sisted o f d ele g ate s n o m in a te d
b y th e le a d e rs o f th e six p a rtie s in e q u a l p ro p o rtio n . T h e old
a d m in is tra tiv e d ivision s w e re m a in ta in e d , a n d w ere ru le d b y
'P e o p le ’s C o m m itte e s ’ . T h e ir c o m p o sitio n w as d ete rm in e d by
a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e lo c a l p a r ty o rg an isa tio n s. In p ra c tice the
p e o p le ’s co m m itte e s in th e b o rd e rla n d s w e re d o m in a te d b y c o m ­
m un ists, an d e v e n in th e C z e c h in te rio r th e co m m u n ists h a d m o re
th a n th e ir sh are o f p o w e r. T h e C o m m u n ist P a rty c o u ld h a v e
seized c o m p le te p o w e r in 1945 h ad it so w ish ed . It d e lib e r a te ly
ch ose n o t to d o so. T h e re sp o n sib ility for th e c h o ic e la y w ith
G o t t w a ld , th e p a r t y ’s le a d e r a n d a M o sc o w -tra in e d co m m u n ist,
w h o th u s a c q u ire d th e re p u ta tio n , belied b y la te r even ts, o f a
‘ m o d e ra te a n d p a t r io t ic ’ co m m u n ist. T h e C z e c h co m m u n ists’
a c tio n co rre sp o n d e d w ith th e u su al S o v ie t a n d co m m u n ist tactics
o f th e P o p u la r F ron ts p u rsu ed a ll o v e r E u ro p e , b ut its a p p lic a tio n
w'as in p r a c tic e m o re ge n e ro u s to th e o th e r p a rtie s th an in n e ig h ­
b o u rin g co u n trie s.
I n D e c e m b e r 1945 th e R e d A r m y e v a c u a te d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ,
a n d th e A m e r ic a n forces w h ic h h a d o c c u p ie d w'estern B o h e m ia up
to Plzef) a lso w ith d re w . T he S o v ie t troop s h a d n o t b e en p o p u la r.
T h e u su al u n d isc ip lin e d acts h a d o c c u rre d , b u t on a m u ch sm aller
sca le th a n in H u n g a r y o r P o la n d . T h e n o tio n o f ‘ G e r m a n w a r
b o o ty ’ w a s a t first w id e ly in te rp re te d b y S o v ie t c o m m a n d e rs, b u t,
p e rh a p s as a resu lt o f re p resen ta tio n s b y th e C z e c h o s lo v a k
182 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

g o v e rn m e n t in M o sc o w , abu ses o n this a c c o u n t soo n d im in ish e d .

T h e m ost im p o rta n t a cq u isitio n o f p ro p e rty o n C z e c h o s lo v a k
te rrito ry b y th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s w a s th e J o a c h im s th a l ( J a c h y m o v )
u ra n iu m m ines in B o h e m ia . T h e y w e re h a n d e d o v e r b y th e
o fficials o f th e co m m u n ist-c o n tro lle d M in is tr y o f th e I n te r io r on
th e spot. T h e cession w a s n e v e r a p p ro v e d b y th e c a b in e t as a
w h o le .
T h e first p a rlia m e n ta r y e le ctio n s w e re h e ld in M a y 1946.
C z e c h a n d foreign ob se rv e rs w e re a g re e d th a t th e y w e re fr e e ly
co n d u c te d b y secret b a llo t. T h e y w e re a b ig su ccess fo r th e
C o m m u n ist P a rty , w h ic h w o n 38 p e r ce n t o f th e p o ll (40 p e r c e n t
in th e C z e c h la n d s an d 30 p e r c e n t in S lo v a k ia ). T h e C z e c h
n a tio n a l so cialists w o n 18 p e r c e n t, P e o p le ’ s P a r ty 16 p e r c e n t,
so cia l d em o c ra ts 13 p er ce n t a n d S lo v a k d e m o c ra ts 14 p e r ce n t
(61 p e r ce n t in S lo v a k ia a lo n e ). T h e c o m m u n ists h a d n o t o n ly
w o n th e g re a t m a jo rity o f th e C z e c h w o r k in g class, b u t h ad
re ce iv e d m a n y p e a sa n t vo tes. T h is w as d u e in la rg e m ea su re to th e
d istrib u tio n b y th e c o m m u n ist M in is te r o f A g r ic u lt u r e o f la n d
e x p ro p r ia te d fro m G e rm a n s. T h e m ost im p o rta n t c h a n g e sin ce
1938 w as th e d isa p p e a r a n c e o f th e A g r a r ia n P a rty . I t h a d b e en
b a n n e d on th e gro u n d s th a t its le a d e rs h a d c o lla b o ra te d w ith th e
G e rm a n s a fter M u n ic h . B efore 1938 it h a d b e e n s u p p o rte d b y
m ost C z e c h p ea san ts an d th e g re a te r p a rt o f th e C z e c h b u sin ess
class. T h e s e h a d h a d to re d istrib u te th e ir votes a m o n g th e fo u r
p e rm itte d C z e c h p a rtie s. It seem s lik e ly th a t th e p e a sa n t v o te h ad
b e en d iv id e d b e tw e e n th e c o m m u n ists a n d th e P e o p le ’ s P a r ty , th e
fo rm e r b e in g m o re su ccessfu l in B o h e m ia a n d th e la t te r in
M o r a v ia . T h e m id d le class, e sp e c ia lly th e free pro fession s, o n th e
w h o le su p p o rte d th e N a tio n a l S o c ia list P a rty . O p p o r tu n is ts a n d
ca reerists o f a ll so cia l classes w e re m o re lik e ly to v o te fo r c o m ­
m un ists th an th e oth ers b e cau se it w as w id e ly b e lie v e d th a t th e
co m m u n ists, b a c k e d b y th e g re a t U .S .S .R ., w e re th e ‘ c o m in g
p a r t y .’
In th e n e w g o v e rn m e n t th e sam e c o m m u n ists h e ld th e M in is ­
tries o f th e I n te rio r, F in a n c e , A g r ic u ltu r e a n d I n fo rm a tio n , b u t
th e co m m u n ist N é je d ly h a d to s u rre n d e r E d u c a tio n to th e
n a tio n a l so cialist D r. S tra n s k y . T h e n a tio n a l so cialists a lso h e ld
J u s tic e (D r. D r tin a ) a n d F o re ig n T r a d e (D r. R ip k a ) . E a c h p a r ty
h a d on e v ic e -p r e m ie r. T h e P rim e M in is te r w as th e c o m m u n ist
G o ttw a ld .
T h e ele ctio n s w e re a se tb a ck fo r th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty in
S lo v a k ia . T h e S lo v a k N a tio n a l C o u n c il a n d th e B o a rd o f C o m -
 T H E SE I Z UR E OF POWER 183
m ission crs h a d to b e re o rg a n ise d on a basis o f tw o to on e in fa v o u r
o f th e d e m o c ra ts, in stead o f fifty-fifty as h ith e rto . T h e C h a ir m a n
o f th e B o a rd re m a in e d a c o m m u n ist, H u sak . C o n s id e ra b le
co n fu sio n w as c a u se d b y th e fa ct th a t in se v eral d e p a rtm e n ts the
M in is te r in P r a g u e b e lo n g e d to a d iffe re n t d e p a rtm e n t from the
C o m m issio n e r in B ra tisla v a . F o r in sta n ce , A g r ic u ltu r e an d
I n fo rm a tio n w e re e a c h re p resen te d b y a c o m m u n ist in P ra g u e
a n d a d e m o c ra t in B ra tisla v a , w h ile E d u c a tio n h a d a n a tio n a l
so cia list in P r a g u e a n d a c o m m u n ist in B ra tisla v a . T h e con fu sion
w a s in cre a se d b y th e fa c t th a t th e re sp e c tiv e p o w e rs o f th e c c n tra l
g o v e rn m e n t in P r a g u e a n d th e B o a rd o f C o m m issio n e rs in B ra tis­
la v a h a d n o t y e t b e en c le a rly d efin e d . T h e r e w e re in fa ct th ree
p o in ts o f v ie w , w h ic h m a y b e c a lle d S lo v a k n a tio n a list, C z e c h
n a tio n a list a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k co m m u n ist.
T h e S lo v a k n a tio n a lists— w h o fo rm ed th e b u lk o f the D e m o ­
c ra t P a r t y ’s su p p o rte rs— w ish e d th e B o a rd o f C o m m issio n e rs to
h a v e co m p le te p o w e rs on all m atte rs not o f o b v io u s co n c e rn b oth
to S lo v a k s a n d C z e c h s. T h e y w o u ld h a v e lik ed th e R e p u b lic to
b e a so rt o f fe d e ra l u n io n . T h e C z e c h n a tio n a lists w ish e d a
u n ita ry' sta te. T h o u g h th e y a d m itte d in p u b lic the se p a ra te
e x iste n c e o f a S lo v a k n a tio n , m a n y se c re tly c lu n g to th e o ld c o n ­
c e p tio n o f a sin g le C z e c h o s lo v a k n a tio n . T h is w as a lso th e v ie w
o f P resid e n t B en cś. T h e y o b je c te d to a loose fe d e ra l u n io n on the
g ro u n d s th a t it w o u ld b e ‘ d u a lism ’ , a w o rd w h ic h h ad u n fo rtu ­
n a te a sso cia tio n s in v ie w o f th e e x p e rie n c e o f A u s tr ia - H u n g a r y
fro m 1867 to 19 18 . T h e y p rop o sed in stead th a t th re e ‘ L a n d
G o v e r n m e n t s ’ fo r th e h isto ric 'L a n d s ’ o f B o h e m ia , M o r a v ia an d
S lo v a k ia sh o u ld b e set u p. U n d e r th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t these
th re e L a n d s w o u ld h a v e a n e q u a l d e g re e o f a u to n o m y . T h e
c o m m u n ists p referre d th e S o v ie t system . In th e ir v ie w , S lo v a k ia
sh o u ld be g iv e n a sta tu s sim ila r to th a t o f a co n stitu e n t re p u b lic
in th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e B o a rd o f C o m m issio n ers w o u ld be an
im m e d ia te e x e c u tiv e a u th o r ity in S lo v a k ia , b u t w o u ld be su b ­
o rd in a te in a ll p o litic a l m atte rs ( in c lu d in g o f co u rse th e m a in lines
o f e c o n o m ic p o lic y ) to th e P r a g u e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e co m m u n ists
o p p o se d th e su ggested d ivisio n in to th re e ‘ L a n d s ’ , on th e gro u n d
th a t this w o u ld c re a te a n unnecessary' b u r e a u c r a c y an d w o u ld
c o rresp o n d to n o re a l n e ed . M o ra v ia n s a re in n o w a y n a tio n a lly
d istin ct fro m B o h e m ia n s, w h e re a s S lo v a k s d iffe r from b o th . In
p r a c tic e , th e c o m m u n ists h ad a g ita te d fo r g re a te r S lo v a k a u to ­
n o m y u n til th e 1946 e le ctio n s, b u t th en stressed th e p o litic a l
s u p r e m a c y of th e P r a g u e g o v e rn m e n t. In discu ssion s o f th e
1 84 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
S lo v a k q u estio n th ere w as a te n d e n c y to a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n
co m m u n ists an d C z e c h n a tio n a l socialists a g a in st S lo v a k d e m o ­
cra ts, w h o h ad som e slig h t s y m p a th y from th e C z e c h P e o p le ’ s
P a rty .
J u s t as th e re la tiv e stre n g th o f th e C z e c h p o litic a l p a rtie s h a d
b een c h a n g e d b y th e d isa p p e a r a n c e o f th e A g r a r ia n P a rty , so in
S lo v a k ia th e d isa p p e a r a n c e o f th e fascist P e o p le ’ s P a rty o f cx -
P resid e n t T iso h a d cre a te d an a rtific ia l situ a tio n . F o u r-fifth s o f th e
S lo v a k s a re C a th o lic s an d o n e-fifth P ro te sta n t. T h e le a d e rs an d
o rg an isers o f th e n e w D e m o c ra t P a rty a lm o st a ll c a m e fro m th e
P ro te sta n t m in o rity . B u t a m o n g th e S lo v a k p ea san ts th e C a t h o lic
C h u r c h h a d n ot lost a n y o f its in flu e n ce . W ith in its ra n k s th ere
w e re tw o p o litic a l te n d e n cie s, a c le r ic a l fascism sim ila r to th a t o f
D ollfu ss in p re-A n sch lu ss A u s tria , a n d a d e m o c ra tic m o v e m e n t
sim ila r to th a t o f th e M .R .P . in lib e ra te d F ra n c e . T h e seco n d
te n d e n c y w as stro n g e r in 1946 th a n it h a d b een u n d e r T is o , b u t
w as o n ly a g ro w in g m in o rity . T h e r e w a s ro o m fo r it w ith in th e
D e m o c ra t P a rty , b u t n o t fo r th e la rg e mass o f rig h t- w in g C a t h o lic
o p in io n . In th e e le ctio n s, h o w e v e r, rig h t- w in g S lo v a k s h a d c le a r ly
v o ted for th e d em o c ra ts in p re fe re n c e to th e c o m m u n ists. H e n c e
th e a ccu sa tio n , re p e a te d w ith in c re a sin g v e h e m e n c e b y th e c o m ­
m un ists from M a y 1946 o n w a rd s, th a t th e D e m o c r a t P a rty
‘ h a rb o u re d fa scists’ . T h is m a y h a v e b e e n tru e o f so m e o f th e
d e m o c ra t voters, b u t w as c e r ta in ly n o t tru e o f th e d e m o c ra t
lea d ers, w h o w e re m en o f k n o w n d e m o c ra tic c o n v ic tio n s .
In th e sp rin g o f 1947 a crisis arose in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e tria l o f
th e q u is lin g e x -P resid e n t T is o . T is o w as fo r m a lly g u ilty o f treaso n .
H e h a d p la y e d an im p o rta n t p a rt in th e d isru p tio n o f C z e c h o ­
s lo v a k ia in b o th S e p te m b e r 1938 an d M a r c h 1939. N e v e rth e le ss
h e still e n jo y e d c o n sid e ra b le p o p u la r ity in th e c o u n tr y . ‘ S lo v a k
in d e p e n d e n c e ’ h ad b e e n a p e rio d o f p ro sp e rity . M a n y S lo v a k s
a rg u e d th a t T iso a c te d as h e d id in M a r c h 1939 o n ly b e cau se
th e a lte r n a tiv e w as a p a rtitio n o f S lo v a k ia b e tw e e n G e r m a n y
a n d H u n g a ry . S o stro n g w as p o p u la r fe e lin g in his fa v o u r th a t
m a n y S lo v a k s o f stro n g d e m o c ra tic v iew s, w h o h a d p e rs o n a lly
su ffered u n d e r his re g im e , n e ve rth e le ss a rg u e d th a t h e sh o u ld
n ot b e c o n d e m n e d to d e a th o n g ro u n d s o f p o litic a l e x p e d ie n c y .
T h e co m m u n ists, h o w e v e r, w e re im p la c a b le . T is o ’ s g re a te st
c rim e in th e ir eyes w as th a t h e h a d d e c la re d w a r o n th e S o v ie t
U n io n . In th e estab lish ed c o m m u n ist v ie w , this is sa c rile g e ,
fo r w h ich d ea th is th e o n ly p e n a lty . T h e so cia l d e m o c ra ts fo llo w e d
th e co m m u n ists, a n d th e n a tio n a l socia lists to o k th e fo rm a l v ie w
 THE SE I Z UR E OF P O W E R 185
ih a t a tra ito r to th e S ta te m ust b e p u n ish e d . O n ly the D e m o c ra t
P a r ty , pressed b y its su p p o rte rs, p le a d e d for m e rc y . It re ce iv ed
som e w a v e r in g su p p o rt from th e P e o p le ’ s P a rty , w h ic h w as u n ­
w illin g to see a C a t h o lic priest e x e c u te d . T h e d ec isio n rested w ith
P resid e n t B en eś. H e d e c id e d th a t h e c o u ld n ot use his p r e r o g a tiv e
o f c le m e n c y a g a in st th e a d v ic e o f his g o v e rn m e n t. T is o w as th e r e ­
fore h a n g e d . T h e resu lt w as a g ro w th o f d isco n te n t in S lo v a k ia
w h ic h h ad d a n g e ro u s im p lic a tio n s.
U p till th e su m m e r o f 194 7, d esp ite c o n tin u a l fric tio n , the
c o a litio n h ad w o rk e d . A b u se s w e re d im in ish in g an d th e ru le o f la w
w a s a lm o st c o m p le te ly e stab lish e d . D e b a te s in p a rlia m e n t w ere
free a n d o fte n b itte r. N o n -c o m m u n ist m em b ers o f p a rlia m e n t
a n d n e w sp ap e rs h ad sh o w n g re a t c o u ra g e in u n m a sk in g acts o f
in ju stice b y c o m m u n ist bosses in th e p ro vin ce s. T h e com m u n ists
w e re o n th e d efe n sive b u t re sp ecte d th e C o n s titu tio n . T h e su m m e r
o f 1947 w as th e tu rn in g -p o in t. O n 7 J u ly th e C z e c h o slo v a k
g o v e rn m e n t a c c e p te d an in v ita tio n to a p r e lim in a ry c o n fe re n ce in
P a ris o n th e M a rs h a ll P la n . O n 8 J u ly a g o v e rn m e n t d e le ­
g a tio n o f G o t t w a ld , M a s a ry k a n d D r tin a , th en in M o sco w ,
re c e iv e d a n u ltim a tu m from S ta lin . T h e y w e re to ld th a t th ey
m ust a t o n c e d e c id e w h e th e r th e y ‘ c o n sid e re d th e P a c t o f F rie n d ­
sh ip a n d M u t u a l A id b e tw e e n o u r co u n trie s v a lid , o r p refer to go
to P a r is ’ . A fte r G o ttw a ld h ad te le p h o n e d P ra g u e , th e g o v e rn m e n t
r e lu c ta n tly a g re e d to re je ct th e in v ita tio n . A n o fficia l sta te m e n t
p u b lish e d o n 10 J u ly d e c la r e d : ‘ C z e c h o s lo v a k p a rtic ip a tio n
w o u ld be a c c e p te d as a d ee d a im e d a g a in st frien d sh ip w ith the
S o v ie t U n io n a n d th e o th e r S la v a llie s ’ . 1
T h e re je c tio n b y th e E a s t E u ro p e a n co u n trie s o f th e M a rsh a ll
P la n m a rk e d th e e n d o f th e P o p u la r F ron ts in a ll E a ste rn E u ro p e
I t w as sh o rtly fo llo w e d b y th e c re a tio n o f th e C o m in fo rm . T h e
co m m u n ist p a rtie s n o w h a d th e task o f o b ta in in g co m p le te c o n ­
tro l. In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia this m ea n t th a t th e y m ust o b ta in a
m a jo r ity in p a rlia m e n t. T h is c o u ld be se cu re d i f th e social d e m o ­
c ra ts w o u ld c o lla b o r a te u n re se rv e d ly w ith th e co m m u n ists. But
th e so cia l d e m o c ra t v ie w w as still th a t a P e o p le ’ s F ro n t o f a ll
d e m o c r a tic p a rtie s sh o u ld be m a in ta in e d , th a t th e y th erefore
sh o u ld n ot h a v e c lo se r re la tio n s w ith th e co m m u n ists th a n w ith
th e o th e r p a rtie s o f th e F ro n t. F ro m J u ly 1947 to F e b ru a ry 1948
th ere w as a p e rm a n e n t p o litic a l crisis in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w h ich
e n d e d in co m m u n ist v ic to ry .

1 F o r a fu ll a n d a u th o r ita tiv e a c c o u n t o f this ep iso d e , see L t coup dt Prague, b y D r.

H u b e r t R ip k a , w h o a t this tim e w as C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ’s M in is te r o l F o re ig n T r a d e .
l86 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e dress re h e a rsa l to o k p la c e in N o v e m b e r in S lo v a k ia . T h e
C o m m issio n e r o f In te rn a l A ffa ir s, G e n e r a l F c re n c ik , a n n o u n ce d
th e d isc o v e ry o f a ‘ c o n s p ir a c y ’ b y th e e x tr e m e rig h t. F ascist
e le m e n ts in S lo v a k ia w e re in c o n ta c t w ith S lo v a k em ig re s,
e sp e c ia lly w ith th e fo rm e r q u islin g F o re ig n M in iste r , D u rć a n s k y .
P ro m in e n t m em b ers o f th e S lo v a k D e m o c ra t P a r ty w e re a lle g e d
to be im p lic a te d . T h e c o m m u n ist com m issio n ers re sig n e d , an d
c la im e d th a t th eir re sig n a tio n m ust in v o lv e th e fa ll o f th e B o a rd o f
C o m m issio n ers as a w h o le . T h o u g h a c o m m u n ist, H u sa k , h a d b e en
c h a ir m a n o f th e B o a rd , th e m a jo rity o f seats in it, a g re a t m a jo rity
o f vo tes in th e p a r lia m e n ta r y ele ctio n s in S lo v a k ia , a n d c o n ­
s e q u e n tly a m a jo rity o f scats in th e p a rty -n o m in a te d S lo v a k
N a tio n a l C o u n c il, w e re h eld b y th e D e m o c ra t P a rty . T h e re fo r e
th e co m m u n ist a rg u m e n t seem ed d o u b tfu l. I t w as, h o w e v e r,
a c c e p te d b y th e P r a g u e P rem ie r, th e co m m u n ist G o t t w a ld . T h e
co m m u n ists su ggested a m e e tin g o f th e P e o p le ’ s F ro n t o f S lo v a k ia
(com m u n ists, d e m o c ra ts and tw o m in o r p a rtie s set u p in 1946, th e
socialists a n d th e F re e d o m P a rty ). In o rd e r to c re a te a c o m m u n ist
m a jo rity in th e F ro n t, it w as also su ggested th a t th e m e e tin g be
a tte n d e d b y re p resen ta tiv e s o f th e tra d e u n io n s a n d th e c o m ­
m u n ist-co n tro lle d resistan ce o rg a n isa tio n s. T h e m e e tin g settled
n o th in g , a n d th e issue w as referred to th e P e o p le ’ s F ro n t o f th e
w h o le o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , w h ic h w as c a lle d to m ee t in P r a g u e .
G o ttw a ld n o w used th e sa m e trick as th e S lo v a k c o m m u n ists.
R e p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e c o m m u n ist-c o n tro lle d tra d e u n io n s an d
C z e c h F a r m e rs’ A ss o cia tio n , b u t n ot o f th e n o n -c o m m u n ist
C z e c h resisters a n d Sok ols, w e re in v ite d . T h e C z e c h P e o p le ’ s
P a r ty , n a tio n a l socialists a n d S lo v a k d e m o c ra ts refu sed to a tte n d
th e m ee tin g , o n th e g ro u n d th a t th e F ro n t w as a c o a litio n o f
p o litic a l p a rtie s, a n d o th e r o rg a n isa tio n s h a d n o bu sin ess to c o m e
to its m eetin gs. T h e d e a d lo c k d id n o t, h o w e v e r, le a d to a fin al
b re a c h . O n 18 N o v e m b e r a n e w S lo v a k B o a rd o f C o m m issio n e rs
w as a p p o in te d . T h e S lo v a k d e m o cra ts lost o n ly o n e p la c e , an d
k e p t tw o o f those fo r w h ic h th e co m m u n ists h a d m ost c la m o u r e d — -
F o o d a n d A g r ic u ltu r e . T h e th ird d isp u te d p ost— -Justice— w as
g iv e n to a n o n -p a rty m an .
T h u s th e first ro u n d o f th e stru g g le h a d b e e n a d r a w . D u r in g
N o v e m b e r th e co m m u n ists h a d a se tb a c k . A t th e co n gre ss o f th e
S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rty , h e ld in B rn o , th e se ctio n o f th e p a r ty
w h ic h h a d re se rv atio n s a b o u t c o lla b o r a tio n w ith th e co m m u n ists
p ro v e d th e stro n g e r. F ie rlin g c r , w h o in S e p te m b e r h a d m a d e an
a g re e m e n t— w ith o u t first c o n su ltin g th e p a r ty — fo r c lo se r c o ­
 THE SE I Z UR E OF POWER 1 87

o p e ra tio n w ith th e co m m u n ists, w as re p la c e d as c h a irm a n b y th e

m o re in d e p e n d e n t L a u s m a n . T h e p a r t y ’s v ie w w as th a t th ere
sh o u ld b e e q u a l c o -o p e ra tio n w ith a ll p a rtie s b e lo n g in g to th e
P e o p le ’ s F ro n t.
F ro m th e e n d o f 1947 fric tio n g re w r a p id ly . T h e c o m m u n ist-
c o n tro lle d M in is tr y o f T r a d e a cc u s e d som e le a d in g P r a g u e shops
o f h o a r d in g te xtiles. I t tra n sp ire d th a t th e shops h ad g iv e n fu ll
d e ta ils o f th e ir stocks to th e M in is try , w h o se e x p e rts h ad e x a m in e d
th e m , b u t fo r b id d e n th e m to sell th e m u n til n e w p rices w e re fix e d .
A s th e p rices h a d n e v e r b e en d e c la re d , th e stocks re m a in e d u n sold .
B u t this d id n o t p r e v e n t th e M in iste r from c lo sin g th e shops an d
a c c u s in g th e o w n e rs o f sa b o ta g e . T h e co m m u n ists also p rop o sed a
‘ ta x on m illio n a ir e s ’ to p a y fo r th e losses o f th e p easan ts in th e
se v ere d r o u g h t o f th e p r e c e d in g su m m e r. T h is w as o p p o sed b y th e
o th e r p a rtie s as a p ie c e o f irresp o n sib le d e m a g o g y , w h ic h W ould
n o t ra ise e n o u g h fu n d s to c o m p e n sa te th e p ea san ts. A n o th e r
p r o b le m w a s th e p a y o f c iv il serv an ts. T h e so cia l d e m o c ra t
M in is te r o f F o o d , M a je r , p ro p o se d a rise in p a y for a ll c a te g o rie s.
T h is w a s o p p o se d b y th e c o m m u n ist tra d e u n io n le a d e r Z á p o -
to c k y . T h e co m m u n ists h a d th e ir o w n p la n s as to w h o sh ou ld be
p u rg e d fro m th e c iv il se rv ice a n d w h o sh o u ld h a v e his p a y
in c re a se d . T o s u p p o rt th e ir v ie w s th e co m m u n ists su m m o n e d a
co n gre ss in P r a g u e o f d e le g a te s o f fa c to ry c o u n c ils for 22 F e b ­
r u a ry . T h e re w as also p e rp e tu a l fric tio n in the c a b in e t on the
p o lic y o f th e c o m m u n ist M in is te r o f A g r ic u ltu r e , D ’ u ris, w h o w as
a g it a t in g for a n e w la n d re fo rm , a n d w as u sin g his d e p a r tm e n t
u n a s h a m e d ly fo r p a tr o n a g e to m em b ers o f th e p a rty . H e too
d e c id e d to su p p o rt his p o lic y b y a m ass m e e tin g in P ra g u e .
D e le g a te s o f th e F a r m e rs’ U n io n , a c o m m u n ist-c o n tr o lle d o r g a n ­
isa tio n , w e re su m m o n e d fo r 29 F e b ru a ry .
T h e issue o n w h ic h th e d e c isiv e crisis c a m e w as c o n tro l o f th e
p o lic e . N e w e le ctio n s w e re d u e in th e e a r ly su m m e r. In the fo llo w ­
in g m o n th s it w a s essen tial th a t th e p o lic e sh o u ld n ot in te rfe re
w ith c iv il lib e rtie s. T h e c o m m u n ist M in is te r o f th e In te rio r N o sek
w e n t m e r rily a h e a d w ith his p a c k in g o f th e p o lic e fo rce. S e v e ra l
h ig h p o lic e o fficials in P r a g u e h ad ju s t b e en dism issed a n d
re p la c e d b y c o m m u n ists. A p a r t from this a b a ttle h ad lo n g b e en
r a g in g b e tw e e n N o se k a n d th e n a tio n a l so cia list M in is te r o f
J u s tic e , D r . D r tin a , in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e d isp a tc h o f p a rce ls
c o n ta in in g b o m b s to th re e M in iste rs— D r tin a h im self, th e n a tio n a l
so cia list v ic c -P r e m ie r 7-en kl, a n d th e F o re ig n M in iste r M a s a ry k .
In v e stig a tio n s b y th e M in is try o f J u stic e h a d sh o w n th a t th e
j 88 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

o u tra g e h a d b een p la n n e d b y th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty o rg a n isa tio n

in th e to w n o f O lo m o u c . A c o m m u n ist m e m b e r o f p a rlia m e n t,
J u ra -S o s n a r, a n d a c o m m u n ist m in ister, C e p ii k a , w e re in v o lv e d .
Bu t th e p o lice , c o n tro lle d b y N o sek , d e la y e d o r refu sed a c tio n
a g a in st th e o ffen d e rs, w h ile th e c o m m u n ist press h u rle d a b u se at
th e in vestig ato rs.
O n 12 F e b r u a r y 1948 a m a jo rity o f th e c a b in e t in stru cte d N osek
to sto p his p a c k in g o f th e p o lice . N o se k ig n o re d th e in stru c tio n ,
an d w as b a c k e d b y th e co m m u n ist P re m ie r G o t t w a ld . O n 21 F e b ­
ruary' the m inisters b e lo n g in g to th e C z e c h P e o p le ’s, N a tio n a l
S o cia list a n d S lo v a k D e m o c ra t P a rties resig n ed in p ro test. T h e
socia l d e m o c ra t m inisters, w h o h ad ta k e n p a rt in th e e a r lie r
c a b in e t re so lu tio n , d id n ot resign.
T h e m in isters’ a c tio n w as n o t w e ll p r e p a re d . I f th e y h o p e d for
a c o n stitu tio n a l so lu tio n o f th e crisis, th e y sh o u ld h a v e m a d e sure
o f th e socia l d e m o c ra ts a n d o f P resid en t B en cś b e fo re th e y a c te d .
I f th ey h a d h a d b o th , th e y c o u ld c o n s titu tio n a lly h a v e d e m a n d e d
th e fo rm a tio n o f a n e w g o v e rn m e n t b ased o n a p a r lia m e n ta r y
m a jo rity a n d e x c lu d in g th e co m m u n ists. B u t w ith o u t th e so cia l
d em o cra ts th e y w e re in th e m in o rity , a n d w ith th e P resid en t
u n d e cid e d an d iso lated th eir p ro sp ects w e re p o o r. I f o n th e o th e r
h a n d th ey e x p e c te d th a t th e co m m u n ists w o u ld resort to u n c o n ­
stitu tio n a l m eth o d s, th e y sh o u ld h a v e m a d e p r e p a ra tio n s fo r
d efe n ce b y force. I f th e y h a d b e en w h a t th e y w e re la te r a c c u s e d o f
b e in g — su b ve rsive c o n sp ira to rs— this is w h a t th e y w o u ld h a v e
d o n e . C e r ta in ly a m o n g th e a rm y o fficers a n d so ld iers, a n d e v e n
in th e p o lice fo rce, th ere w e re m a n y w h o w o u ld h a v e su p p o rte d
th em i f th e y h ad p la n n e d th o ro u g h ly . T h e ir la c k o f p r e p a ra tio n
is th e best p r o o f th a t th e y w e re in fa c t la w -a b id in g d e m o c ra ts—
w ith a ll th e w eakn esses o f su ch .
In fa ct th e co m m u n ists used b o th co n stitu tio n a l a n d u n c o n ­
stitu tio n a l m ea n s. P resid e n t B en cś h a d ra llie d ro u n d his person
a ll th e p a trio tism o f th e C z e c h p e o p le . H e e n jo y e d im m en se
p restige. F o r th re e y e a rs h e h a d u n o b tr u s iv e ly b u t b y n o m ean s
in e ffe c tiv e ly resisted c o m m u n ist p ressure, e sp e c ia lly in fo reig n
p o lic y an d a rm y a ffa irs. B u t h e w as n o w a sick m a n . H e w as
d e s p e ra te ly a n x io u s to a v o id a se co n d n a tio n a l d isa ste r, a n d to
a v o id a q u a rr e l w ith R u ssia , w h ic h h e r e g a rd e d as th e m ain
d e fe n c e a g a in st th e u ltim a te in e v ita b le re v iv a l o f G e r m a n y . In
this he w as ty p ic a l o f m a n y o f his c o m p a tr io ts. F o r th e c o m ­
m un ists it w as im p o rta n t to w in o v e r B c n e ś a n d use his p re s tig e .
T h e y th erefo re used e v e r y p o ssib le p ersu a sio n .
 THE SE I Z UR E OF P O W E R l8c)
B u t th e co m m u n ists d id n ot re ly o n ly on sw eet w o rd s. T h e y
a rm e d d e ta c h m e n ts o f fa c to ry w o rk ers u n d e r c o m m u n ist leaders
a n d p a ra d e d th em th ro u g h th e P ra g u e streets. C o m m u n ist tou gh s
e n te re d th e m in istries w h o se h ead s h a d re sig n e d , a n d th e offices
o f th e th re e p a rtie s w h ic h th e y led . In th e h e a d q u a rte rs o f th e
S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rty , F ie r lin g e r ’ s le ft w in g too k o v e r, w ith
c o m m u n ists g a n g s sta n d in g b y to h e lp i f n e ed e d . T h e d ele g a te s to
th e fa c to r y c o u n c il co n gress o f 22 F e b r u a r y w e re add ressed b y
G o t t w a ld , a n d passed reso lu tio n s c o n d e m n in g th e re sig n in g
m in isters, in sistin g th a t th e y sh o u ld n e v e r b e a llo w e d to h old
p o w e r a g a in , a n d c a llin g fo r a fa r m ore sw e e p in g p ro g ra m m e o f
n a tio n a lisa tio n th a n th a t o f 194 5. In th e c a p ita l a n d th e p ro vin ce s
‘ a c tio n c o m m itte e s ’ su d d e n ly c a m e in to b e in g . T h e y con sisted
o f co m m u n ists a n d co m m u n ist-sp o n so re d stooges. T h e y to ok o v er
th e d u tie s o f th e p e o p le ’s co m m itte e s, w h ic h h a d h ith e rto been
co m p o se d o f re p resen ta tiv e s o f a ll p a rtie s. N o sek in stru c te d a ll
p u b lic o fficia ls to c o -o p e ra te w ith th e a c tio n co m m ittees.
P resid e n t BeneS a t first insisted th a t th e n e w g o v e rn m e n t m pst
b e b ase d on th e p a rtie s o f th e P e o p le ’s F ro n t, led b y th eir re c o g ­
n ised le a d e rs. H e p le a d e d a g a in st th e ‘ sp lit o f th e n a tio n in to tw o
q u a r r e llin g h a lv e s '. B u t th e c o m m u n ists insisted th a t th ere c o u ld
b e n o d iscu ssion s w ith th e o ld le a d e rs. W ith ty p ic a l b o m b a st th ey
d e c la r e d t h a t ‘ p o w e rfu l p o p u la r m an ife sta tio n s h a v e sh o w n th a t
o u r w o r k in g p e o p le w ith a b so lu te u n a n im ity a n d in d ig n a tio n
c o n d e m n th e p o lic y o f th ese p a r tie s ’ . M e a n w h ile th e ra d io an d
p r in tin g presses w e re fir m ly h e ld b y co m m u n ists. T h e P resid en t
w as c u t o f f fro m his p e o p le , a n d e sp e c ia lly from his a rm y c o m ­
m a n d e rs. T h e p ro -c o m m u n ist M in is te r o f D e fe n c e , G e n e ra l
S v o b o d a , o rd e re d his tro o p s to re m a in n e u tra l, a n d th e c o m ­
m u n ist-co n tro lle d In fo rm a tio n S e c tio n o f th e G e n e ra l S t a f f w as
b u sy . T h e W e ste rn P o w ers w e re c le a r ly u n w illin g to h e lp w ith
m o re th a n protests. O n 25 F e b r u a r y B ene§ y ie ld e d . A n e w g o v e r n ­
m e n t w as fo rm e d . T h e k e y posts w e re h e ld b y co m m u n ists,
left so cia l d e m o c ra ts w e re w e ll re p resen te d , a n d th e o th e r p a rtie s
e a c h h a d a ‘ r e p r e s e n ta tiv e ’ ch o sen n ot b y th em selves b u t b y the
co m m u n ists. T h e tra d e u n io n le a d e r Z á p o to c k y b e c a m e v ice-
P re m ie r. P rofesso r N ć jc d ly re tu rn e d to th e M in istry o f F .dtication.
J a n M a s a r y k re m a in e d F o re ig n M in iste r . H e e v id e n tly h op ed
th a t h e c o u ld p r o te c t som e o f his fa ith fu l fo llo w e rs fro m p e r­
se c u tio n . P e rh a p s h e tru sted to th e n a tiv e ‘ S c h w e jk is m ’ o f th e
C z e c h s to m a k e th e b est o f a c ru e l situ a tio n . B u t on 10 M a rc h
his d e a d b o d y w a s fo u n d in a c o u r ty a r d o f th e F o re ig n M in istry .

14
igO THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e d e a th o f this g re a t d e m o c ra t, th e la st s u rv iv in g m a le m e m b e r
o f th e fa m ily o f th e ‘ P r e s id e n t-L ib e r a to r ’ , w h o se e x tr a o r d in a r y
c h a rm a n d goo d n ess h a d m a d e h im h u n d re d s o f d e v o te d frien d s
a ll o v e r th e w o rld , e sp e c ia lly in th e A n g lo -S a x o n c o u n trie s,
b ro u g h t h o m e to th e C z e c h p e o p le a n d to w o rld o p in io n th e
h o rro r o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ’s tr a g e d y .
T h e c o m m u n ist v ic to r y w as fo llo w e d b y a series o f p u rg e s—
o f press, u n iversities, c iv il serv ice , a n d eve n spo rts c lu b s. T h e
‘ C e n tr a l A c tio n C o m m itte e o f th e P e o p le ’ s F r o n t ’ , u n d e r Z á p o -
to c k y , a p p o in te d to th e le a d e rsh ip o f th e ru m p s o f th e n o n ­
co m m u n ist p a rtie s in d iv id u a ls k n o w n to b e lo y a l n o t to th e ir o w n
p a rty b u t to th e co m m u n ists. T h u s th e fictio n o f a P e o p le ’ s
F ro n t w as p reserve d . In th e su m m e r F ie rlin g e r led th e ru m p
S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rty in to fusion w ith th e co m m u n ists.
T h e p u rg e d P a rlia m e n t w as d issolv ed in M a y , an d n e w e le ctio n s
w e re h e ld , on a j o in t list, w ith n o o p p o sitio n c a n d id a te s . T h e
o fficial results w e re 90 p e r ce n t for th e list in th e C z e c h la n d s an d
86 per ce n t in S lo v a k ia . A n e w c o n stitu tio n , b ase d o n th a t o f th e
U .S .S .R ., h ad a lr e a d y b e en p ro c la im e d o n 8 M a y . O n 6 J u n e D r .
B en cś resign ed th e P resid e n cy . H is le tte r to P re m ie r G o t t w a ld
m a d e it c le a r th a t his reasons w e re p o litic a l. H e w a s s u c c e e d e d b y
G o t t w a ld , a n d Z á p o to c k y b e c a m e P rem ie r. O n 6 S e p te m b e r
B e n eś d ie d . H is p a ssin g sy m b o lise d th e e n d o f C z e c h o s lo v a k
d e m o c ra c y . D e sp ite a few s u r v iv in g tra p p in g s o f a p a r ty c o a litio n ,
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w as in p r a c tic e as tig h tly h eld in th e co m m u n ist
v ic e as n e ig h b o u r co u n trie s.

HUNGARY

T h e P ro v isio n a l G o v e r n m e n t h e a d e d b y G e n e r a l M ik ló s w as
fo rm ed in D e c e m b e r 1944 in a c o u n tr y ru in e d b y m ilita r y o p e r a ­
tion s a n d th re a te n e d b y a d m in istra tiv e a n a r c h y . M a n y o f th e c iv il
servan ts an d g e n d a rm e s o f th e o ld re g im e se rv e d S z á la s i.1 O th e r s
sim p ly lied b e fo re th e a d v a n c in g R u ssia n s. B e h in d th e S o v ie t
co m b a t troo p s c a m e th e p o litic a l e x p e rts o f th e N . K . V . D . ,
a c c o m p a n ie d b y a n u m b e r o f H u n g a r ia n co m m u n ists w h o h a d
liv e d in e x ile in th e U .S .S .R . S o m e w e re su rv iv o rs o f th e 19 1 9
B é la K u n re g im e , o th ers h a d fled b e tw e e n th e w a rs, o th ers w e re
‘ p o litic a lly r e - e d u c a te d ’ p riso n e rs-o f-w a r. T h e co m m u n ists w e re
soon in to u c h w ith u n d e rg ro u n d o rg a n ise rs a n d w ith u n o rg a n ise d
1 T h e m em b ers o f th e last H u n g a r ia n g o v e rn m e n ts to o k re fu g e in A m e ric a n -
o c c u p ie d G e r m a n y , b u t w e r e h a n d e d o v e r to th e n e w re g im e . A m o n g th e m o st
p ro m in e n t. SzA lasi, S z to ja y . Im ré d y . B á rd o ssy , S zá sz a n d R c m e n y i- S t h n e lle r w e re
all e x c c u tc d d u rin g ih r w in te r o f 1 9 4 5 -6 .
 THE SE I Z UR E OF POWER I9I
sy m p a th ise rs in th e lib e ra te d tow n s. T h e co m m u n ists w ere h elp ed
b y th e S o v ie t p o litic a l a u th o ritie s w ifh tra n sp o rt a n d w ith th e
m ea n s o f p r o p a g a n d a . T h u s th e y w e re a b le to start th eir p a rty
m a c h in e w ith a d v a n ta g e s . B u t as it w as p a rt o f S o v ie t a n d c o m ­
m u n ist p o lic y a ll o v e r E u ro p e to c re a te P o p u la r F ro n ts, th e
c o m m u n ists w e re n o t c o n te n t to b u ild th e ir o w n p a r t y : o th er
p a rtie s also h a d to be o rg a n ise d , a n d a d e m o c ra tic co a litio n to be
fo rm e d .
T h e S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rty h a d an o rg a n isa tio n in th e in d u s­
tria l ce n tre s o f th e p ro v in c e s, a n d th e S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a rty a
la r g e r b u t less o rg a n ise d b o d y o f su p p o rte rs in b o th tow n s an d
v illa g e s. In th e first m o n th s it is a c u rio u s p a r a d o x th a t the
re co n stitu tio n o f these p a rtie s w as la rg e ly th e w o rk o f th e team s
o f co m m u n ist a g ita to rs w h o tra v e lle d ro u n d in R e d A r m v
v e h ic le s .1 T h e g e n e ra l p o lic y w as e v e ry w h e re to c re a te C o m ­
m ittees o f N a tio n a l L ib e ra tio n w ith re p resen ta tiv e s o f fo u r p a rties.
T h e fo u rth w as th e N a tio n a l P e a san t P a rty , b ased on a g ro u p
o f ra d ic a l in te lle c tu a l e x p e rts on th e p e a san t q u estio n , th e so-
c a lle d ‘ v illa g e e x p lo r e r s ’ . T h e co m m u n ists in te n d e d to use this
p a r t y as a c o u n te r -w e ig h t a m o n g th e p ea san ts to th e m o re c o n ­
se rv a tiv e S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a rty , to m a k e o f it in fa ct a ru ra l
b ra n c h o f th e C o m m u n is t P a rty . B u t a t first th e y w e re b y no
m ea n s su ccessfu l.
T h e fo u r-p a rty c o m m itte e s w e re o f co u rse in te n d e d to p la y a
p a rt c o m p a r a b le to th a t o f th e soviets in R u ssia n h isto ry . T h e y
w e re to b e d o m in a te d b y th e co m m u n ists, an d w ere to su p ersed e
th e o ld sta te a d m in istra tio n . B u t h ere to o th e co m m u n ists w e re
u n su ccessfu l. T h o u g h m a n y lo c a l re p resen ta tiv e s o f th e th ree n o n ­
c o m m u n is t p a rtie s h a d in fa c t b e en selected b y co m m u n ists, th ey
so on a d o p te d th e p o lic y o f th eir o w n p a rties. M a n y co m m itte e s
w e re o f co u rse d o m in a te d b y th e co m m u n ists, a n d in a ll the
c o m m u n ist in flu e n c e w as g re a te r th an it w as a m o n g the p e o p le
as a w h o le . B u t th e c o m m u n ists w e re fa r from h a v in g c o m p le te
co n tro l.
A p ro v isio n a l le g is la tiv e b o d y , th e N a tio n a l C o u n c il, w as
fo rm e d . Its c o m p o sitio n w as d e c id e d b y a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n the
le a d e rs o f th e fo u r p a rtie s. T h e th re e m a in p a rtie s h ad e a ch ra th e r

1 T h e fo llo w in g a c c o u n t is b ased , a p a rt fro m offic ia l H u n g a ria n so u rces a n d p e r­

so n a l co n v ers a tio n s d u rin g m y visits to H u n g a r y in 1946 a n d 19 47, o n tw o books b y
ex iles— F ere n c N a g y , The Struggle Behind the Iron Curtain, an d S u ly o k , ^ u e i pachte ohne
T ag. T h e s e I co n s id e r a g o o d so u rce w h e n d e a lin g w ith ev en ts in w h ic h th e au th o rs
w e re p e rs o n a lly in v o lv e d , bu t I d o n o t n ec essa rily a c ce p t a ll th eir e x p la n a tio n s or
o n clu sio n s.
192 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
m o re th a n a q u a r te r o f th e scats, an d th e n a tio n a l p e a san ts r a th e r
less th a n a q u a rte r. E a c h p a r ty th en ch ose th e d e le g a te s w h o w o u ld
fill these seats.
T h e M in istry o f th e In te rio r w as g iv e n to E rd e i, o f th e N a tio n a l
P e a san t P a rty . H e w as on e o f th e ‘ v illa g e e x p lo r e r ’ w rite rs, b u t
stood m u c h n e a re r to th e co m m u n ists th a n his p a r ty co lle a g u e s
d id . T h u s u n d e r his titu la r le a d e rsh ip th e M in is try so o n b e ca m e
a co m m u n ist p reserve. T h e p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic se ctio n s o f th e
p o lice w e re fa ir ly th o ro u g h ly c o n tro lle d b y th e c o m m u n ists. In
th e lo w e r ran ks o f th e o rd in a r y p o lic e c o m m u n ist in filtr a tio n w as
m u ch slo w e r b u t ste a d y .
T h e C o m m u n ist P a rty h eld th e M in is try o f A g r ic u ltu r e . L a n d
reform w as a v ita l issue in H u n g a r y . T h e M in iste r , I m re N a g y ,
h a d to m ak e su re th a t th e g o o d w ill a n d p a tro n a g e a m o n g th e
p easan ts w h ic h e x e c u tio n o f la n d refo rm m u st c re a te sh o u ld go
to th e C o m m u n ist P a rty . T h e refo rm w a s d e c re e d in M a r c h 1945
a n d w as h u rrie d ly c a rrie d o u t in th e lib e ra te d p ro v in c e s.
T h e re o rg a n isa tio n o f tra d e u n ion s w a s also la r g e ly c o n tro lle d
b y th e co m m u n ists. A fo rm e r B u d a p e st tra m w o rk c rs ’ le a d e r,
S te p h en K o s sa , w h o h a d b e e n sen t w ith a p e n a l la b o u r b a tta lio n
to th e R u ssia n fro n t, c a p tu r e d b y th e R e d A r m y a n d ‘ p o litic a lly
e d u c a t e d ' at a S o v ie t tr a in in g ce n tre , b e c a m e th e boss o f th e
m o v e m e n t. C e r ta in c a te g o rie s o f w o rk e rs— for in sta n c e e m p lo y e e s
o f sta te m u n itio n s facto ries a n d ra ilw a y m e n — h a d n ot b e en
a llo w e d to form u n io n s u n d e r th e o ld re g im e . In th e u n io n s n o w
cre a te d for th e first tim e, co m m u n ists w e re g iv e n th e k e y posts. In
th e o ld u n ion s th e v e te ra n so cia l d e m o c r a t le a d e rs c o u ld n o t be
e x c lu d e d , b u t K o s sa used his p o sition w h e r e v e r p ossib le to w e a k e n
th e ir in flu e n ce . T h e tra d e u n io n s w e re g iv e n re p re s e n ta tio n o n
C o m m itte e s o f N a tio n a l L ib e ra tio n a n d 011 p ro v isio n a l c it y c o u n ­
cils, th us s tre n g th e n in g th e c o m m u n ists’ p o sitio n .
T h is w as re in fo rced b y th e fa ct th a t th e n e w le a d e r o f th e S o c ia l
D e m o c ra t P a rty , Á r p á d S za k a sits, c o lla b o r a te d u n q u e stio n in g ly
w ith the co m m u n ists. W h e n th e old le a d e r, C h a rle s P e y e r, c a m e
b a ck from M a u th a u s e n c o n c e n tr a tio n c a m p , h e w a s u n a b le to re­
assert his a u th o rity in th e p a rty . T h e d e p e n d e n c e o f th e so cia l
d e m o cra ts on th e co m m u n ists w as illu stra te d b y a n in c id e n t in
th e su m m e r o f >9 4 5 ' 1° v illa g e o f G y ö m r ö , c o m m u n ist p o lic e ­
m en h a d arrested a n d shot tw e n ty -six p e o p le w ith o u t tria l, an d
in th e to w n o f K e c sk e m e t a tro citics h a d b e en c o m m itte d b y a
lo c a l p o lic e c h ie f w h o w as also a c o m m u n ist. T h e so cia l d e m o c ra t
M in iste r o f ju s t ic e , V a le n t in y , p ro p o se d th a t in a n y ca se w h e r e th e
 THE SEIZURE OF POWER ig'j
p o lic e fa ile d to ta k e a c tio n a g a in st p o lic e m e n g u ilty o f crim es,
th e M in is try o f J u s tic e sh o u ld be e m p o w ered to set u p a c o m ­
m ission o f in v e stig a tio n . T h is p ro p o sa l w as c a rrie d at th e c a b in e t,
b u t S z a k a sits , a t th e re q u est o f th e co m m u n ists, fo rced A g o stin i
to resig n his post. T h e p ro p o sa l w as n e v e r c a rrie d o u t.
D e sp ite fre q u e n t acts o f law lessness, th e c o u n try w as se ttlin g
d o w n b y th e a u tu m n o f 1945. P a r lia m e n ta r y election s w e re d u e.
A s a resu lt o f c o m m u n ist pressure it w as d e c id e d first to h old
m u n ic ip a l ele ctio n s in B u d a p e st. T h e so cia l d em o c ra ts a g re e d to
p u t u p c a n d id a te s on a jo in t list w ith th e co m m u n ists, a g a in st the
S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ P a rty . S o c e rta in w e re th e tw o pa rties th a t th e
w o rk in g -cla ss m a jo rity o f th e c a p ita l w o u ld v o te fo r th em th a t
t h e y w e n t o u t o f th e ir w a y to en su re a free an d secret p o ll. T h e
resu lt w as 51 p e r c e n t for th e S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a rty . T h is seem s to
h a v e b e e n p r in c ip a lly a v o te a g a in st th e R u ssian s, from w h o m all
section s o f th e p o p u la tio n h ad su ffered te rrib ly in an d im m e ­
d ia te ly a fte r th e siege. A fte r this, M a rsh a l V o ro s h ilo v , h e ad o f the
C o n tr o l C o m m issio n , p ro p o sed to th e sm all fa rm ers’ lead ers th at
th e fo r th c o m in g p a r lia m e n ta r y e le c tio n sh o u ld b e h eld on a c o m ­
m on list o f th e fo u r g o v e rn m e n t p a rties. T h e sh are o f scats for
e a c h p a r t y sh o u ld be d e c id e d b e fo re h a n d . Fie su ggested to th e
s m a ll fa rm e rs’ le a d e rs first 40 p e r ce n t, th en 45 p e r ce n t, th en
4 7 } p e r ce n t. H e a rg u e d th a t it w o u ld be w ro n g to ‘ m ak e the
w o rk e rs’ p a rtie s feel th at th e y a re e n te r in g th e con test as a d is­
p r o p o r tio n a te ly sm a ll m in o r it y ’ , b y g iv in g th e sm all farm ers
m o re th a n this. B u t fe e lin g in th e p a r ty w as stro n g ly a g a in st a
c o m m o n list. F e re n c N a g y , its re p re se n ta tiv e at in te r-p a r ty c o n ­
feren ces, felt o b lig e d to refer th e q u estio n to th e c e n tra l e x e c u tiv e
c o m m itte e o f th e p a rty . It c a m e o u t stro n g ly for a c o m p e titiv e
e le ctio n , a n d V o ro s h ilo v a t last a g re e d , b u t on th e u n d e rsta n d in g
th a t w h a te v e r th e resu lts o f th e e le ctio n , th e c o a litio n o f fou r
p a rtie s sh o u ld co n tin u e . T h e v o tin g w as in fa c t free, an d resu lted
in 5 7 p e r c e n t fo r th e sm a ll fa rm ers, 17 per ce n t e a c h fo r socialists
a n d co m m u n ists, a n d 7 p e r c e n t fo r n a tio n a l peasan ts.
F o r th e n e x t y e a r a n d a h a lf th e c h ie f a im o f c o m m u n ist and
so v ie t p o lic y in H u n g a r y w as to b re a k th e S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a rty ,
th e c h ie f o b sta c le to th e so v ie tisatio n o f H u n g a ry .
T i ld y , th e sm all fa rm e rs’ le a d e r, b e c a m e P rim e M in iste r fo r the
n e x t m o n th s. S in c e 19 18 H u n g a r y h a d b een a ‘ k in g d o m w ith o u t a
k i n g ’ . It w a s fe lt n ecessary to p u t a n en d to this p a ra d o x b y
p r o c la im in g a re p u b lic . T h is w a s v o te d in J a n u a r y 1946 a gain st
o n ly o n e o p p o sin g v o te, fro m th e L e g itim ist C a th o lic n u n , M iss
Iy4 T H E EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
M a rg a re t S la c h ta . T h e first P resid e n t o f th e R e p u b lic w a s T i ld y ,
a n d his p la c e as P re m ie r w as tak e n b y F e re n c N a g y . 1
M u c h m o re im p o rta n t th a n this w as th e d isp u te o n th e M in istry
o f th e In te rio r. W h e n th e T i ld y g o v e rn m e n t w a s fo rm ed th e S m a ll
F a rm e rs’ P a rty h a d c la im e d it as the stro n gest p a r ty , a n d it h ad
b e en a g re e d th a t on e o f th eir m ost e n e rg e tic a n d o p u la r m em b e rs,
B é la K o v á c s , sh o u ld be' m in ister. B u t som e d a y s la te r th e c o m ­
m u n ist le a d e r M a tth ia s R á k o s i, d e c la re d th a t i f a c o m m u n ist w as
n o t n o m in a te d to th e M in is try o f th e In te rio r, his p a r ty w o u ld n o t
jo in th e g o v e rn m e n t. K n o w in g th a t th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s w o u ld
insist on a c o a litio n g o v e rn m e n t, a n d w o u ld c o n sid e r th e c o a litio n
‘ u n re p re s e n ta tiv e ’ w ith o u t th e C o m m u n ist P a rty , th e sm all
fa rm ers y ie ld e d . T h e fo rm e r M in is te r o f A g r ic u ltu r e , I m re N a g y ’,
b e ca m e M in ister o f th e In te rio r. T h e c o m m u n ist h o ld o v e r the
p o lice b e c a m e tig h te r.
It w as h e lp e d b y th e p u rg e o f th e - b u r e a u c r a c y . E v e r y o n e w as
a g re e d th at H u n g a r y , re d u c e d o n c e m o re to h er p re-19 3 8 fr o n ­
tiers, h ad too m a n y c iv il se rv a n ts: th e o n ly q u estio n w as, w h o w as
to g o ? T h e se p a ra te m in istries w e re to d r a w u p so -c a lle d ‘ B -lists’
o f re d u n d a n t c iv il serv an ts. T h e lists w e re to b e m a d e b y a
th re e-m an co m m issio n . O n e m e m b e r w as to be a p p o in te d b y th e
P rim e M in iste r, o n e b y th e m in ister o f th e d e p a r tm e n t c o n c e rn e d ,
an d on e b y the tra d e u n ion s. T h e p u r g e w as c o n d u c te d on
g ro u n d s o f p o litic a l o p in io n s ra th e r th a n e ffic ie n c y , a n d as th e
co m m u n ists w e re m o re sy ste m a tic a n d b e tte r in fo rm e d on
p o litic a l op in ion s o f e m p lo y e e s th a n w e re th e sm a ll fa rm ers they
d eriv e d m o re a d v a n ta g e from th e process.
In M a r c h 1946 o c c u rre d th e first p u rg e in th e S m a ll F a r m e rs ’
P a rty . O n e o f its le a d e rs, S u ly o k , a m an o f p r o v e d d e m o c ra tic
c o n v ictio n s , b e lo n g in g r a th e r to th e left th an th e r ig h t w in g o f th e
p a r ty , in c u rre d th e w ra th o f th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s a n d o f th e
C o m m u n ist P a rty b y stro n g ly n a tio n a list sp eech es. S u ly o k
e sp e c ia lly a tta c k e d th e tre a tm e n t b y th e S lo v a k s o f th e ir H u n ­
g a ria n m in o rity . T h e c o m m u n ists, lo o k in g fo r a n o p p o r tu n ity to
w e a k e n th e sm a ll fa rm e r m a jo r ity in p a r lia m e n t, sin g le d o u t
S u ly o k for a tta c k as a c h a u v in is t a n d re a c tio n a r y . H e w as
d e n o u n c e d in th e press, a n d b y sp eakers a t c o m m u n ist-le d w o rk e rs’
street d em o n stra tio n s. T h e S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ le a d e rs d e c id e d o n 12
M a r c h to a c c e p t th e c o m m u n is t d e m a n d fo r th e e x p u lsio n o f
1 N a g y (in E n g lish ‘ b i g ’ ) is a co m m o n H u n g a ria n n a m e . I t is im p o rta n t h e re to
d istin g u ish b e tw e e n F ere n c N a g y , m e m b e r o f th e S m a ll F a rm e rs P a r ty a n d P re m ie r
19 4 6 -7 , an d Im re N a g y , m e m b e r o f th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty a n d M in is te r first o f
A g r ic u ltu r e a n d th en o f In te rio r in 19 4 5 -6 .
 THE S E I Z URE OF P O W E R 1 95

S u ly o k a n d tw e n ty -o n e o th e r m em b e rs o f p a rlia m e n t from th e
p a r ty . T h e y k e p t th e ir sca ts in p a rlia m e n t.
S u ly o k a t o n c e fo rm e d a se p a ra te p a r lia m e n ta r y g ro u p o f the
m a jo rity o f th ose e x p e lle d , a n d a p p ro a c h e d th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s
fo r p erm issio n to fo rm a n e w p a rty , in o p p o sitio n to th e g o v e r n ­
m e n t, to b e c a lle d th e F re e d o m P a rty . In J u ly perm ission w as
g r a n te d , w ith d r a w n a fe w d a y s la te r a fte r a sp ce ch b y S u ly o k in
p a r lia m e n t in fa v o u r o f a U n ite d S tate s o f E u ro p e , an d fin a lly
g ra n te d in O c t o b e r .1 T h e p a r ty h a d a b r ie f a n d tu m u ltu o u s
h isto ry . Its first p u b lic m e e tin g w as h eld in B u d a p e st on 24
N o v e m b e r . T h o u g h th e o n ly m ean s o f a n n o u n c in g it b e fo re h an d
h a d b e e n p osters, a c ro w d o f m a n y th o u san d s a tte n d e d . O n
5 J a n u a ry ' 1947 a n o th e r g r e a t m e e tin g w as h eld in S z e g e d . B u t
th e p a r t y w a s a tt r a c t in g to o m u c h a tte n tio n , a n d th e co m m u n ists
d e c id e d to re n d e r it p ow erless. G a n g s o f to u gh s w e re sent to b re a k
u p m ee tin g s, in te rru p t sp eech es, a n d sh o u t p r o v o c a tiv e slo g an s
ju s t ify in g th e in te rv e n tio n o f th e p o lic e . W h e n S u ly o k spo ke a t a
m e e tin g o f C a t h o lic A c tio n in K is k u n fé le g y h á z a on 2 M a r c h
to u g h s trie d to a tta c k h im , a n d h e n a r r o w ly e sca p e d . O n 23
M a r c h a m e e tin g o f th e p a r ty a t H ó d m e z ő v á s á r h e ly w as b ro k en
u p b y co m m u n ist g a n g s. R e p e a te d req u ests fo r p erm ission to
p u b lish a n e w s p a p e r led to its a p p e a r a n c e o n 15 M a r c h 194 7. It
w as c a lle d Holnap (T o - m o r r o w ) . I t h ad a la rg e a n d g r o w in g c ir ­
c u la tio n (66,000 b y th e ten th n u m b e r), b u t it lasted less th a n tw o
w eeks. S u ly o k w as so rash as to ta k e u p th e ca u se o f th e in d u strial
w o rk e rs. H e p o in te d o u t th a t th e y w e re w r e tc h e d ly p a id , a n d
c o n tra s te d th e ir lo t w ith th a t o f th e bosses o f th e tra d e u n ion s and
o f th e t w o ‘ w o rk e rs’ p a r t ie s ’ , w h o le d th e lives o f w e a lth y b o u r­
ge o is. T h e r e w as e n o u g h tru th in this d e m a g o g y to in fu ria te th e
c o m m u n ists. T h e y c o u ld n ot p e rm it a n o n -M a r x is t to w in
w o rk in g -c la ss su p p o rt. T h e y th erefo re d e c id e d to suppress th e
n e w s p a p e r. O n 28 M a r c h , o n th e o rd e rs o f th e tra d e u n io n le a d e r
K o s s a , th e p rin te rs ‘ refu sed to p rin t th e r e a c tio n a ry c a lu m n ie s ’
o f S u ly o k , a n d th e p a p e r c a m e to a n en d .
S o v ie t a n d H u n g a r ia n c o m m u n ist pressure on th e N a g y
g o v e r n m e n t w a s w e ll c o -o rd in a te d . In th e su m m e r o f 1946 som e
R e d A r m y m en w e re sh ot in th e to w n o f G y ö n g y ö s b y a H u n g a r ia n
y o u th , w h o se m o th e r h a d b een ra p e d b y R u ssia n s. T his y o u th h ad
a frie n d w h o w o rk e d in th e c e n tra l office o f th e S m a ll F a r m e rs’
P a r t y , a n d k n e w tw o m em b e rs o f p a rlia m e n t o f th e p a r ty . O n e
o f th em h a d o n c e g iv e n h im a fe w re v o lv e rs an d tw o h a n d -
1 S e e S u ly o k , £ u x i Nachtt ohne Tag.
 ig6 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
gre n a d e s, p a rt o f a sm all store o f a rm s w h ic h h a d b e en c re a te d to
pro tect th e p a r ty h e a d q u a rte rs in th e law less d a y s a fte r th e lib e r a ­
tion o f B u d a p est. A b o u t th e sam e tim e a n o th e r b o y h a d k ille d
tw o R u ssia n officers in a B u d a p e st stre e t. H e w as a lle g e d to h a v e
b een frie n d ly w ith a C a th o lic priest. O n th e g ro u n d o f th ese crim e s
th e S o v iet a u th o ritie s d e m a n d e d th e d isso lu tio n o f th e C a t h o lic
y o u lh o rg a n isa tio n an d th e scou ts, th e re m o v a l o f fo u r c o u n ty
p refects, a n d th e arrest o f th e tw o ‘ im p lic a t e d ’ sm all fa rm e r
m em b ers o f p a rlia m e n t. N a g y w as a b le to d efe n d th e m em b e rs o f
p a rlia m e n t, b u t h ad to y ie ld on th e o th e r poin ts.
S oon a fte r this, d isord ers o c c u rre d in th e to w n o f M isk o lc . A
cro w d o f w o rk ers in cite d b y a c o m m u n ist a tta c k e d a m ill o w n e d
b y J e w ish b ro th e rs, on e o f w h o m d ie d o f in ju ries. W h e n som e o f
th e m o b w e re arre ste d , th e w o rk ers a tta c k e d th e g a o l, free d th e
m u rd erers, m u rd e re d a J e w ish p o lic e m a n , a n d set free som e
fascists from a n e a rb y in te rn m e n t c a m p . T h e r e w a s a lso a n a n ti-
J e w ish p o g ro m a t K u n m a d a r a s . B o th in c id e n ts w e re th e w o rk o f
fascist tou gh s w h o h a d jo in e d th e C o m m u n ist P a rty . But th e tria l
w as so a rra n g e d as to g iv e th e m u rd e re rs lig h t sen ten ces a n d to
c o n d e m n to d e a th tw o in n o ce n t sm all fa rm e r su p p o rte rs. T h e s e
w e re e v e n tu a lly a c q u itte d b y a c o u rt o f a p p e a l.
S o v ie t in te rv e n tio n a t this tim e in c lu d e d a v e to on tw o g o v e r n ­
m en t b ills, to c re a te a p e a san t o rg a n isa tio n c o rr e s p o n d in g to th e
tra d e u n ion s fo r in d u stria l w o rk e rs, a n d to re d u c e o r a b o lish
sen ten ces o n a n u m b e r o f m in o r p o litic a l o ffen d e rs. T h e S o v ie t
m ilita r y c o m m a n d also o rd e re d th e M in is te r o f W a r to in cre a se
th e n u m b ers o f th e fro n tie r g u a rd s a n d to p la c e th e m u n d e r a
ce rta in C o lo n e l P á lffi-O ste rre ic h c r, a co m m u n ist a n d th e h e a d o f
th e p o litic a l e sp io n a g e section o f th e G e n e ra l S ta ff. S o v ie t troop s
also a rrested se v eral le a d e rs o f th e H u n g a r ia n m o n a rch ists, w h o m
th e y seem ed to re g a rd as seriou s en em ies. T h e S o v ie t c o m m a n d e r,
G e n e ra l S v ir id o v , a lso in te rv e n e d in a p p o in tm e n ts to m in istries.
T h e M in iste r o f E d u c a tio n , K e r e s z tu r y , o f th e N a tio n a l P e a sa n t
P a rty , h a d a n n o y e d th e communisms b y th e w a y h e c o n d u c te d th e
p u rg e o f officials in his m in istry . T h e y th e re fo re fo rc e d th e
N a tio n a l P ea san t P a r t y ’ s le a d e r V e r e s to m a k e h im resig n . T h e y
h a d th eir o w n c a n d id a te fo r his su cccssor. L a te r in th e a u tu m n
som e c a b in e t posts h eld b y th e S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ P a rty fe ll v a c a n t,
a n d S v ir id o v re c o m m e n d e d to N a g y c e rta in o f his o w n p a r ty w h o
h a d b e c o m e se cre t a g e n ts o f th e co m m u n ists.
T h e crisis w h ic h b ro k e th e S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ P a r ty b e g a n in
D e c e m b e r 1945. P á lffi-Ö s te rre ic h e r’ s p o litic a l se ctio n o f th e a rm y
 THE SE I Z UR E OF P OWE R 1 97
a rre ste d a g r o u p o f ‘ c o n s p ir a to rs ’ , in c lu d in g a F o re ig n O ffic e
o fficia l S z c n t iv á n y i, a M a jo r S zen tm ik lo ssi, a fo rm e r m em b e r o f
p a r lia m e n t fo r th e M .E .P . n a m e d D o n á th , a n d a le a d in g m em b e r
o f th e S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ P a r ty , B á lin t A r a n y . T h e s e m en h ad form ed
a n o r g a n is a tio n c a lle d th e H u n g a r ia n C o m m u n ity . T h e y c o n ­
sid e re d e v e r y th in g w h ic h h a d h a p p e n e d in H u n g a r y sin ce the
G e r m a n o c c u p a tio n o f M a r c h 1944 ille g a l, a n d a im e d a t a retu rn
to th e co n stitu tio n a l p a st. T h e co m m u n ists a n d th e S o v ie t
c o m m a n d d e c id e d to use this p a rlo u r-p lo t to im p lic a te th e w h o le
S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ P a rty . T h e a rrested m en w e re k ep t in th e p o w e r o f
P á lffi-Ö ste rre ic h e r. P re m ie r N a g y o rd e re d th e W a r M in ister,
B á rta , a m e m b e r o f his p a r ty , p e rs o n a lly to in te rro g a te the
a c c u s e d . P á lffii-ö s te r r e ic h e r , B á r ta ’s su b o rd in a te , refu sed to let
h im see th em on th e g ro u n d th a t th e S o v ie t g e n e ra l S v ir id o v h ad
fo rb id d e n it. S v ir id o v d e n ie d th a t h e h ad said this, b u t su p p o rte d
P á lffi-Ö s te rre ic h e r a g a in st th e P re m ie r. N e ith e r B á rta n o r a n y
o th e r S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ re p re s e n ta tiv e c o u ld visit th e a c c u sed .
A fte r th e a ccu sed h a d b een ‘ w o rk e d o n ’ b y th e co m m u n ists o f
th e p o litic a l sectio n o f th e a rm y a n d o f th e civ il P o litica l P olice
(fo rm in g p a rt o f th e c o m m u n ist-c o n tr o llc d M in is try o f the
In te rio r a n d u n d e r th e im m e d ia te c o m m a n d o f th e M o sco w -
tra in e d co m m u n ist G a b r ie l P e te r), th e y m a d e ‘ co n fe ssio n s’
im p lic a tin g le a d in g m em b ers o f th e S m a ll F a rm e rs’ P a rty . T h e
M in is te r o f R e c o n stru c tio n , M isté th , h ad k n o w n th em an d
a d m itte d th at h e h ad b e lo n g e d to th e H u n g a ria n C o m m u n ity .
T h e a rre ste d m en also im p lic a te d th e sm all fa rm er m em b ers o f
p a rlia m e n t A le x a n d e r K is , J a c z k ó a n d S a lá ta . T h e S o v iet
a u th o ritie s n o w re p e a te d th e ir ch a rg e s a g a in st th e tw o m em b e rs o f
p a rlia m e n t ‘ in v o lv e d ’ in th e G y ö n g y ö s sh o o tin g o f R e d A r m y
m en , G y u la i a n d R á c z .
T h e m a in a rg u m e n t o f c o m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a a g a in st th e
S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ P a rty fo r th e last y e a r h a d b e en th a t it p ro v id e d
a re fu g e fo r fascists a n d for r e a c tio n a ry u rb a n m id d le-class
e le m e n ts. T h e co m m u n ists c la im e d to resp ect th e H u n g a ria n
p ea san ts. T h e y a rg u e d th a t th e p easan ts w e re e sse n tially d e m o ­
c r a tic , a n d in so fa r as th e p a r ty re p resen te d th em it w as a d e m o ­
c r a tic p a r ty . T h e p e a sa n t m em b ers o f p a rlia m e n t, th e y su ggested ,
sh o u ld ta k e c o n tro l o f th e p a r ty a n d insist on th e re m o v a l o f the
b o u rg e o is e lem en ts. T h e r e w as som e tru th in this c o m m u n ist v ie w
o f th e p a rty . B u t it is sig n ific a n t th a t in this d e c isiv e ‘ co n sp ir a c y
c r is is ’ it w a s p re c is e ly th e p e a sa n t m em b ers o f p a rlia m e n t w h o m
th e co m m u n ists a tta c k e d . T h e y w e re e sp e c ia lly k een to d estro y
198 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

th e P e a san t L e a g u e , w h ic h F e re n c N a g y h ad re v iv e d a fte r th e
d e fe a t o f th e G e rm a n s. T h e y w ish ed to d issolve it a n d re p la c e it
b y tw o o rg a n isa tio n s w h ic h th e y th em selv es c o n tro lle d , th e
A sso cia tio n o f A g r ic u lt u r a l W o rk e rs a n d S m a ll L a n d o w n e rs , a n d
th e A sso c ia tio n o f N e w L a n d o w n e rs. A le x a n d e r K is a n d H o r ­
v á th , tw o m em b e rs o f p a rlia m e n t, w h o led th e L e a g u e , w e re
a ccu s e d . T h e c lim a x o f th e crisis c a m e w ith th e im p lic a tio n o f
B éla K o v á c s , g e n e ra l se c re ta ry o f th e p a rty , h im s e lf a p e a sa n t.
T h r o u g h o u t th e crisis T i ld y u rg e d th e S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a rty to
a c c e p t e a c h su ccessive d e m a n d b y th e c o m m u n ist M in is te r o f th e
In te rio r R a jk . T h e c o m m u n ist h o ld o v e r T i ld y w a s d u e p a r tly to
his p raise o f H o rth y in th e p r e -w a r d a y s a n d p a r tly to som e
sca n d a ls c o n n e cte d w ith his fa m ily . U n d e r th e ir p ressu re h e
s y ste m a tic a lly b e tra y e d his p a r ty . P re m ie r N a g y trie d fro m tim e
to tim e to resist. H e w a s n o t stro n g e n o u g h to sa ve his frien d s, b u t
his re lu c ta n c e w as su ffic ie n tly o b v io u s to c o n v in c e th e c o m ­
m un ists th a t h e w as n o t a ‘ s a fe ’ o c c u p a n t o f th e p re m ie rsh ip . T h e
p o lice first req u ested th e su spen sion o f th e p a r lia m e n ta r y im ­
m u n ity o f m em b ers J a c z k ó a n d S a lá ta . W h e n this w as g ra n te d
J a c z k ó w as a rre ste d b u t S a lá ta fled th e c o u n tr y . S o m e d a y s la te r
th e suspension o f th e im m u n ity o f six m o re m em b e rs w as
re q u ested . T h e y th em selves a g re e d to th is, a n d fiv e o f th e m w e re
th en arre ste d . 1'h en c a m c th e tu rn o f B éla K o v á c s .
B y n o w th e p a rlia m e n ta r y g ro u p o f th e S m a ll F’ a rm e rs’ P a rty
w as se e th in g w ith in d ig n a tio n . E sp e c ia lly th e p e a sa n t m em b e rs,
re a lisin g th a t th e d estru ctio n o f th e p a r ty a n d th e e n sla v e m e n t o f
th e p e a sa n try w e re th e c o m m u n ists’ aim s, refu sed to su rre n d e r
K o v á c s . A p e a sa n t m e m b e r, S te p h e n K o v á c s 1 in a m o v in g sp e e ch
p rop osed th a t a p a rlia m e n ta r y c o m m itte e b e a p p o in te d to in v e s­
tig a te th e c h a rg e s a g a in st B é la K o v á c s a n d th e a rre ste d m em b e rs.
T h is c o m m itte e w o u ld h a v e ta k e n th e c o n d u c t o f th e w h o le a ffa ir
o u t o f th e h an d s o f th e c o m m u n ist p o lic e a n d w o u ld h a v e re v e a le d
a ll th e m eth o d s used to e x to r t con fessions. T h e c o m m u n ists in
p a rlia m e n t v io le n tly o p p o se d th e p la n , c a llin g S te p h e n K o v á c s an
a g e n t o f c le ric a l re a c tio n c o n sp ir in g a g a in s t d e m o c r a c y . I'ild y
pressed th e p a r ty to a b a n d o n th e p la n , a n d w as s u p p o rte d b y
F e re n c N a g y . B é la K o v á c s n o w resig n ed th e g e n e ra l se c re ta ry sh ip
o f th e p a r ty a n d th e e d ito rsh ip o f th e p a r ty n e w s p a p e r K is Újság.

1 K o v á c s (in E n g lish ‘ S m it h ’ ) is a v e r y co m m o n H u n g a r ia n n a m e . H e re w e m ust

d istin g u ish b etw een H íla K o v á c s , se c re ta ry g e n e ra l o f the S m a ll F a rm e rs P a r t y ; Im re
K o v á c s , so cio lo gist a n d se cre ta ry o f th e N a tio n a l P ea san t P a r t y ; S te p h e n K o v á c s ,
m e m b e r o f p a rlia m e n t fo r th e S m a ll F a rm e rs P a r t y ; a n d I . K o v á c s , m e m b e r o f
p a rlia m e n t for th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty (see p . 200 b e lo w ).
 THE S E I Z URE OF P O W E R 19g
B u t this w a s n o t e n o u g h fo r th e co m m u n ists. D e m o n stra tio n s o f
c o m m u n ist-le d w o rk e rs c la m o u r e d in fron t o f p a rlia m e n t b u ild in g
fo r ‘ d e a th to K o v á c s ’ . H e a g re e d w ith N a g y th a t h e sh ou ld visit
p o lic e h e a d q u a rte rs a n d a n s w e r q u estio n s, b u t sh o u ld n ot su r­
re n d e r his p a r lia m e n ta r y im m u n ity . B u t b y n o w th e m e m b e r o f
p a r lia m e n t G y u la i, a rre ste d for th e G y ö n g y ö s a ffa ir, h a d ‘ c o n ­
fe sse d ’ th a t K o v á c s h ad o rg a n ise d e sp io n a g e , o n b e h a lf o f a
fo re ig n p o w e r, a g a in st th e S o v ie t a rm y . T h u s th e S o v ie t a u th o r ­
ities h a d a p r e te x t fo r in te rv e n tio n . O n 26 F e b r u a r y 19 4 7, the
se co n d d a y o f K o v á c s ’ q u e s tio n in g , S o v ie t sold iers c a m e to th e
h e a d q u a rte rs a n d th ere a rre ste d K o v á c s , ta k in g h im first to his
h o m e a n d th en to an u n k n o w n d e s tin a tio n . A fte r this th e u n fo r­
t u n a te m a n w as n o t seen a liv e a g a in e x c e p t b y his c a p to rs. It
w as le a rn e d m o n th s la te r th a t h e h a d d ie d in c a p tiv ity . B efore
h e d ie d , h o w e v e r, h e w as sta ted to h a v e in c rim in a te d his in tim a te
frien d F e re n c N a g y .
T h e u n fo rtu n a te N a g y re m a in e d P rem ie r, h o rrified b y th e fate
o f K o v á c s b u t u n a b le to h e lp h im , torn b e tw e e n his desire to
resign a n d a p a th e tic b e lie f th a t h e c o u ld still sa v e so m e th in g b y
sta y in g a t his p ost, th a t th e im p e n d in g e v a c u a tio n b y S o v ie t
tro o p s o f H u n g a r ia n te rrito ry , in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e p e a ce
tre a tie s, w o u ld c h a n g e th e situ a tio n . T h e A m e r ic a n a n d British
g o v e rn m e n ts sent notes o f p ro te st on th e K o v á c s case, an a ct o f
S o v ie t in te rv e n tio n on w h ic h th e y , th o u g h m em b ers o f th e A llie d
C o n tr o l C o m m issio n set u p u n d e r th e a rm istice, h a d n ot b een
c o n su lte d . T h e notes w e re ig n o re d . O n 11 M a r c h th e go v e rn m e n t
w as re sh u ffled . T h r e e n o m in a l m em b e rs o f th e S m a ll F a r m e rs’
P a r ty w h o w e re tools o f th e com m u n ists-— O r t u t a y , M ih á ly ffi and
D in n y é s— b e c a m e M in iste rs o f E d u c a tio n , In fo rm a tio n an d
D e fe n c e . In M a y N a g y w e n t on a h o lid a y to S w itz e r la n d . W h ile
h e w a s a w a y th e ‘ r e v e la tio n s ’ o f K o v á c s a b o u t h im w e re p r o d u c e d .
H is in fa n t son w a s used b y th e co m m u n ists as a h o stag e to m ak e
h im re sig n . H e w as su c ce e d e d as P r e m ie r b y th e sto o ge D in n y é s.
T h e S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ P a rty h a d b e en b ro k e n .
T h e N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a r ty n o w u n d e rw e n t a p u rg e . Its sec­
re ta r y I m r e K o v á c s , p e rh a p s th e m ost e m in e n t a n d o n e o f th e
m ost r a d ic a l o f th e ‘ v illa g e e x p lo r e r s ’ , h a d b e en a p e rso n a l frien d
o f B é la K o v á c s . H e re sig n e d his post, an d in th e su m m e r esca p ed
a b r o a d . F o r th e tim e b e in g th e p a r ty w as led b y P e te r V e r e s, also
a w rite r a n d an a g r ic u ltu r a l la b o u r e r b y o rig in . H e w as p re p a re d
to c o lla b o r a te w ith th e c o m m u n ists, b u t n e v e r w o n th e ir c o n ­
fid e n ce . H e w as to o n a tio n a lis t, a n d his v iew s, th o u g h fie rce ly
200 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
re v o lu tio n a ry , w e re fa r from o rth o d o x M a rx is m . T h e y sm elt o f
p e a san t a n a rch ism . In 1948 V e r e s w as q u ie tly p u sh ed o u t o f th e
le a d e rsh ip , a n d a ll p o w e r in th e p a r ty w a s tak e n b y th e c r y p to ­
c o m m u n ist E rd e i. T h u s th e N a tio n a l P e a san t P a rty b y 1948
b e ca m e w h a t th e co m m u n ists h a d in te n d e d it to b e , w h a t fo r a
tim e th e in te g rity o f som e o f its in te lle c tu a l le a d e rs h a d p re v e n te d
it from b e in g , th e ru ra l b ra n c h o f th e C o m m u n ist P a rty .
In th e su m m e r o f 1947 n e w e le ctio n s w e re p r e p a re d . C o m ­
m unists, so cia l d em o c ra ts, n a tio n a l p easan ts a n d th e ru m p o f th e
S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a r ty w e n t to th e p olls o n se p a ra te lists. T h e n e w
e le cto ra l la w restric ted th e fran ch ise. A ll w h o h a d b e e n ‘ c o n ­
d em n e d for crim e s a g a in st th e R e p u b lic o r d e m o c r a c y ’ w e re
d isq u a lified . T h is m ig h t b e used a g a in st a n y o f th e v e r y la rg e
n u m b e r o f p e o p le w h o h a d b e en te m p o ra r ily in te rn e d b y th e
p o lice sin ce 1945. T h e b a n e x te n d e d to re la tiv e s o f su ch persons
‘ u p to th e d e g re e o f c o u s in ’ w h o h ad resid ed in th e sa m e hou se
w ith th em . T h e v o tin g a g e w as a lso raised fro m 21 to 22. D u r in g
th e e le cto ra l c a m p a ig n th e re a l a ttitu d e o f th e co m m u n ists to th e
fo rm e r le a d e rs o f th e S m a ll F a r m e rs’ P a rty w a s re v e a le d w ith
su rp risin g fran kn ess. In a sp e e ch in S z o ln o k o n 5 J u n e th e c o m ­
m u n ist m e m b e r o f p a rlia m e n t I. K o v á c s said th a t ‘ th e c liq u e
a ro u n d N a g y in te n d e d to e v ic t th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty fro m th e
g o v e rn m e n t o n c e th e R e d A r m y h a d w it h d r a w n ’ . T h a t is to sa y,
i f th e le a d e rs o f a p a r ty possessing a n a b so lu te m a jo rity in a free ly
e le cte d p a rlia m e n t d e c id e th a t th e y w ill, a t som e u n sp e cifie d d a te
in ih e fu tu re , use th e ir m a jo rity to en d a c o a litio n a n d form a
g o v e rn m e n t b y th em selves, th e y a re c o m m ittin g a ‘ tre a s o n a b le
c o n s p ir a c y ’ a g a in st d e m o c ra c y .
T h e e x istin g o p p o sitio n p a r ty o f S u ly o k c o n tin u e d to su ffer
a tta ck s b y b a n d s o f c o m m u n ist h o o lig a n s. In J u ly S u ly o k asked
th e M in is te r o f th e In te rio r, R a jk , to g u a r a n te e o rd e r a t his m e e t­
in gs. H e w as to ld th a t th e p o lic e c o u ld n ot b e su re o f its a b ility to
c o n tro l th e ‘ju s t a n g e r o f th e p e o p le a g a in st th e e n em ies o f
d e m o c r a c y ’ . S u ly o k th erefo re d e c id e d to d issolve his p a rty ,
fo r m a lly m o tiv a tin g th e a c tio n b y th e d esire n o t to e x p o se his
fo llo w ers to p e rsecu tio n . T h r e e o th e r o p p o sitio n p a rtie s w e re
a u th o rise d . T h e In d e p e n d e n c e P a rty , le d b y a fo rm e r U n d e r ­
s e c r e t a r y o f J u stic e , Z o ltá n P feiffe r, w h o h a d b e en e x p e lle d from
th e S m a ll F a rm e rs’ P a rty a t c o m m u n ist re q u est, w as c o n se rv a tiv e
a n d n a tio n a list. The D e m o c r a tic P e o p le ’ s P a rty led b y S te p h e n
B a rá n k o v ic s w as a p ro gressiv e C a t h o lic P a r ty , m o d e lle d on th e
F re n c h M .R .P . T h e th ird p a rty w a s le d b y a C a t h o lic p riest,
 THE S E I Z UR E OF P O W E R 201
S te p h e n B a lo g h , w h o h a d sin ce 1944 b e en p ro m in e n t in th e S m a ll
F a r m e rs ’ P a rty . A s S e c r e ta r y to th e P re m ie r’s o ffice, B a lo g h h ad
fo r a lo n g tim e e n jo y e d th e g o o d w ill o f b o th th e co m m u n ists an d
th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s. H e h a d su cce e d e d B é la K o v á c s as g e n e ra l
s e c re ta ry o f th e S m a ll F a r m e rs ’ P a rty . A g ifte d in trig u e r, a jo v ia l
h e d o n ist a n d a m o u n ta in o f a m a n , he h a d e a rn e d th e distru st
o f a ll in tu rn . H is n e w p a r ty seem ed d esign ed o n ly to sp lit th e
o p p o sitio n ran ks.
T h e e le ctio n s w e re h e ld o n 31 A u g u s t 1 9 4 7 . In c o m p a riso n w ith
those o f N o v e m b e r 1945 th e y w e re a fr a u d , b u t in co m p a riso n w ith
th ose in m ost n e ig h b o u r in g c o u n trie s th e y w e re free. T h e c o m ­
m u n ists w o n th e la rg e st n u m b e r o f v o tes (22 p e r c e n t). T h e ir
success w a s la r g e ly d u e to g ro u p s o f v o ters a rm e d w ith m a n y
b a llo t p a p e rs w h o tra v e lle d ro u n d th e cou n try' in lorries, v o tin g
m a n y tim es o v e r . O f th e ir a llie s th e socialists h ad 15 p e r ce n t,
ru m p sm a ll fa rm ers 14 p e r c e n t, a n d N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a rty
9 p e r ce n t. T h e o p p o sitio n h ad 35 p e r c e n t. (P fe iffe r 14 p e r ce n t,
B a ra n k o v ic s 16 p e r ce n t an d B a lo g h 5 p e r c e n t.) In th e n e w
g o v e rn m e n t D in n y é s re m a in e d P rem ie r. A c a m p a ig n soon started
a g a in st P feiffe r. C o m m u n is t v ic e -P r e m ie r R á k o si d e c la re d th a t his
r e a c tio n a r y p a r ty w a s to o h e a v y a b u rd e n fo r th e y o u n g H u n ­
g a ria n d e m o c r a c y to b e a r. It w as d isso lv ed in th e a u tu m n , a n d
P feiffe r h im s e lf fled to A u s tr ia . T h e p a r ty o f B a rá n k o v ic s lasted
u n til th e en d o f 194 8 . I t v o te d a g a in st th e g o v e rn m e n t in J u n e
1948 , w h e n C a t h o lic sch ools w e re n a tio n a lise d . T h e c o n flic t w ith
th e C a t h o lic C h u r c h re a c h e d its c lim a x in D e c e m b e r 1948 w h en
C a r d in a l M in d s z e n ty w as a rre ste d . A t th e sa m e tim e B a ra n k o ­
v ics d isso lv e d his p a r ty a n d e sca p e d a b r o a d . B a lo g h re m a in e d in
n o m in a l o p p o sitio n , b u t in fa c t su p p o rte d th e g o v e rn m e n t. In
1949 h e jo in e d th e g o v e rn m e n t e le c to ra l b lock .
T h e o n ly p o litic a l p a r ty o f im p o rta n c e w h ic h still in 1948
h a d so m e s e m b la n c e o f in d e p e n d e n c e w e re th e so cia l d em o c ra ts.
U n d e r th e c o m p la isa n t S z a k a sits th e y h a d on a ll im p o rta n t issues
su p p o rte d th e co m m u n ists. T h is p o lic y w as u n p o p u la r w ith
m a n y socia lists. In th e a u tu m n o f 1946 th e v e te ra n p a r ty le a d e r
C h a r le s P e y e r w ro te a lo n g m e m o ra n d u m in w h ic h h e d e n o u n c e d
c o m m u n ist m eth o d s an d p o lic y , a n d th e su b se rv ie n c e o f S zak asits
to it. B u t P e y e r w as o u tv o te d , a n d h ad to le a v e th e p a rty . H e
fo rm e d a s e p a ra te g r o u p o f his o w n fo r a tim e , b u t th en fled the
c o u n tr y . B u t th o u g h th e p a r t y ’ s rig h t w in g w a s cru sh e d , th ere
w e re still p r o m in e n t socialists w h o re p resen te d w h a t m a y be ca lle d
a ‘ c e n t r e ’. In 1948 c o m m u n ist pressure fo r fu sion of the tw o
202 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
‘ w o rk e rs’ p a r tie s ’ g re w . A ll w h o o p p o se d fu sion w e re d u b b e d
rig h t-w in g socialists. T h e co m m u n ists pressed fo r th e ir e x p u lsio n
from th e S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rty . T h e tw o m ost p r o m in e n t re p r e ­
sen tatives o f this te n d e n c y w e re th e M in is te r o f I n d u stry , A n t a l
B á n , a n d th e v ic e -c h a ir m a n o f p a r lia m e n t, M iss A n n a K é t h ly .
A t th e en d o f F e b ru a ry th e y a n d a n u m b e r o f less k n o w n m em b e rs
w e re e x p e lle d , an d a sp e cia l p a r ty co n g re ss d e c id e d fo r fu sion .
T h e c e re m o n y to o k p la c e a t a co n gress o f b o th p a rtie s h e ld on
1 2 - 1 4 J u n e . T h e n e w p a r ty w as n a m e d H u n g a r ia n W o r k e r s ’
P a rty . In fa c t th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty h a d sim p ly sw a llo w e d u p th e
socialists.
S z ak asits re c e iv ed his re w a rd in A u g u st. T h e w re tc h e d T i ld y
h ad re a c h e d th e lim it o f his u sefuln ess. H is so n -in -la w w as
im p lic a te d in an ‘ e sp io n a g e p lo t ’ a n d la te r e x e c u te d . T i ld y
resig n ed , a n d his p la c e w as tak e n b y S za k a sits. In th e g o v e rn m e n t
resh u ffle w h ic h re su lte d , tw o m o re co m m u n ists, F a rk a s a n d K o s sa ,
b e ca m e M in isters o f W a r an d I n d u stry . R a jk b e c a m e M in is te r o f
F o re ig n A ff a ir s ,1 a n d y e t a n o th e r c o m m u n ist, K á d á r , to o k o v e r
th e In te rio r. In D e c e m b e r th e ru m p sm a ll fa rm e r M in is te r o f
F in a n c e , N y a r á d i, b ro k e w ith his g o v e rn m e n t w h ile o n a m ission
a b r o a d , a n d this b ro u g h t th e fa ll o f D in n y é s. H e w'as su c c e e d e d
as P re m ie r b y th e still m o re su b se rv ie n t r u m p sm a ll fa rm e r
D o b i.
B y th e en d o f 1948 c o m m u n ist d o m in a tio n o f H u n g a r y w as
co m p le te . In A p r il 1949 p a rlia m e n t w as d isso lv e d a n d e le c tio n s
h e ld fo r a n e w a sse m b ly w h o se task w o u ld b e to p r o c la im a n e w
co n stitu tio n o f th e S o v ie t ty p e . T h e g o v e rn m e n t list, w h ic h n o w
in clu d e d B a lo g h ’ s p a rty , re c e iv e d th e e x p e c te d m a jo r ity o f o v e r
90 p e r ce n t. T h e r e w e re n o o p p o sitio n c a n d id a te s .

R U M A N IA

T h e first c a b in e t o f G e n e r a l S ă n ă te s c u , co m p o se d o f g e n e ra ls,
re sig n e d on 5 N o v e m b e r 1944 as a re su lt o f a p ro te st from th e
S o v ie t G e n e ra l V in o g r a d o v o n a lle g e d n o n -fu lfilm e n t o f th e
a rm istice term s. T h e n ew g o v e rn m e n t w a s still h e a d e d b y S ă n ă ­
tescu , b u t w a s co m p o se d o f p o litic ia n s. It c o n ta in e d fo u r n a tio n a l
p e a san ts, fo u r lib e ra ls, th re e socialists a n d o n e c o m m u n is t. T h e
p a r ty le a d e rs c o n tin u e d to b e m in isters w ith o u t p o r tfo lio . T h is
n e w g o v e rn m e n t passed som e lo n g o v e r d u e p o litic a l m ea su re s. In
partic u la r it d e c id e d to arrest fo rm e r Iro n G u a rd is ts , a n d re p e a le d
a ll a n ti-J cw ish le g is la tio n . It a lso d e c id e d to ta k e a c tio n t o e x p e l

1 For th e su b se q u e n t d is g ra c e o f R a jk , sec b e lo w , p p . 3 1 5 - 1 6 .
 THE S E I Z UR E OF P O W E R 203

th e G e r m a n m in o r ity fro m T r a n s y lv a n ia . T h e g o v e rn m e n t fell as

a resu lt o f d isp u tes alx>ut th e M in is tr y o f th e In te rio r, h e ld b y the
n a tio n a l p e a sa n t P c n e sc u . H e w as b itte r ly a tta c k e d b y th e
c o m m u n ists as a p r o te c to r o f fascists. S ă n ă te s c u w a s re p la c e d as
P re m ie r b y G e n e ra l R ă d c s c u . T h is e ld e rly o ffic e r h ad b een w ell
k n o w n fo r his a n ti- G e r m a n a ttitu d e d u r in g th e w a r , a n d h ad b een
fo r a tim e in te rn e d . H e e n jo y e d th e c o n fid e n ce o f th e S o v iet
c o m m a n d . T h e y h a d pressed fo r his a p p o in tm e n t as C h ie f o f
G e n e r a l S ta ff. T h e m a in c h a n g e s in th e n e w c a b in e t w e re th at
R ă d e s c u h im s e lf to o k o v e r th e M in is tr y o f th e In te rio r a n d th at
th e m in istries w ith o u t p o rtfo lio w e re a b o lish ed .
D u r in g these m o n th s p u b lic o rd e r w as in a c u rio u s co n d itio n .
In M o ld a v ia a n d so u th ern B u k o v in a th e old o fficials h ad fled
b e fo re th e R e d A r m y ’ s a d v a n c e . T h e r e h a d a lso b een a p a n ic
flig h t o f th e g re a te r p a rt o f th e la rg e la n d o w n in g an d b o u rge o is
class. C o n s e q u e n tly n o t o n ly h a d th e o ld a d m in istra tio n b rok en
d o w n , b u t ih c o ld p o litic a l p a rtie s— n a tio n a l p ea san ts an d
lib e ra ls — h a d lost w h a t little o rg a n isa tio n th ey h ad b e en a b le to
re ta in u n d e r th e d ic ta to rs h ip s o f C a r o l II a n d A n to n e sc u . T h e
R u ssia n a u th o ritie s h ad to en su re o rd e r, a n d it w as th e y w h o ch ose
it s 'R u m a n ia n e x p o n en ts. T h e s e w e re fo r th e m ost p a rt com m u n ists
o r p ersons w illin g to o b e y c o m m u n ist o rd ers. T h e y in c lu d e d a
c o n s id e ra b le p ro p o rtio n o f J e w s, so m e o f B essa rab ia n o rig in . A t
th e o th e r e n d o f th e c o u n tr y , in n o rth e rn T r a n s y lv a n ia , th ere w as
frictio n b e tw e e n re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e R u m a n ia n ‘ h isto ric
p a r t ie s ’ — e s p e c ia lly n a tio n a l p e a san ts— a n d th e co m m u n ists. T h e
la tte r w e re for th e m ost p a rt H u n g a ria n s . T h is is e x p la in e d b y th e
fa c t th a t th e tow n s, w h e r e c o m m u n ism m a d e so m e a p p e a l to the
w o rk e rs, w e re H u n g a r ia n ra th e r th an R u m a n ia n in p o p u la tio n ,
a n d th a t th e la rg e J e w ish e le m e n t h ad a lw a y s b een m o re H u n ­
g a r ia n in s y m p a th y th an R u m a n ia n . F ig h tin g b ro k e o u t b e tw e e n
so -ca lle d ‘ M a n iu G u a r d s ’ o f R u m a n ia n n a tio n a lists a n d H u n ­
g a ria n s . C la im in g n ot u n re a so n a b ly th a t this e n d a n g e re d se c u rity
b e h in d th e fron t, th e S o v ie t m ilita r y c o m m a n d fo r m a lly took o v e r
re sp o n s ib ility fo r a d m in istra tio n , a n d refu sed to let th e re p re ­
se n ta tiv e s o f th e R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t e n ter th e p ro v in c e .
I t w a s o n ly in W a lla c h ia a n d sou th ern T r a n s y lv a n ia th at the
g o v e r n m e n t’s w rit ra n . H e re th e old b u r e a u c r a c y w h ic h h ad
se rv e d C a r o l II a n d A n to n e sc u w as still in c h a r g e w h e n K in g
M ic h a e l b r o u g h t R u m a n ia o u t o f th e w a r . T h e r e is n o d o u b t th at
m a n y o f th e o ld o fficials h ad fascist sy m p a th ie s, a n d th a t m a n y
w e re h a te d b y th e p e o p le fo r th e ir c o rr u p t a n d b ru ta l b e h a v io u r
204 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

in th e p ast. A p u rg e w as u r g e n tly n e e d e d . B u t th e p u rg e b e ca m e
in fa ct a stru g g le b e tw e e n th e p a rtie s, e a c h w ish in g to re p la c e
those dism issed w ith its o w n su p p o rte rs an d to k ee p in th e ir jo b s
those w h o w e re w illin g to se rv e it. T h e c o m m u n ists h a d tw o g re a t
a d v a n ta g e s : th e y w e re su p p o rte d b y th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s, and
th e y w e re a b le to p o in t to th e m istak es o f th e o th e r p a rtie s w h e n
th ey h a d b e en in p o w e r in th e p a st, b u t th em selv es, h a v in g n e v e r
b een in p o w e r, w e re n ot o p e n to sim ila r a tta c k . In th e first m o n th s
th e y w o n som e g e n u in e su p p o rt from th e p o o r a n d o p p ressed . In
th e cities th e y a p p e a le d n ot o n ly to w o rk ers b u t to sm a ll sh o p ­
k eep ers a n d lo w e r o fficials, w h o su ffered g r e a t e c o n o m ic h a r d ­
sh ip. In th e c o u n try sid e th e P lo u g h m e n ’s F ro n t m a d e som e
g e n u in e progress a t th e e xp e n se o f th e N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a rty .
T h is o rg a n isa tio n , fo u n d ed in 1934 in th e sou th T r a n s y lv a n ia n
to w n o f D c v a , h ad n e v e r b e fo re h a d m o re th a n lo c a l im p o rta n c e .
B u t it w as a g e n u in e m o v e m e n t o f ra d ic a l p e a san ts, a c tu a lly
m a n a g e d b y th e p e asan ts th em selves w ith th e a d v ic e o f som e
in te lle ctu a ls, in c lu d in g th e fo rm e r m in ister D r. P e tru G r o z a . I he
F ro n t n o w sp re ad o u tsid e th e sm all a re a w h e re it h a d p r e v io u sly
e xisted . Its spo kesm en in th e v illa g e s h a d c o n sid e ra b le success
w h en th e y stressed th e past fa ilu res o f th e N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a rty ,
its te n d e n c y to h e lp o n ly th e ric h e r p e a san ts’ in terests, a n d its
d o m in a tio n b y n o n -p ea sa n ts. B u t success d a m a g e d th e F ro n t. A s it
sp re ad to n e w regio n s, it b e c a m e d e p e n d e n t on p e o p le w h o k n e w
n o th in g o f its fo rm e r aim s a n d stru g g le s. I t te n d e d to r a lly o n ly
th e v illa g e m a lc o n te n ts, w illin g to fo llo w a n y d e m a g o g ic slo g a n ,
th e sam e p e o p le w h o e a r lie r h ad fo rm e d th e ru ra l s u p p o rt o f th e
Iro n G u a r d . F o r its o rg a n isa tio n it d e p e n d e d o n co m m u n ists.
S o o n its c a d re s con sisted m a in ly o f c o m m u n ists, a n d its le a d e rsh ip
w as filled w ith a v o w e d o r c o n c e a le d c o m m u n ists, m a n y o f w h o m
w e re n ot o n ly n ot p ea san ts, b u t h a d little in te re st in p e a san ts. It
b e ca m e , a n d w as g e n e ra lly re g a rd e d as, th e ru ra l b r a n c h o f the
C o m m u n ist P a r t y .1
B o th d ire c tly th ro u g h its o w n b ra n c h e s a n d in d ir e c tly th ro u g h
th e P lo u g h m e n ’ s F ro n t, th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty stirred u p d iso rd e r

1 F o r a so m e w h a t ro m an tic ise d h isto ry o f th e P lo u g h m a n ’s F ro n t, see M ic le ,

Rihcoala pământului. C o m m u n ist p e n e tra tio n o f the F ro n t w as so t h o ro u g h th a t th e
g en u in e p ea san ts w e re soon p u sh ed aside. R o m u lu s Z ă r o n i, n o m in a l M in is te r o f
A g r ic u ltu r e in th e first G r o z a c a b in e t, a n d th e p e a sa n t lea d ers M o g a a n d B e le a ,
p ro v id e d fo r a tim e a little p ic tu re sq u e co lo u r. W h e n th e y h a d se rv e d th e ir p u rp o se,
th eir co m m u n is t m asters k ick ed th em o u t. F o r th ese m en , w h o h a d stru g g le d a n d
su ffered for th eir o w n id e a o f p ea san t d e m o c r a c y a n d so cial ju s tic e , it w as a b itte r
t ra g e d y . B u t G ro z a , w h o hail o n ce sh a red th e ir ho pes a n d stru g g le , m a d e n o effo rt
to p ro te c t th em .
 THE SE I Z UR E OF POWER 2O5
w h e r e v e r it c o u ld . In su p p o rt o f c o m m u n ist d em a n d s for the
p u rg e o f p a r tic u la r o fficials w h o h ad in c u rre d th e ir w ra th ,
co m m u n ist-le d m obs a tta c k e d p u b lic offices o r led th re a te n in g
street d em o n stra tio n s. W h e n th e a u th o ritie s tried to a c t a g a in st
th em , th e S o v ie t c o m m a n d p rotested th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t w as
‘ su p p re ssin g th e p o p u la r w i l l ’ o r ‘ p r o te c tin g fa scists’ . T h e a ctio n
o f th e C o m m u n is t P a rty a n d th e S o v ie t c o m m a n d w e re w ell
c o -o rd in a te d . G e n e r a l R ă d e sc u soon fo u n d h im se lf in co n flic t
w ith b o th . T h e co m m u n ists a tta c k e d h im as a re a ctio n a ry .
T h o u g h th e ir o w n a ttitu d e to th e p u rg e o f th e b u r e a u c r a c y w as as
o p p o rtu n is t as th a t o f th e o th e r p a rtie s, th e y rep resen ted th e m ­
selves as fig h tin g g a lla n tly to cle a n se th e b o d y p o litic o f th e fascist
p o iso n , s a b o ta g e d b y th e o th e r p a rtie s w h o p ro te c te d the e n e m y .1
T h o u g h th em selv es w illin g to a d m it fo rm e r Iro n G u a rd ists to
th e ir ra n k s, th e y raised a storm w h e n th e o th e r p a rtie s d id the
sa m e . T h e y a lso pressed fo r an im m e d ia te la n d refo rm . R ă d e sc u
h e ld th a t it sh o u ld b e p o stp o n ed u n til th e sold iers c a m e b a c k from
th e w a r , so th a t th e y sh o u ld n ot b e d e p riv e d o f th eir sh are. T h e
c o m m u n ists tre a te d this as a d ish o n est a tte m p t to g a in tim e an d
p r e v e n t th e re fo rm . E s p e c ia lly th e y a tta c k e d him b e ca u se h e held
th e M in is try o f th e In te rio r. W ith in th e M in istry , o n e o f the
u n d e r-se cre ta rie s, th e c o m m u n ist G e o rg e s c u , u n d e rm in e d his
a u th o r ity a n d g a v e o rd e rs to his o w n su p p o rte rs c o n tra ry to those
o f th e M in iste r . W h e n R ă d e sc u o rd e re d him to resig n , h e refused.
T h e crisis c a m e in F e b r u a r y 194 5. R ă d e s c u , u n a b le to exp ress
h im s e lf in th e cen so red press, m a d e fierce a tta c k s o n th e c o m m u n ­
ists a t p u b lic m eetin gs. T h e M a la x a m e ta llu rg ic a l w orks in
B u ca rest w a s th e scen e o f a b lo o d y b a ttle b e tw e e n n a tio n a l
p e a sa n t a n d c o m m u n ist w o rk e rs. M a n y o f th e la tte r h ad been
b r o u g h t to th e w ork s from o u tsid e in lorries, a n d som e w e re
a rm e d . T h e M a la x a w o rk s h ad been b efore th e w a r a n Iron
G u a r d is t stro n g h o ld , w h ic h g a v e th e co m m u n ists a c h a n c e to
a c c u s e th e g o v e rn m e n t o f e n c o u r a g in g fascists to a tta c k ‘ d e m o ­
c r a t ic w o r k e r s ’ . T h e r e w e re p r o b a b ly in fa c t q u ite as m a n y fo rm e r
G u a rd is ts a m o n g th e c o m m u n ist c o n tin g e n t in this fig h t as
a m o n g th e ir o p p o n e n ts. O n 24 F e b r u a r y th e co m m u n ists o r g a n ­
ised a m ass d e m o n stra tio n on th e P a la c e S q u a re . T h e r e w as som e
sh o o tin g . T h e co m m u n ists b la m e d th e p o lice , R ă d e sc u th e c o m ­
m un ists. T h e sam e d a y R ă d e sc u m a d e a b itte r b ro a d c a st, c a llin g
1 M a rsh a l A n to n e sc u , Professor M ih a i A n to n esc u a m i G e n e ra l V a s iliu , w h o had
b ee n tak e n to th e S o v ie t U n io n a fie r A u g u s t 1944, w ere h a n d ed o v e r to th e R u m a n ia n
a u th o ritie s in A p r il 1945. T h e ir trial took p la c e fro m 6 to 17 M a y , an d th ey w ere
e x e c u te d o n 1 J u n e 1945.

IS
2o 6 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

th e co m m u n ist le a d e rs A n n a P a u k e r a n d V a s ile L u c a ‘ fo reign ers

w ith o u t G o d o r n a t io n ’ a n d ‘ h o rrib le h y e n a s ’ . 1
A t this p o in t th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t d ir e c tly in te rv e n e d . It
seem s th a t th e S o v ie t c o m m a n d g e n u in e ly fea red tre a c h e ry in th e
R u m a n ia n a r m y an d c iv il serv ice . A t this tim e th in g s w e re not
g o in g w e ll for th e R e d A r m y in H u n g a r y , a n d R u m a n ia w as th e
im m e d ia te re a r o f th e fron t, th ro u g h w h ic h a r m y su p p lie s h a d
to pass. It w o u ld in d eed n ot b e su rp risin g i f in a g e n e ra l s t a ff
w h ich h ad b een b ro u g h t u p to h a te R u ssia a n d h ad lo n g c o l­
la b o ra te d w ith th e G e rm a n a rm y , th ere w e re p r o -G e r m a n s . It is
possible th a t th e R u ssian s h ad p r o o f o f th is. I f so, th e y d id n ot
d eign to in form th e ir a llie s o f it. S o v ie t tro op s sim p ly o c c u p ie d th e
R u m a n ia n a rm y h e a d q u a rte rs a n d d isarm e d R u m a n ia n tro o p s in
th e c a p ita l. V y sh in s k i .a rriv e d in B u carest. T h e S o v ie t D e p u ty
F o reign M in iste r o rd e re d K in g M ic h a e l to a p p o in t a g o v e rn m e n t
o f th e ‘ N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic F 'ro n t’ . T h is w as a b lo c led b y th e
C o m m u n ist P a rty , an d in c lu d e d th e left w in g o f th e S o c ia l
D e m o c ra tic P a rty , a g ro u p o f lib e ra ls led b y T ă t ă r e s c u ,2 a n d th e
P lo u g h m e n ’s F ro n t. T h e K in g y ie ld e d , a n d o n 6 M a r c h
fo rm ed a g o v e rn m e n t u n d e r th e P re m ie rsh ip o f G r o z a . T h e c o m ­
m un ists h eld th e m inistries o f th e In te rio r (G e o rg e sc u ) a n d J u stic e
(P ă tr â şc a n u ). T ă tă r e s c u b e c a m e V ic e -P r e m ie r an d M in is te r o f
F o re ig n A ffairs.
T o stre n g th e n th e G r o z a g o v e rn m e n t, th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s
on 9 M a r c h re tu rn e d n o rth T r a n s y lv a n ia to R u m a n ia n a d m in is­
tra tio n . This g e stu re w as o ffic ia lly ju s tifie d on th e g ro u n d s th a t
th e n e w g o v e rn m e n t c o u ld b e tru sted n ot to a llo w c h a u v in is t
p e rsecu tio n o f H u n g a ria n s a n d c o n se q u e n t d iso rd e r in th e r e a r o f
th e R e d A r m y . In v ie w o f th e k n o w n o p in io n s o f b o th G r o z a a n d
th e co m m u n ists on tre a tm e n t o f th e H u n g a r ia n m in o r ity , th ere w as
som e ju s tific a tio n fo r th e a rg u m e n t. O n 20 M a r c h th e g o v e rn m e n t
in tro d u ce d th e p rom ised la n d refo rm . T h e p u rg e o f th e a d m in is­
tra tio n w as ca rrie d o n in su ch a m a n n e r as to e n su re c o n tro l b y
the C o m m u n ist P a rty , b o th th ro u g h its o w n su p p o rte rs a n d
th ro u g h those w h o from s y m p a th y o r fe a r c o u ld b e c o u n te d on
to fo llo w its p o lic y an d o rd ers.
T h e circ u m sta n c c s in w h ic h G r o z a w a s p u t in p o w e r e n ra g e d
1 A n n a l ’ a u k e r w a s a Jew ess a n d V a c ile L u c a a H u n g a r ia n fro m the S z é k e ly
c o u n tr y in T r a n s y lv a n ia . I he m ost strik in g d e ta il is th e p a ra lle l b e tw e e n th e e th n ic
o r ig in o i C o d r c a n u , th e lead er o f th e Iro n G u a r d , e x e c u te d in 1938. a n d R o d n âras,
the o rg a n ise r o f I he C o m m u n is t I’ a r t y ’s m ilit a r y an d p o lice fo tm a tio n s. R oth th e
fascist to u g h a n d th e co m m u n ist to u g h , b o th th e R u m a n ia n su p e r-p a trio t o f the
rinh t a n d th e R u m a n ia n sn p e r-p a trio t 'a n ti-im p e ria list t ig h te r ’ o f th e left, h a d a
U k r a in ia n fa th er anti a G e r m a n m o th er. * S e e a b o v e , p . 26.
 T H E S E I Z UR E OF P O W E R 207
th e B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n go v e rn m e n ts. In spite o f th e o b lig a tio n
u n d e r th e Y a lt a d e c la r a tio n to co n su lt th e A llie d P o w e rs, th e
S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h a d ta k e n u n ila te ra l a c tio n . T h e S o v iet
a u th o ritie s w e re co n siste n tly u n frie n d ly , e v e n o ffen sive , to th eir
c o lle a g u e s o n th e C o n tr o l C o m m issio n . T h u s th e B ritish an d
A m e ric a n s in e v ita b ly g re w m o re h ostile to th e p ro -S o v ie t elem en ts
in R u m a n ia a n d m o re frie n d ly to th e o p p o sitio n . T h e co n flic t
b e tw e e n th e G r o z a g o v e rn m e n t a n d th e o p p o sitio n a l ‘ h isto ric
p a r t ie s ’ b e c a m e an in te rn a tio n a l issue.
T h e P o tsd a m d e c la ra tio n o f A u g u s t 1945 spo ke o f p re p a ra tio n
o f d ip lo m a tic re la tio n s w ith th e co u n trie s fo r m e rly a llie d to
G e r m a n y . T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t at o n c e estab lish ed d ip lo m a tic
re la tio n s w ith th e G r o z a g o v e rn m e n t, b u t th e W e ste rn P o w ers d id
n o t. K in g M ic h a e l w as e n c o u ra g e d b y this to ask G r o z a to resign
a n d to w rite a le tte r to th e th re e g o v e rn m e n ts, a sk in g fo r a d v ic e on
th e b r o a d e n in g o f his g o v e rn m e n t ‘ in th e spirit o f P o ts d a m ’ . T h e
S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t re p lie d th a t it h ad a lr e a d y re co gn ise d th e
G r o z a g o v e rn m e n t. T h e k in g re tire d to his m o u n ta in resid en ce at
S in a ia a n d refu sed to sign d ec re es. T h e g o v e rn m e n t ign o re d him
a n d ca rrie d on as b efo re. In o rd e r to in c re a se G r o z a 's p restige the
S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t in v ite d h im to M o s c o w to m eet S ta lin . M e a n ­
w h ile the o p p o sitio n p la c e d th e ir fa ith in A llie d in te rv e n tio n on
th e ir b e h a lf. O n th e k in g ’s b ir th d a y , 8 N o v e m b e r , th e y sta ge d a
d e m o n stra tio n on th e P a la c e S q u a r e in w h ic h th ey o ste n tatio u sly
c h e e r e d A m e r ic a an d B rita in . T h e r e w e re clash es w ith c o m ­
m un ists, a n d som e c a su a ltie s. In D e c e m b e r 1945, a t th e m eetin g
o f th e th re e F o re ig n M in isters in M o sc o w , it w as d e c id e d th a t a
T h r e e P o w e r C o m m is s io n 1 w o u ld be fo rm ed to g iv e K in g M ic h a e l
a d v ic e on b r o a d e n in g his g o v e rn m e n t. I t sh o u ld tak e in on e
m e m b e r e a c h o f th e N a tio n a l P ea san t P a rty a n d th e L ib e ra l
P a r t y , w h o m u st be tr u ly re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e ir p a rtie s a n d ‘ su it­
a b l e ’ a n d w illin g to ‘ w o rk lo y a lly w ith th e g o v e r n m e n t ’ . A fte r
so m e d iscu ssio n th e C o m m issio n a g re e d on E m il H a lie g a n u
( n a tio n a l p e a san t) a n d M ih a il R á m n ic e a n u (lib e ra l). I h e n ew
g o v e rn m e n t took o ffice on 7 J a n u a r y 1946, an d A m e r ic a n an d
B ritish re c o g n itio n w as g ra n te d on 4 F e b ru a ry .
T h e c h a n g c w as o f no im p o rta n c e . T h e tw o n e w m inisters w e re
n ot co n su lte d b y th e ir c o lle a g u e s a n d h a d a b s o lu te ly n o p o w e r. In
th e c o u n tr y , su p p o rte rs o f b o th p a rtie s w e re in tim id a te d o r p e r­
se cu te d . T h e tw o p a rtie s’ n e w sp a p e rs w e re p rin te d in th e c a p ita l,

1 T h e C o m m issio n co n sisted o f Y 'ysh in sk i a n d th e B ritish an d A m e ric a n a m b a s­

sadors in M o sc o w , S ir A r c h ib a ld C la r k - K e r r a n d M r. A v e r ill H a rrim a n .
208 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
a n d c o u ld b e b o u g h t th ere in sm all n u m b e rs. O u ts id e th e c a p ita l
d istrib u tio n w as a lm o st im p ossib le. N e w sb o y s se llin g th em w e re
lia b le to b e assau lted a n d co p ie s b u rn e d o r to rn in pieces. P u b lic
m eetin gs o f c ith e r p a r ty w e re b ro k e n u p b y lo r ry -lo a d s o f a rm e d
c o m m u n ist tou gh s. S p e a k e rs sen t from th e to w n s to m a k e p r o p a ­
g a n d a in th e v illa g e s w e re a tta c k e d on th e ir re tu rn a n d s a v a g e ly
b e a te n b y c o m m u n ist b an d s. In A u g u s t 1946 th e g e n e ra l se c re ta ry
o f th e N a tio n a l P e a san t P a rty , P en escu , w as w o u n d e d w h e n tr y in g
to a tte n d a m ee tin g in th e to w n o f P ite şti, a n d his se c re ta ry w a s
k ille d . A sim ila r in c id e n t to ok p la c e a t A lb a I u lia , w h e re M r .
I o n e l P o p , a n e p h e w o f th e p a r ty le a d e r M a n iu , w a s in ju re d . In
a ll su ch cases th e p o lice refused p ro te c tio n .
T h e n e w e le c to ra l la w m a d e re g istra tio n o f v o ters d iffic u lt. In
p r a c tic e it w a s so a d m in iste re d b y th e a u th o ritie s as to g iv e th e v o te
a t o n c e to a ll re lia b le c o m m u n ists a n d sy m p ath ise rs, b u t to d e la y
o r p r e v e n t re g istra tio n o f 'u n r e l i a b l e ’ persons. T h e e le ctio n s w e re
h eld o n 19 N o v e m b e r 1946. P rev io u s p ro tests b y th e W e ste rn
P o w ers w e re ig n o re d b y th e R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t o n th e g ro u n d
th a t i f th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t d id n o t su p p o rt th em th e y w e re n o t
o fficia l T h r e e P o w e r a ctio n s b u t u n ju stifia b le in te rv e n tio n in
R u m a n ia ’s in te rn a l a ffa irs. In d e p e n d e n t ob servers a t th e e le ctio n s
co n sid e re d th a t th e y w e re c o n d u c te d in a n a tm o sp h e re o f in tim i­
d a tio n , a n d th a t resu lts w e re falsified . T h e o fficia l resu lts w e re 348
seats fo r th e g o v e rn m e n t b lo c, 32 fo r th e N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a rty ,
3 for th e L ib e ra ls a n d 29 fo r th e H u n g a r ia n P o p u la r U n io n (a c o m ­
m u n ist-d o m in a te d p a r ty o f th e H u n g a r ia n m in o r ity in
T r a n s y lv a n ia w h ic h h a d n ot o ffic ia lly jo in e d th e g o v e rn m e n t
e le c to ra l b lo c b u t in fa c t su p p o rte d it).
D u r in g 1947 th e o p p o sitio n p a rtie s re m a in e d in th e sa m e se m i­
le g a l sem i-rep ressed c o n d itio n . In J u n e a g r o u p o f N a tio n a l
P e a sa n t P a rty le a d e rs, in c lu d in g M ih a la c h e , th e fo rm e r c h a ir m a n
o f th e p a rty , w e re a rrested as th e y p r e p a re d to le a v e R u m a n ia b y
air. S o m e d a y s la te r M a n iu w a s a rre ste d , a n d th e N a tio n a l
P e a san t P a rty w as fo r m a lly b a n n e d . T h e tria l o f th e le a d e rs o n a
c h a r g e o f c o n sp ir a c y b e g a n in O c t o b e r . F ro m th e e v id e n c e g iv e n
it w o u ld seem th a t th ere w as som e tru th in so m e o f th e c h a rg e s.
A m e r ic a n officers h a d m a d e p la n s fo r su b v e rs iv e a c tio n w ith som e
m em b ers o f th e N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a r ty , w h o h a d p assed som e
in fo rm a tio n to th em . T h e pla n s w e re ch ild ish a n d th e in fo rm a tio n
p o o r : n e ith e r serio u sly th re a te n e d th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e r e w as n o
e v id e n c e th a t M a n iu w a s in v o lv e d in a n y o f th e p la n s, a n d it
seem ed p r o b a b le th a t a m o n g th e p lo tte rs a n d a m o n g th e o rg a n -
 THE SE I Z UR E OF POWER 20Q
iscrs o f th e c sc a p e b y a ir th ere w e re a ge n ts p ro v o ca te u rs o f th e
g o v e rn m e n t. M a n iu a n d M ih a la c h e w e re se n te n ce d to so lita ry
co n fin e m e n t fo r life. It w as a te rrib le en d to th e c a r e e r o f th e
g r e a t T r a n s y lv a n ia n p a trio t, w h o d esp ite a ll his fau lts a n d h esi­
ta tio n s in p a st y e a rs w as still re g a rd e d b y th e m a jo rity o f his
c o u n trv -m e n as th e g re a te st liv in g R u m a n ia n .
T h e S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rty fo r a y e a r h ad su p p o rte d th e G r o z a
g o v e rn m e n t, a n d fo rm e d p a rt o f th e N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic F ro n t.
T h e m ost p ro m in e n t p a r ty le a d e r, T it e l P etre scu , a t a c o n fe re n ce
o f th e p a r ty in D e c e m b e r 1945 h ad h ad a m a jo rity fo r in d ep en d e n t
a c tio n a n d loose c o -o p e ra tio n w ith th e co m m u n ists in an U n ite d
W o rk e rs ’ F ro n t. B u t co m m u n ist pressure to jo in th e sin gle
e le c to ra l list in cre a se d . T h e S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a r ty ’ s con gress, h eld
in M a r c h 1946, h o w e v e r, v o te d for m e m b e rsh ip o f th e g o v e rn m e n t
e le c to r a l b lo c . P e tre sc u ’s fo llo w e rs c la im e d th a t m a n y o f the
d e le g a te s h ad b e en ir r e g u la r ly e le c te d a n d th a t th e con gress h all
w as p a c k e d w ith c o m m u n ist a g e n ts. P etre scu a n d his lo y a l su p ­
p o rte rs left th e p a rty . T h e ‘ c o lla b o r a tio n is t’ w in g o f th e p a rty ,
led b y V o it e c a n d R ă d ă c e a n u , w as re w a r d e d w ith 81 seats in th e
p a r lia m e n t e le c te d in N o v e m b e r 1946— slig h tly m o re th a n a n y
o th e r p a r ty o f th e g o v e rn m e n t b lo c . W ith in th e p a r ty o p in io n s
c o n tin u e d to b e d iv id e d . S o m e w e re fo r co -o p e ra tio n w ith th e
c o m m u n ists as an in d e p e n d e n t o rg a n isa tio n , som e su p p o rte d
fu sion . T h e first g ro u p b e lie v e d th a t b y re m a in in g in sid e the
g o v e rn m e n t b u t in d e p e n d e n t th e y c o u ld e x e rt som e in flu e n ce in
fa v o u r o f p o litic a l free d o m . T h e p a r ty h ad in fa c t g a in e d g ro u n d .
T h e re v u lsio n o f fe e lin g a g a in s t R u ssia an d a g a in st co m m u n ist
m eth o d s h a d b r o u g h t an in flu x o f w o rk ers in to its ran ks. It w as
a lso su p p o rte d b y p u b lic o fficials a n d o th e r n o n -w o rk in g-cla ss
e le m e n ts w h o , b e in g p r a c tic a lly fo rced to j o in so m e g o v e rn m e n ta l
p a r ty , fo u n d th e socialists b y fa r th e least o f th e evils. T h u s b oth
p o litic a l p r in c ip le an d p a r ty a d v a n ta g e su p p o rte d in d e p e n d e n ce .
In th e a u tu m n o f 19 4 7, h o w e v e r, c o m m u n ist pressure fo r fusion
in cre a se d . A t a con gress h e ld in N o v e m b e r fu sion w as a c c e p te d .
T h e n e w p a r ty w a s n a m e d th e U n ite d W o rk e rs’ P a rty . T h e
so c ia l d e m o c r a t le a d e rs w e re m a d e m em b ers o f th e e x e c u tiv e
c o m m itte e , b u t a ll th e p o w e r w as in c o m m u n ist h an d s. T ite l
P e tre sc u ’ s o p p o sitio n a l so cia list p a r ty w as d issolved . H e h im se lf
w a s a rre ste d in M a y 1948.
T h e o th e r g o v e r n m e n ta l g ro u p w h ic h h ad re m n a n ts o f in d e ­
p e n d e n c e w a s T ă t ă r e s c u ’s L ib e r a l P a rty . T ă tă r e s c u h ad g ro w n
s te a d ily m o re d isc o n te n te d w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t’s e c o n o m ic
210 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
p o lic y . In M a y 1947 in a m e m o ra n d u m to his c a b in e t c o lle a g u e s
h e h a d c riticised p o lic e repression a n d th e c o n d u c t o f in d u stry , a n d
su ggested th a t fo reig n c re d its w e re n e ed e d . T h e co m m u n ists
b la m e d T ă tă r e s c u fo r th e in fla tio n w h ic h g r e w d u r in g th e e a r ly
su m m e r. O n e o f his su p p o rte rs w as M in is te r o f F in a n c e , an d
in tro d u c e d th e c u r r e n c y refo rm in A u g u s t. W h e n this d id not
p ro v e su ccessfu l, th e co m m u n ists th re w th e b la m e o n his g ro u p .
T h e y w e re also a c c u s e d o f p u rsu in g , th ro u g h th e o fficials o f th e
m in istries th e y c o n tro lle d , a p o lic y o f n a tio n a list d isc rim in a tio n
a g a in st th e H u n g a ria n s. W h e n th e M a n iu tria l re v e a le d th a t
se v eral F 'oreign M in is try o fficials w e re in v o lv e d in a n ti- g o v e in -
m en t a ctio n s this too w a s a ttr ib u te d to T ă t ă r e s c u , w h o w as
a ccu s e d o f d e lib e r a te ly p r o te c tin g re a c tio n a r y d ip lo m a ts. O n 5
N o v e m b e r 1947 th e c o m m u n ist-c o n tro lle d m a jo rity in p a r lia m e n t
passed a v o te o f n o c o n fid e n c e in T ă tă r e s c u . H e a n d his p a r ty
co lle a g u e s resig n ed .
T h e n e x t crisis c o n c e rn e d K in g M ic h a e l. U n til n o w th e k in g
h a d seld om b e e n a tta c k e d . It w a s k n o w n th a t h e d islik e d G r o z a
an d th e co m m u n ists, b u t o ffic ia lly it w as e x p la in e d th a t h e h a d
b e en m isled b y b a d a d v ic e from th e A n g lo -S a x o n P o w e rs. It w as
su ggested th a t he h a d n o w le a rn e d his lesson, th a t th e W e st c o u ld
n o t h e lp h im a n d th a t he m ust a c c e p t th e ‘ p e o p le ’s g o v e r n m e n t ’ .
H e h a d in fa c t re tire d fro m p o litics. T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h a d
sh o w n its a p p re c ia tio n o f his ro le in 1944 b y a w a r d in g h im its
h igh est d e c o ra tio n , th e O r d e r o f V ic t o r y . T h e r e w as n o re p u b lic a n
p r o p a g a n d a . B u t as th e su ccessive liq u id a tio n o f th e a n ti-c o m m u n -
ist a n d in d e p e n d e n t n o n -c o m m u n ist p a rtie s tu rn e d R u m a n ia in to
a ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c y ’ , it b e c a m e c le a r th a t th e d a y s o f th e
m o n a rc h y m ust b e n u m b e re d . In N o v e m b e r 1947 th e k in g c a m e
w ith his m o th e r to L o n d o n fo r th e w e d d in g o f P rin cess E lisa b e th
a n d th en sta y e d a b r o a d fo r so m e w eeks, d u r in g w h ic h h e b e c a m e
e n g a g e d to Prin cess A n n e o f B o u rb o n -P a rm a . O n his re tu rn to
B u ca re s t h e w a s c o n fro n te d w ith a d e m a n d fo r a b d ic a tio n . A ll
p o w e r w a s a lr e a d y in c o m m u n ist h a n d s, a n d it w a s c le a r ly
im p o ssib le to resist. H e w a s p e rm itte d to le a v e th e c o u n t r y an d
w as g ra n te d som e fin a n c ia l m ea n s. H e h a d to p u t his n a m e to a
d e c la ra tio n p r e p a re d b e fo re h a n d , w h ic h ju stifie d th e a b d ic a tio n
in c o m m u n ist p h ra se o lo g y . A fte r his d e p a r tu r e th e o ffic ia l press
b e g a n a c a m p a ig n d e n o u n c in g th e p a st r e a c tio n a r y ro le o f th e
m o n a rc h y , its a c c u m u la tio n o f la n d a n d w e a lth , a n d th e G e r m a n
o rig in o f th e d y n a sty .
T h e p o litic a l so v ie tisa tio n o f R u m a n ia w a s c o m p le te d e a r ly in
 T H E SE I Z UR E OF P O W E R 211
1948. T h e g o v e rn m e n t b lo c w a s re n a m e d P e o p le ’s D e m o c ra tic
F ro n t. It w a s n o w a ‘ m o n o lit h ic ’ o rg a n isa tio n lik e th e Y u g o s la v
o r A lb a n ia n . T h e P lo u g h m e n ’ s F ro n t h a d b een in cre a se d b y the
in clu sio n o f a le ft-w in g r u m p o f th e fo rm e r N a tio n a l P ea san t
P a rty . T h e N a tio n a l P o p u la r P a rty h ad b een c re a te d in 1946 by
th e co m m u n ists to a ttr a c t m id d le -c la ss in te lle c tu a ls o f le ft s y m ­
p a th ie s. Its n u c le u s w a s so m e o f th ose w h o h a d b een in v o lv e d in
th e u n d e rg ro u n d P a trio ts’ U n io n o f 1 9 4 4 .' It in c lu d e d sev eral
w e ll-k n o w n c o m m u n ists w h o p referre d n ot to b e o p e n m em b ers
o f th e p a r t y , su ch as P rofessor C o n s ta n tin e s c u -Ia ş i, th e M in iste r
o f I n fo rm a tio n . B esid es th ese tw o sa tellite s a n d th e U n ite d
W o rk e rs ’ P a rty , th e P .D .F . also in c lu d e d th e H u n g a r ia n P e o p le ’s
U n io n . E le ctio n s w e re h e ld in M a r c h . T h e o fficia l results w e re 405
seats fo r th e F ro n t a n d n in e fo r tw o m ild ly o p p o sitio n a l g ro u p s—
th e D e m o c r a tic P e a sa n t P a rty led b y a fo rm e r c o lle a g u e o f
M ih a la c h e , D r . L u p u , a n d th e re m n a n t o f th e L ib e r a l P a rty still
led b y th e a g e d C o n s ta n tin B ră tia n u . T h e n e w p a rlia m e n t
s o le m n ly p r o c la im e d R u m a n ia a P e o p le ’ s R e p u b lic , a n d a c c e p te d
a co n stitu tio n w h o se d ra ft h a d b een p u b lish e d b e fo re th e ele ctio n
a n d w h ic h w as clo se ly m o d e lle d o n th a t o f th e U .S .S .R . C o m ­
m u n ist s u p re m a c y w as o p e n ly sh o w n b y th e a ssu m p tio n o f k ey
c a b in e t posts b y th e ir le a d e rs. M rs. P a u k e r b e c a m e M in iste r o f
F o re ig n A ffa ir s, G h e o r g h iu -D c j M in is te r o f N a tio n a l E c o n o m y
a n d C h a ir m a n o f th e P la n n in g C o m m issio n . F in a n c e w as g iv e n
to L u c a , D e fe n c e to B o d n ă ra ş, J u s tic e to B u n a c iu , w h o re p la c e d
th e n o lo n g e r re lia b le P á trá s c a n u .-

B U L G A R IA
O n e o f th e first a c ts o f th e F a th e rla n d F ro n t g o v e rn m e n t,
b r o u g h t to p o w e r b y th e re v o lu tio n o f 9 S e p te m b e r 1944, w as to
a rre st th e le a d e rs o f th e old re g im e a n d to p u t th em o n tria l for
tre aso n a n d ‘ w a r c r im e s ’ . T h e sp e c ia l trib u n a ls c re a te d fo r th e
p u rp o se passed d e a th sen ten ces o n th e th re e R e g e n ts (P rin c c
C y r il, P rofessor F ilo v a n d G e n e r a l M ih o v ) , tw e n ty -tw o fo rm e r
m in isters (in c lu d in g th e e x -P re m ie rs B o z h ilo v a n d B a g ria n o v an d
th e e x -M in is te rs o f th e I n te rio r G a b r o v s k y , H risto v an d S ta n i-
s h e v ), e ig h t clo se p e rso n a l a d v ise rs o f th e la te K in g B oris, an d
s ix ty -e ig h t fo rm e r m em b e rs o f p a rlia m e n t. T h e c rim e o f th e la tte r
seem s to h a v e b e en th a t th e y v o te d fo r th e a d h e re n c e o f B u lg a ria
to th e A x is T h r e e P o w e r p a c t. O t h e r fo rm e r p o litic ia n s re ce iv ed
lo n g p riso n se n te n ce s. B esid es th is a m u c h la rg e r n u m b e r o f a rm y
1 S e e a b o v e , p . 8 7. * F o r th e d isg ra c e o f P â trâ ş c a n u , see b elo w , p . 3 14 .
212 THE EAST E U R O P E A N RE V O L U T I O N

a n d p o lice officers, g u ilty o f c o lla b o ra tio n w ith th e G e rm a n s o r

b r u ta lity to the p o p u la tio n , w e re e x e c u te d o r im p riso n e d . A c c o r d ­
in g to a n o fficial sta te m e n t, b y M a r c h 1945 th e to ta l n u m b e r o f
sen ten ces c a rrie d o u t w as 2 ,13 8 e x e c u te d , 1,940 sen ten ces o f
tw e n ty years, 1,689 ° f ten to f 'f teen years.
T h e b r u ta lity o f these m easu res is to som e e x te n t a re fle c tio n
o f th e h a tre d o f th e B u lg a ria n p e o p le fo r th e o ld re g im e , w h ic h
p r o b a b ly h ad a lo n g e r re co rd o f m o re in ten se fe ro c ity th a n a n y
o th e r in E u ro p e . B u t th ere w e re tw o fa cto rs w h ic h w e re b o u n d to
ca u se m isgiv in gs to B u lg a ria n d em o cra ts. T h e first w as th e c o n ­
d e m n a tio n to lo n g p erio d s o f im p riso n m e n t o f th e le a d in g
m em b ers o f th e sh o rt-liv ed M u r a v ie v g o v e rn m e n t. A few d a y s ’
d e la y in d e c la rin g w a r o n G e r m a n y , a n d a d ec isio n to seek p e a ce
term s from th e W e ste rn P o w ers (w ith w h o m B u lg a ria w a s a t w a r)
r a th e r th a n from th e S o v ie t U n io n (w ith w h o m she w as not)
h a r d ly seem ed to ju s tify sen ten ces o f life im p riso n m e n t on
M u r a v ie v h im se lf a n d his M in iste r o f th e In te rio r, V irg il D im o v ,
in d lo n g term s o f im p riso n m e n t on o th e r m em b e rs o f his c a b in e t,
w h o in clu d e d th e d e m o c ra t le a d e r, N ik o la M u s h a n o v , a n d th e
rig h t a g ra r ia n le a d e r D im ite r G ic h e v . T h e s e m en h a d b e e n th e
le a d e rs o f th e m o d e ra te o p p o sitio n to th e d ic ta to rs h ip s o f K in g
Boris a n d th e o ld R e g e n c y . T h e y h ad re m a in e d o u tsid e th e
F a th e rla n d F ro n t, a n d th ey h a d a lw a y s h a d m o re s y m p a th y fo r
th e W e st th a n fo r th e U .S .S .R . T h e ir c o n d e m n a tio n a p p e a r e d an
a c t o f p e tty p erson a l re v en g e b y th e c o m m u n ists a n d th e ir S o v ie t
p a tron s.
T h e secon d a la rm in g fa c to r w as th e ra p id a ssu m p tio n b y th e
co m m u n ists o f c o n tro l o v e r th e rep ressive o rg a n s o f th e sta te. T h e
c o m m u n ist M in iste r o f th e In te rio r Y u g o v p la c e d co m m u n ists in
k e y positions, an d m a d e use o f th e e x p e rt serv ices o f p o lice
officers o f th e old re g im e , w h o se past reco rd s c o u ld b e used to
b la c k m a il th em in to e x e c u tio n o f c o m m u n ist o rd ers. P u b lic o rd e r
in m a n y p r o v in c ia l tow n s a n d v illa g e s w as ta k e n o v e r b y lo ca l
co m m u n ists o r b y p a rtisa n s d e s c e n d in g fro m th e m o u n ta in s a n d
forests. M a n y o f these h a d p erson a l scores to se ttle . ‘ P u n ish m e n t o f
fa scists’ w as o fte n id e n tifie d w ith p r iv a te v e n g e a n c e . A b u s e s o f
p o w e r b y th e n e w v ic to rs a ro u se d w id e s p re a d in d ig n a tio n ,
e sp e c ia lly a m o n g th e pea san ts. T h is w a s b o u n d to in flu e n c e th e
p a rty w ith th e m ost n u m e ro u s p o te n tia l fo llo w in g , th e A g r a r ia n
U n io n . T h e a g ra ria n s soon fo u n d th em selv es in o p p o sitio n to th e
co m m u n ists w ith in th e F a th e r la n d F ro n t, re sistin g w h a t seem ed
to th em an a tte m p t b y th e c o m m u n ists to m o n o p o lise th e p o lice ,
 THE S EI Z URE OF P O WE R 213
to p r e v e n t th e n o n -c o m m u n ist p a rtie s in th e F ro n t from o r g a n ­
isin g th em se lv e s a n d to tu rn th e F ro n t in to an in stru m en t o f th eir
o w n d o m in a tio n .
In S e p te m b e r 1944 th e left a g r a r ia n le a d e r, D r. G . M . D im i­
tro v , w h o h a d b e e n in B ritish -h e ld te rrito ry sin ce 19 4 1, re tu rn e d
h o m e . A lt h o u g h a su p p o rte r o f th e F a th e rla n d F ro n t, h e w ish ed
th e A g r a r ia n U n io n , as th e p a r ty re p resen tin g th e m ost n u m erou s
so cia l class in th e c o u n tr y , to p u rsu e a m o re in d e p e n d e n t p o lic y .
T h o u g h pressed b o th b y his o w n p a r ty a n d b y th e com m u n ists
to jo in th e c a b in e t, h e p referred to a c t as g e n e ra l se c re ta ry o f the
A g r a r ia n U n io n a n d to re-estab lish its o rg a n isa tio n th ro u g h o u t
th e cou n try'. T h is a c tiv ity soon b ro u g h t h im in to c o n flic t w ith the
co m m u n ists. T h e o p e n in g o f h ostilities b e tw e e n B ritish forces and
E .L .A .S . in D e c e m b e r m a d e his p o sition m o re d ifficu lt. B u lg a ria n
co m m u n ists c o n sid e re d this th e first sta g e in an a ggre ssiv e p lan
o f ‘ B ritish r e a c t io n ’ d ire c te d a g a in st th e le ft-w in g regim es in the
B a lk a n s. D im itr o v , w h o p u b lic ly m a in ta in e d th a t B u lg a ria sh ou ld
seek th e frien d sh ip o f th e W e st as w ell as o f th e U .S .S .R ., w as
su sp e cte d o f h a v in g re tu rn e d from th e M id d le E ast w ith sinister
p la n s. B o th th e C o m m u n is t P a rty an d th e S o v ie t o c c u p a tio n
a u th o ritie s b e g a n to press for his e x p u lsio n from th e A g r a r ia n
U n io n . H e w as a ccu sed o f sp r e a d in g d efe atist slogan s a m o n g the
B u lg a ria n tro op s se rv in g b e sid e th e R e d A r m y in H u n g a ry . A t a
c o n fe re n c e o f th e U n io n o n 18 J a n u a r y 1945 he resign ed his
s e cre ta ry sh ip .
H is su ccessor, N ik o la P e tk o v , w h o h ad led th e a g ra r ia n s
d u r in g th e w a r , soon b e g a n in his tu rn to q u a rr e l w ith th e
c o m m u n ists. In M a y a n e w con gress o f th e p a rty w as h e ld . A
fo rm e r rig h t- w in g a g r a r ia n , O b b o v , c a m e fo r w a rd as a c h a m ­
p io n o f clo se c o -o p e ra tio n w ith th e co m m u n ists. T h e co n gress w as
p a c k e d w ith su p p o rte rs o f O b b o v an d w ith d isgu ised co m m u n ists.
T h e O b b o v section th u s w o n a m a jo rity a n d o b ta in e d c o n tro l o f
th e p a r ty o rg a n isa tio n a n d n e w s p a p e r xjtnedehko Znam t. P e tk o v
re sig n e d his se c re ta ry sh ip , b u t he a n d th re e o th e r a g ra r ia n
m in isters w h o su p p o rte d h im re m a in e d in th e g o v e rn m e n t u n til
A u g u s t 19 4 5 , w h e n th e y re sig n e d as a p ro test a g a in st th e g o v e rn ­
m e n t’s m eth o d s in th e e le c tio n c a m p a ig n . T h e ir p la ce s w ere
ta k e n b y O b b o v a n d his frien d s. T h u s th e g o v e rn m e n t still c o n ­
ta in e d n o m in a l a g r a r ia n re p resen ta tio n , from th e O b b o v fa ctio n ,
b u t th e m a jo rity o f th e A g r a r ia n U n io n w as in o p p o sitio n .
A sim ila r fa te o v e r to o k th e S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rty . I t w as
d iv id e d a lr e a d y b e fo re th e w a r b e tw e e n a rig h t w in g led b y
214 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
P a stu h o v a n d a left w in g led b y C h e s h m e d jie v . O n ly th e la tte r
took p a rt in the F a th e rla n d F ro n t g o v e rn m e n t. B u t eve n w ith in its
ran ks d isag re e m e n ts b e g a n to a p p e a r . T h e co m m u n ists pressed for
e v e r closer co -o p e ra tio n fro m th e socialists, w h ic h th e la tte r
re g a rd e d as a d e m a n d fo r c o m p le te su b o rd in a tio n . T h e sp o kesm an
o f th e co m m u n ist p o in t o f v ie w w ith in th e so cia list ra n k s w a s on e
o f its le a d e rs, N e ik o v . In M a y 1945 N e ik o v ’ s fo llo w e rs, w ith th e
h e lp o f th e p o lic e a n d a g ro u p o f c o m m u n ist su p p o rte rs, took
fo rcib le possession o f th e S o c ia list P a r t y ’s n e w s p a p e r Narod. In
J u ly a co n gress o f th e so c ia list-c o n tro lle d c o n su m e rs’ co -o p e ra ­
tives w as p a c k e d w ith N e ik o v ’s m en , w h o th u s c a p tu r e d th e
o rg a n isa tio n . C h e sh m e d jie v resign ed fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t in
A u g u st, a n d soon a fte rw a rd s d ie d from n a tu ra l causes. A m in o r ity
o f socialists c o n tin u e d to b e re p resen te d in th e g o v e rn m e n t, b u t
th e m a jo rity su p p o rte d L u lc h e v , th e su ccessor to C h e s h m e d jie v .
T h e le a d e r o f th e o rig in a l rig h t- w in g socialists, P a stu h o v , w h o w as
from th e b e g in n in g in o p p o sitio n to th e F a th e r la n d F ro n t, w as
a rrested in F e b r u a r y 1946 fo r critic is in g in a n e w s p a p e r a rtic le a
sp e e ch to th e a rm y b y th e c o m m u n ist le a d e r G e o rg e D im itro v .
In J u n e 1946 h e re c e iv ed a fiv e -y e a r prison se n te n c e fo r this
o ffen ce.
D u r in g th e su m m e r o f 1945 th e B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n t
a n n o u n ce d its in te n tio n to h old electio n s. P o lic e pressu re a g a in st
th e o p p o sitio n g re w . M e m b e rs o f o p p o sitio n p a rtie s, spo nsors o f
o p p o sitio n c a n d id a te s, a n d th e ca n d id a te s th em selv es, w e re
th re a te n e d an d in som e cases a rrested o r m a ltre a te d . In v ie w o f
these co n d itio n s, th e B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n g o v e rn m e n ts c o n ­
sid ered th a t th e e le c tio n w o u ld n o t b e free. A s a re su lt o f notes
from th e B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n g o v e rn m e n ts, th e B u lg a ria n s
d e c id e d on 25 A u g u s t to p o stp o n e th e e le ctio n s fo r th re e m o nth s.
T h is con cessio n w as p r o b a b ly c o n n e c te d w ith th e te m p o ra r ily
c o -o p e ra tiv e sp irit sh ow n b y th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t a t th e
P o tsd a m C o n fe r e n c e . In S e p te m b e r th e o p p o sitio n p a rtie s
o b ta in e d p erm issio n to p u b lish th e ir o w n n e w sp a p e rs. T h e s e soon
a tta in e d c irc u la tio n s ten tim es g re a te r th a n th ose o f th e g o v e r n ­
m en ta l ru m p a g ra r ia n a n d ru m p so cia list p a p e rs. T h e y w o u ld
h a v e b een still m o re su ccessfu l i f th e ir p a p e r a llo c a tio n h a d n ot
b e en restric ted . D e sp ite th ese co n cession s, p e rs e c u tio n o f o p p o si­
tion ca n d id a te s a n d su p p o rte rs in th e c o u n tr y c o n tin u e d . T h e
o p p o sitio n le a d e rs d e c id e d th a t it w as h o p eless to ta k e p a rt in
th e e le ctio n s, a n d a p p e a le d to th e ir su p p o rte rs to a b s ta in from
v o tin g . D e sp ite fu rth e r protests b y th e W e ste rn P o w e rs, the
 THE S EI Z URE OF POWER 215
e le ctio n s w e re h e ld in N o v e m b e r . In th e o p in io n o f the British
a n d A m e r ic a n m issions, n ot o n ly w e re th e y p re p a re d in an
a tm o sp h e re o f te rro r, b u t th e results w e re falsified o n a la rg e
sca le . T h e n e w p a rlia m e n t c o n ta in e d o n ly re p resen ta tive s o f the
g o v e rn m e n t c o a litio n .
In D e c e m b e r B u lg a r ia w as discu ssed a t th e F o re ig n M in is­
te rs’ C o n fe r e n c e in M o sc o w . It w a s th ere d e c id e d th at th e
B u lg a r ia n g o v e rn m e n t sh o u ld b e b ro a d e n e d to in c lu d e ‘ s u it a b le ’
re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e o p p o sitio n p a rtie s, w h o sh o u ld ‘ lo y a lly ’
c o -o p e ra te w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e task o f c o n su ltin g the
B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n t a n d o p p o sitio n w as e n tru sted so le ly to th e
S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t. M r. V y s h in s k y visite d S o fia in J a n u a r y 1946,
b u t w a s u n a b le to p e rs u a d e P e tk o v an d L u lc h e v to jo in th e
g o v e r n m e n t o n his term s. H e to ok th e v ie w th a t th e S o v ie t
g o v e rn m e n t w a s e m p o w e re d a lo n e to in te rp re t th e M o sco w
d ecisio n s, a n d his in te rp re ta tio n w as th a t th e o p p o sitio n h ad no
rig h t to m a k e c o n d itio n s. B y re fu sin g to jo in th e g o v e rn m e n t
u n c o n d itio n a lly , th e y w e re s a b o ta g in g th e M o sc o w a g re e m e n t.
A fu rth e r a tte m p t to e n d th e d e a d lo c k w as m a d e in M a r c h 1946,
w h e n co n v e rsa tio n s to o k p la c e b e tw e e n P re m ie r G e o r g ie v an d the
o p p o sitio n le a d e rs. A g r e e m e n t w a s n e a rly re a c h e d on th e basis
t h a t th e M in is tr y o f J u s tic e sh o u ld g o to an o p p o sitio n re p r e ­
s e n ta tiv e , th a t th e c o m m u n ist M in is te r o f th e In te rio r sh o u ld h a v e
an o p p o sitio n a g r a r ia n a n d an o p p o sitio n so cialist as u n d e r­
se cre ta rie s in c h a r g e re s p e c tiv e ly o f th e m ilitia a n d th e a d m in is­
tra tio n , an d th a t n e w free e le ctio n s sh o u ld b e h eld w ith se p a ra te
p a r t y lists. A t th e la st m o m e n t th e g o v e rn m e n t refused these
term s. A c c o r d in g to P e tk o v , th e c h a n g e w as th e resu lt o f S o v iet
in te rv e n tio n .
T h e ‘ Z v e n o ’ p a r t y h ad h ith e rto re m a in e d in th e g o v e rn m e n t
w ith o u t a n y o p e n sp lit in its ran ks. Its o rig in a l fo u n d er and
s p ir itu a l le a d e r, V e lc h e v , on b e in g p ro m o te d G e n e ra l and
a p p o in te d M in is te r o f W a r , h a d d e c id e d th a t his m ilita r y d u ties
fo r b a d e his b e lo n g in g to a p a r ty , a n d ceased to be a m em b e r.
N e v e rth e le ss, his in flu e n c e in th e p a r ty re m a in e d stro n g. In th e
s u m m e r o f 1946 V e lc h e v c a m e in to c o n flic t w ith th e co m m u n ists
o n th e o rg a n isa tio n a n d p erso n n el o f th e a rm y . T h e c o m m u n ist
press b e g a n to a tta c k h im as a r e a c tio n a r y , re p r o a c h in g h im w ith
his fo r m e r p e rso n a l frien d sh ip w’ith M ih a ilo v ic , a n d fo r th e p art
w h ic h h e p la y e d in th e su p p ressio n o f th e a g ra r ia n g o v e rn m e n t in
B u lg a r ia in 1923. In J u n e 1946 a n e w la w tra n sferred to the
c a b in e t as a w h o le th e p o w e rs p r e v io u sly h eld by th e W a r
2 16 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
M in iste r. V e lc h e v ’ s A .D .C . w as a rrested a n d w as la te r d e c la re d
to h a v e d ie d . It w as w id e ly b e lie v e d th a t his d e a th w as ca u se d
b y to rtu re in te n d e d to m a k e h im in c rim in a te his ch ie f. S h o rtly
a fte rw a rd s, V e lc h c v w as re lie v e d o f his d u tie s on g ro u n d s o f
h e a lth . A t the en d o f A u g u st h e w as a p p o in te d B u lg a ria n M in iste r
in S w itz e r la n d . O n e o f his clo se frien d s, G e n e r a l S ta n c h e v , w h o
h ad tak e n a p ro m in e n t p a rt in th e re v o lu tio n o f 9 S e p te m b e r
1944, an d w h o , th o u g h n ot fo rm e rly a m e m b e r o f th e ‘ Z v e n o ’ ,
a lso h ad g re a t in flu e n ce in its ran ks, w as a rre ste d . T h e p a r t y ’ s
o fficial le a d e r, K im o n G e o rg ie v , c o -o p e ra te d c o m p le te ly w ith th e
co m m u n ists a n d re ta in e d th e P rem ie rsh ip u n til S e p te m b e r 1946,
a fte r w h ich h e b e c a m e V ic e -P r e m ie r a n d F o re ig n M in ister.
In th e su m m e r o f 1946, an o fficia l p r o p a g a n d a c a m p a ig n b e g a n
a g a in st th e m o n a rc h y . T h e d y n a s ty , id e n tifie d w ith G e r m a n y an d
w ith tw o n a tio n a l disasters, w as g e n u in e ly u n p o p u la r. T h e
p ro c la m a tio n o f a re p u b lic w as th erefo re h a r d ly a c o n tro v e rsia l
issue. T h e c a m p a ig n c u lm in a te d in a p le b isc ite h e ld on 8 S e p te m ­
b e r, w h ic h g a v e an o v e r w h e lm in g m a jo rity fo r th e re p u b lic .
T h e b o y k in g S im e o n , w ith his m o th e r a n d th e ir a tte n d a n ts,
left th e c o u n try . O n 27 O c t o b e r ele ctio n s w e re h e ld fo r th e
G r a n d N a tio n a l A ss e m b ly , w h ic h w a s to d e c id e th e n e w c o n ­
stitu tio n . D e sp ite c o n tin u e d p o lic e te rro r, th e o p p o sitio n p u t
u p ca n d id a te s. T h e ir o p p o rtu n itie s o f e le c to ra l c a m p a ig n in g m a y
b e ju d g e d b y th e fa c t th a t in th e su m m e r o f 1946 fifteen m em b e rs
o f th e c e n tra l co m m itte e o f th e S o c ia list P a rty , se v en o u t o f
tw e n ty -tw o m em b ers o f th e ‘ P r e s id iu m ’ o f th e A g r a r ia n U n io n ,
an d th irty -fiv e o u t o f e ig h ty m em b ers o f th e S u p re m e C o u n c il o f
th e A g r a r ia n U n io n w e re in prison o r c o n c e n tr a tio n ca m p s.
A n e x a m p le o f th e gro u n d s fo r arrest is th e ca se o f th e a g r a r ia n
jo u rn a lis t K u n e v . T h e fo rm a l a c c u s a tio n sta te d th a t K u n e v in an
a rtic le h ad ‘ in a tru ly c rim in a l m a n n e r c a lle d th e B u lg a ria n
g o v e rn m e n t p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic d r e a m e r s ’ . In th e o p in io n o f
th e B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n re p resen ta tive s in S o fia , th e e le c tio n s,
lik e those o f 194 5, w e re n ot free , as th e y w e re p re c e d e d b y arrests
an d in tim id a tio n , a n d fo llo w e d b y fa lsific a tio n o f vo tes. T h e o ff ic ia l
resu lts g a v e 78 p er ce n t o f th e v o tes to th e F a th e r la n d F ro n t. In
th e n e w p a rlia m e n t th e c o m m u n ists h a d 2 7 7 seats, th e o th e r F'ront
p a rtie s 87 a n d th e o p p o sitio n 10 1. A n e w g o v e rn m e n t w a s fo rm e d
w ith G e o r g e D im itro v as P re m ie r. T h is fo rm e r g e n e ra l-se c r e ta ry
o f th e C o m in te rn a n d h e ro o f th e R e ic h s ta g tria l in L e ip z ig in
1933 h a d re m a in e d in M o sc o w fo r th e first y e a r a fte r ‘ lib e r a t io n ’ ,
se n d in g w ritte n d ire c tiv e s to th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty fro m tim e to
 THE S EI Z URE OF P O WE R 217
tim e . H e h a d re tu rn e d to B u lg a ria in N o v e m b e r 1945, an d a y e a r
la te r a ssu m ed fo rm a l p o litic a l le a d e rsh ip .
F irst a m o n g G e o r g e D im itr o v ’s tasks w as th e e x te rm in a tio n o f
th e o p p o sitio n . T h e y e a r 1947 m a rk e d th e pa ssa ge o f B u lg a ria
fro m th e secon d to th e th ird stages o f sovietisatio n . In 1946 som e
a lle g e d co n sp ira cie s b y m ilita r y gro u p s, th e ‘ N e u tra l officers’ an d
‘ T s a r K r u m ’ , h a d b e e n ‘ d is c o v e r e d ’ b y th e p olice . T h e arrested
p ersons w e re in d u c e d to im p lic a te P e tk o v. A n o p p o sition
a g r a r ia n n a m e d P e te r K o e v w as a rrested in J u ly 1946, a n d w as
to rtu re d to m a k e h im sign a con fessio n im p lic a tin g P e tk o v.
R e le a se d in o rd e r to tak e u p his sea t in p a rlia m e n t to w h ich he
h a d b e en e le c te d , he w as re a rre ste d in F e b r u a r y 1947 an d c o n ­
d e m n e d in J u n e 1947 to fifteen y e a r s’ im p riso n m e n t. O n 5 J u n e
P e tk o v h im s e lf w as arre ste d . H is p a p e r h ad a lr e a d y b een su p ­
pressed in A p r il b y th e fa m ilia r m eth o d o f a ‘ p rin te rs’ s tr ik e ’ .
T h e tria l o f P e tk o v to o k p la c e in A u g u s t 194 7. It w as a re m a rk ­
a b le e x h ib itio n o f ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a tic j u s t i c e ’ . ' F a v o u ra b le
e v id e n c e ( o f th e fo rm e r F irst R e g e n t Professor V e n e lin G a n e v an d
th e fo r m e r a g r a r ia n c a b in e t m inisters P a v lo v a n d B u m b a ro v ) w as
e x c lu d e d as ‘ not o f essen tial im p o r t a n c e ’ . C o m m u n ist-o rg a n ise d
d e m o n stra tio n s w e re h e ld a ll o v e r th e c o u n tr y d e m a n d in g d ea th
fo r th e a c c u s e d . T h e c o m m u n ist-c o n tro lle d m in e rs’ u n io n in th e
S o fia d istric t d e c la re d th a t a d e a th se n te n ce o n P e tk o v w o u ld g iv e
th e m in ers ‘ a n in c e n tiv e fo r h a rd e r w o rk an d g re a te r a c h ie v e ­
m en ts in th e p ro d u c tio n fie ld ’ . T h e P u b lic P ro se cu to r d e c la re d in
c o u r t : ‘ H u n d re d s o f th o u san d s o f te le g ra m s passed b y rallies,
m ee tin g s a n d c o n fe re n ce s in v illa g e s a n d to w n s, d e m a n d in g th e
h e a v ie s t p e n a ltie s fo r N ik o la P e tk o v , a re a su fficie n t in d ic a tio n o f
th e p e o p le ’s v e r d ic t .’ T h e g o v e rn m e n t’s ca se d e p e n d e d on the
e v id e n c e o f tw o co lo n e ls w h o a p p e a r e d in c o u rt. T h e s e m e n ’ s
sta te m e n ts p r o v e n o m o re th an th a t th e y h ad fo u r c o n ve rsatio n s
w ith P e tk o v b e tw e e n A u g u s t 1945 a n d F e b r u a r y 1946 in w h ich
a n ti-g o v e rn m e n t ta lk o c c u rre d . T h e th re e ju d g e s a t th e tria l w e re
c o m m u n ists, as w e re fo u r ju d g e s o f th e S u p re m e C o u r t o f C a ssa ­
tio n .
O n 16 A u g u s t P e tk o v w as c o n d e m n e d to d e a th . T h e B ritish an d
A m e r ic a n g o v e rn m e n ts p ro te ste d a t th e v e r d ic t, b u t th e sen ten ce
w a s ca rrie d o u t on 23 S e p te m b e r. S o m e w eeks la te r G e o rg e
D im itr o v p r o d u c e d an a lle g e d con fessio n b y P e tk o v sta tin g th a t
h e h a d b e en e n c o u ra g e d in his tre a s o n a b le o p p o sitio n to th e

1 S ee th e o ffic ia l B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n t p u b lic a tio n . T he T rial o f N ikola Petkov, a n d

th e a b le an a ly sis o f it b y M ic h a e l P a d e v in his book Dimitrov Waiter no Bullets.
2 I8 th e EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

F a th e rla n d F ro n t b y th e B ritish an d A m e r ic a n re p re s e n ta tiv e s in

S o fia . D im itro v also la te r d e c la re d th a t i f th e W e ste rn P o w e rs’
protests h a d n o t a tte m p te d to d ic ta te to th e so v e re ig n p e o p le ’ s
co u rt o f B u lg a ria , P e tk o v ’ s sen ten ce c o u ld h a v e b e en c o m m u te d
to a term o f im p riso n m e n t. T h is sta te m e n t seem ed a ll th e m o re
od iou s as it w as k n o w n to a ll th a t G e o rg e D im itr o v h im s e lf h a d
been sa ve d from N a z i v e n g e a n c e a t th e L e ip z ig tria l la r g e ly as a
resu lt o f protests o f w o rld d e m o c ra tic o p in io n . A fu rth e r tr a g ic
fe a tu re w as th a t b o th P e tk o v ’s fa th e r a n d his b ro th e r h a d b e en
m u rd e re d b y fa n a tic s w h o h ad c a lle d th em tra ito rs to th e n a tio n .
T h e o n ly re m a in in g o p p o sitio n g ro u p w a s n o w th e S o c ia list
P a r ty led b y L u lc h e v . O n 12 J a n u a r y 1948, w h e n L u lc h e v sta ted
in p a rlia m e n t th at he w o u ld v o te a g a in st th e b u d g e t, as a m a rk o f
d isa p p ro v a l o f th e g e n e ra l p o lic y o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, D im itro v
th re ate n e d h im w ith th e fo llo w in g w o rd s: ‘ In this a sse m b ly I
m a n y tim es w a r n e d N ik o la P e tk o v ’s g ro u p , b u t th e y w o u ld n o t
listen . T h e y lost th e ir h e ad s, a n d th e ir le a d e r lies b u rie d . R e fle c t
on y o u r o w n a c tio n s lest y o u su ffer th e sa m e fa te as fo r m e r m e m ­
b ers o f y o u r c o a litio n w h o w e re fo reig n a ge n ts a n d en em ie s o f
B u lg a r ia ’ . L u lc h e v d id n o t stop his o p p o sitio n , a n d in th e fo llo w ­
in g su m m e r th e b u lly ’ s th re a t w as c a rrie d o u t. L u lc h e v w as trie d
in N o v e m b e r , a n d on 15 N o v e m b e r w as se n te n c e d to fifteen
y e a rs’ im p riso n m e n t. A t his a g e it w a s m e re ly a ra th e r
c ru e l form o f d e a th se n te n ce . M e a n w h ile th e N e ik o v g ro u p
o f co lla b o ra tio n ist socialists d e c id e d on 2 6 J a n u a r y 1948 to
fuse w ith th e co m m u n ists. T h e c e re m o n y to o k p la c e o n 11 A u g u s t.
In D e c e m b e r 1947 th e B u lg a ria n p a rlia m e n t a c c e p te d th e n ew
c o n stitu tio n , b ased on th a t o f th e U .S .S .R . B y 1948 th e F a th e r ­
la n d F ro n t w as as m u c h a m o n o lith ic o rg a n isa tio n as th e P e o p le ’ s
F ro n t o f Y u g o s la v ia . In M a r c h tw o in d e p e n d e n t-m in d e d m em b ers
o f Z v e n o , th e B u lg a r ia n M in iste r in L o n d o n D o la p c h e v a n d th e
B u lg a ria n M in iste r in Brussels Y u r u k o v , resig n ed th e ir posts a n d
o p e n ly b ro k e w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e re m n a n ts o f Z v e n o a n d o f
th e still sm a ller R a d ic a l P a rty o f K o s tu r k o v w h ic h h a d b e en in th e
F ro n t sin ce 194 5, d isso lv e d th em selv es fo r m a lly a t th e b e g in n in g
o f 1949. T h e y n o lo n g e r sa w a n y reaso n fo r e x isten c e a p a r t from
o th e r F a th e rla n d F ro n t o rg a n isa tio n s a n d so m e rg e d th em se lv e s in
th e F ro n t. W h e n T i t o h a d b een d e n o u n c e d b y C o m in fo r m ,
B u lg a r ia c o u ld c la im to b e th e m ost ‘ a d v a n c e d ’ o f th e ‘ p o p u la r
d e m o c r a c ie s ’ on th e w a y to w a rd s th e o n ly tru e d e m o c r a c y , th e
S o v ie t system . W h e n D im itr o v d ie d in J u ly 1949, a ‘ D im itro v
le g e n d ’ w as c re a te d b y o ffic ia l p r o p a g a n d a , o n th e m o d e l o f th e
 TH E S EI Z URE OF P O W E R 2 lq
‘ L e n in le g e n d ’ . It w as d e c id c d th a t D im itr o v ’s b o d y , lik e L e n in ’s,
w o u ld b e e m b a lm e d . A t th e fu n e ra l in S o fia , th e d e a d m a n ’ s
b ro th e r-in -la w a n d su ccesso r as s e c re ta ry -g e n e ra l o f th e p a rty ,
V 'lk o C h e r v e n k o v , m a d e a sp e e ch fu ll o f v o w s to th e co rp se , w hose
sty le w a s sla v ish ly c o p ie d from th e fu n e ra l o ra tio n d e liv e re d b y
S ta lin o v e r th e co rp se o f L e n in in 1924.

Y U G O S L A V IA

T h e C o m m u n is t P a rty w as a lr e a d y fir m ly in c o n tro l o f the

N a tio n a l L ib e r a tio n F ro n t in Y u g o s la v ia b efo re th e fig h tin g w as
o v e r . T h e n e w a d m in is tra tio n w as based on th e stru ctu re o f
p e o p le ’ s c o m m itte e s w h ic h h ad b e en b u ilt u p d u r in g th e w a r
a g a in st th e A x is. B y th e su m m e r o f 1944 m ost o f th e m o u n ta in o u s
an d forested a re a s w e re a lr e a d y in th e h an d s o f T ito ’ s forces. T h e
citie s an d th e p la in s w e re lib e ra te d in tw o sta ges, S e rb ia , M a c e ­
d o n ia , V o iv o d in a a n d m ost o f B osn ia an d D a lm a tia in the a u tu m n
o f 194 4, th e n o rth a n d w est in M a y 1945. A t e ach sta ge a c e rta in
c o n flic t arose b e tw e e n th e m o u n ta in e e rs a n d th e p la in sm en .
D u r in g th e o c c u p a tio n th e fig h tin g h a d ta k e n p la c e in th e m o u n ­
ta in s, a n d th e n e w re c ru its to T i t o ’ s forces h a d c o m e m a in ly from
th e m o u n ta in v illa g e s. O f the v ete ra n s o f 19 4 1— m o stly in te lle c ­
tu a ls a n d in d u stria l w o rk e rs from th e to w n s w h o h ad tak e n to the
h ills a t th e o rd e rs o f th e C o m m u n ist P a rty — m a n y h a d perish ed in
b a ttle : th e y w e re fa r o u tn u m b e r e d b y B osn ia n , M o n te n e g rin an d
D a lm a tia n p easan ts. T h e s e w e re p a trio tic a n d b ra v e sold iers, and
som e o f th em h a d e ve n sh o w n a n u n e x p e c te d ta len t fo r ro u g h -a n d -
r e a d y a d m in is tra tio n in th e e a r ly p e o p le ’ s co m m itte e s. B u t th ey
w e re q u ite u n q u a lifie d for th e c o m p lic a te d tasks o f g o v e rn m e n t in
m o d e rn cities. O n th e o th e r h a n d th e to w n sm e n , w h o d id u n d e r­
sta n d th ese tasks, w e re su sp e ct in th eir eyes b e c a u se th e y h ad
re m a in e d in th e to w n s u n d e r e n e m y o c c u p a tio n . A t th e best th ey
w e re p o o r p a trio ts, a t th e w orst ‘ c o lla b o r a t o r s ’ . F o r th eir p a rt th e
to w n sm e n d espised as b o a stfu l yok els th e h ord es o f g u e rrilla h eroes
w h o p o u re d in , a n d w e re o ften re w a r d e d w ith posts o f re sp o n ­
sib ility a n d p o w e r for w h ic h th e y seem ed u n fitte d . M u c h o f th e
co n fu sio n o f th e n e x t y e a r o r tw o w a s d u e to the m u tu a l d istru st
a n d a n tip a th y o f th ese tw'O gro u p s. It w o u ld h a v e ca u se d e n o u gh
tr o u b le e v e n i f it h a d n ot b een a g g r a v a te d b y id e o lo g ic a l and
p o litic a l c o n flic t.
T h e p e o p le ’ s c o m m itte e s o f th e w a r p e rio d h a d h ad a n ele m e n t
o f s p o n ta n e ity . T h e y h a d re c ru ite d effic ien t lo c a l p e o p le o f no
sp e c ia l p o litic a l a ffilia tio n , w h o h ad w o n g e n u in e lo c a l p o p u la rity
220 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
b y th eir e ffic ien cy . T h e n ew c o m m itte e s for th e lib e ra te d citie s an d
p la in s la ck e d this sp o n ta n e ity . T h e y w e re sim p ly a p p o in te d b y th e
co m m u n ists, p a r tly from th e secret c o m m u n ist o rg a n isa tio n s w h ic h
h a d w o rk e d u n d e rg ro u n d in th e cities d u r in g o c c u p a tio n , p a r tly
from p ro m o te d ‘ m o u n ta in e e rs ’ , p a rtly from in d iv id u a ls o f m is­
c e lla n e o u s typ es o f w h o se lo y a lty th e co m m u n ist le a d e rs h a d reason
to b e co n fid e n t.
T h e N a tio n a l L ib e ra tio n F ro n t w as re n a m e d P e o p le ’s F ro n t.
It re m ain e d a m o n o lith ic o rg a n isa tio n . T h e o n ly p a r ty w h ic h
h ad a n in d e p e n d e n t o rg a n isa tio n w a s th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty . It,
fo r reason s w h ic h h a v e n e v e r b een c le a r ly e x p la in e d , re m a in e d
m ysterio u sly h id d e n . U n lik e th e c o m m u n ist p a rtie s o f n e ig h b o u r ­
in g co u n trie s, it k ep t secret th e n am es o f its officers, a n d m em b ers
w e re n o t e n c o u ra g e d to re v e a l th e ir m em b e rsh ip . O t h e r p a rtie s,
su ch as th e d issid ent C r o a tia n P e a sa n t P a rty led b y th e fo rm e r
m e m b e r o f th e B e lg ra d e p a rlia m e n t F ra n jo G a ż i , a n d th e R e p u b ­
lic a n P a rty led b y th e a g e d P r o d a n o v ic , n o m in a lly e x isted , b u t
w e re u n a b le to o rg a n ise se p a ra te ly . A ll k ey positio n s w e re h e ld b y
co m m u n ists o r n o m in ees o f co m m u n ists. T h e C o m m u n ist P a rty
prescrib e d th e p r o g ra m m e a n d th e d isc ip lin e o f th e F ro n t. T o use
S o v ie t p h ra se o lo g y , th e F ro n t w as th e ‘ m ass o r g a n is a tio n ’ a n d th e
p a r ty w as th e ‘ d ire c tin g n u c le u s ’ . 1
T h e a rm y a n d th e p o lice w e re firm ly h eld b y th e co m m u n ists.
T h e M in iste r o f th e In te rio r w as th e O r th o d o x priest Z e c e v ic , a
fine g u e rrilla le a d e r, w h o c a re d little fo r d o c trin e , w h e th e r
re lig io u s o r p o litic a l, a n d c h e e r fu lly left th e c o n d u c t o f p o lic y to
h is co m m u n ist frien d s. U n d e r his n o m in a l c o n tro l, b u t th e a c tu a l
le a d e rsh ip o f A le x a n d e r R a n k o v ic , a le a d in g m e m b e r o f th e C o m ­
m u n ist P a rty , w as the secret p o litic a l p o lic e , th e D e p a r tm e n t for
th e D e fe n c e o f th e P e o p le ( O .Z .N a .) , w h ic h la te r c h a n g e d its
n a m e to A d m in is tr a tio n o f S ta te S e c u r ity ( U .D .B .) . B ased on the
S o v ie t m o d e l, it h a d p ro v e d its w o rth a lr e a d y u n d e r th e o c c u p a ­
tion b o th in su p p ly in g in te llig e n c e a n d in liq u id a tin g the
w a v e re rs an d th e d islo y a l. It soon esta b lish e d an im p re ssiv e system
o f spies a n d co u n ter-sp ies an d in fo rm ers in th e cities. I t p a id sp e cia l
a tte n tio n to those w h o h a d c o n ta c t w ith fo reig n ers, a b o v e a ll w ith
B ritish a n d A m e ric a n s. I t also sh o w e d skill a n d in g e n u ity in its
in te rp re ta tio n o f th e n o tio n o f c o lla b o r a tio n w ith th e e n e m y .
Business m en w h o se c o n ce rn s it w as n ot c o n v e n ie n t to n a tio n a lise
o n g e n e ra l g ro u n d s fo u n d th em se lv e s e x p r o p r ia te d as ‘ c o l­
la b o r a t o r s ’ , an d in m a n y cases se n te n c e d to lo n g p riso n term s.
1 S e c C o n stitu tio n o f the U .S .S .R ., a rtic le 126. A lso p p . 3 0 7 - 1 4 b elo w .
 TH E SEI ZURE OF P O WE R 2JI
T o h a v e co n tin u e d w o rk u n d e r th e o c c u p a tio n w as tre a te d as
p r o o f o f ‘ c o lla b o ra tio n e v e n i f this h ad m a in ta in e d e m p lo y m e n t
for th e w o rk e rs, a n d th e w o rk e rs g a v e e v id e n c e th a t th ey h ad been
w e ll tre a te d , e ve n i f th ere w a s e v id e n c e o f th e e m p lo y e r's h o stility
to th e G e rm a n s a n d th a t he h ad co n trib u te d to s e c ic t co llectio n s o f
fu n d s fo r th e p a rtisa n s. G r e a t effo rts w e re also m ad e to in crim in ­
a te fo rm e r p o litician s.
T h e s e p ra c tic e s w e re n a tu r a lly re p u g n a n t to th ose exiled
p o litic ia n s w h o h ad jo in e d th e M a r c h 1945 g o v e rn m e n t. T h e y soon
fo u n d th a t th e y h a d n o p o w e r, w e re n ot co n su lte d , an d c o u ld not
b u ild u p th e ir o w n p a r ty o rg a n isa tio n s. In A u g u st 1945 M ila n
G r o l, th e fo rm e r le a d e r o f th e D e m o c ra t P a rty , resigned from the
g o v e rn m e n t. H e w as fo llo w e d a m o n th la te r b y F o re ig n M in ister
S u b a S ić. F o r som e tim e b e fo re his re sig n a tio n S u b a śić h ad been
se rio u sly ill, a n d his hou se h a d b e en g u a r d e d b y a rm e d m en w h o
refu sed to a llo w th e B ritish A m b a ssa d o r to visit h im o r to in q u ire
a fte r his h e a lth . T h e re p ly o f M a rsh a l T i t o to his le tte r o f resig­
n a tio n a ccu s e d h im o f tre a c h e ro u sly p r o v o k in g foreign in te r­
v e n tio n in Y u g o s la v ia . S u b a ś ić an d G r o l b oth o b je c te d to the
e le c to ra l la w , w h ic h b y d isfra n c h isin g persons w h o h ad ‘ a c tiv e ly
o r p a ssiv e ly c o lla b o r a t e d ’ w ith th e e n em y m a d e possible a ll sorts
o f p o litic a l tric k e ry . G r o l a n d T r ifu n o v ic , th e le a d e r o f th e old
R a d ic a l P a r ty , w h o h a d also re tu rn e d from e x ile , at first m a d e an
a g re e m e n t to p u t u p c a n d id a te s, in o p p o sitio n to the o fficia l list in
th e p a r lia m e n ta r y e le ctio n s, w h ic h w e re fixed for N o v e m b e r. A t
th e en d o f S e p te m b e r G r o l o b ta in e d p erm ission to p u b lish a
n e w s p a p e r, Demokralija. D e sp ite a tta c k s on its d istrib u to rs, and
d es tru ctio n o f co p ie s b y c o m m u n ist to u gh s, it sold w e ll. O n
20 O c t o b e r th e w id o w o f th e fo rm e r C r o a tia n P ea san t P a rty
le a d e r S te p h e n R a d ić o b ta in e d p erm issio n to p u b lish in Z a g r e b an
o p p o sitio n p a p e r re p re s e n tin g th e old p o lic y o f th e C r o a tia n
P e a sa n t P a r ty , Narodni glas. It w as su ppressed from th e secon d
issue. In v ie w o f th e re p e a ted o b stru c tio n o r in tim id a tio n b y the
a u th o ritie s, w h ic h m a d e it im p o ssib le to o rg an ise m eetin gs,
c o m m u n ic a te w ith b ra n c h e s in th e c o u n try , o r c o n d u ct e le cto ra l
p r o p a g a n d a , G r o l a n d T r ifu n o v ic d e c id e d in N o v e m b e r to
a b a n d o n th e stru g g le a n d to a d v ise th e ir su p p o rte rs to a b sta in
fro m v o tin g . A n a p p e a l to th e p e o p le to b o y c o tt th e polls, p u b ­
lish ed in Demokralija o n th e e v e o f th e e le ctio n s, w as th e o cca sio n
fo r its su p p ressio n . N o o p p o sitio n p a p e r a g a in a p p e a r e d .
T h e o ffic ia l e le c to ra l co m m ission a n n o u n c e d th a t 253,000
persons w e re d isfra n ch ise d a n d th at 8,000,000 h a d th e rig h t to

it
222 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
v o te. T h e e le ctio n s too k p la c e o n 1 1 N o v e m b e r . T h o u g h th ere
w e re n o o p p o sitio n c a n d id a te s, a rra n g e m e n ts w e re at least
t h e o r e tic a lly m ad e fo r v o ters to re co rd n e g a tiv e votes. I n d e p e n ­
d en t ob servers re p o rted th a t th e y w e re o rd e rly , th a t th ere w e re
n o v isib le acts o f terro r. It w a s, h o w e v e r, w id e ly b e lie v e d th a t th e
a rra n g em e n ts fo r secret b a llo tin g w e re in m a n y p la ce s n o t u sed , so
th a t a v o te r m a k in g u se o f th em k n ew th a t h e w o u ld be co n sid e re d
to h a v e v o ted a g a in st th e g o v e rn m e n t, a n d th a t e v e n w h e re th ey
w e re used m a n y v o ters fea red th a t th ere w as so m e m ean s b y w h ic h
th eir v o te c o u ld be id e n tifie d an d th em selves p e n a lise d . In v ie w o f
these fears— w h ic h eve n w h en q u ite u n ju stified w e re still stro n g
— a n d in v ie w o f th e a tm o sp h e re p r e c e d in g th e e le ctio n s, th e y
co u ld not b e c a lle d free. It w as fu rth e r b e lie v e d b y m a n y w e ll-
in form ed p e o p le th a t th e v o tin g b ox es w'erc fa lsified . T h e o ffic ia l
results w e re 96 p e r c e n t fo r th e g o v e rn m e n t in th e w h o le c o u n tr y .
O n e o f th e first a c ts o f th e n e w p a rlia m e n t w a s to p r o c la im
Y u g o s la v ia a re p u b lic (29 N o v e m b e r 19 4 5 ). T h e n e w c o n stitu tio n ,
b ased on th at o f th e U .S .S .R ., w as fo r m a lly a d o p te d o n 31
J a n u a r y 1946. In M a r c h 1946 M ih a ilo v ic , his fo llo w in g re d u ce d
to a tin y b a n d o f fu g itiv e s in B osn ia, w as c a p tu r e d . H is tria l o p e n e d
in J u n e . T h e e v id e n c e th a t h e h a d c o lla b o r a te d w ith th e A x is w as
o v e r w h e lm in g , b u t th e m a n n e r o f his tria l re se m b led th a t o f
M o sc o w ra th e r th a n o f E u ro p e . T h e tria l w a s used to d isc re d it
th e W e ste rn P o w ers, a n d th e p ro se cu tio n m a in ta in e d , q u ite
fa lse ly, th a t th e B ritish h a d in stru cte d M ih a ilo v ic to c o n ta c t th e
A x is an d to a tta c k th e p a rtisa n s. H e w a s sh o t o n 1 7 th J u ly .
In J u ly 1946 D r. D r a g o lju b J o v a n o v ic , th e S e rb ia n p e a sa n t
le a d e r, w h o h a d b e en e le cte d to p a rlia m e n t on T i t o ’ s g o v e r n ­
m en ta l list, an d stro n g ly su p p o rte d th e o ffic ia l p r o g ra m m e o f th e
P e o p le ’s F ro n t an d th e n e w co n stitu tio n , m a d e so m e criticism s o f
o fficia l p o lic y in a p a rlia m e n ta r y sp e e ch . H e o p p o se d th e n e w la w
on co -o p e ra tive s. H e c o n sid e re d th e p e a san ts w e re in su ffic ie n tly
re p resen te d in p o litic a l life. H e also o b je c te d to th e p o w e rs c o n ­
ferred b y a n e w la w o n th e P u b lic P ro se cu to rs. F in a lly h e b la m e d
th e g o v e rn m e n t fo r e x c lu s iv e re lia n c e in fo reig n p o lic y o n th e
U .S .S .R . T h o u g h h e h a d b e en stro n g ly p r o -S o v ie t fo r a t least
tw e n ty years, h e a lso v a lu e d frien d sh ip w ith th e W e ste rn P o w ers.
T h e s e criticism s let loose a sto rm o f a b u se fro m th e co m m u n ists.
J o v a n o v ic w as d e p riv e d b y m a jo rity v o te o f his seat in th e S e rb ia n
re p u b lic a n a sse m b ly . B e lg ra d e U n iv e r s ity ’ s fa c u lt y o f la w
d e p riv e d h im o f his professo rsh ip . O n 11 A u g u s t a co n gre ss o f his
P e o p le ’ s P e a san t P a rty w as sum m on ed. M o st o f th e a lle g e d
 T H E SEI ZURE OF P O W E R 223
d e le g a te s h a d b e en ch osen b y th e co m m u n ists, an d o b e d ie n tly
e x p e lle d h im from th e p a rty . L a t e r in th e y e a r he lost his seat in
th e ce n tra l p a rlia m e n t. H e w a s a rrested in 19 4 7, an d b ro u g h t to
tria l in S e p te m b e r 194 7. A s it b e tte r su ited the pu rp oses o f th e
g o v e rn m e n t to a ccu se h im o f treaso n th a n o f m ere o p p o sitio n , he
w as c h a rg e d w ith ta k in g o rd ers fro m B ritish a gen ts to o rg a n ise a
‘ p e a sa n t b lo c k ’ o f S e rb ia n an d C r o a tia n peasan ts a gain st th e
g o v e r n m e n t .1 W ith h im w as tried F ra n jo G a ż i, a C r o a tia n
a g r ic u ltu r a l e n g in e e r, w h o h ad a lw a y s b e lo n g e d to th e left w in g
o f th e C r o a tia n P e a san t P a rty , a n d h a d , like D r. J o v a n o v ic , su p ­
p o rte d th e P e o p le ’ s F ro n t u n til he fo u n d th e p o litic a l d o m in a tio n
o f th e co m m u n ists in to le r a b le .2 J o v a n o v ic w as sen ten ced to prison
fo r n in e y e a rs, G a ż i fo r five.
D u r in g 1947 th ere w e re a n u m b e r o f p o litic a l trials. T h e victim s
w e re p r o m in e n t m em b e rs o f p re -w a r p a rties w h o h ad su p p o rted
T i t o b e ca u se th e y b e lie v e d in his p u b lic ly a n n o u n ce d d e m o c ra tic
p r o g ra m m e , an d b e c a m e dissatisfied w h en th e y fou n d th a t h e h ad
set u p a d ic ta to rs h ip . A ll w e re c h a rg e d , n ot w ith o p p o sitio n , w h ich
w a s th e ir re a l c rim e , b u t w ith p assin g sta te secrets, o r slan d ero u s
in fo rm a tio n , to foreign ers. T h e e v id e n c e p u b lish e d at th e trials
su g g e ste d th a t th e y h ad d o n e no m o re th an ta lk to th eir British
o r A m e r ic a n frien d s in a m a n n e r c ritic a l o f th e regim e . T h e tw o
m ost im p o rta n t w e re th e fo rm e r R a d ic a l P a rty le a d e r M ilo ś
T r ifu n o v ic (co n d e m n e d to e igh t y e ars in J a n u a r y 1947) a n d the
S lo v e n e p rofessor B oris F u rla n (d e a th sen ten ce, co m m u te d to life
im p riso n m e n t in A u g u s t 19 4 7 ). In F e b r u a r y 1948 a fo rm e r m em ­
b e r o f p a rlia m e n t for th e C r o a tia n P ea san t P a rty , J a n fik o v ic ,
re c e iv e d a te n -y e a r sen ten ce. D u r in g 1947 an d 1948 th ere w e re
a lso se v eral tria ls o f a lle g e d m em b ers o f a rm e d b an d s— S lo v e n e
W h ite G u a rd s , C r o a t ia n ‘ C r u s a d e r s ’ 3 an d S e rb ia n C h e tn ik s. O n
I I M a r c h 1948 th e O r t h o d o x b ish op N a stic w a s se n te n ce d to
e le v e n y e a rs fo r h e lp in g S e rb ia n terrorists in B osnia.
O n 6 M a y 1948 it w as a n n o u n c e d th a t th e M in iste r o f L ig h t

1 A s I w a s o n e o f th e B ritish su b jec ts a c cu scd o f h a v in g g iv en su ch in stru ctio n s to

th e tv\o m en o n b e h a lf o f * the B ritish in te llig e n c e s e r v ic e ’ , I m ust take this o p p o rtu n ity
o f sta tin g th a t th is p a rt o f th e a c cu sa tio n w as c o m p le te ly a n d u tte rly false. M y c o n ­
versa tio n s w ith b o th m en (w h o m a d e n o secret o f th eir o p p o sitio n a l a ttitu d e ) in no
w a y h o re th e c h a r a c te r a ttrib u te d to them b v th e Y u g o s la v P u b lic P ro secu to r. See
also m y le tte r to The Times o f 2 5 th O c to b e r 1947.
* G a ż i sh o u ld not b e co n fu sed w ith his d ista n t k insm an o f the sam e n am e, a form er
m e m b e r o f p a rlia m e n t fo r M a l e k ’ s C r o a t ia n P easant P a rty a n d lead er o f th e p u p p et
C r o a t ia n R e p u b lic a n P ea san t P a r ty w h ic h b e c a m e ab so rb e d in th e P e o p le ’s F ro n t.
T h is G a ż i b e c a m e v ic e -p re m ie r o f th e C r o a t ia n re p u b lic a n g o v e rn m en t in 1946.
* T h e s e w e re C r o a t ia n n a tio n a list a n d C a th o lic g u e rrilla s, m ost th o u g h not all o f
w h o m h a d e a rlie r su p p o rte d P a v e lic 's U sta sh regim e.
224 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
In d u stry , th e C r o a t H e b ra n g , a n d th e M in iste r o f F in a n c e , th e
S e rb Z u jo v ic , h ad been ‘ re lie v e d o f th eir d u tie s ’ . A m o n th la te r
th ey w e re fo rm a lly e x p e lle d from th e P e o p le ’ s F ro n t. B oth m en
w e re v e r y p ro m in e n t co m m u n ists, m em b ers o f th e in n er rin g th a t
ru led Y u g o s la v ia . \ o e x p la n a tio n w as g iv e n . S h o rtly a fte rw a rd s it
w as a n n o u n c e d th a t th e C o m m u n ist P a rty o f Y u g o s la v ia w o u ld
m eet in J u ly fo r its first co n gress sin ce th e w a r . T h e n o n 28 J u n e ,
in th e C z e c h co m m u n ist p a p e r Rude Hravo, a p p e a r e d th e c o m ­
m u n iq u e o f th e C o m in fo rm in w h ic h th e Y u g o s la v p a r ty w as
e x p e lle d fo r v a rio u s crim es.
T h e e c o n o m ic sins im p u te d to T i t o h ad a ll b e en c o m m itte d
to a g re a te r exten t- b y th e c o m m u n ist p a rtie s o f n e ig h b o u r in g
co u n tries. T h e y w ill be referred to d u r in g th e fo llo w in g c h a p te r s .1
T h e y e a rn e d T it o th e b a r e ly c o m p a tib le ch a rg e s o f T r o tsk y ism ,
B u h a rin ism a n d M en sh e vism . T h e tw o o th e r m ain g ro u p s o f
ch a rg e s co n c e rn e d th e o rg a n isa tio n o f th e C o m m u n ist P a rty a n d
Y u g o s la v ia ’ s a ttitu d e to R u ssia.
T h e C o m in fo rm sta te m e n t p o in te d o u t th a t o fficials o f th e
Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ist P a r ty w e re a p p o in te d fro m a b o v e , n ot
e le cte d b y th e m em b e rs, an d th a t th ere w as n o free critic ism
w ith in th e p a rty . I t a ccu sed th e lead ers o f m a in ta in in g in th e
p a r ty a ‘ d isg ra c e fu l, p u re ly T u r k is h , terro rist r e g im e ’ . T o a
W e ste rn n o n -co m m u n ist, sc e p tica l o f th e free d o m o f e le c tio n o r
criticism w ith in th e C o m m u n ist P a rty o f th e S o v ie t U n io n o r o f
o th e r East E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s, this a c c u s a tio n is n ot v e r y c o n ­
v in c in g . M o re ju s tifia b le w as th e o b je c tio n to th e c u rio u s c o n ­
sp ira to ria l a ttitu d e o f th e Y u g o s la v p a rty . It h a d in fa c t h id d e n
b e h in d th e P e o p le ’ s F ro n t, a n d h ad c o n c e a le d its o w n o rg a n isa tio n
an d m em b ers. In S e p te m b e r 1947 T i t o h ad e v e n d e c la re d th a t th e
p a r ty h a d no p r o g ra m m e o th e r th a n th a t o f th e F ro n t. T h is
b e h a v io u r c e rta in ly c o n tra sted w ith th a t o f th e c o m m u n ist pa rties
in a ll n e ig h b o u r in g c o u n trie s, an d w a s h a rd to u n d e rs ta n d . B u t the
co n clu sio n w h ic h th e C o m in fo rm d re w fro m it, th a t th e p a r ty h a d
lost its id e n tity w ith in th e F ro n t, a n d th a t th e F ro n t w a s su b je c t to
th e in flu e n ce o f v a rio u s classes a n d id e o lo g ie s, w as in c o rr e c t. In
fa ct th e P e o p le ’ s F ro n t o f Y u g o s la v ia w as m u c h m o re m o n o ­
lith ic, a n d g a v e eve n less freed o m to n o n -co m m u n ists, th a n th e
fron ts o r c o a litio n s o f n e ig h b o u r in g co u n trie s.
T h e p u b lish e d letters b e tw e e n th e Y u g o s la v a n d S o v ie t p i ties*
sh ow th a t T i t o ’ s re a l c rim e la y n e ith e r in e c o n o m ic p o lic y n o r in

1 S ee belo w , p p . 2 70 -2 .
1 The c o rre sp o n d e n ce has b ee n p u b lish ed b y th e R o y a l In stitu te o f In te rn a tio n a l
A ffa irs u n d e r th e title The Soviet-Iugoslav Dispute.
 THE SEI ZURE OF P O W E R 225
p a r ty o rg a n isa tio n , b u t in in su ffic ien t re v ere n c e to th e m ajesty o f
th e g re a t S o v ie t U n io n . D jila s, a le a d in g co m m u n ist, h ad d a re d to
sa y th a t ce rta in R e d A r m y officers h a d b e h a v e d w orse th an
B ritish officers. T h e u g o sla v p o litic a l p o lic e h ad d are d to w a tch
S o v ie t su b je cts as i f th e y w e re citize n s o f b o u rgeois states. T h e
Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t presu m ed to o b je c t w h en th e S o v ie t secret
se rv ice re cru ite d Y u g o s la v su b jects. T h e Y u g o s la v G e n e ra l S ta ff
w ish ed to cu t d o w n th e n u m b e r o f S o v ie t m ilita r y advisers, spoke
d is p a r a g in g ly o f th e S o v ie t a r m y ’s rules, an d insisted th a t Y u g o ­
s la v ia h ad h ad a w a r effo rt o f h e r o w n a n d n ot been lib e ra te d b y
th e R e d A r m y . T h e letters also asserted w ith o u t a n y e vid e n c e th a t
th e Y u g o s la v A ssistan t F o re ig n M in iste r, V e le b it , a n d th e Y u g o ­
sla v A m b a ssa d o r in L o n d o n , L e o n tić , w e re B ritish spies. T h e
strik in g fe a tu r e o f th e S o v ie t letters is th at th ere is n o e v id e n c e o f
a n y a ctio n b y th e Y u g o s la v a u th o ritie s h o stile to th e S o v ie t U n io n
o r fr ie n d ly to th e ‘ W e ste rn im p e ria lists’ . It seem s a lw a y s to be a
m a tte r o f p e tty d isco u rtesies. T h e Y u g o s la v com m u n ists a rc treated
lik e d iso b e d ie n t c h ild re n in a v e r y strict sch oo l. U n til fu rth e r
e v id e n c e is fo u n d to th e c o n tra ry , o n e m ust co n c lu d e th a t the
q u a rr e l w as so u gh t n ot b y T i t o b u t b y th e S o v iet leaders. T ito
d id n o t w ish Y u g o s la v co m m u n ism to be ‘ d iffe r e n t’ . A p a r t from
th e m in o r m a tte r o f p a r ty o rg a n isa tio n , he c o m m itte d n o fa u lt o f
p o lic y th a t w as n ot c o m m itte d in g re a te r m ea su re b y th e o th er
E ast E u ro p e a n co m m u n ists. T h e w o u n d e d v a n ity o f S ta lin and
M o lo to v u n n e ce ssa rily p re c ip ita te d a q u a rr e l w h ose con seq u en ces
w e re fa r-re a c h in g .
T h e ‘ T it o c liq u e ’ d id n o t c a p itu la te , n o r d id th e Y u g o s la v
s ta te b re a k d o w n . T h e S o v ie t ‘ m ilita r y a n d c iv ilia n sp e c ia lists’
w e re re c a lle d , ju s t as R u ssia n officers w ere re ca lle d from B u lg a ria
in 1885 w h e n T s a r A le x a n d e r I I I w as d isp lea sed w ith P rin ce
A le x a n d e r o f B a tte n b e rg , an d w ith as little cfTcct. T h e r e w ere
som e d efe ctio n s a m o n g Y u g o s la v d ip lo m a ts se rv in g in C o m in fo rm
c o u n trie s a n d a m o n g stu d en ts a t C o m in fo rm u n iversities. T h e r e
w ere som e ch a n g e s in th e go v e rn m e n ts o f M o n te n e g ro a n d M a c e ­
d o n ia . O n 12 A u g u s t th e fo rm e r C h i e f o f S t a f f o f th e Y u g o s la v
A r m y , G e n e r a l A rs o J o v a n o v ic , w as sh ot b y a fro n tie r g u a r d as
h e trie d ille g a lly to cross th e fro n tie r in to R u m a n ia . T h e r e w e re
o c c a sio n a l ru m o u rs o f d isa ffe c tio n , bu t th re e y e ars a fter the b re a c h
T i t o is still firm ly in th e sa d d le , to g e th e r w ith his c o llea g u e s w h o
h ad b e e n m ost d e n o u n c e d — R a n k o v ic , D jila s and K a rd e lj.
T h e d a n g e r from th e C o m in fo r m d id n o t ca u se T i t o to m od ify
th e d ic ta to rs h ip o f th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty in sid e Y u g o s la v ia .
226 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
F o rtified b y th e a c c la m a tio n s o f th e p a r ty con gress, w h ic h d u ly
m et in J u ly 1948, h e insisted o n his d e te rm in a tio n to b ase his
p o lic y on th e scien ce o f M a rx ism -L e n in is m . N o n -c o m m u n ists an d
G o m in fo rm co m m u n ists w e re to be p e rsecu te d a lik e . A tw o -fro n t
w a r w as c o n tin u e d b o th at h o m e a n d a b r o a d .1

ALBANIA
A s in Y u g o s la v ia , so in A lb a n ia , th e d e c isiv e stru g g le fo r
p o litic a l p o w e r h a d b een w o n b e fo re th e w a r w a s e n d e d . T h u s th e
in te rn a l p o litics o f A lb a n ia a re c o m p a r a tiv e ly u n e v e n tfu l u n til
th e C o m in fo r m - T ito b re a c h o f 1948.
T h e L ib e ra tio n F ro n t w as re n a m e d D e m o c r a tic F ro n t a fte r th e
w a r w as o v er. In th e a u tu m n o f 1945 it b e g a n p r e p a ra tio n s for
election s. A s in Y u g o s la v ia , th ere w e re n o o p p o sitio n c a n d id a te s ,
b u t pro visio n w as n o m in a lly m a d e fo r n e g a tiv e votes. P o llin g took
p la c e on 2 D e c e m b e r 1945. T h e o fficia l resu lts w e re th a t 92 p e r
ce n t o f th e q u a lifie d e le cto rs h a d v o te d , an d th a t 93 p e r c e n t o f th e
votes ca st w e re for th e D e m o c ra tic F'ront. T h e C o n s titu e n t A ssem ­
b ly thus e le cte d m et on 10 J a n u a r y 1946. O n e o f its first acts w as
to p ro cla im A lb a n ia a re p u b lic . T h e e xile d K in g Z o g a c c e p te d th e
resu lt w ith o u t su rprise o r m u c h p ro test, a n d re tire d to th e h os­
p ita lity o f E g y p t. T h e A ss e m b ly soon p r o d u c e d a c o n stitu tio n ,
w h ic h closely fo llo w e d those o f Y u g o s la v ia a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n .
T h e G r e a t P o w ers g a v e p r o v isio n a l re c o g n itio n to E n v e r
H o x h a ’ s g o v e rn m e n t on 10 N o v e m b e r 1945. B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n
m ilita r y m issions h a d b een in th e c o u n try sin ce lib e ra tio n , an d
U .N .R .R .A . w as in a c tio n fro m A u g u s t 1945, w h e n it sign e d a n
a g re e m e n t w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t. D u r in g 1946, h o w e v e r, rela tio n s
b e tw e e n A lb a n ia a n d th e W e ste rn P o w ers ra p id ly d e te rio ra te d .
O n e reason w as th a t m a n y o f th e le a d in g A lb a n ia n n a tio n a list
p o liticia n s h a d fled to A llie d -o c c u p ie d I t a ly o r G r e e c e , a n d th a t
th e A llie d g o v e rn m e n ts refused to h a n d th em o v e r to E n v e r H o x h a
as ‘ w a r c r im in a ls ’ . C o n s p ira c y tria ls w e re u sed to a c cu s e th e
W e ste rn P o w ers o f sin ister in ten tio n s to w a rd s A lb a n ia .*
A fu rth e r ca u se o f A lb a n ia n d istru st to w a rd s B rita in w a s th e
a g ita tio n b y n atio n a lists in G r e e c e fo r th e a n n e x a tio n o f w h a t th e y
c a lle d ‘ n o rth e rn E p ir iis ’ b u t A lb a n ia n s c a lle d ‘ so u th e rn A lb a n i a ’ .
T h o u g h B ritish p o lic y o n this q u estio n h a d n e v e r b e en o ffic ia lly
1 F o r fu rth e r discu ssion o f th e T ito -C o m in fo r m d isp u te , see b e lo w , p p . 3 1 2 - 1 6 .
* F o r e x a m p le , in J u n e 1946 o n e o f th irty -se v e n a c cu se d A lb a n ia n * ‘ c o n fe ss e d ’ a t his
tria l th a t th e British L ie u te n a n t- C o lo n e l P a lm e r h a d g iv e n h im in stru ctio n s to k eep
in to u ch w ith the n a tio n a list lead ers F iq ri D in e a n d M u h a r r e m B a ira k ta r a fte r the
v ic to r y o f H o x h a , a n d th a t th e B ritish M a jo r A r n o ld h a d su g g ested th e assassination
o f H oxha.
 THE S EI Z URE OF POWER 227

sta te d , th e A lb a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t c o n sid ered th e B ritish resp o n ­

sib le fo r p o litic a l a g ita tio n in a c o u n try o c c u p ie d b y British troops,
w h o se g o v e rn m e n t h a d b een e stab lish e d a fte r B ritish a rm e d a ctio n
h a d d e fe a te d its riv als. R e la tio n s b e c a m e so b ad th at it w as d ec id e d
in A p r il 1946 n o t to sen d a re g u la r B ritish le ga tio n to A lb a n ia .
T h e C o r fu in cid e n t o f O c t o b e r 1946, w h en a B ritish d estro y e r w as
b lo w n u p b y a m in e w h ic h it a p p e a r e d m ust h a v e been la id b y ,
o r w ith th e k n o w le d g e of, th e A lb a n ia n a u th o ritie s, m a d e th ings
still w o rse. A fte r th e w ith d r a w a l o f th e m ilita r y m ission e a r ly in
1947 th ere w e re n o fu rth e r o fficia l rela tio n s b e tw e e n B rita in a n d
A lb a n ia .
T e n s io n b e tw e e n A lb a n ia a n d th e U n ite d S tates re a c h e d a
c lim a x in S e p te m b e r 19 4 7, in co n n e c tio n w ith a n o th e r sp y tria l.
T h e a ccu s e d m a in ta in e d in co u rt th a t th e A m e ric a n an d B ritish
m issions h a d e n c o u ra g e d th em to sta rt an a rm e d risin g a g a in st the
H o x h a re g im e . In p a r tic u la r , th e te c h n ic a l sch o o l in T ir a n a , an
A m e r ic a n fo u n d a tio n d ire c te d b y M r . H a r r y F u lz , w as d escrib ed
as a c e n tre o f sa b o ta g e . T h e sch o o l w as p r o b a b ly th e best e d u c a ­
tio n a l in stitu tio n in A lb a n ia , c o m p a r a b le on a sm a lle r sca le to the
g re a t R o b e r t C o lle g e in C o n s ta n tin o p le a n d th e A m e r ic a n C o lle g e
in S o fia . T h is a b su rd a tta c k a g a in st M r . F u lz , w h o h ad spen t years
se rv in g A lb a n ia , w a s, in th e w o rd s o f th e o fficia l S ta te D e p a rtm e n t
p ro te st o n th e tria l, ‘ a sad a c t o f in g r a t it u d e ’ . T h e A m e ric a n
le g a tio n h ad left A lb a n ia in N o v e m b e r 1946, w h en the A lb a n ia n
g o v e rn m e n t h a d refu sed to reco gn ise o b lig a tio n s a risin g from p re ­
w a r tr e a ty re la tio n s b e tw e e n A lb a n ia a n d th e U n ite d S tates.
S in c e th en th e U n ite d S tate s h as h ad n o o fficia l re la tio n s w ith
A lb a n ia . T h e o n ly W e ste rn le g a tio n left is th e F re n ch .
W h a te v e r th e re a l g u ilt o f th e v a rio u s g ro u p s o f a lle g e d spies
a n d co n sp irato rs, th ere w e re c le a r signs in 1947 th a t all w as not
w e ll w ith A lb a n ia . In M a r c h th e B ck tash i a b b o t B a b a F a ja , w h o
h a d b e e n o n e o f th e h ero es o f th e p a rtisa n m o v e m e n t a n d h ad
c o n tin u e d to su p p o rt th e F ro n t a fte r v ic to r y , w as m u rd e re d . A t
th e e n d o f M a y a n u m b e r o f g o v e rn m e n t su p p o rters in the
A ss e m b ly w e re arre ste d . T h e y in c lu d e d th e D ir e c to r o f the
N a tio n a l B a n k , o n e o f th e few A lb a n ia n co m m u n ists o f m a n y
y e a r s ’ s ta n d in g , B o sh n jak u . T h e still m o re p ro m in e n t S e y fu lla
M a lle s h e v a w a s d ism issed from th e M in istry o f E d u c a tio n a n d
a p p a r e n tly d e p o rte d to th e S o v ie t U n io n .
A still g r e a te r crisis c a m e w ith th e C o m in fo r m - T ito b re a c h a
y e a r la te r . T h e clo se frien d sh ip o f th e H o x h a g o v e rn m e n t w ith
Y u g o s la v ia h a d b e en so m e th in g o f an e m b a rra ssm en t. T h e
228 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

a n n e x a tio n o f th e A lb a n ia n -in h a b ite d K o s o v o a re a b y M u sso lin i

in 1941 h ad b een v e r y p o p u la r, a n d its re stitu tio n to T i t o in 1944
h a d cost H o x h a prestige. N o w w as a n o p p o rtu n ity to re c o v e r
p o p u la rity w ith A lb a n ia n p u b lic o p in io n an d to a c q u ir e m erit in
M o sco w . Y u g o s la v m ilita r y m issions a n d ‘ e c o n o m ic e x p e r t s ’ in
A lb a n ia h ad a n ta go n ise d A lb a n ia n s b y th e ir a rro g a n c e , a n d th e
e co n o m ic tre a ty o f N o v e m b e r 19 4 6 ,1 w 'hich p r o v id e d fo r c o ­
o rd in a tio n o f th e e co n o m ic pla n s an d th e c u r r e n c y o f b o th
cou n tries, lo ok ed as i f it m igh t b e an ex c u se fo r e x p lo ita tio n o f
A lb a n ia . H o x h a th erefo re d e c id e d to b re a k w ith Y u g o s la v ia .
H e m ad e a sta te m e n t stro n g ly su p p o rtin g th e C o m in fo r m
accu satio n s, an d b e g a n to e x p e l Y u g o s la v su b jects. T h e e c o n o m ic
tre a ty w as d e n o u n c e d . T h e Y u g o s la v le a d e rs w e re th e n c e fo rth
a lw a y s referred to in A lb a n ia n o fficia l sta te m e n ts as th e ‘ T r o tsk y ist
n a tio n a list c liq u e ’ . T h e y w e re a ccu sed o f im p e ria lism a n d o f p la n s
to su b ject A lb a n ia to a c o lo n ia l e x p lo ita tio n o f a c a p ita list k in d .
M o re c o n c re te ly , th e y w e re a ccu sed o f tr y in g to p r e v e n t th e
in d u strialisatio n o f A lb a n ia an d to m a k e h e r in to a so u rc e o f ra w
m ate ria ls fo r Y u g o s la v in d u stry . In d ig n a tio n a t th e m eth o d s o f th e
Y u g o s la v - A lb a n ia n j o in t c o m p a n ie s (for r a ilw a y - b u ild in g , e le c tr i­
fica tio n , diesel o il, e tc.) w as exp ressed in term s w h ic h so u n d c o m ic
in th e lig h t o f th e m eth od s used in sim ila r jo in t c o m p a n ie s in
R u m a n ia and H u n g a r y 1 b y th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t w h ic h these
A lb a n ia n protests co v e re d in a d u la tio n as a m o d e l o f a n t i­
im p eria lism .
T h e q u a rre l w ith Y u g o s la v ia in e v ita b ly led to th e d is g ra c e o f
those A lb a n ia n co m m u n ists w h o h ad b een closest to th e Y u g o ­
slavs. C h ie f a m o n g these w as K o c i X o x c , V ic e -P r e m ie r a n d
M in iste r o f th e In te rio r. A t th e co n gress o f th e A lb a n ia n C o m ­
m un ist P a rty , held in T ir a n a in N o v e m b e r 1948, th e m isdeed s o f
X o x e w e re re c o u n te d b y E n v e r H o x h a h im se lf a n d b y T u k
J a k o v a , h e a d o f th e tra d e u n io n s a n d n o w se co n d s e c re ta ry o f th e
p a rty . A c c o r d in g to this v ersio n , e v e r sin ce lib e ra tio n X o x e h a d
b e tra y e d th e interests o f p a r ty a n d c o u n try in fa v o u r o f his Y u g o ­
sla v patron s. T h a n k s to h im , th e p a r ty h a d b e en o rg a n ise d on
e rron eou s Y u g o s la v lines. It h a d h id d e n its e lf b e h in d th e D e m o ­
c r a tic F ro n t in stead o f c o m in g fo r w a rd o p e n ly as th e v a n g u a r d o f
th e p ro le ta ria t. T h e office o f o rg a n isin g s e c re ta ry o f th e p a r ty h ad
b een co m b in e d w ith th a t o f h e a d o f th e p o lic e , in th e person o f
M in iste r o f th e In te rio r X o x e . X o x e h a d th u s used th e sta te p o lice
to re m o ve persons in an d ou tsid e th e p a r ty w h o sto od in th e w a y
1 S e c b e lo w , p . 248. 2S e e b e lo w , p p . 2 6 1 - 2 .
 T H E S EI Z URE OF P O WE R 22 9
o f his n e fario u s sch cm es. X o x c h ad h ad th e su p p o rt o f the ‘ p o litica l
d e p a r tm e n t ’ o f th e a r m y , b u t h ad b een o pp o sed b y th e G e n e ra l
S ta ff. H e h a d a lso b e en su p p o rte d b y P a n d i K r isto , h e ad o f the
S ta te C o n tro l C o m m issio n . X o x e a n d K r isto h a d , sin ce th e m eet­
in g o f th e p a r t y ’s C e n tr a l C o m m itte e h eld in B erat in N o v e m b e r
194 4, ‘ e n g in e e re d b e h in d th e scenes an a n ti-M a rx is t c a m p a ig n
a g a in st th e p a r ty e x e c u tiv e an d g e n e ra l se c re ta ry E n v e r H o x h a ’ .
T h e y h a d also o rg a n ise d a c a lu m n y c a m p a ig n a gain st a p rom in en t
c o m m u n ist, N a k o S p ir u , w h o m th ey h ad d riv e n to su icid e w ith
false ch a rg e s o f c o lla b o ra tio n w ith th e e n e m y d u r in g th e w a r. T h e
p a r lia m e n ta r y im m u n ity o f X o x c a n d K r isto w as su spen d ed. In
M a y 1949 th e ir p u b lic tria l o p e n e d . X o x e confessed th at he h ad
o rg a n ise d a g ro u p o f his o w n w ith in th e p a rty , a n d th a t h e h ad
c o lla b o r a te d w ith th e Y u g o s la v s a lth o u g h he k n ew th a t th e y w ere
p la n n in g to m ak e A lb a n ia th e se v en th re p u b lic o f Y u g o s la v ia , and
th a t th e Y u g o s la v G e n e ra l V u k m a n o v ic -T e m p o w as try in g to
c re a te a J o in t B a lk a n G e n e ra l S t a f f u n d e r c o n tro l o f th e Y u g o s la v
a r m y . X o x e w as c o n d e m n e d a n d e x e c u te d .
T h e Y u g o s la v le a d e rs fie rc e ly d e n ie d th e A lb a n ia n ch arg es.
F a r fro m tu rn in g A lb a n ia in to a c o lo n y , th e y c la im e d , th ey h ad
m a d e g re a t e c o n o m ic sacrifices.* X o x e w as a p a trio t w h o had
m e r e ly se rv e d A lb a n ia n - Y u g o s la v frien d sh ip . H e w as a v ic tim o f
th e C o m in fo r m ’s ‘ u n p r in c ip le d ’ a n d ‘ u n so c ia list’ p o lic y o f su b ­
je c t io n o f sm a ll c o u n trie s. T h e s e protests, h o w e v e r, m a d e no
im p re ssio n on th e A lb a n ia n le a d e rs. A lb a n ia b e ca m e so m eth in g
a p p r o a c h in g a S o v ie t c o lo n y . T h e S o v ie t ‘ e x p e r ts ’ w ith d ra w n from
Y u g o sla v ia flo o d e d A lb a n ia . B o u n d b y tre a ty to B u lg a ria a n d the
U .S .S .R . a n d se rv in g still as a s u p p ly b ase for th e G re e k reb els,
A lb a n ia b e c a m e th e so u th -w e st b astio n o f S o v ie t E u ro p e . In v iew
o f its so cia l a n d c u ltu r a l le v el, it m ig h t n ot u n fa ir ly be d escrib e d as
th e K ir g h iz is ta n o f th e A d r ia tic .

1 T h e Y u g o s la v p a p e r Borba o f 2 7 N o v e m b e r 1948 s ta le d th a t u n d e r th e J u ly 1946

e c o n o m ic tre a ty , Y u g o s la v ia h a d d e liv e re d to A lb a n ia g o o d s to th e v a lu e o f 1,600
m illio n d in a rs in retu rn for g o o d s w o rth o n ly 150 m illio n d in ars. Y u g o s la v ia ha d also
d e liv e r e d 5,000 io n s o f w h e a t a t a tim e w h e n she h e rself su ffered fro m w h ea t sho rtage,
a n d h a d co lle c te d for A lb a n ia a su m o f 52 m illio n d in ars for r e iir f o f v ictim s o f Hood.
In th e first h a lf o f 1948 a lo n e Y u g o s la v ia h a d sa crificed 13 m illio n d in ars w o rth o f
fo re ig n e x c h a n g e to b u y g o o d s a b r o a d o n b e h a lf o f A lb a n ia .
 C H A P T E R NINE

E C O N O M IC RECOVERY AND P L A N N IN G

H E e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t o f E astern E u ro p e sin ce th e end

T o f th e w a r falls n a tu ra lly in to th re e p erio d s. T h e first w as

p o st-w a r d islo ca tio n , w h e n m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s, o c c u p a tio n
in tu rn b y th e G e rm a n an d S o v ie t a rm ie s, a n d in te rn a l d is­
o rd e r re d u c ed m ost co u n trie s in th e re gio n to a d e s p e ra te p lig h t.
T h e secon d stage w a s p la n n e d re c o v e ry , w h o se a im w a s to
re a ch as soon as possible a le v e l o f p ro d u c tio n an d s ta n d a rd o f
liv in g a p p ro x im a tin g to those on th e e ve o f th e w a r . T h e th ird
stage is th a t o f lo n g e r-te rm pla n s o f c o n stru c tio n , in te n d e d to
transform an d d e v e lo p th e e c o n o m y fo r m a n y y e a rs a h e a d . In
e a ch sta g e , a n d e sp e cia lly in th e th ird , e x a m p le s fro m th e e x p e ri­
en ce o f th e S o v ie t U n io n w e re clo se ly fo llo w e d .

T H E A F TE R M A TH OF W A R

The e x p e rie n ce o f th e seven c o u n trie s in th e last m o n th s o f the

w a r h ad co m m o n fea tu res an d d iffe re n ce s. A ll b u t B u lg a r ia h ad
h ad co n sid e ra b le n u m b e rs o f G e r m a n troo p s o n th e ir te rrito ry .
A ll h ad b een e c o n o m ic a lly e x p lo ite d b y th e G e rm a n s. A ll b u t
B u lg a ria h ad b een fo u g h t o v er. A ll b u t A lb a n ia h a d b e en lib e ra te d
o r o ccu p ie d b y th e R e d A r m y . T h e d iffe re n ce s la y in th e d iffe re n t
a ttitu d es o f b o th G e rm a n s a n d R u ssia n s to d iffe re n t p e o p les, an d
in th e d iffe re n t n a tu re o f th e w a r fa r e c o n d u c te d on th e ir te rrito r y .
A s w e h a v e seen, th e G e rm a n s s y s te m a tic a lly e x p lo ite d th e
co u n trie s th ey h a d d e fe a te d , sh o w in g a sp e cia l ru th lessn ess in
P o la n d . T h e ir tre a tm e n t o f th e c o u n trie s a llie d to th e m , H u n ­
g a ry , R u m a n ia , B u lg a ria a n d S lo v a k ia , w a s n o t e n tire ly b a d . I t is
tru e th a t th ey ran u p e n o rm o u s d eb ts, w h ic h w ith th e d e fe a t o f
G e r m a n y fin a lly b e c a m e a c o m p le te loss. B u t th e y a lso assisted
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f in d u stry in these c o u n trie s. In 1943 in d u stria l
o u tp u t w as c o n sid e ra b ly h ig h e r th a n in 1939. E v e n th e a n n e x ed
C z e c h la n d s b e n e fited from this. I t is tru e th a t in 1944 su p p lies o f
ra w m ate ria ls an d e q u ip m e n t b ro k e d o w n . B u t in d u stria l c a p a c ity
in th e co u n trie s a llie d to th e A x is w a s still g re a te r th a n it h a d b e en
b efore th e w a r. W h e n th e ir allies a b a n d o n e d th em in 1944, th e
G e rm a n s o f co u rse c h a n g e d th eir a ttitu d e . B u t m ilita r y c irc u m -
230
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L ANNI NG 231
stan ces p e rm itte d rep risals o n ly in th e case o f H u n g a r y , w hose
w a r tim e m a te ria l ga in s w e re th u s la r g e ly d estro y ed .
M ilit a r y o p e ra tio n s left d e e p m arks in c e n tra l P o la n d a n d in
S ile sia , b u t w estern P o la n d from L ó d ż to P o z n a n esca p ed c o m ­
p a r a tiv e ly lig h tly . E astern S lo v a k ia w as th o ro u g h ly ra v a g e d .
T r a n s y lv a n ia su ffered som e d estru c tio n . F ig h tin g ra ge d rig h t
a cross H u n g a r y . H e r c a p ita l w as sh attered b y a rtille ry a n d b o m b ­
in g. B u t r e g u la r o p e ra tio n s a re n o t n e ce ssarily m o re d estru ctive
th a n irr e g u la r. T h e d es tru ctio n o f W a r s a w , d efe n d e d b y th e Polish
H o m e A r m y , w as m o re c o m p le te th a n a n y o th er. Y u g o s la v ia and
A lb a n ia w e re sa ck e d b y g u e rrilla s a n d b y e n e m y reprisals. In b oth
c o u n trie s it w a s sm a ll tow n s a n d v illa g e s w h ic h su ffered . T h e
b ig g e r cities, h e ld b y th e e n e m y u n til th e e n d , w e re h a rd ly
h a rm e d . E v e n B e lg ra d e , b o m b e d b y th e G e rm a n s in 1941 a n d the
A llie s in 1944, a n d c a p tu r e d a fte r a fa irly fierce b a ttle b y c o m ­
b in e d Y u g o s la v , S o v ie t an d B u lg a ria n forces, e m e rg e d su rp risin g ly
little d a m a g e d .
T h e S o v ie t a ttitu d e to th e ‘ lib e r a t e d ’ p eop les d iffe re d c o n ­
s id e ra b ly . Y u g o s la v s a n d C z e c h o slo v a k s w e re re g a rd e d as friends.
B u lg a ria n s , th o u g h fo rm e r en em ies, w e re S la v s tra d itio n a lly
fr ie n d ly to R u ssia . P oles w e re allies, b u t as th e ir frien d lin ess w as
fa r fro m c e rta in th e y w e re re g a rd e d w ith su sp icion . R u m a n ia n s
a n d H u n g a ria n s w e re p la in en em ies, an d o f th e tw o th e H u n ­
g a ria n s w e re th e w o rse, as th e y h a d g o n e o n fig h tin g on H it le r ’s
sid e lo n g e r. T h is d iffe re n c e o f a ttitu d e in th e m ilita r y an d p o litic a l
c o m m a n d w as re fle c te d in th e b e h a v io u r o f th e troop s, w h o w ere
p r e s u m a b ly g iv e n d ire c tiv e s c o rre s p o n d in g to th e d ifferen ces.
E v e r y w h e r e th e R e d A r m y sh o ck ed th e lib e ra te d p o p u la tio n s b y
th e b a r b a r ity a n d in d isc ip lin e o f its so ld ie rs.1 B u t in R u m a n ia
a n d H u n g a r y a n o r g y to o k p la c e su ch as E u ro p e h ad n ot seen for
ce n tu rie s. Its e ffe c t sh o u ld n o t be u n d e re stim a te d . I t w as n ot, as
w e ste rn a p o lo gists o f th e U .S .S .R . m a in ta in , a re g r e tta b le in c id e n t
p a r t ly e x c u s a b le b y th e su fferin g s o f th e S o v ie t peop les u n d e r
G e r m a n o c c u p a tio n . I t w as th e resu lt o f a d e lib e r a te h a te c a m ­
p a ig n b e g u n b y th e S o v ie t lead ers a t th e tim e w h e n th e S o v ie t
s ta te w as sh a k in g , w h e n a fr e n z y o f ra c ia l h a tre d a g a in st th e
in v a d e r s seem ed th e surest w a y to r a lly th e su fferin g S o v iet
p e o p le s b e h in d th e ir g o v e rn m e n t. A s th e S o v ie t soldiers a d v a n c e d
in to E u r o p e , th e y w e re e n c o u ra g e d to re v en g e th em selves on the
1 F o r tw o p erso n al rec o rd s, see Im re K o v á c s , Im Schatten der Sowjets, a n d A le x a n d r a
O r m e , From Christmas to Easter, b o th referrin g to H u n g a r y . T h e first is— h a r d ly su r­
p ris in g ly — v e ry a n ti- S o v ie t. T h e se co n d , b y a P olish la d y m a rried to a H u n g a ria n , is
re m a r k a b ly free fro m ra g e , a n d o ften p en e tra tin g .
232 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
‘ fascist an d b ou rgeo is h o r d e s ’ w h o se la n d s th e y e n te re d . I t is true
th a t th e G e rm a n s an d th e ir a llie s h ad c o m m itte d a b o m in a b le
o u tra g e s o n S o v ie t te rrito ry . B u t this v e n g c a n c e w as w ro u g h t n ot
on soldiers b u t on H u n g a ria n an d R u m a n ia n , a n d to a lesser
e xte n t Polish a n d B u lg a ria n , civ ilia n s , o f w h o m th e v a st m a jo rity
w e re in n o ce n t o f a n y crim es a g a in st S o v ie t su b je cts, a n d w h o m it
w as n o w su pposed to be o fficia l S o v ie t p o lic y to c o n c ilia te . S erb s
an d C z c c h s w e re b e tte r tre a te d , b u t e v e n th e y d id n o t like
w h a t th e y saw o f th e S o v ie t sold iers. T h e m illio n s o f E u ro p e a n s
w h o p e rso n a lly e x p e rie n c e d o u tra g e s w ill n e v e r fo rg e t th e m e a n in g
o f th e w o rd ‘ lib e r a t io n ’ .
A b r ie f c a ta lo g u e o f th e losses su stain ed fro m th e th re e m a in
causes— w a rfa re , G e r m a n p illa g e a n d S o v ie t p illa g e — w ill g iv e
som e im pression o f th e d e g re e o f d e v a sta tio n . T h e w o rst h u m a n
ca su a ltie s w e re o f cou rse th ose o f P o la n d a n d Y u g o s la v ia . In
P o lan d a b o u t 6,000,000 p e o p le p erish ed , o f w h o m a t le a st h a lf
w e re J e w s. In Y u g o s la v ia , w ith ra th e r less th a n h a lf th e p o p u la ­
tion , losses w e re som e 2,000,000. R u m a n ia lost a b o u t 500,000 in
h er tw o w ars on tw o sides. H u n g a r y ’s m ilita r y losses w e re o n ly
a b o u t 100,000, to w h ic h m ust b e a d d e d 220,000 J e w s m assa cred
in 1944. B o th R u m a n ia a n d H u n g a ry ’ h ad la rg e n u m b e rs o f
p riso n ers-o f-w a r in R u ssia , n o t a ll o f w h o m h a v e c o m e b a c k a fte r
fo u r years. T h e H u n g a ria n prison ers in c lu d e d m a n y p ress-g an g e d
b y th e S o v ie t troop s a fter h o stilities h a d c e a sed . C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
lost 38,000 e x e c u te d b y th e G e sta p o , in c lu d in g a v e r y h ig h p e r­
c e n ta g e o f in te lle c tu a ls, a n d 200,000 d e p o rte e s w h o n e v e r re tu rn e d
from G e r m a n y . A lb a n ia lost 28,000 o u t o f 1,000,000, a n d B u l­
g a ria o n ly 30,000 o u t o f 7,000,000.
E stim ates o f m a te ria l d a m a g e a re o f n ecessity u n p rc c ise . B u t
th e fo llo w in g figu res, d e r iv e d fro m U .N . R . R . A . re p o rts, i f n o t
a b so lu te ly c e rta in , a t least g iv e a c o rre c t g e n e ra l p ic tu re .
L osses o f liv e sto ck w e re h e a v iest in P o la n d (43 p e r c e n t o f
horses, 60 per c e n t o f c a ttle , 70 p e r c e n t o f p ig s ) ; H u n g a r y (39 p e r
ce n t horses, 44 p e r ce n t c a ttle , 78 p e r c e n t p ig s ); Y u g o s la v ia (60
p e r c e n t horses, 54 p e r ce n t c a ttle , 52 p e r c e n t p ig s, 50 p e r ce n t
sh e e p ). B u lg a ria n a n d R u m a n ia n losses w e re fa irly lig h t. In
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , a sp e cia l case w as e aste rn S lo v a k ia , w h e re som e
80 per ce n t o f a ll liv e sto c k w a s lost. E lse w h e re in th e c o u n try
losses w e re m u c h s m a lle r .'
1 S e e U .N .R .R .A . o p e ra tio n a l a n a ly sis rep o rts, N os. n , 16 ( C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ); 30,
35 > 44 (P o lan d i ; 33 , 47 ( H u n g a r y ) ; 2 3, 2 7 ( Y u g o s la v ia ) ; a n d 46 ( A lb a n ia ) . T h e y
a re a v a lu a b le so u rce o f in fo rm a tio n , n o t o n ly o n d e stru c tio n a n d relie f, b u t a lso on
the first reco n stru ctio n m easu res o f th e g o ve rn m en ts.
 ECO NOMI C R E C O V E R Y A ND P L A N N I N C 233

C o m m u n ic a tio n s su ffered h e a v ily . In H u n g a ry g o p e r cen t o f the

la rg e b rid g e s o n th e r a ilw a y s a n d 63 p e r ce n t o f m ed iu m b rid ges
w e re d e s tro y e d , a n d 69 p e r c e n t o f lo co m o tive s a n d 86 p e r ce n t o f
fre ig h t ca rs w e re lost. In Y u g o s la v ia h a lf th e to ta l rail tra ck an d
th re e -q u a rte rs o f r a ilw a y b rid g e s w e re d e s tro y e d , an d losses o f
ro llin g sto ck w e re on a sim ila r scale. C z e c h o s lo v a k ia lost 11 per
c e n t o f lo c o m o tiv e s a n d 28 p e r c e n t o f freig h t cars. In P o lan d
losses to tra n s p o rt w e re estim a te d a t 3,500 m illio n U .S . d o lla rs.
In Y u g o s la v ia th e h e av iest h o u sin g losses w e re in B osn ia, w h ere
29 p e r c e n t o f h ouses w e re u tte r ly d estro y e d an d a fu rth e r 15 per
c e n t se rio u sly d a m a g e d . I n e astern S lo v a k ia n e a rly h a lf the
p o p u la tio n w e re m a d e hom eless. A p p r o x im a te estim ates by
o ffic ia l sou rces o f d a m a g e to in d u stry are for P o la n d 5,700 m illio n
U .S . d o lla rs, fo r C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ra th e r m o re th an 1,000 m illion
U .S . d o lla rs. In H u n g a r y losses in th e e n g in e e rin g in d u stry w ere
e stim a te d a t 40 p e r c e n t, in te xtiles 13 p e r c e n t , a n d iron an d steel
12 p e r c e n t. T h e to ta l m a te ria l loss to H u n g a r y w a s e stim a ted as
40 p e r c e n t o f th e n a tio n a l in co m e. T h e e stim a te o f total m a te ria l
loss in U .S . d o lla rs fo r P o la n d w as 18,200 m illio n ; for A lb a n ia
(w ith a p o p u la tio n m o re th a n tw e n ty tim es sm a ller), 600 m illion .
A p a r t fro m th ese severe d ire c t losses, g re a t econom ic, d a m a g e
w a s d o n e b y th e fa c t th a t th e w h o le re g io n w as c u t o f f from its
o ld sou rces o f ra w m a te ria ls an d its m ark ets. P a r tic u la r ly im p o r­
ta n t w a s th e co lla p se o f th e G e rm a n m a rk e t, to w ard s w h ich th eir
tra d e h a d b e en in c re a sin g ly d ire cte d eve n b efore th e w a r. A
fu rth e r ca u se o f im p o v e rish m e n t w as th e fa ct th a t la rg e areas h ad
n o t b e en sow n in 1945.
T h e w o rk o f U .N .R .R .A . w as o f v ita l im p o rta n c e in 1945
a n d 1946 in Y u g o s la v ia , P o la n d , A lb a n ia a n d C z e c h o slo v a k ia .
H u n g a r y re c e iv e d a v e r y sm a ll q u a n t it y o f U .N .R .R .A . h elp in
1946, w h ic h w as useful b u t n ot d ec isive . B u lg a ria n e ith e r need ed
n o r h ad a n y c la im to U .N .R .R .A . h elp . R u m a n ia h ad n o c la im ,
as a d efe a te d c o u n try , b u t d esp ite h e r n a tu ra l w e a lth she w as
re d u c e d b y d ro u g h t a n d d e v a sta tio n to m isery b y th e w in te r o f
1 9 4 6 - 7 . B u t b y th a t tim e U . N .R .R .A . h ad ceased to o p e ra te ,
S o m e A m e r ic a n h e lp w as sent b u t it to o w as not o f d ecisive
im p o rta n c e .
T h e to ta l v a lu e o f U .N .R .R . A . h e lp to th e fo u r c o u n trie s, in
U .S . d o lla rs , w a s as f o llo w s :1 P o la n d 481 m illio n , Y u g o s la v ia 420
m illio n , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia 270 m illio n , A lb a n ia 24 m illio n . 1 he

1 S tatem ent o f M r. F. La G uardia, chairm an of U .N .R .R .A ., to the U nited Nations

Assembly, O ctober 1947.
234 THE EA ST EUROPEAN re v o lu tio n
m ain h e ad in gs w e re fo od , c lo th in g , m e d ic a l su p p lie s, a g r ic u ltu r a l
re h a b ilita tio n a n d in d u stria l re h a b ilita tio n . T h e first th re e item s
in e ach case form ed a b o u t o n e -h a lf th e to ta l. T h e m a in item s o f
in d u strial re h a b ilita tio n w e re tra n sp o rt a n d c o m m u n ic a tio n s
e q u ip m e n t, fu el an d lu b ric a n ts , te x tile a n d le a th e r ra w m a te ria ls,
a n d c h e m ic a l an d e n g in e e rin g m a te ria ls. A g r ic u lt u r a l r e h a b ilita ­
tion consisted m a in ly o f liv e sto ck , seeds a n d m a c h in e r y . I t is
p r o b a b ly Y u g o s la v ia w h ic h o w es m ost to U . N .R .R . A . L a r g e
im p orts o f food an d o f tra n sp o rt sa ve d h u n d re d s o f th o u san d s
fro m sta rv a tio n . Im p o rts o f m a c h in e r y , th o u g h sm a ll, w e re also
o f g re a t v a lu e . W h e n th e U .N .R .R .A . p r o g ra m m e w as c o m p le te d
Y u g o s la v ia h a d m o re tra cto rs th a n e v e r b e fo re th e w a r .
T h e cu rre n cie s w e re a ll g r e a tly in fla te d w h e n w a r e n d e d . In
C z e c h o slo v a k ia a n d Y u g o s la v ia m o re th a n o n e c u r r e n c y w as in
use (R e ic h sm a rk , S lo v a k c ro w n a n d H u n g a r ia n p e n g ő in th e
first and R e ic h sm a rk , C r o a tia n k u n a , S e rb ia n d in a r, B u lg a ria n le v ,
H u n g a ria n p e n g ő a n d A lb a n ia n lek in th e se co n d .) T h e P o lish ,
C z e c h o slo v a k , Y u g o s la v an d B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n ts in tro d u c e d
c u rre n c y reform s b e fo re th e en d o f 1945. B a n k d ep o sits w e re
b lo ck e d . In d iv id u a ls w e re o n ly a llo w e d sm a ll a m o u n ts o f th e n e w
cu rre n c y , w h ile businesses w e re su pposed to h a v e a m in im u m for
cu rre n t expenses. C a p it a l lev ies an d sp e cia l taxes on w a r profits
w e re in tro d u c e d , w h ic h too k th e g re a te r p a rt o f th e b lo ck e d
b alan ce s. In all fo u r co u n trie s a strict c re d it a n d c ir c u la tio n p o lic y
w as p u rsu ed . T h e re v iv a l o f p ro d u c tio n a n d U .N .R .R .A . h e lp ,
a nd in th e case o f B u lg a ria th e c o m p a r a tiv e ly sm a ll sca le o f
d estru ctio n , en su red th e m in im u m q u a n tity o f g o o d s. T h u s
in fla tio n w as a v o id e d .
H u n g a r y a n d R u m a n ia w e re less fo rtu n a te . N e ith e r re ce iv ed
su b stan tia l assistance from th e W e st, a n d b o th w e re su b je ct to
cru sh in g S o v iet d em a n d s. T h e p e a c e tre atie s fixed fo r b o th th e
sum o f 300 m illio n U .S . d o lla rs in re p a ra tio n s, o f w 'hich H u n g a r y
p a id tw o -th ird s to th e U .S .S .R . a n d o n e -th ird to Y u g o s la v ia
a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , w h ile R u m a n ia p a id th e w h o le su m to th e
U .S .S .R . T h is sum w as o f co u rse sm a ller th an th e to ta l d a m a g e
in cu rre d in the p o rtion s o f th e S o v ie t U n io n w h e re th e tw o a rm ies
h ad fo u g h t. B u t it w as la rg e r th a n a t first sig h t a p p e a r e d , fo r the
go o d s in w h ic h re p a ra tio n p a y m e n ts w e re m a d e w e re p r ic c d a t 1938
p rice levels. T h is m e a n t th a t th e a c tu a l cost w as fro m tw o a n d a
h a lf to th re e tim es g re a te r th an th e n o m in a l su m . B u t fo rm a l
re p a ra tio n s b y n o m ean s e x h a u s te d th e S o v ie t b ill. U n d e r A r tic le
23 o f the R u m a n ia n a rm istice, m o v a b le p r o p e rty seized fro m S o v ie t
 E CONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L A NNI NG 235
te rrito r y b y R u m a n ia n s h a d to b e restored in a d d itio n to re p a r a ­
tion s. T h is a rtic le w as lib e r a lly in te rp re te d a n d ru th lessly en forced .
I n g e n u ity a n d m a n p o w e r w h ic h m ig h t w ell h a v e been d e v o te d to
m o re u rg e n t p u rp oses a t a tim e w h e n th e w a r w ith G e r m a n y w as
still o n , w e re sp e n t in tr a c k in g d o w n e v e n m in o r o b je cts. F a r m o re
im p o rta n t, h o w e v e r, fo r b o th co u n trie s w as th e o b lig a tio n to m a in ­
ta in th e S o v ie t forces in tra n sit a n d o c c u p a tio n . T h is w as used to
e x tr a c t n o t o n ly th e n o rm a l re q u ire m e n ts o f th e troop s b u t also
v e r y la rg e q u a n titie s o f fo o d , c iv ilia n c lo th in g a n d v a rio u s lu xuries
w h ic h w e re e x p o rte d fro m R u m a n ia an d H u n g a ry . T h ir d ly th ere
w e re th e ‘ u n o ffic ia l’ re q u isitio n s a n d lo o t, e sp e c ia lly severe in the
first m o n th s o f ‘ lib e r a t io n ’ . T h e s e th re e item s to g e th e r cost e ach
c o u n tr y c e r ta in ly n o less th a n th e su m to ta l fix e d for re p a ra tio n s—
300 m illio n U .S . d o lla rs. A c c o r d in g to som e estim ates th e y m ay
h a v e b e e n m o re th an tw ic e as co stly . F in a lly th ere w as th e S o v ie t
c la im to G e rm a n p r o p e r ty in b o th co u n trie s, w h ic h w as also
lib e r a lly in te rp re te d . T h e h u g e d e b t o f G e r m a n y to h e r allies
c o u ld n o t b e re c o v e re d , b u t th e U .S .S .R . c la im e d th e fu ll a m o u n t
o f d e b ts o w e d b y th e sa te llite co u n trie s to G e rm a n y . M o re o v e r in
t a k in g o v e r G e r m a n p r o p e rty th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s refused all
lia b ilitie s to th ird persons a risin g from th em , th o u g h ta k in g for
th em se lv e s a ll assets.
F .con om ic d isaste r c a m e first in H u n g a r y . D e v a sta tio n , S o v iet
d e m a n d s a n d d islo c a tio n o f tra d e p ro d u c e d th e ir effects. S om e
ra w m a te ria ls w e re im p o rte d fro m th e S o v ie t U n io n , b u t re p a r a ­
tion s d e liv e rie s too k u p a la rg e p r o p o rtio n o f th e go od s p ro d u ce d
th e r e w ith . T a x a t io n re ce ip ts w e re n e g lig ib le . T h e e x tre m e sh o rt­
a g e o f m a n u fa c tu re d go o d s m a d e th e p ea san ts u n w illin g to g iv e u p
th e ir p r o d u c e . F a c to rie s h a d to e m p lo y th eir w o rk ers an d veh icles
in fo o d -h u n tin g e x p e d itio n s to th e v illa g e s. T h e c u r r e n c y ra p id ly
fell fro m th e su m m e r o f 1945. B e tw ee n J u n e 1945 a n d J a n u a r y
1946 th e n o te c irc u la tio n in cre a se d sixteen tim es. A d e v ic e k n o w n
as th e ‘ ta x p e n g ő ’ , in tro d u c e d in J a n u a r y 1946, slow ed u p
th e d e c lin e fo r a fe w w eeks o n ly . B y th e su m m e r o f 1946
th e s tc rlin g -p e n g ö ra te re a c h e d m illia rd s o f m illia rd s. In J u ly it
h a d tw e n ty -se v e n o ’s, th e h igh est fig u re k n o w n in fin a n c ia l h istory.
A tte m p ts w e re m a d e to p a y w o rk ers in ‘ c a lo r ie s ’ ( o f fo o d ). T h o se
w h o h a d go o d s to b a r te r trie d to b a r g a in w ith th e p easan ts.
A lm o st th e w h o le u rb a n p o p u la tio n liv e d in fe a r o f h u n g e r, none
p e rh a p s m o re th a n th e p ro fessio n a l class. In these c ircu m stan ce s
th e e ffo rt o f th e B u d a p e st w o rk ers w as tr u ly h e ro ic. T h a n k s to
th e m , b y th e su m m e r th e fa cto rie s w e re a g a in tu rn in g o u t som e
236 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

good s. T h e h arv e st w as m o d e ra te ly g o o d . W h e n it w as in , an d
stocks o f m a n u fa c tu re d go o d s w e re a t last a v a ila b le , a n d w ith th e
p sy ch o lo g ica l g a in o f th e re tu rn o f th e g o ld reserve o f 32 m illio n
d o lla rs fro m U n ite d S ta te s c u sto d y , th e g o v e rn m e n t on 1 A u g u s t
in tro d u ce d th e n e w c u rre n c y . T h e r e fo llo w e d a p e rio d o f g re a t
m o n e y sh o rta g e , o f restricted c re d its a n d lo w m o n e y in co m es.
H a rd sh ip c o n tin u e d , b u t at least m o n e y h a d a v a lu e . O n e im p o r­
ta n t fe a tu re o f th e n e w p r ic e le v el, fixed to g e th e r w ith th e sta b ilisa ­
tion , w as th a t th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n a g r ic u ltu r a l a n d in d u stria l
p rices w as v e r y m u c h m o re u n fa v o u ra b le to a g r ic u ltu r e th a n it
h ad b een in 1939.
In fla tio n c a m e la te r to R u m a n ia . T h e c o u n tr y w a s ric h e r a n d
h ad su ffered less. T h e m ain ca u se o f e c o n o m ic stra in w a s th e
S o v ie t o c c u p a tio n , to w h ic h in th e w in te r o f 1 9 4 6 -7 w as a d d e d a
re a lly disastrou s d ro u g h t, in v o lv in g s ta rv a tio n in p a rts o f M o l­
d a v ia an d g re a t sh o rta ges in a ll b u t th e w estern p ro v in c e s. T h e
c u rre n c y fell th ro u g h o u t 1946 a n d th e first h a lf o f 19 4 7. A ro u g h
in d ic a tio n c a n b e g iv e n b y th e u n o ffic ia l ra te a t w h ic h th e p o u n d
w as e x c h a n g e d in to lei b y th e B ritish M ilit a r y M issio n in
R u m a n ia .1 T h e ra te w as 32,000 a t th e en d o f 1945, 130,000 in th e
su m m e r o f 1946, 500,000 in e a r ly 194 7, a n d o v e r 1,000,000 b y th e
su m m er. S ta b ilis a tio n w as a tte m p te d on 15 A u g u s t 194 7. A s in
th e o th e r c u rre n c y reform s, b a la n ce s w e re b lo c k e d a n d e x tr e m e ly
sm all a m o u n ts o f th e n e w c u rre n c y w e re a llo w e d to in d iv id u a ls .
B u t a n ew d e c lin e set in in th e a u tu m n . T h e co m m u n ists b la m e d
th e lib e ra l le a d e r T ă tă r c s c u , w h o se p a r ty h eld th e F in a n c e
M in istry . W h e n th e m in istry w as tak e n b y th e p ro m in e n t c o m ­
m u n ist L u c a , th in g s im p ro v e d . W h e th e r this w as d u e to c o m m u n ­
ist w isd o m , o r to m o re ruth less ta x a tio n a n d th e resu lts o f an
im p ro v e m e n t in in d u stria l o u tp u t w h ic h h a d b e g u n e a r lie r, is n o t
cle a r. B u t b y th e su m m e r o f 1948 R u m a n ia w as a t last w e ll o n th e
w a y to re c o v e ry .

N A T IO N A L IS A T IO N

T h e first a im o f a ll th e co m m u n ist-le d c o a litio n s w a s to co n tro l

w h a t L e n in o n c e ca lle d th e ‘ c o m m a n d in g h e ig h ts’ o f th e e c o n o m y ,
e sp e cia lly m ines, p o w e r, co m m u n ic a tio n s a n d h e a v y in d u str y . In
a ll E a s te rn E u ro p e th e ra ilw a y s w e re a lr e a d y sta te -o w n e d . So
w e re c e rta in o th e r m a jo r en terp rises su ch as th e P e rn ik c o a l m ines
in B u lg a ria o r th e M . A .V . A . G . lo c o m o tiv e w o rk s in H u n g a r y .
B u t th e g re a t m a jo rity o f l a r g e e n terp rises, w h ic h w e re p r iv a te ly
1 B a rk e r, Truce in the Balkans, p p . 1 1 3 - 1 4 .
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L ANNI NG 237
o w n e d , w e re e ffe c tiv e ly c o n tro lle d b y th e n e w g o v e rn m e n ts a t an
e a r ly sta ge. F o rm a l n a tio n a lisa tio n c a m e la te r an d in d ifferen t
w a y s in e a c h c o u n try .
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia an d P o lan d w e re th e first co u n trie s to pass far-
re a c h in g n a tio n a lisa tio n law s. B y th e tim e o f lib e ra tio n all
im p o rta n t en terp rises in b o th co u n trie s w e re c o m p le te ly c o n ­
tro lle d , a n d m ost w e re also o w n e d , b y G e rm a n s. T h e y c o u ld
th erefo re b e e x p ro p r ia te d on p a trio tic g ro u n d s w ith o u t c o m p e n ­
sa tio n . E n terp rises o w n e d b y A llie d c a p ita l w o u ld re q u ire c o m ­
p e n sa tio n , b u t th e C z e c h o s lo v a k an d P olish g o v e rn m e n ts, as
a llie d P o w e rs, c o u ld n e g o tia te w ith th em on e q u a l term s.
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ’ s n a tio n a lisa tio n la w w as passed on 24 O c to b e r
1945 b y th e p ro v isio n a l p a rlia m e n t. It co v e re d a ll b an k s, in su r­
a n c e , m ines, a rm a m e n ts a n d m u n itio n s p la n ts, an d m ost o f the
iro n an d steel a n d c h e m ic a l in d u stry . In a d d itio n , all facto ries in
a n y b ra n c h o f in d u str y w h ic h e m p lo y e d m o re th an 400 persons
w e re n a tio n a lise d . C o m p e n sa tio n w as pro m ised to ow n ers
in n o ce n t o f ‘ c o lla b o r a t io n ’ , b u t w as in fact e x tre m e ly sm all. L a rg e
‘ n a tio n a l e n te r p rise s’ w e re fo rm e d , g ro u p in g a n u m b e r o f fa c ­
tories to g e th er. R e g io n a l a n d c e n tra l b o ard s o f in d ustries w e re set
u p , u n d e r th e m in istries o f In d u stry an d F oo d .
Im m e d ia te ly a fte r th e lib e ra tio n en terp rises b e lo n g in g to G e r ­
m an s a n d H u n g a ria n s h ad b e en seized a n d p la c e d u n d e r the
d ire c tio n o f a p p o in te d ‘ n a tio n a l a d m in is tra to r s ’ . T h e fu tu re o f
th ose e x -G e rm a n en terp rises w h ic h d id n o t fall in to a n y o f the
ca te g o rie s n a tio n a lise d b y th e la w w as a sou rce o f co n tro v e rsy . T h e
c o m m u n ists a n d so cia l d e m o c ra ts w ish e d th em a ll to be n a tio n ­
a lised , th e o th e r p a rtie s w ish e d to d ispose o f th em to p r iv a te C z e c h
busin ess. A c o m p ro m ise o f M a r c h 1947 p ro v id e d th at those w h ich
e x istin g n a tio n a l en terp rises c o n sid e re d n ecessary for the c o m ­
p le tio n o f th e ir p ro d u c tio n process sh ou ld b e n a tio n a lise d , the
rest b e p r iv a te ly o w n e d .
F o r tw o years p r iv a te e n terp rise su rv iv e d in a ll pa rts o f the
c o u n tr y . S o m e p r iv a te ly o w n e d fa cto rie s w e re v e r y su ccessful,
a n d in cre a se d th e ir c a p a c it y eve n b e y o n d th e lim it w h ich in 1945
h a d q u a lifie d a fa c to ry fo r n a tio n a lisa tio n in a n y b ra n c h —
e m p lo y m e n t o f 400 w ork ers. T h e success o f p r iv a te e n terp rise w as
a ttr ib u te d b y th e c o m m u n ists to th e u n scru p u lo u s m eth od s and
e x p lo ita tio n o f w o rk e rs b y c a p ita lists, b y th e ir o p p o n e n ts to
g r e a te r e ffic ie n c y th a n th e a lle g e d ly c u m b ro u s n atio n a lise d fa c ­
to ries c o u ld a tta in . T h e c o m m u n ists d e m a n d e d a n exten sio n o f
n a tio n a lisa tio n . T h e ir o p p o n e n ts c la im e d th at a ll p a rties h ad
238 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
a g re e d th a t th e la w o f 1945 sh o u ld b e a m a x im u m . T h is d isp u te
w as o n e o f th e c o n trib u to ry causes o f th e c o m m u n ist coup d'état
o f F e b ru a ry 1948. A fte r it a n e w n a tio n a lisa tio n la w w as in tro ­
d u c e d , w h ic h to ok o v e r a ll en terp rises e m p lo y in g m o re th an
50 persons. E v e n sm a ller businesses in fa c t b e c a m e n a tio n a lise d .
T h e Polish la w w as passed in J a n u a r y 1946 b y th e p ro v isio n a l
p a rlia m e n t ( K .R .N .) . It c o v e re d a ll G e rm a n -o w n e d en terp rises,
o f w h a te v e r size an d in w h a te v e r b ra n c h , w ith o u t c o m p e n sa tio n ;
a ll o th e r e n terp rises, w h o e v e r th e ir ow n ers a n d w h a te v e r th e ir size,
in m in in g , p o w e r, c o m m u n ic a tio n s, a rm a m e n ts, su g a r, textiles,
p rin tin g , flo u r-m illin g a n d b re w in g , w ith c o m p e n s a tio n ; a n d a ll
o th e r fa cto ries, in w h a te v e r b ra n c h , e m p lo y in g m o re th a n 50
persons, also w ith co m p e n sa tio n . In p r a c tic e c o m p e n sa tio n w as
v e r y sm all. T h e lim it o f 50 persons w as la te r ra ised to 100 a n d in
ce rta in cases to 200. N e w p r iv a te en terp rises c o u ld b e sta rte d , an d
co u ld eve n e x c ee d th e m a x im u m n u m b e r o f e m p lo y e e s, b u t th e y
re q u ire d a lic e n c e , a n d c o u ld n ot be a llo w e d in a n y o f th e b ra n ch e s
w h ich h ad b een w h o lly n a tio n a lise d . P r iv a te business w as ta x e d
m o re h e a v ily th an n atio n a lise d en terp rises. In p r a c tic e p r iv a te
business d id n o t flo urish in P o la n d as in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . B y th e
en d o f 1948 o n ly 6 p e r c e n t o f Polish in d u str y w a s in p r iv a te
h a n d s .1
In Y u g o s la v ia m ost in d u stry w'as tak e n b y th e sta te soon a fte r
lib e ra tio n . B u t the g o v e rn m e n t d id not at first p ro c e e d to fo rm a l
n a tio n a lisa tio n . It p referred to seize businesses o n th e gro u n d s
th a t th eir o w n e rs h ad c o lla b o ra te d w ith th e e n e m y . 1 his n o tio n
w as e x tr e m e ly w id e ly in te rp re te d . S im p ly to h a v e c o n tin u e d p r o ­
d u ctio n w as in som e cases co n sid ered p r o o f o f treaso n . E v e n m en
w h o h a d h ad no re la tio n s w ith th e G e rm a n s, w h o c o u ld p ro v e
th e ir p a trio tic a ttitu d e , w h o w'ere b e g g e d b y th e ir w o rk m e n to
k eep th em e m p lo y e d , a n d h ad e ve n g iv e n secret m o n e y c o n ­
trib u tio n s to th e p a rtisa n m o v e m e n t, fo u n d th em selves d e p riv e d o f
th eir p ro p e rty as ‘ c o lla b o r a to r s ’ . T h is p ro c e d u re m a y h a v e b e en
ch osen in o rd e r to sa ve th e g o v e rn m e n t th e e xp e n se o f c o m p e n s a ­
tion . But th e g a in w as sm all, b e cau se in fa c t th e c o m p e n sa tio n p a id
b y th e go v e rn m e n ts w h ic h in tro d u c e d n a tio n a lisa tio n w a s
n e g lig ib le . O n th e o th e r h a n d th e Y u g o s la v p o lic y c re a te d p le n ty
o f u n n ecessa ry bittern ess. It w as n o t u n til e a r ly 1947 th a t fo rm a l
n a tio n a lisa tio n o f in d u str y w a s in tro d u c e d .
T h e situ atio n w as m o re d e lic a te in th e th re e e x -e n e m v states.
G e rm a n p r o p e rty h ad b e c o m e S o v ie t b y th e a rm istic e term s, and
1 M in e , speech 10 C o n g ress o f P olish U n ite d W o rk e rs’ P a rty , D e c e m b e r 1948.
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y A ND P L A NNI NG 239
c o u ld o n ly b e c o n tro lle d b y th e g o v e rn m e n ts on w h a te v e r term s
th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s a llo w e d . A llie d p ro p e rty c o u ld n o t fo rm a lly
b e n a tio n a lise d b y d efe a te d en em ies. It w as in fa ct sp e c ifica lly
p ro te cte d in th e p e a c e tre a ty . H o m e ca p ita lists c o u ld h a rd ly be
a ccu sed o f ‘ c o lla b o r a t io n ’ w h e n th e c o u n try h ad b e en a t w a r w ith
th e A llie s. It w a s th erefo re fou n d c o n v e n ie n t for som e tim e to lea ve
th e fa cto rie s n o m in a lly u n d e r p r iv a te o w n e rsh ip . In th e e c o n o m ic
crises o f H u n g a r y an d R u m a n ia th e ca p ita lists w e re a useful sca p e ­
g o a t. T h e y w e re b u rd e n e d w ith h e a v y o b lig a tio n s to p ro v id e for
th e ir w ork ers. R u m a n ia n factories h ad c a n teen s an d shops
( E c o n o m a te ), w h ic h c o u ld o n ly be stock ed b y e xp e n sive p u r ­
ch ases on th e b la c k m a rk e t b u t h ad to sell a t lo w prices. T h e
c o n tin u in g h ard sh ip s a risin g fro m th e g e n e ra l e c o n o m ic situ ation
w e re b la m e d b y th e c o m m u n ist a g ita to rs in th e facto ries on th e
‘ u n so cial b e h a v io u r ’ o f th e o w n e rs. In H u n g a r y re p a ra tio n s w ere
used as a m ean s to d riv e p r iv a te business to b a n k ru p tc y . T h e
g o v e rn m e n t w as su p p o sed to p a y th e factories fo r th e goo d s w h ich
th e y d e liv e re d to th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s as re p a ra tio n s. In fa ct
th e g o v e rn m e n t sim p ly d id n o t p a y , a n d th e fa cto rie s first e x ­
h au ste d th e ir fu n d s an d th en so u g h t loa n s from th e N a tio n a l B ank.
T h is e n a b le d th e g o v e rn m e n t, w ith b ra z e n d ish o n esty , to accu se
th e o w n e rs o f in c o m p e te n c e . P r iv a te o w n e rsh ip , th e co m m u n ist
le a d e rs a rg u e d , w as ru in in g th e H u n g a r ia n e c o n o m y . N a tio n a l-
sia tio n w as re q u ire d fo r e ffic ie n cy . T h u s H u n g a ria n a n d R u m a n ia n
p o lic y w a s to m a k e p r iv a te business p a y for th e n a tio n a l e co n o m ic
d isa ste r u n til it w as ru in e d , a n d th en ta k e o v e r w ith o u t a n y
o b lig a tio n o f co m p e n sa tio n .
N a tio n a lisa tio n c a m e p ie c e m e a l in H u n g a r y . T h e m ines w ere
ta k e n o v e r e a r ly in 1946. A t th e en d o f th e y e a r th e th ree g re a t
h e a v y in d u stria l co n ce rn s M a n fre d W eiss, G a n z a n d R im a m u rá n y
w e re co m b in e d w ith tw o sta te co n ce rn s in a H e a v y Ind u stries
C e n tr e ( N . I .K .) . In J a n u a r y 194ft th e b an k s w e re n atio n a lise d .
In M a r c h 1948 c a m e th e g e n e ra l n a tio n a lisa tio n la w , w h ich
c o v e re d a ll fa cto rie s e m p lo y in g m o re th an 100 persons. In
R u m a n ia th e first sta ge w as th e c re a tio n , in th e su m m e r o f 1947,
o f a n u m b e r o f in d u stria l b o ard s (sin d ic a te ), g ro u p in g facto ries
to g e th e r in th e ir m ain in d u stria l b ra n ch e s. T h e b o ard s c o n tro lled
th e a llo c a tio n o f ra w m a te ria ls a n d m a c h in e r y , and d e c id e d w h a t
ty p e s o f good s sh o u ld be p ro d u ce d a n d w h ere th e y sh o u ld b e sold.
T h e ir d ire cto rs w e re a p p o in te d b y th e M in iste r o f N a tio n a l
E c o n o m y . F o rm a l n a tio n a lisa tio n c a m e in J u n e 1948. It d id not
s p e cify th e size o f firm s to b e n a tio n a lise d , b u t sim p ly a ffe cte d all
24O THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
firm s o f n a tio n a l im p o rta n c e . B u lg a ria ’ s n a tio n a lisa tio n la w w as
passed in D e c e m b e r 194 7, a n d co v e re d a ll in d u stry a n d b an k s.
T h e position o f A llie d firm s in b o th e x -A llie d a n d e x -e n e m y
co u n trie s p ro v id e d a lo n g series o f d isp u tes. C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d
P o la n d o ffered sm all c o m p e n sa tio n . T h e p ositio n o f th e B ritish
firm s in Y u g o s la v ia w as fo rm a lly settled b y th e a g re e m e n t o f
J a n u a r y 1949, b u t th e pro vision s fo r th e p a y m e n t o f th e n o t v e r y
gen erou s sum s w e re still not e n tire ly c le a r. 1 he R u m a n ia n o il
in d u stry in 1946 w as m a in ly o w n e d b y A llie d c a p ita l (51 p e r ce n t
A n g lo -D u tc h , 11 p e r cen t A m e r ic a n , w h ile 28 p er ce n t b e lo n g e d
to th e S o v iet c o m p a n y S o v ro m p e tr o l). T h e B ritish a n d A m e ric a n
firm s su ffered endless d ifficu lties. M o st o f th eir p ro d u c tio n w e n t as
re p a ra tio n s to th e U .S .S . R ., a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t d id n ot re p a y
th em . O n ly 3 p e r ce n t o f th e o u tp u t c o u ld be sold on th e free
m ark e t, w h ic h d id n ot e n a b le th em to o b ta in fo reig n c u r r e n c y
w ith w h ic h to b u y u rg e n tly n eed ed n e w e q u ip m e n t. T h e y w e re
forced in to b o rro w in g . In the su m m e r o f 1947 th e M in is try o f
M in e s a p p o in te d a d m in istra to rs to b o th B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n
firm s. T h e a d m in istrato rs in te rfe re d in d eta ils o f o rg a n isa tio n , a n d
p rep a re d accu satio n s o f in e ffic ie n c y , co rru p tio n a n d p ro fite e rin g
d u r in g th e w a r a g a in st th e U .S .S .R . T h e firm s’ m a n a g e rs w e re
a ccu sed o f d e lib e r a te ly s a b o ta g in g p ro d u c tio n . In th e fa ce o f these
o b stacles, a m ee tin g o f th e sh a reh o ld e rs o f A s tr a , th e S h ell
C o m p a n y ’s b ra n c h in R u m a n ia , d e c id e d in M a r c h 1948 to d e c la re
th e c o m p a n y 'fo r c ib ly d is s o lv e d ’ . S im ila r m eth o d s o f o b stru c tio n
an d a ccu sa tio n w e re used in H u n g a r y a g a in st th e A m e r ic a n -
o w n cd o il c o m p a n y ‘ M a o r t ’ , w h ic h w as e ffe c tiv e ly seized b y th e
g o v e rn m e n t in 1948. F in a lly the H u n g a r ia n g o v e rn m e n t n a tio n ­
alised a ll a llie d firm s in th e a u tu m n o f 1949.
N o t o n ly in d u stry an d b a n k in g , b u t also tra d e w as p r o g re ssiv e ly
n atio n a lise d . B y th e en d o f 1948 m ost o f th e w h o le sa le tra d e o f
E astern E u ro p e w as co n tro lle d e ith e r b y sta te -o w n ed shops o r b y
sta tc-co n tro llc d co -o p e ra tiv e s. In P o la n d a stru g g le d e v e lo p e d in
M a y 1947 b e tw e e n th e c o -o p e ra tiv e o rg a n isa tio n S p o le m , a
stro n gh o ld o f th e S o cia list P a rty , an d sta te shops. T h e c o m m u n ists
d en o u n ce d th e ‘ h a rm fu l a u to n o m y te n d e n c ie s ’ o f th e c o - o p e r a ­
tiv e m o ve m e n t. T h is ‘ b a ttle o f t r a d e ’ e n d e d w ith th e v ic t o r y o f
th e co m m u n ist-sp on so red state sh ops. B y th e en d o f 1948 o n ly
2 .1 p e r ce n t o f P o la n d ’s w h o le sa le tra d e w a s p r iv a te ly o w n e d , an d
th e ‘ sta te s e c to r ’ w as ra p id ly p e n e tra tin g th e re ta il tra d e . In
Y u g o s la v ia w h o le sale tra d e w as ta k e n o v e r a t a n e a r ly sta g e . In
th e re ta il tra d e , p riv a te o w n e rsh ip a c c o u n te d in 1945 fo r 85 per
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L ANNI NG 24I
c c n t o f th e tu rn o v e r, in 1946 fo r 48 p e r ce n t, an d in 1947 for 12
p e r ce n t. In M a y 1948 a n ew la w n atio n a lise d a ll re m a in in g
p r iv a te re ta il businesses. In B u lg a ria th ere w as v e r y little p riv a te
tra d e left a t th e en d o f 1948, in R u m a n ia slig h tly m ore. In
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th e process w as slo w er, b u t th e en d is th e s a m e .1

RECOVERY PLAN S

F o u r co u n trie s in tro d u c e d sh ort-term re c o v e ry plan s from the

b e g in n in g o f 194 7. C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d B u lg a ria h ad T w o - Y e a r
Pla n s ( 1 9 4 7 - 8 ) , P o la n d an d H u n g a ry T h r e e - Y e a r P lan s (1 9 4 7 - 9 ) .
R u m a n ia in tro d u c e d in 1948 a sin g le -y e a r p la n for 1949. T h e
Y u g o s la v p la n is in a se p a ra te c a te g o ry . It w as fo r five ye ars, and
p ro vid e s n ot o n ly fo r reco v ery b u t fo r a g re a t d e a l o f n e w c o n ­
stru ctio n . It w ill th erefo re be con sid e re d la ter, to g e th e r w ith the
lo n g e r-te rm p la n s fo r th e o th e r cou n tries, w h ic h w e re a n n o u n ce d
w h e n th e ir re c o v e ry p la n s w e re n e a rin g co m p le tio n . A lb a n ia ’s
p la n w a s a t first d e p e n d e n t on Y u g o s la v ia , an d th en h ad to be
r a d ic a lly c h a n g e d a fte r th e C o m in fo r m -T ito q u a rr e l w h ic h led to
a ru p tu re o f A lb a n ia n - Y u g o s la v e c o n o m ic rela tio n s. It w ill th ere­
fore b e co n sid ered in c o n n e ctio n w ith Y u g o s la v ia .
T h e C z e c h o s lo v a k T w o - Y e a r P la n p ro v id e d for an in vestm en t
o f 70 m illia rd c ro w n s .2 O f this sum 22 m illia rd crow n s w as to be
d e v o te d to S lo v a k ia , a p r o p o rtio n h ig h e r th a n S lo v a k ia ’s sh are in

1 T h is represen ts a m u ch g re a te r sp eed o f n a tio n a lisa tio n in tra d e th a n took p lac e

in R u ssia a fte r the R e v o lu tio n . In re ta il tra d e the sh a re o i p riv a te business in th e total
tu rn o v e r w a s 75 p er t e n t in 19 2 2 -3 , 48 per ce n t in 19 2 4 -5 , 25 per cc n t »n 19 2 7 -8 . It w as
o n ly e lim in a te d a fte r 1929. M a n y sm a ll in d u stria l enterp rises vsere also pri\ a te lv ow n ed
d u r in g these y e a n . S o u rc e, P ro k o p o v ic h , Russlands Volkswirtschaft unter den Sowjets. T h e
v e te ra n R u ssia n eco n o m ist co n sid e rs th at th e e v e n tu a l n a tio n a lisa tio n o f all trade
p ro v e d to b e o n e o f th e g rea test w eaknesses o f th e S o v iet ec o n o m y.
* D u rin g 1949 the o ffic ial e x c h a n g e rates o f the E a st E u ro p e a n cu rren cies w ere as
fo llo w s : o n e U .S . d o lla r = 100 P olish z lo ty ; 50 C z e c h o s lo v a k c ro w n s; 11-5 H u n ­
g a r ia n fo rin t; 30 Y u g o s la v d in a rs ; 150 R u m a n ia n le i; 285 B u lg a ria n le v a . T h e A lb a n ­
ia n lek w as fixed in 1946 as e x a c tly e q u a l to th e Y u g o s la v d in a r. T h e b re a ch o f
e c o n o m ic relatio n s b etw een Y u g o s la v ia a n d A lb a n ia in 1948, an d the p e c u lia r foreign
tra d e po sitio n o f A lb a n ia to -d a y , m ak e it im p ossible to g iv e a n y sign ifican t in te r­
n a tio n a l e q u iv a le n t fo r th e lek . In the fo llo w in g p a ges I h a v e stated sum s in n atio n a l
c u rre n c ie s , w ith o u t a tte m p tin g to c o n v e rt them in to w estern cu rren cies. M y source
fo r th e d istrib u tio n o f in v estm en t b etw een b ran c h es o f th e n atio n a l eco n o m ies in the
sh o rt-te rm p la n o f P o la n d , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , H u n g a r y a n d B u lg a ria is the Economic Suriry
o f Europe in i ^ S , p u b lis h e d b y th e E c o n o m ic C o m m issio n for E u ro p e o f the U n ited
N a tio n s. S o u rc es fo r th e o ffic ial fu lfilm e n t results are stated in the text. S o u rc e for the
R u m a n ia n p la n fo r 1949 is the sp e ech b y G h e o rg h iu -D e j in p a rlia m e n t on 27 D e c e m ­
b e r 1948. F o r th e lo n g -te rm p lan s, m y so u rce for th e C z e c h o s lo v a k an d Y u g o s la v
p la n s is th e o ffic ial text o f the p la n s; for th e B u lg a ria n p la n the rep o rt b y the ch airm a n
o f th e P la n n in g C o m m issio n , T a r p e s h e v , to the 5 th C o n g ress o f the B u lg a ria n C o m ­
m u n ist P a r ty in D e c e m b e r 1948 ; for th e P olish p la n th e rep o rt b y M in c o th e C o n ­
gress o f th e Polish U n ite d W o rk e rs’ P a r ty in D e c e m b e r 1948 ; for the H u n g a ria n p lan
th e sp e ech o f G e r ö in th e d e b a te in p a rlia m e n t o n th e p lan in D e c e m b e r 1949. S o u rc e
fo r th e A lb a n ia n -Y u g o s la v tre a ty is U .N .R .R .A . o p e ra tio n a l an alysis p a p er N o . 46,
w h ile th e so u rce fo r th e A lb a n ia n T w o - Y e a r P lan is stated in the text. S ee also belo w ,
p p . 2 47, 258 fo o tn o te.
242 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
e ith e r th e p o p u la tio n o r th e w e a lth o f th e w h o le re p u b lic . O f th e
to ta l in vestm en t 36 p e r c e n t w as to go to in d u stry a n d m in in g ,
22 p er ce n t to tra n sp o rt, 35 p e r c e n t to h o u sin g a n d p u b lic ser­
vices, an d 7 p e r c e n t to a g ric u ltu re . T h e in v e stm e n t in h o u sin g
in clu d e d b o th fa c to ry an d p u b lic b u ild in g , th e sh are o f p r iv a te
d w e llin g s b e in g c o m p a r a tiv e ly sm a ll. T h e g e n e ra l a im w as a le v el
o f o u tp u t 10 p e r ce n t a b o v e th a t o f 193 7, b u t in som e in d u stria l
b ra n ch e s th e ta rg e t w as m u ch h ig h er. T h e lo w fig u re fo r a g r ic u l­
tu re sh ou ld n ot b e tak e n to m ean th a t this b ra n c h o f th e e c o n o m y
w as n e g le cte d . A c o n sid e ra b le p a rt o f th e in d u stria l p ro d u c tio n
w as for th e needs o f a g ric u ltu re . F o r in stan ce , o u tp u t o f tra cto rs
a n d fertilisers w as to b e su b sta n tia lly in cre a se d . In a speech
in p a rlia m e n t in O c t o b e r 1948, P rim e M in iste r Z á p o to c k y
stated th a t th e in d u strial p a rt o f th e p la n h a d b e en sa tisfa c to rily
fu lfilled . T h e 1937 le v el h a d b een surpassed b y 18 p e r ce n t in
m in in g , b y 33 p e r ce n t in e le c tric p o w e r, b y 30 p e r ce n t in
e n g in e e rin g a n d b y 14 p e r ce n t in ch e m ica ls. T h e b u ild in g ta r g e t,
h o w e v e r, h ad b een re a c h e d o n ly to th e e x te n t o f 70 p e r ce n t, a n d
p riv a te hou se b u ild in g o n ly 47 p e r c e n t. A g r ic u ltu r e h a d su ffered
se v e re ly from th e d ro u g h t o f 194 7. T h e g ra in h a rv e st, a n d g ra in
d elive ries to th e a u th o ritie s, h ad b e en o n ly tw o -th ird s o f th e
q u a n titie s p la n n e d . O u tp u t o f b e e f a n d p o rk in th e first h a lf o f
1948 h ad b e en slig h tly m o re th an h alf, a n d m ilk fiv e -e ig h th s, o f
th e targets.
T h e p ro p o sed in vestm en t o f th e P o lish T h r e e - Y e a r P la n w as
340 m illia rd z lo ty . D is trib u tio n o f in ve stm e n t b e tw e e n b ra n ch e s
o f th e e c o n o m y w as in d u stry an d m in in g 39 p e r c e n t, tra n sp o rt
a n d co m m u n ic a tio n s 24 p e r ce n t, a g r ic u ltu r e 13 p e r c e n t, h o u sin g
a n d p u b lic services 18 p e r c e n t. C o m p a riso n s w ith th e le v e l o f
o u tp u t o f e a rlie r y ears a re very' d iffic u lt o w in g to th e c h a n g e s in
frontiers. T h e a re a a t p resen t c o n ta in e d w ith in P o la n d h a d in
1938 (the y e a r tak e n b y th e P olish p la n n ers fo r c o m p a riso n ) a v e r y
m u ch g re a te r in d u stria l o u tp u t th an th e a re a w h ic h in 1938
co n stitu ted th e Polish sta te. T h e presen t p o p u la tio n o f P o la n d is
c o n sid e ra b ly sm a lle r th a n th a t e ith e r o f p r e -w a r P o la n d o r o f th e
p resen t a re a o f P o la n d b e fo re th e w a r (24 m illio n in ste ad o f 35
o r 33 ).
T h e T h r e e - Y e a r P la n ta r g e t for in d u str y w as 152 p e r c e n t o f
1938 le v e l fo r o ld P o la n d , w h ic h w a s a b o u t 70 p e r c e n t o f th e 1938
cv e l for th e p resen t a re a o f P o la n d . H e a v y in d u stry w as to b e 250
p e r ce n t o f th e 1938 old P o la n d le v el, a n d c o n su m e rs’ go o d s
in d u stry o n ly I 2 5 p e r ce n t. O u tp u t o f m o to r lorries w a s to b e tw e n ty -
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L A NNI NG 243

six tim es, lo co m o tiv e s e le v e n tim es, a g ric u ltu ra l m a c h in e ry th ree

tim es a n d m a c h in e tools o n e -a n d - a - h a lf tim es g re a te r th a n th e 1938
o ld P o la n d le v el. O u tp u t o f fertilisers w as to in crease b y 60 per
c e n t, a n d te xtiles w e re to re a ch th e 1938 level.
T h e ta r g e t fo r a g ric u ltu re w a s to be 80 p e r cen t o f th e 1938 level
for old P o la n d . A s th e n e w territo ries w e re less a g ric u ltu ra l th an
th ose lost in th e ca st, b u t th eir a g ric u ltu re h ad been m ore
e ffic ien t, th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e total a g ric u ltu ra l o u tp u t o f
1938 in th e o ld an d th e n e w a re a w as m u c h sm aller th an in the
c a se o f in d u stry . T h e T h r e e - Y e a r P la n , lik e th e o th e r E ast
E u ro p e a n p la n s, g a v e m u ch m o re a tte n tio n to in d u stry th an to
a g ric u ltu re . B u t a p a r t from g e n e ra l co n sid e ra tio n s o f p o lic y , this
w as ju s tifia b le b y th e fa ct th at th e te rrito ria l ch an g e s h ad c o n ­
s id e ra b ly a lte re d th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n th e in d u strial and
a g r ic u ltu r a l p o p u la tio n . A s m o re o v e r th e w h o le p o p u la tio n w as
s m a lle r b y o n e -th ird th an b efore the w a r, th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f
th e p la n w o u ld m ea n a h ig h e r in c o m e p e r h e ad th an in 1938.
T h e resu lts o f tw o y e a rs o f th e p la n w e re su m m arised b y M in e ,
th e co m m u n ist M in is te r o f In d u stry , in a speech to th e first
con gress o f th e ‘ fu s e d ’ U n ite d W o rk e rs’ P a r t y 1 in D e c e m b e r 1948.
T h e p r o p o rtio n a te sh are o f industry' a n d a g ric u ltu re in n a tio n a l
p r o d u c tio n h a d b e en 45-5 : 54-5 in 193 7, an d w as 64 : 36 in 1948.
T h e p ro p o rtio n a te sh are o f c a p ita l go o d s an d co n su m e rs’ goo d s in
in d u stria l p ro d u c tio n h a d b een 4 7 : 53 in 193 7, a n d w as 54 : 46
in 1948. T h e in d u stria l ta rg e t for 1947 h a d b een e x c ee d e d b y 6
p e r ce n t, a n d in 1948 it w as e stim a ted th a t it w o u ld b e e xc ee d e d
b y 10 p e r ce n t. In a g ric u ltu re , th e so w in g and h a rv e stin g plans
h a d b e en fu lfille d , an d th e aim s set for h orse- an d c a ttle -b re e d in g
h a d b een a c h ie v e d . P ig -b re e d in g , h o w e v e r, w as su b sta n tia lly
b e h in d . In 1945 a lm o st h a lf th e c u ltiv a ta b le a re a h ad la in fa llo w ,
in 1948 90 p e r ce n t h ad b e en sow n . P r o d u c tio n o f b re a d gra in s per
h e a d w as 22 p e r ce n t h ig h e r th an b e fo re th e w a r . P ro d u c tio n o f
m e a t a n d e d ib le fats p e r h e ad h a d been 21 p e r ce n t o f th e 1937
le v e l in 194 5, a n d h a d risen to 92 p e r c e n t in 1948. M in e also
c la im e d th a t re a l w a g e s a t th e en d o f 1948 w e re on th e a v e ra g e
10 p e r ce n t h ig h e r th a n b e fo re th e w a r. In N o v e m b e r 1949 the
S ta te P la n n in g C o m m issio n c la im e d th a t th e T h r e e - Y e a r Plan
h a d b e en c o m p le te d in tw o y e a rs ten m onth s.
T h e to ta l in ve stm e n t p rop osed fo r th e H u n g a ria n T h r e e - Y e a r
P la n w a s 6 ,58 5 m illio n flo rin t. O f this sum 32 p e r ce n t w as to go
to in d u stry a n d m in in g , 27 p e r ce n t to tra n sp o rt an d co m m u n i-
! F o r th e fo rm a tio n o f th e p a rty , see p p . 1 7 9 ,3 1 1 .
244 THE EAST EUROPEAN r e v o lu tio n

ca tio n s, 9 p e r c c n t to a g ric u ltu re a n d 22 p er ce n t to b u ild in g an d

p u b lic services. T h e in d u stria l le v e l a t th e c o m p le tio n o l th e p la n
w as to b e 27 p er c c n t h ig h e r th an in 1938, w h ile a g r ic u ltu r e w a s to
rea ch 91 p e r c c n t o f th e 1938 le v el. T h e o u tp u t o f iro n , m e ta llu r g y
and e n g in e e rin g w as to be 54 p e r c c n t h ig h e r th a n 1938, o f
ch e m ica ls 40 p e r cen t h ig h e r, o f e le c tric p o w e r 43 p e r c c n t h ig h e r,
and o f textiles 25 p er c c n t h ig h e r. In d u stria l p ro d u c tio n o f b e n efit
to a g ric u ltu re in c lu d e d th e a tta in m e n t b y 1949 o f a y e a r ly o u tp u t
o f 3,700 tra cto rs, an d g r e a tly in crea sed q u a n titie s o f n itro g e n
fertilisers a n d su p erp h o sp h a tes. T h e c h ie f e c o n o m ic p la n n e r o f th e
C o m m u n ist P a rty , G e ro , d e c la re d in D e c e m b e r 1949 th a t th e
p la n targets h ad b een fu lfille d in tw o y e a rs a n d e ig h t m o n th s.
In p a rtic u la r, m in in g o u tp u t a n d p ro d u c tio n o f m a c h in e tools h ad
surpassed th e p la n . S te el o u tp u t w as a lr e a d y h ig h e r th a n it h ad
been in th e p e a k p erio d d u r in g th e w a r . In v e stm e n t h a d b e en 18
p e r ce n t g re a te r th a n w as o rig in a lly p la n n e d . G e ro a lso c la im e d
th a t in th e th re e -y e a r p erio d th e sta n d a rd o f liv in g h a d risen b y
38 p e r cen t.
T h e proposed in ve stm e n t u n d e r th e B u lg a ria n T w o - Y e a r P la n
w as 55,000 m illio n le v a . O f this su m 45 p e r ce n t w as to g o to
in d u stry a n d m in in g , 15 p e r ce n t to tra n sp o rt a n d c o m m u n ic a ­
tions, 6 p er ce n t to a g ric u ltu re an d 28 per c e n t to b u ild in g an d
p u b lic services. S p e c ia l a tte n tio n w as g iv e n to e le c tric p o w e r. A
n u m b e r o f n e w d am s, h y d r o -e le c tric a n d th e rm o -e le c tric ce n tre s
w e re to b e set u p . T h e o u tp u t o f ores w as to be in cre a se d n in e
tim es. V e r y la rg e in creases w e re to b e m a d e in in d u stries w h ic h
h ad h a rd ly existed b efo re th e w a r, in c lu d in g c h e m ic a ls a n d r u b b e r
(to in crea se b y 142 p e r c e n t) an d iro n , m eta l a n d e n g in e e r in g (b y
67 p er ce n t). B u ild in g w as to in cre a se b y 85 p e r ce n t a n d textiles
b y 66 p e r cen t. In a speech a t the 5 th C o n g re ss o f th e B u lg a ria n
C o m m u n ist P a rty in D e c e m b e r 1948, th e c o m m u n ist h e ad o f th e
E co n o m ic C o u n c il, T a r p e s h e v , sta ted th a t in 1947 th e p la n h a d
b een a ch ie v e d in in d u stry to th e e x te n t o f 85 p e r ce n t, in 1948 to
99 p e r cc n t. S h o rtc o m in g s w e re a ttr ib u te d to th e d ro u g h t, w h ic h
h ad d e p riv e d th e food in d u stry o f som e o f its ra w m a te ria ls, a n d , b y
m a k in g n ecessary la rg e r im p o rts o f food th a n h a d b e en a n tic i­
p a te d , h a d re d u c ed th e a m o u n t o f in d u stria l ra w m a te ria ls th a t
co u ld be im p o rte d . C o a l- m in in g o u tp u t w as e x p e c te d to b e 88 p et
ccn t o f th e tw o -y e a r ta r g e t, a n d e le c tric p o w e r c o n stru ctio n 69 p e r
ccn t. T h e liv estock p r o g ra m m e h ad b e en fa irly su ccessfu lly c a rrie d
ou t. H orses an d sh eep w e re n e a r ly u p to th e ir p r e -w a r n u m b e rs,
w h ile c a ttle w e re 8 p e r c c n t a n d pigs 26 p e r c c n t m o re n u m e ro u s.
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L ANNI NG 245
In R u m a n ia 1948 w as a y e a r o f in d u stria l re c o v e ry , at th e end
o f w h ich o u tp u t a p p ro a c h e d th a t o f 1938. In iron a n d steel a n d in
te xtiles, th e 1938 le v el w as su rpassed . T h e y e a r ly p la n fo r 1949,
in tro d u c e d b y th e M in is te r o f N a tio n a l E c o n o m y , G h c o rg h iu -D e j,
in a sp eech in p a rlia m e n t 011 27 D e c e m b e r 1948, p ro v id e d for an
in ve stm e n t o f 82 m illia rd le i: 36-8 p e r ce n t w as to g o to m in in g an d
h e a v y in d u stry , 10-4 p e r ce n t to ligh t in d u stry , 9-4 p e r ce n t to
a g r ic u ltu r e . T h e g e n e ra l in d u stria l o u tp u t w as to b e raised to 140
p e r ce n t o f th e 1938 le v el. P a r tic u la r b ra n c h e s w e re to in crea se b y
th e fo llo w in g p e rc e n ta g e s a b o v e 1938: c o a l m in in g 15, o il 13-7,
cast iron 3 5, steel 16, tra c to rs 38, r a ilw a y tru ck s 17, ce m e n t 37.
A g r ic u lt u r a l o u tp u t w as to in cre a se b y 40 p e r cen t a b o v e th e level
o f th e p r e c e d in g y e a r (19 4 8 ). G r a in p ro d u c tio n w as to in cre a se b y
14-5 p e r ce n t (w h e a t 12 per c e n t), v e g e ta b le s b y 74 p e r c e n t, and
in d u stria l p la n ts b y 80 p e r ce n t. L iv e sto c k w as to in cre a se b y 15
p e r ce n t as a w h o le , b u t p ig s a n d p o u ltry w e re to b e d o u b le d .
In O c t o b e r 1949 it w as a n n o u n c e d th a t th e targ e ts fo r th e th ird
q u a r te r o f th e y e a r h ad b een a c h ie v e d to th e e x te n t o f 109 p er
ce n t. T h e m ost su ccessfu l in d ustries w e re lea d a n d c o p p e r m in in g ,
a n d som e sectio n s o f m a c h in e -b u ild in g a n d ch e m ic a ls. T h e b u ild ­
in g tra d e w as th e least su ccessfu l. A n e w O n e - Y e a r P la n w as d raw n
u p fo r 1950. It la id d o w n th at c ru d e oil o u tp u t w as to in crea se
b y 21 p e r ce n t in co m p a riso n w ith 1949, c o a l b y 10 p e r c e n t, cast
iro n b y 17 p e r c e n t, a n d steel b y 19 p er ce n t.
T h e s e p la n s w e re a ll a m b itio u s, an d d e m a n d e d a h e a v y s a c ri­
fice from th e p o p u la tio n . T h e ra te o f in ve stm e n t, as a p e rc e n ta g e
o f n a tio n a l in co m e, w a s e stim a te d to b e 20 per ce n t for P o la n d , 16
p e r ce n t fo r C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , 9 p e r c e n t fo r H u n g a r y a n d 7 per
c e n t for B u lg a ria , p e r y e a r. P ro d u c tio n o f co n su m e rs’ go o d s w as
sa crifice d to c a p ita l c o n stru c tio n . E v e n i f th e results a c h ie v e d w e re
r e a lly as sta ted b y th e le a d e rs, th e in cre a se in o u tp u t w as not
a c c o m p a n ie d b y an e q u a l in cre a se in sta n d a rd o f liv in g . In all
co u n trie s it w as a m a tte r o f sim p le o b se rv a tio n th at co n su m e rs’
go o d s w e re m u c h sc a rc e r th an b efore th e w a r . T h e r e is no in d e ­
p e n d e n t m ean s o f e stim a tin g th e a c c u r a c y o f the o fficia l results.
T h e use o f p e rc e n ta g e s , a n d a b se n c e o f q u a n tita tiv e figures, in the
sta te m e n ts o f results, g r e a t ly red u ces th e ir v a lu e . E v e n i f the
p la n n e d o u tp u t w as a c h ie v e d to th e e x te n t o ffic ia lly c la im e d ,
it is p r o b a b le th a t q u a lit y w a s sa crific e d to q u a n tity . H arassed
m a n a g e rs an d w o rk e rs, c o n sta n tly pressed to c o m p le te the
d e m a n d s o f th e p la n n ers, c o n c e n tr a te d o n n u m b e rs at th e cost
o f lo w e r sta n d a rd s. A g o o d d e a l o f th e re c o n stru c tio n o f th e e a r ly
246 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
d a y s con sisted o f im p ro v isa tio n a n d c a n n ib a lis a tio n , often
b rillia n t b u t o f co u rse n ot p e rm a n e n t. It is u n c e r ta in to w h a t
e xte n t this w as su cce e d e d b y re a l re p la c e m e n t. W ith th ese reser­
va tio n s it m ust b e a d m itte d th a t im m e n se m a te ria l p ro gre ss w as
m a d e . F o r this th e m ain c re d it sh o u ld g o to th e v it a lit y a n d
e n d u ra n c e o f th e w o rk ers a n d p easan ts.

T H E LON G- TE R M PLAN S
T h e first o f th e lo n g -te rm p la n s w as th e Y u g o s la v F iv e - Y e a r
P la n , in tro d u c e d in 1947. T h e o th ers w e re a n n o u n c e d as th e c o m ­
p le tio n o f th e re c o v e ry pla n s d re w n ear. C z e c h o s lo v a k ia an d
B u lg a ria h a v e F iv e - Y e a r P la n s b e g in n in g in 1949, H u n g a r y a
F iv e - Y e a r P la n b e g in n in g in 1950, R u m a n ia a F iv e - Y e a r P la n
b e g in n in g in 1 9 5 1, a n d P o lan d a S ix - Y e a r P la n b e g in n in g in
>950 .
In these p lan s, e v e n m o re th an in th e re c o v e ry p la n s w h ich
p rece d e d th em , the em p h a sis is o n in d u stry ra th e r th a n a g r ic u l­
ture, a n d o n c a p ita l go o d s in d u stries ra th e r th a n c o n su m e rs’
go o d s in d ustries. T h e ir p u rp o se is stated to b e, n ot to c re a te
socialism , b u t to ‘ b u ild the fo u n d a tio n s o f so c ia lism ’ . A s in the
S o v ie t U n io n , this p u rp o se is to b e a c h ie v e d b y in d u stria lisa tio n ,
a n d in d u stria lisa tio n is to be a c h ie v e d b y c r e a tin g h e a v y in d u strie s.
T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a lr e a d y e x istin g lig h te r in d u strie s, th o u g h
n ot co m p le te ly ig n o re d , re ce iv es a lo w p r io rity . S p e c ia l em p h a sis
is g iv e n to e n g in e e r in g a n d th e p r o d u c tio n o f m a c h in e r y , n o t
o n ly in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y , w h ic h h a d som e
e x p e rie n ce in these field s, b u t also in R u m a n ia , B u lg a r ia an d
Y u g o s la v ia , w h ic h h ad little o r n on e. P r o d u c tio n o f tra cto rs is
stressed in a ll p la n s e x c e p t th e B u lg a r ia n , as these a rc n e e d e d in
co n n e c tio n w ith th e p ro jec te d c o lle c tiv is a tio n o f a g ric u ltu re .
In the first h a lf o f 1 9 5 1, th e P olish , C z e c h o s lo v a k a n d H u n ­
g a ria n pla n s w e re revised. N e w , a n d g r e a tly in c re a se d , o u tp u t
targets w e re set. T h e c h a n g e w as e x p la in e d , in th e sp eech es o f
the co m m u n ist lea d ers, b y th e g re a t p rogress a lr e a d y m a d e , w h ic h
e x c e e d e d e x p e c ta tio n s a n d m ad e p ossib le m o re a m b itio u s p la n ­
n in g . A n o th e r in te rp re ta tio n is th a t these a lm o st sim u lta n e o u s
ch a n g e s in th e th ree m ost a d v a n c e d c o u n trie s o f th e a re a w e re
o rd e re d from M o sc o w fo r p o litic a l reason s. A c c o r d in g to this
v ie w , th e a im w as a ra p id g ro w th o f th e in d u strie s o f g re a te st
p o te n tia l m ilita r y im p o rta n c e . T h e R u m a n ia n F iv e Y e a r P la n ,
a n n o u n ce d a t th e b e g in n in g o f 1 9 5 1, w as o n th e s ca le o f th e re ­
vised p la n s. In B u lg a ria in cre a se d e m p h a sis w as p u t o n a g r ic u l-
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L A N N I N G 247
tu ra l o u tp u t, a n d e sp e c ia lly o n c o llc c tiv isa tio n o f a g ric u ltu re . It
seem s lik e ly th a t th e o v e r a ll p la n n ers in M o sc o w , th in k in g in
term s o f im m e d ia te n eed s, w e re less in terested in th e u ltim a te
in d u stria lisa tio n o f this b a c k w a r d c o u n try th a n in th e fu ll e x ­
p lo ita tio n o f its a g r ic u ltu r a l an d ra w m a te ria l w e a lth . T h e c o n ­
te n tio n o f Y u g o s la v p ro p a g a n d ists, th a t R u ssia w as m a k in g
B u lg a ria a c o lo n y , a n d re ta r d in g h er in d u stria lisa tio n , m a y h av e
som e fo u n d a tio n . M e a n w h ile the Y u g o s la v p la n h a d been b a d ly
d iso rg a n ise d b y th e C o m in fo r m b lo c k a d e , in stitu ted in 1949, and
h a d to b e su b sta n tia lly m o d ifie d .
T h e fig u res a v a ila b le fo r the revised pla n s a re in co m p le te .
T h e r e m a y also be fu rth e r c h a n g c s b efore th e en d o f th e p la n
p e rio d s in 1953- 1955 . N e v e rth e le ss th e fo llo w in g figu res from
o fficial sou rces m a y g iv e som e im pression o f th e p la n n e rs’ g e n e ra l
aim s. (S e e n o te 1 on p . 249 ).

TABLE I

Percentage o f investments in main branches o f economy*

Czecho­ Jugo­
slovakia]■Hungary Rumania Bulgaria slavia
I n d u stry J ■V 52 5' 40 42
A g r ic u lt u r e 8 ■3 10 ■75 8
C o m m u n ic a tio n s 16 12 16 24 26
B u ild in g §
16 '3 n -5 20
S o c ia l S e rv ice s ... 1 }
* F ig u r « for P o la n d h a v e n o t b een a v a ilab le.
+ F'igures fo r th e o rig in a l p la n . As revised in 1951, th e p e rc e n ta g e for
in d u s try w ill c e rta in ly be h ig h e r, p ro b a b ly a b o u t th e sam e as for
H u n g a r y a n d R u m a n ia .
X In c lu d in g b o th m m in g a n d electrifica tio n schem es.
§ T h is in c lu d es (ex cep t for C zech o slo v ak ia) social services, a n d (in all
cases) h o u sin g a n d v ario u s p u b lic w orks. H o u sin g in c lu d es g o v e rn ­
m e n t b u ild in g s as w ell as p riv a te dw ellings. S ocial services in clu d e
n o t o n ly e d u c a tio n b u t all th e v ario u s form s o f p ro p a g a n d a a n d
‘p u b lic e n lig h te n m e n t’.

C e r ta in sp ecific fe a tu res o f e a c h p la n d ese rve b r ie f m en tion .

T h e P olish p la n o r ig in a lly a im e d to in crea se in d u strial o u tp u t
to 1 58 p e r c e n t o f th e 1949 le v e l: th e revised p la n raised this target
to 195 p e r ce n t. T h e co rr e s p o n d in g a im fo r a g ric u ltu re w as in ­
c re a se d fro m 145 p e r ce n t to 163 p e r ce n t. O n c o m p le tio n o f th e
rev ised p la n , th e c h e m ic a l in d u stry is to be th e first o f P o la n d ’s
in d u stries, fo llo w e d b y c o a l m in in g . T h e sh are o f c a p ita l go o d s
 TABLE II

Output T ai gets in Certain Industries

(F ig u re s in b ra ck e ts sh o w th e p la n n e d o u tp u t in the last y e a r o f th e p lan as a p e rc e n ta g e o f th e o u tp u t at the

b e g in n in g o f th e p lan period)

Poland* Czechoslovakia Hungary Rumania Bulgaria Iugoslavia^

C o a l (m illio n s o f tons) 100 (133 ) 21 ( 1 18 ) t

B ro w n c o a l a n d lig n ite (m illio n s o f

DC

00
tons) -- 32 ( ' 35)1 27 5 (250) }
6-5 ( »63)J > 1 6 5 (272)

S te e l (m illio n s o f tons) 4 6 (2OI) 3'5 ( 13 3 ) t 2-2 (230) '•2 5 0-76(300)

E le c tric p o w e r (m illia rd s o f K w ) . . . ' 9 3 (236) "■2 ( 14 9 )t 4-2 ( ' 9 ' ) t 4'7 1 8 (221) 4 4 (395)
N itr o g e n fertilisers (th o u sa n d tons) 980 (2 4 0 )t 2 14 ( 1 3 4 ) t 3 ' ° (4 6 2 )! 40: j
■ 350 (4 «>)
S u p e rp h o s p h a te fe rtilisers (th o u ­
sa n d tons) 878 (20 0 )t 3 99 ( ' ° 3 ) t 330 ( 2 7 3 ) t
T r a c t o r s (units) t 1,000 (400) 20,000 (222) t 4,600 ( 1 7 7 ) t 5,000+ — ■.soot

* C o m p a ris o n s refer to p resen t b o u n d a rie s . + U n rev ised p la n figures. C zech o slo v ak co al (b la ck a n d b ro w n to g e th er)
is to in c rease by 20 p e r ce n t m o re th a n these figures. C zech o slo v ak ch e m ica ls (w h ich in c lu d e fertilisers) by 30 p e r cen t m o re . T h e revised
ta rg e ts fo r e le c tric p o w er a n d ch e m ica ls in H u n g a ry a re a b o u t d o u b le th e o rig in a l targ ets.
* N o p ro d u c tio n o f th ese in th e p a s t. § C o m p a riso n s a re w ith th e 1939 o u tp u t.
 ECONOMIC RECOVERY AND PLANNING 249
in d u stries in to tal in d u strial p ro d u c tio n , w h ic h w as 59 p e r c c n t in
■9 4 9 . >s to be 63 5 p e r ce n t in 1955. A n e w steel-m ill w ith a
c a p a c it y o f 1,500,000 tons is to be c o m p le te d w ith in the p lan
p e rio d . T h e p la n t is to b e im p o rte d from th e U .S .S .R . W ith in the
p e rio d th e c o n stru c tio n o f a secon d g re a t steel-m ill is to b egin in
easte rn P o la n d . T h e s u g a r in d u stry , on e o f P o la n d 's o ld e st
b ra n ch e s, is to h a v e in 1955 a n o u tp u t o f 1 1 m illio n tons. T h e
n u m b e r o f w o rk ers in in d u stry in 1955 is to be on e m illio n m ore
th a n in 1949, an d 690,000 o f the n e w w o rk e rs a re to be sk ille d .*
P olish a g ric u ltu re is to be su p p lie d w ith 6 1,0 0 0 tra cto rs, from h o m e
o r fo reig n p r o d u c tio n , d u r in g the p la n p e rio d . In 1955 25 p e r ccn t
o f a g r ic u ltu r a l o u tp u t is to be p ro d u c e d b y state farm s, an d o f the
r e m a in in g 75 p e r ce n t m o re th an h a lf is to c o m e fro m co lle c tiv e
farm s. I n d u stry w ill a lso be g e o g r a p h ic a lly re d istrib u te d . N e w
fa c to rie s w ill b e set u p in a re as h ith e rto p u re ly a g ric u ltu ra l, and
re b u ilt W a r s a w w ill be a n im p o rta n t c e n tre fo r th e m eta l, e le c tro ­
te c h n ic a l a n d c lo th in g ind ustries.
T h e c h ie f fe a tu re o f the C z e c h o s lo v a k F iv e - Y e a r P lan is e n o r­
m ous d e v e lo p m e n t o f h e a v y in d u stry , to the c o m p a r a tiv e n eglect
o f th e lig h t in d u stries a n d c o n su m e rs’ go o d s in d u stries w h ich w ere
so im p o rta n t in p r e -w a r C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . T h is m a y be e x p la in e d
p a r tly b y th e fa c t th at th e w o rk ers in th e la tte r in d u stries w ere
la r g e ly G e r m a n , e x p e lle d a fte r 1945, a n d still m o re b y the fa ct
th a t th e ir p ro d u c ts w e re p re v io u sly sold in the W est E u ro p e a n

1 In a d d itio n to th e so u rces q u o ted a b o v e (p. 2 41, foo tn o te 2) the fo llo w in g h a ve

also bee n u sed :— D o reen W a r r in c r . Reiolution in Eastern Europe, L o n d o n , 1930;
H u n g a ria n la w for th e a m e n d m e n t o f th r P la n , in tro d u ced to the N a tio n a l A ssem b ly
b y G e r o o n 13th M a y 1 9 5 1 ; S p e e c h b y M in e to th e C e n tra l C o m m itte e o f the U n ite d
W o rk e rs P a r t y P o lish o n 13th J u ly 1930; A r t ic le b y V'. K a r r a o n th e R u m a n ia n F iv e-
Y e a r P la n in Vnyeihnyaya Torgoilya, M o sco w , N o . 2, 19 5 1; A r tic le b y D r. M . Z d 'a rs k y
in Statisticky obzor, P ra g u e , J u n e 19 3 1, e n title d ‘ Z v y ju je m e u k o ly p e t ile t k y ' (*I.et us
raise th e tasks o f th e F iv e - Y e a r P l a n ’ )*. A s a co m p a riso n w ith th e o u tp u t figures in
T a b l e I I , it m a y be u seful to g iv e h e re the co a l an d steel o u tp u t in \ a rio u s to u n irie s
o u tsid e E a stern E u ro p e , to g e th e r w ith th e m o re a d v a n c e d E ast E u ro p e a n co u n tries.
T h e y are taken fro m the Economic Survey o f Europe in 1950, p u b lish ed by E .C .E . o f L’ .N .,
a n d refer to 1930 o u tp u t.
Crude Steel Hard Coal
(millions of tons!
Belgium-Luxemburg 62 273
France (with Saar) 10 6 65 9
Western Germany 12! 1123
United Kingdom ... 166 219 7
United States 877 5046
Czechoslovakia ... 29 183
Hungary- .. to —
Poland 2-5 778
* S ta te m e n t b y N o w a k , a m e m b e r o f the P o litb u ro o f th e P olish U n ite d W o rk e rs’
P a r ty , a t a session o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e 13th J u ly 19 5 1.
250 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
a n d overseas m ark ets. T h e n e w p la n is in te n d e d d e lib e r a te ly to tie
th e C z e c h o s lo v a k e c o n o m y m ore clo se ly to those o l th e S o v ie t
U n io n a n d the ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c ie s ’ a n d to w e a k e n e c o n o m ic
ties w ith th e W est. T h is c h a n g e m a y w e ll be th e m a in reaso n for
th e F e b ru a ry 1948 c o m m u n ist p o lic e re v o lu tio n . T h e n o n -c o m ­
m un ist p a rtie s w e re a ll p rep a re d to c o -o p e ra te c lo se ly in fo reign
p o lic y w ith th e U .S .S .R ., b u t th ey w e re sc e p tic a l a b o u t th e w is­
d o m o f tra n sfo rm in g th e e c o n o m y o n th e g ro u n d o f a d e m a n d
fro m the E ast fo r c a p ita l go o d s w h ic h m ig h t n ot b e la stin g . It w as
p r o b a b ly in o rd e r to o v e r c o m e this o p p o sitio n to th e ir e c o n o m ic
aim s th at the S o v ie t le a d e rs a p p ro v e d a seizu re o f p o w e r b y th e
co m m u n ists w h ic h w as n ot re q u ire d m e re ly b y d ip lo m a tic c o n ­
sid era tio n s. 'I llis te n d e n c y o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k p la n b e c a m e still
m ore a p p a re n t a fte r the re v isio n a n n o u n c e d in F e b r u a r y 19 5 1 .
U n d e r th e o rig in a l p la n , to ta l in vestm en ts w e re to h a v e b e en
336 m illia rd c ro w n s (4J tim es those o f th e c o m p le te d T w o - Y e a r
P la n : u n d e r the rev ised p la n th e y a re to be 558 m illia rd . U n d e r
the revised p la n th e targ e t fo r h e a v y in d u stry w as raised from
1 70 p e r ce n t o f th e 1948 le v el to 230 p e r ce n t. T h e n e w ta r g e t for
h e a v y e n g in e e r in g is 48 per c e n t h ig h e r th a n th a t o r ig in a lly
p la n n e d , for c o a l 20 p e r cen t h ig h er a n d for c h e m ic a ls 30 p e r ce n t
h igh er. T h e in d u stria l la b o u r fo rce is to in cre a se b y 550,000—
a b o u t tw ic e the n u m b e r o rig in a lly p la n n e d . T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
S lo v a k ia w as em p h a sised in th e o rig in a l p la n , a n d still m o re in th e
revised p la n . T h e c re a tio n o f h e a v y in d u stria l p la n ts in S lo v a k ia ,
an d th e tra n sfer e a stw a rd s o f a p a rt o f B o h e m ia n in d u str y , c a n be
ju stifie d ra th e r b y m ilita r y th an b y e c o n o m ic co n sid e ra tio n s.
T h e in vestm en ts u n d e r the H u n g a r ia n F iv e - Y e a r P la n w e re
o r ig in a lly to h a v e b e en n e a rly 51 m illia rd flo rin t, m o re th a n five
tim es th e a m o u n t in vested in the c o m p le te d T h r e e - Y e a r P la n :
u n d e r th e revised p la n , a n n o u n c e d in th e e a r ly su m m e r o f 19 5 1 ,
the sum w as raised to 85 m illia rd . T h e targ e ts fo r c h e m ic a ls a n d
e le ctric p o w e r w e re a lm o st d o u b le d , those fo r m a c h in e p r o d u c tio n
w e re tre b le d . T h e in d u stria l la b o u r fo rce w as to in cre a se n o t b y
480,000 as o r ig in a lly pro p osed b u t b y 650,000. A t th e sa m e tim e
it w as c la im e d th at th e p r o d u c tiv ity o f la b o u r w o u ld rise n o t b y
50 p e r ce n t as o r ig in a lly p ro p o se d b u t b y 100 p e r ce n t. I t w as a lso
c la im e d th at the sta n d a rd o f liv in g w o u ld rise b y 50 p e r ce n t in ­
stead o f 35 p e r ce n t.
T h e R u m a n ia n F iv e - Y e a r P la n , a n n o u n c e d a t th e e n d o f 1950,
w as e q u a lly a m b itio u s. T h e in d u stria l la b o u r fo rc e w a s to rise
d u r in g th e p la n p e rio d b y 38 p e r ce n t to a to ta l o f 3 m illio n .
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y A ND P L A N N I N C 251
P r o d u c tiv ity o f la b o u r in in d u stry w as to in crea se b y 75 p e r cen t
a n d th e s ta n d a rd o f liv in g b y 80 p e r ce n t. T h e o il in d u stry w as to
p r o d u c e 10 m illio n tons in 1955. E v e n i f th e m ost ra p a cio u s
m eth o d s w e re used, to th e irr e p a ra b le h arm o f th e in d u stry in
fu tu re , it seem s d o u b tfu l w h e th e r this targ e t c a n be a c h ie v e d . A t
th e e n d o f th e p e rio d , R u m a n ia w as to h a v e b e co m e a p red o m i-
n a n d y in d u stria l c o u n try . S p e c ia l stress w as la id on th e in d u stria ­
lisa tio n o f re gio n s h ith e rto a lm o st la c k in g in in d u stry M o ld a v ia
O lte n ia a n d D o b r u d ja , a n d th e n o rth e rn c o rn e r o f T r a n s y lv a n ia .
T h e to ta l in ve stm e n t u n d e r th e p la n is to be 1330 m illia rd lei.
T h e B u lg a ria n F iv e - Y e a r P la n p roposes a to ta l in vestm en t o f
425 m illia rd le v a , m o re th a n seven tim es as m u ch as u n d e r the
c o m p le te d T w o - Y e a r P la n . Its c o m p le tio n is in te n d e d to c h a n g e
th e re la tio n sh ip o f in d u stria l to a g r ic u ltu r a l p ro d u c tio n from
30: 70 in 1948 to 4 5 : 55 in 1953. T h e n u m b e r o f in d u stria l w orkers
is to in cre a se b y 138,000. M in in g an d e le c tric p o w e r a rc stressed.
N e w in d u stria l en terp rises are to in clu d e n on -ferrou s m e ta llu rg ic a l
w o rk s an d th e c o n stru c tio n o f m ach in es n e v e r y e t p ro d u c e d in the
c o u n tr y . In a g ric u ltu re sp e cia l a tte n tio n is p a id to in d u stria l crop s.
A n im p o rta n t fe a tu re o f th e P la n w a s th e in te n tio n to e x te n d the
a re a u n d e r c o lle c tiv e farm s so th at these w o u ld p ro d u c e in 1953
60 p e r ce n t o f B u lg a r ia ’s a g r ic u ltu r a l o u t p u t .1
S ta r tin g fro m th e ru in s left b y w a r an d c iv il w a r , in a c o u n try
w h e r e in d u stry h ad m a d e little progress b efore the w a r, th e
p la n n ers o f Y u g o s la v ia a im e d to a c h ie v e b y 1951 a n in d u strial
o u tp u t m ore th a n th ree tim es th at o f 1939 an d an a g ric u ltu ra l
o u tp u t m o re th a n h a lf as la rg e a g a in as in 1939. T h e sh are o f
in d u str y in n a tio n a l p ro d u c tio n in 1939 w as e stim a ted b y th e
p la n n ers, s o m e w h a t o p tim istic a lly , as 45 p e r c e n t: in 1951 it w as
to b e 6 4 p e r ce n t. T o a tta in this resu lt, 27 p e r ce n t o f th e n a tio n a l
in co m e w o u ld h a v e to be in vested e v e ry y e a r. H ig h p r io rity w as
g iv e n to e le c tric p o w e r, b ased on the c o u n tr y ’ s g re a t resou rces o f
w a te r p o w e r. A m b itio u s p u b lic w o rk s in c lu d c th e irrig a tio n o f
a re as su ch as L o n sk o P o lje in C r o a tia , th e d ra in in g o f L a k e
S c u ta r i a n d m easu res a g a in st flo o d in g in the D a n u b e , T is z a , S a v a
a n d M o r a v a v alle y s.
T h is p la n co u ld h a r d ly h a v e been a c h ie v e d e v e n u n d e r the
m ost fa v o u r a b le c o n d itio n s. But co n d itio n s w e re n ot la v o u ra b le .
In 1946 a n d 1947 th ere w e re severe d ro u g h ts. In 1949 the C o in in -
fo rm sta te s b lo c k a d e d Y u g o s la v ia , d e p r iv in g h er of raw' m ateria ls

1 S ee b e lo w , p p . 272- 7.
252 THE EAST E U R O P E A N RE V O L U T I O N

a n d m a ch in es on w h ich v it a l pa rts o f th e p la n d e p e n d e d . N o t
o n ly w ere m a te ria ls in su fficien t, b u t it w a s d isc o v ere d th a t th e
p la n n ers’ o rig in a l e stim a tes o f th e la b o u r fo rce a v a ila b le h a d b een
u n d u ly o p tim istic . A c c o r d in g to a co m p e te n t o b s e rv e r the e stim a te
o f 350,000 skilled w o rk e rs, m a d e in 1946, sh o u ld be d iv id e d b y
le n .1 T h e few sk illed o r sem i-sk illed w o rk ers h ad to be m o ve d
from p la c e to p la c e a c c o rd in g to c h a n g in g p rio ritie s, o fte n le a v in g
la rg e -sca le p ro jects u n fin ish ed . T h e a v a ila b le m a c h in e r y q u ic k ly
d ete rio ra te d fo r la ck o f p ro p e r ca re . S u ccesses w e re a c h ie v e d in
the m a n u fa c tu re b y skilled cra ftsm en o f p ro to ty p e s o f c o m p lic a te d
m o d e rn m ach in es, b u t th ere w as n o p ro sp e ct o f p u ttin g these in to
m ass p ro d u c tio n w ith in the foreseea b le fu tu re . E v e n th e m in in g
in d u stry, fo r w h ich th ere w as p rev io u s e x p e rie n c e to g u id e , fa red
b a d ly . A c c o r d in g to Y u g o s la v press sta tem en ts, th e B or c o p p e r
m ines a t the en d o f 1949 w e re p r o d u c in g o n ly 5 5 - 7 0 p e r c c n t o f
th e p la n ta rg e t. T h a t co n d itio n s in th e tim b e r in d u stry w e re
d esp e ra te , w as a d m itte d b y K id r ić an d K a r d e lj in sp e e ch e s to the
E x e c u tiv e C o m m itte e o f the P e o p le ’ s F ro n t in J a n u a r y 1950. O n
2 8 th D e c e m b e r 1950 K id r ić told the p a rlia m e n t th at it h ad been
d e c id e d to p r o lo n g th e p lan p erio d b y o n e y e a r , till th e en d o f 1952,
an d th erea fte r to h a v e n o fu rth e r fiv e -y e a r p la n .
D u rin g 19 5 1 th ere w a s m u c h p u b lic d iscu ssion in Y u g o s la v ia o f
th e fau lts o f th e S o v ie t system o f p la n n in g , w h ic h it w as a d m itte d
h a d b e en u n c ritic a lly im ita te d . M ea su re s w e re in tro d u c e d to
d ec en tra lise e c o n o m ic co n tro l. P o w ers w e re d e v o lv e d fro m the
c e n tra l to th e re p u b lic a n go v e rn m e n ts, a n d from th ese to th e
m a n a g e m e n ts o f fa cto rie s. M a n a g e r s w e re to find th eir o w n ra w
m ate ria ls, m a ch in es an d sp a re p a rts, w ith in the c o u n tr y o r a b r o a d .
P rices o f b asic ra w m a te ria ls w e re still to b e fixed b y th e c e n tra l
a u th o ritie s, b u t th e p rices o f th e fin ish ed p ro d u c ts w o u ld b e left to
su p p ly an d d e m a n d . F a c to r y m a n a g e m e n ts w o u ld be g iv e n p r o ­
d u c tio n q u o ta s in m o n e y v a lu e , n o t sp ecific o u tp u t targets. T h e y
w o u ld thus be a b le to d e c id e b e tw e e n th e c la im s o f q u a lit y a n d
q u a n tity . T h e y w o u ld h a v e to sell th eir goo d s in c o m p e titio n w ith
o th e r firm s. T h e y w o u ld also b e a b le to d e c id e h o w to sp en d th eir
profits b e tw e e n su ch r iv a l c la im s as re in v estm e n t, w o rk e rs’ houses
a n d w a g e b o n u s e s .2
It still re m a in e d the a v o w e d in te n tio n to c o m p le te th e o rig in a l
p la n in 1952. It a p p e a r e d h o w e v e r th a t th e p la n h a d u n d e rg o n e
silen t b u t fa r-re a c h in g revisio n . S o m e p ro jects, su ch as la rg e -sca le
1 Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 5 th J a n u a r y 1950.
2 F o r reo rg an isatio n o f fa c to ry m a n a g e m e n t in Y u g o s la v ia , see b e lo w , p . 2 8 1.
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L A NNI NG 253
m a n u fa c tu r e o f lo c o m o tiv e s a n d b ic y c lc s, h ad b een a b a n d o n e d .
R e sp o n s ib le officials a d m itte d th a t th ere w a s no p ro sp e ct o f
a c h ie v in g the targ e t o f 450,000 tons o f c ru d c o il from th e o il­
field in S la v o n ia . O n th e o th e r h an d e le c trific a tio n targets w ere
a c tu a lly in cre a se d .
T h e p la n h a d a im e d a t in d u stria lisin g the b a c k w a r d region s.
T h e m ost ra p id rate w as to be in M a c e d o n ia , w h ic h w as to b eco m e
a n im p o rta n t c e n trc o f e le c tric p o w e r a n d to h a v e a la rg e textile
in d u str y , a n iron fo u n d ry a n d fa cto rie s p r o d u c in g so ap, co n c re te
p r e fa b ric a te d p ro d u cts a n d tin n ed fru it an d v eg eta b le s. Bosnia
w a s to b e co m e a c e n tre o f m e ta llu rg y , based on co a l an d iro n ore,
o f w h ic h it has som e d ep o sits. M o sta r, th e p ic tu re sq u e T u rk ish
g a rriso n to w n in H e rc e g o v in a , w a s to be the c e n tre o f a n ew
a lu m in iu m in d u stry . A s steps to w a rd s these results, im p o rta n t
ra ilw a y s h a v e b een c o n stru c te d . T h e B o sn ia n iro n ore d istrict o f
L ju b ija h as b e en fin k ed w ith th e r a ilw a y system . T h e first h a lf o f
a sta n d a rd g a u g e n o rth -to -so u th lin e th ro u g h Bosnia has been
c o m p le te d , from S a m a c to S a r a je v o . It is h o p ed to c o n n e c t S a r a ­
j e v o b y s ta n d a rd g a u g e lin e w ith th e A d r ia tic b y th e en d o f 19 5 1 ,
a n d to e le c trify this w h o le lin e from a n e w p o w e r sta tio n at
J a b la n ic a , in th e p re c ip ito u s m o u n ta in v a lle y o f th e riv e r N e re tv a .
A lb a n ia ’ s e c o n o m y w as for th ree y e a rs d e p e n d e n t o n th a t o f
Y u g o s la v ia . T h e A lb a n ia n - Y u g o s la v e c o n o m ic tre a ty o f N o v e m b e r
194 6 p r o v id e d fo r c o -o rd in a tio n o f th e e c o n o m ic p lan s o f the tw o
c o u n trie s, a d ju stm e n t o f th e c u r r e n c y v a lu e s, c irc u la tio n a n d price
le v els, a n d a Y u g o s la v g u a r a n te e th a t su fficien t go o d s w o u ld be in
c ir c u la tio n to m a in ta in th e p u rc h a sin g p o w e r o f the tw o cu rre n cie s
a t th e a g re e d ra te o f e x c h a n g e . A lb a n ia n - Y u g o s la v jo in t c o m ­
p a n ie s w e re cre a te d , sim ila r to the S o v ie t- R u m a n ia n a n d S o v ic t-
H u n g a r ia n c o m p a n ie s. T h e s e jo in t c o m p a n ie s co v e re d r a ilw a y
b u ild in g , d iesel o il p ro d u c tio n , e le c trific a tio n , m in in g , sh ip p in g
an d a n A lb a n ia n - Y u g o s la v b a n k . T h e c a p ita l c o n trib u tio n o f e a ch
w a s to be e q u a l, an d e a c h w as to h a v e a n e q u a l v o te on the
d ir e c tin g b o ard s. F o r a y e a r a n d a h a lf Y u g o s la v - A lb a n ia n
e c o n o m ic re la tio n s w e re o u tw a r d ly e x c e lle n t. T h e n the T ito -
C o m in fo r m b re a c h g a v e the A lb a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t a c h a n c e to
b re a k a n a sso cia tio n th at h ad e v id e n tly b een irksom e to it.
A t th e A lb a n ia n C o m m u n ist P a rty co n gre ss in N o v e m b e r 1948
a n e w T w o - Y e a r P la n w as a n n o u n c e d for 1949 50. A c c o r d in g to
th e co n gre ss sp e a k e r G o g o N u sh i, pro gress h a d been m ad e sin ce
th e w a r d e s p ite Y u g o s la v in te rfe re n ce . M in in g o u tp u t in 1948 w as
121 p e r c e n t o f th e 1938 le v e l, a n d th e c u ltiv a te d a re a w as 119 per
254 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVO LU TIO N

ccn t. U n d e r th e n e w p la n , c e re a l o u tp u t w as to be in crea sed

68 p e r ce n t b e y o n d the 1948 le v el. A n e w h y d r o -e le c tric p o w e r
sta tio n w as to be b u ilt, a n d a su g a r re fin e ry , a la rg e te x tile factory'
an d a la rg e ta n n e ry w e re to be set u p . T h e ce m e n t o u tp u t b y 1950
w as to be 160 p e r c e n t o f 1948. T h e m ost im p o rta n t m in in g
in creases w e re to be in p e tro l (19 5 0 o u tp u t to fiv e tim es th a t o f
1948), c o p p e r o re (six tim es), c h ro m e ore (th ir ty tim es) a n d b ro w n
c o a l (on e h u n d re d tim es). T h e o u tp u t figu res fo r 1948, w h ic h a rc
n ot g iv e n in th e rep o rt, w e re p re s u m a b ly v e r y sm all. B u t the
p rop osed p a c e o f d e v e lo p m e n t is a t least su p e rfic ia lly im p re ssiv e .
Its a ch ie v e m e n t w o u ld b e en su re d , o ffic ia l spo kesm en stressed, b y
th e h e lp o f S o v ie t ra w m ate ria ls, m a c h in e r y a n d te ch n icia n s.
T h e s e fa r-re a c h in g p lan s strik e the im a g in a tio n . E v e n a fo reig n
o b se rv e r c a n n o t fa il to be afTected b y th e en th u sia sm an d o p t i­
m ism o f th e p la n n ers. M o re o v e r it is c e rta in th a t la rg e -sca le
in d u stria lisa tio n , p u b lic w o rk s a n d m e c h a n isa tio n o f a g r ic u ltu r e
a rc th e rig h t rem ed ies fo r th e ru ra l o v e r -p o p u la tio n a n d p o v e rty ,
an d th e la c k o f m a n u fa c tu re d g o o d s, w h ic h w e re so s trik in g in the
o ld E astern E u ro p e . It is also u n d e rs ta n d a b le th at th e n e w re g im e s
sh ou ld w ish , fro m a g e n e ra l fe e lin g o f p a trio tism , to d im in ish th eir
co u n trie s’ e c o n o m ic d e p e n d e n c e o n fo reig n co u n trie s.
B u t it w o u ld be a g ra v e m istak e to assu m e th a t b e c a u se these
aim s h a v e b een set d o w n on p a p e r th e y w ill n e c e ssa rily be
a c h ie v e d . It is still less c e rta in th a t th e y w ill b e a c h ie v e d in the
best w a y . T w o fe a tu res c a ll fo r b r ie f c o m m e n t here.
O n e is th at a ll th e p la n s a im to c re a te sim ila r in d u stries. I t is
tru e th at the sou th -ea stern co u n trie s a re so d e ficie n t in h e a v y
in d u stry th a t it w ill be a lo n g tim e b efo re th e ir n eed s c a n be
satisfied . It is also tru e th a t b e tw e e n th e tw o m ost a d v a n c e d
co u n trie s, C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d P o la n d , a tte m p ts a re b e in g m a d e
to co -o rd in a te p lan s. In p a r tic u la r th e p o w e r resou rces o f the
S ile sia n in d u stria l basin are to be to som e e xte n t p o o le d . T h e r e
are also m a jo r c o n stru c tio n sch em es o f b e n efit to se v eral c o u n trie s,
su ch as the O d e r - D a n u b e c a n a l in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , a n d the
D a n u b e -B la c k S e a c a n a l in R u m a n ia . B o th w o u ld fa c ilita te tra d e
th ro u g h o u t the w h o le a re a b e tw e e n th e B a ltic a n d B la c k S eas.
A s lo n g as the S o v ie t lead ers th in k in term s o f m ilita r y p r e p a r a ­
tions a g a in st the W est, an d a re a b le to im p o se th e ir w'ill in E astern
E u ro p e , the d e m a n d fo r th e p ro d u c ts o f h e a v y in d u stry is lik e ly to
e x c ee d the su p p ly . B u t these c o n d itio n s w ill n ot last fo r e v e r. T h e
d a n g e r th at th e p la n s w ill u ltim a te ly lea d to w a ste fu l c o m p e titio n
b e tw e e n th e E ast E u ro p e a n co u n trie s, a n d to o v e r -p ro d u c tio n
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y A ND P L A NNI NG 255
in h e a v y in d u stry , th o u g h im p ro b a b le in th e im m e d ia te fu tu re,
c a n n o t b e lig h t ly dism issed fo r fu rth e r a h e a d .
T h e se co n d fe a tu re o f th e pla n s is th e c o m p a r a tiv e n e g le c t o f
c o n su m e rs’ go o d s in d u strie s. It is o f co u rse tru e th at a m u ch
so u n d e r fo u n d a tio n o f c a p ita l go o d s in d u stries is n eed ed th an
E astern E u ro p e possessed b efo re th e w a r , a n d th at the re g io n ’s
n a tu ra l resou rces c a n b e fa r m o re th o ro u g h ly e x p lo ite d for this
p u rp o se th an h ith e rto . It is also tru e th a t the co n su m e rs’ go od s
in d u strie s a re to m a k e c o n sid e ra b le progress u n d e r th e p lan s,
a n d th a t th e o fficia l sta te m e n ts d e c la re th a t the sta n d a rd o f liv in g
w ill g r e a t ly in cre a se . B u t e stim a tes o f sta n d a rd o f liv in g are
d iffic u lt a n d c o n tro v e rsia l. T h e e x p e rie n ce o f th e sh ort-term
r e c o v e r y p la n s a lr e a d y c a rrie d o u t, a n d o f th e su ccessive F iv e-
Y e a r P lan s in th e U .S .S .R ., su ggest th a t in p ra c tic e w h e n e v e r
a d ju stm e n ts h a v e to be m ad e it is th e co n su m e rs’ goo d s in d ustries
th a t a re scra p p e d . T h e sta n d a rd o f liv in g , as re v ea le d in th e
o b se rv a tio n b y u n b ia se d w itn esses o f o b v io u s o b je cts o f e v e r y ­
d a y life, h as n ot im p ro v e d so n o ta b ly as w as p ro m ised . It is
p o ssib le to a ttr ib u te this to b a d lu c k — to d ro u g h t, o r ‘ c a p ita listic
e n c ir c le m e n t ’ . B u t th e fa ct re m ain s tht th ere h a v e b e en an d are
lik e ly to be d isa p p o in tm e n ts, a n d th at in th e fa c e o f d isa p p o in t­
m en ts th e p la n n ers w ill n o t sa c rific e th eir c a p ita l c o n stru ctio n
p la n s b u t w ill ask fo r fu rth e r sacrifices from th e p eo p le.
T h e p e rc e n ta g e fig u res o f p la n fu lfilm e n t, o fficia lly realeased
at m o re o r less re g u la r in te rv a ls b y th e g o v e rn m e n ts, are m e a n in g ­
less as th ere is n o w a y o f d isc o v e rin g on w h a t the p e rc e n ta g es are
re a lly b ase d . B u t e n o u g h in fo rm a tio n is a v a ila b le to sh ow th a t the
w a ste o f m a te ria ls, m ach in es, w o rk in g tim e an d sk ill, an d the p r o ­
d u c tio n o f go o d s o f m ise ra b le q u a lity , w e ll k n o w n featu res o f
S o v ie t p la n n in g , a rę o c c u rrin g in E astern E u ro p e . T h e fa m ilia r
d ile m m a o f th e S o v ie t p la n n e r— to b e u n m a sked as a sa b o te u r
to d a y fo r p la n n in g a ta rg e t to lo w fo r th e taste o f the p o litic a l
bosses, o r to be u n m a sk e d as a s a b o te u r n e x t y e a r for not fu lfillin g
th e im p o ssib le ta rg e t w h ic h h e set in o rd e r to please th e p o litic a l
bosses— in c re a s in g ly co n fro n ts th e p la n n e r in E astern E u ro p e .
O n ly Y u g o s la v ia h as tu rn e d h e r b a c k o n this w itc h e s’ sa b b a th ,
a n d w h e r e h e r re tre a t w ill en d is n o t y e t c le a r.
In a n y case, th e fu lfilm e n t o f th e p la n s d ep en d s on th e s u p p ly o f
la b o u r , ra w m a te ria ls a n d in d u stria l e q u ip m e n t. T h e first o f these
d e p e n d s o n th e o r g a n is a tio n o f th c p e a sa n ts, w o rk e rs a n d te ch n icia n s,
w h ic h w ill b e co n sid e re d in th e n e x t c h a p te r. T h e secon d a n d th ird
fa cto rs d e p e n d o n th e o rg a n isa tio n o f in te rn a tio n a l trad e.
 256 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

FO REIGN T R A D E PROBLEMS

T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e fo reig n tra d e o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n

co u n trie s sin ce th e w a r falls ro u g h ly in to th re e p erio d s.
In the first p e rio d , w h ic h lasted u n til p e rh a p s th e m id d le o f
1946, e xp o rts w e re e x tr e m e ly sm a ll, an d a m in im u m o f im p o rts
w ere essential to get th e d islo ca ted e co n o m ics in to m o tio n a t a ll.
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , P o lan d a n d Y u g o s la v ia re ce iv e d free im p o rts
from U .N .R .R .A . a n d im p o rts on lo a n from th e S o v ie t U n io n .
A lb a n ia d e p e n d e d e n tire ly on U .N . R . R .A . , an d R u m a n ia ,
H u n g a ry a n d B u lg a ria a lm o st e n tire ly on the U .S .S .R .
In th e secon d stage, as c o m m u n ic a tio n s w e re restored a n d b u si­
ness c o n ta c ts resu m ed , tra d e d ev e lo p e d in v a rio u s d ire c tio n s.
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia an d P o lan d g r e a tly in creased th eir tra d e w ith th e
W est. F o r R u m a n ia a n d H u n g a r y , w h ic h h a d to d e liv e r a la rg e
p a rt o f th eir p ro d u c tio n as re p a ra tio n s to th e U .S .S .R ., tra d e w ith
o th e r m ark ets w as d iffic u lt, b u t H u n g a r y w as a b le a p p r e c ia b ly
to in crease h e r tra d e w ith W e ste rn E u ro p e . B u lg a ria c o n tin u e d to
d ep e n d on tra d e w ith th e U .S .S .R . T h is w as d u e p a r t ly to S o v ie t
p o litica l an d m ilita r y d o m in a tio n , b u t a lso to th e fa ct th a t B u l­
g a r ia had p rev io u sly b een m o re d e p e n d e n t o n th e G e r m a n
m ark et th an a n y o th e r c o u n try o f th e re g io n , a n d w as n o w
th erefo re m o re isolated .
T h e th ird stage b e g a n w ith th e refusal in A u g u s t 194 7, a t S o v ie t
d ic ta tio n , o f M a rsh a ll A id . H a v in g fo rced its sa tellites to re je ct
W e ste rn h elp , th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h a d to in c re a s e its o w n
tra d e w ith a ll th e E ast E u ro p e a n co u n trie s. T h u s a fte r th e a u tu m n
o f 1947, the U .S .S .R . c o n tin u e d to d o m in a te th e fo reig n tra d e o f
B u lg a ria an d R u m a n ia , w h ile h er sh are in th e tra d e o f th e o th e r
co u n trie s in cre a se d . W ith e a c h o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n states she
c o n c lu d e d tra d e p a cts for se v eral y e a rs (u su a lly fiv e ). It sh o u ld be
stressed, h o w e v e r, th at e a c h y e a r th e p a c ts a rc re in te rp re te d . It
d oes n ot fo llo w th a t th e o rig in a l lo n g -te rm ta rg e ts for m u tu a l
tra d e w ill be e x a c tly fu lfille d , e ith e r in q u a n tity o r in ty p e s o f
go o d s e x c h a n g e d . In 1948 th e C o u n c il fo r M u t u a l E c o n o m ic A id
(or ‘ C o m c c o n ’ ) w as fo rm e d to c o -o rd in a te th e tra d e o f th e
‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c ie s ’ w ith e a c h o th e r an d w ith th e U .S .S .R .
L ittle is k n o w n o f its w o rk in gs. I t seem s, h o w e v e r, th a t its m a in
task h as b een to o rg an ise th e b o y c o tt o f Y u g o s la v ia b y C o m in -
form co u n trie s, w h ic h h as su b sta n tia lly m o d ifie d th e p a tte r n o f
tra d e in E astern E u ro p e .
The m ost im p o rta n t tra d e p a c ts c o n c lu d e d b e tw e e n E ast
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L ANNI NG 257
E u ro p e a n co u n trie s a n d th e U .S .S .R . w e re the S o v ic t-C z c c h o -
slo v a k a g re e m e n t o f D e c e m b e r 1947 a n d ih c S o v ie t- l’ olish a g re e ­
m en t o f J a n u a r y 1948.* B o th p r o v id e d for an e x c h a n g e , o v e r a
fiv e -y e a r p e rio d , to the v a lu e o f U .S . d o lla rs 1000 m illio n . T h e
c h ie f S o v ie t e x p o rt to C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w as g ra in . C z e c h o slo v a k
e x p o rts to th e U .S .S .R . w e re to in c lu d e m a ch in e ry , o il p ip in g ,
c h e m ic a ls, c lo th in g a n d su g a r. T o P o lan d the S o v ie t e x p o rts w e re
to con sist m a in ly o f ores, o il p ro d u c ts, ra w c o tto n , m oto r v eh icle s
a n d tra cto rs. P o la n d w as to e x p o rt c o a l, c o k e , textiles, ra ilw a y
r o llin g sto ck , steel, su g a r an d ce m e n t. In a d d itio n , a S o v ie t cred it
o f U .S . d o lla rs 450 m illio n w as g ra n te d for the p u rch a se o f the
steel m ill p ro je c te d u n d e r th e S ix - Y e a r P la n 1 an d o th e r in d u stria l
p la n t. W ith th e o th e r C o m in fo rm states the S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t
h as n ot c o n c lu d e d lo n g -te rm tra d e a greem en ts. T h e v o lu m e o f
tra d e h as been d e c id e d from y e a r to y e a r. T h e U .S .S .R . has
d o m in a te d B u lg a ria n an d R u m a n ia n tra d e sin ce the w ar.
H u n g a r y ’s tra d e w ith the U .S .S .R . h as n o ta b ly in creased sin ce
a n a g re e m e n t o f O c t o b e r 1948.
T h e o n ly im p o rta n t lo n g -te rm a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n a C o m in fo rm
sta te a n d a n d a W estern c o u n tr y is th e A n g lo -P o lish a g re e m e n t o f
J a n u a r y 1949. T h is p ro v id e d fo r a fiv e -y e a r total e x c h a n g e o f
£ 1 30 m illio n — a b o u t h a lf th e v a lu e o f the S o v iet-P o lish a g re e ­
m en t. P olish e x p o rts w e re to consist m a in ly o f b a co n , eggs and
p o u ltr y , tim b e r a n d fu rn itu re . B rita in w as to send ru b b e r, sem i­
m a n u fa c tu re d c o p p e r go o d s an d tro p ic a l food stu ffs. It is w o rth
n o tin g th a t fu lfilm e n t b y P o la n d o f this tre a ty req u ires a c o n ­
sid e ra b le im p ro v e m e n t in p ig -b re e d in g , w h ic h is th e w eak est
p o in t in P olish a g ric u ltu re . I f th e a g re e m e n t is to be fu lfille d , it is
u n lik e ly th a t th e P o lish g o v e rn m e n t w ill risk d islo c a tin g a g r ic u l­
tu re b y th e m ass c o lle c tiv isa tio n o f p e a san t farm s. C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
a n d H u n g a ry ' still h a v e som e tra d e w ith the W est, e sp e c ia lly w ith
p o lit ic a lly n e u tra l S w itz e r la n d an d S w e d e n .1
Y u g o s la v ia ’ s la rg e st cu sto m e r in th e im m e d ia te p o st-w a r y ears
w a s th e U .S .S .R ., w ith w h o m she m a d e a co m p re h e n siv e o n e -y e a r
1 S e c a b o v e , p . 249.
* T h e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t bro k e o f f c o m m e rc ia l rela tio n s w ith H u n g a r y at the
b e g in n in g o f 19 50 in co n n e ctio n w ith the arrest o f th e B ritish bu siness-m an M r.
E d g a r S a n d e rs o n ch a rg e s o f es p io n a g e . T h e B ritish o b je c tio n w as not to th e fact o f
arre st as su ch bu t to th e refu sal to a llo w the priso n er to see th e B ritish consul a n d to
th e m eth o d s o f p re p a ra tio n o f th e ‘ t r i a l ’ . A n A m e ric a n su b je c t, M r. V o g e le r , w as
‘ t r i e d ’ at th e sa m e tim e. A fte r re c e iv in g , lik e S a n d e rs , a lo n g priso n se n ten ce, he w as
relea sed b y th e H u n g a ria n g o v e rn m e n t a fte r the U n ite d S ta te s g o v e rn m e n t h a d m ad e
su b sta n tia l e c o n o m ic co n cessio n s to H u n g a ry . T h e m a n -h u n t a n d th e ran so m e h a v e
th u s b e c o m e re g u la r m eth o d s o f p o p u la r-d e m o c ra tic tra d e d ip lo m a c y .
258 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
tra d e a gre e m e n t in J u ly 1947. Im p o rta n t a g re e m e n ts w e re also
m ad e w ith C z e c h o s lo v a k ia in 1946 an d w ith H u n g a r y in 194 7.
T h e r e w as also som e tra d e w ith I ta ly , H o lla n d , S w itz e r la n d an d
S w ed en .
W ith th e T ito -C o m in fo r m b re a ch o f J u n e 1948 Y u g o s la v ia ’ s
tra d e relatio n s w ith th e C o m in fo r m co u n trie s su ffered . A g r e e m e n t
w as e v e n tu a lly re a c h e d w ith th e U .S .S .R . fo r a v e r y m u c h sm a lle r
e x c h a n g e o f good s. N e g o tia tio n s w ith C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , H u n g a r y
a n d P o la n d , a ll o f w h o m w e re e x p e c te d to c o n trib u te v a lu a b le
m a ch in e ry o r in d u stria l ra w m a te ria ls, c a m e to a sta n d still in the
su m m e r o f 1 9 4 9 .' Y u g o s la v ia w as fo rc e d to seek m o re tra d e w ith
th e W est, a t th e cost o f g iv in g p la u s ib ility to th e re p e a te d a c c u s a ­
tion from C o m in fo rm sou rces th a t th e T i t o c liq u e w a s b e c o m in g
a tool o f the ‘ im p e ria lis ts ’ . A te m p o ra r y A n g lo - Y u g o s la v a g re e ­
m en t in D e c e m b e r 1948 w as fo llo w e d a y e a r la te r b y a fiv e -y e a r
A n g lo -Y u g o s la v a g re e m e n t p r o v id in g fo r a n e x c h a n g e o f go o d s to
the v a lu e o f £ 100 m illio n . T h e c h ie f Y u g o s la v e x p o rt w as to be
tim b e r. B ritish e xp o rts w e re to in c lu d e ra w w o o l, w o o l a n d c o tto n
y arn s, a n d m a c h in e ry . Y u g o s la v ia also g re a tly in cre a se d h er tra d e
w ith the U n ite d S ta te s an d w ith G e r m a n y . T h e first c o m p re h e n ­
sive fo reig n tra d e figu res p u b lish e d b y th e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t
sin ce th e w a r , a p p e a r e d e a r ly in 1951 a n d sh o w e d th e fo llo w in g
ch an ges.

Yugoslavia's C h ie f Trade Partners 19 4 7 -5 0

Percentage o f Percentage o f
Yugoslavia’s imports Yugoslavia's exports
coming from going to
1947 '9 5 0 1947 *950
U .S .S .R . 2 11 — 165 ---
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ... 18 2 — 18 --
H u n gary 9 — —
84
I t a ly ... 9 10 4 11 4 11 6
U n ite d K in g d o m 5 ' 16 9 2-7 18 7
U n ite d S tates 4 < 2 1.7 2 *3 5
W est G e r m a n y ... — 16 5 --- 12-4
A u stria — 7'7 --- 10 8

1 T h e H u n g a r ia n g o v e rn m e n t d e n o u n c e d th e H u n g a r ia n - Y u g o s la v tra d e a g r e e ­
m en t o f 1947 o n 18 J u n e 1949. T h e P o lish g o v e rn m e n t in fo rm e d th e Y u g o s la v g o v e r n ­
m en t ol its in ten tio n to sto p all d e liv e rie s to Y u g o s la v ia on 7 June 1949. C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
s to p p e d all d e liv e rie s o n 12 J u n e 1949. T h o u g h th e ac tio n o f all th ree w a s o ffic ia lly
m o tiv a te d b y Y u g o s la v fa ilu re to d e liv e r, its re a l rea so n w a s p o litic a l.
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y A ND P L A NNI NG 259
C o n s id e ra b le c re d its w e re also g ra n te d to Y u g o s la v ia b y the
W estern P ow ers. B e tw ee n th e b re a c h w ith the C o m in fo rm and
A p r il 19 5 1 she re c e iv e d , in c re d its o r g ra n ts, fro m the U n ite d
S ta te s 190 m illio n d o lla rs a n d fro m B rita in £ 2 5 m illio n . T h e se
h o w e v e r w e re still in su fficien t fo r h e r needs. A t the en d o f A p r il
1951 she asked for a fu rth e r U .S . d o lla rs 180 m illio n . In J u n e it
w as a n n o u n c e d th at a jo in t U .S .-B ritish -F re n e h g ra n t o f £ 5 0
m illio n w o u ld be m ad e.
A ft e r th e b re a c h o f e c o n o m ic rela tio n s w ith Y u g o s la v ia in 1948,
A lb a n ia , w h ic h h a d n ot a sin gle frie n d ly n e ig h b o u r , w as d e p e n ­
d e n t fo r essen tial im p o rts on sea co m m u n ic a tio n s w ith th e S o v ie t
U n io n , P o la n d , R u m a n ia an d B u lg a ria . S o m e su p p lies h a v e
c e r ta in ly re a c h e d th e c o u n try fro m these states, th ro u g h the
S tra its o f G ib r a lt a r a n d th e D a rd a n e lle s. A s A lb a n ia has little to
o ffe r th em , it w o u ld seem th a t th e y a re su b sid isin g h er fo r p o litic a l
re a so n s.1 T h is p r im itiv e trib a l an d p se u d o -fe u d a l c o u n tr y is w ell
o n its w a y to b e c o m in g a R u ssia n c o lo n y . It m a y , h o w e v e r, d e riv e
c o n sid e ra b le m a te ria l b en efits from this.
T h e p la c e w h ic h w as h e ld in E ast E u ro p e a n tra d e b y G e r m a n y
h as n o w b e en la r g e ly ta k e n b y th e S o v ie t U n io n . In th e d e c a d e
1 9 3 4 -4 4 th e te n d e n c y w as fo r th e w h o le re gio n to b e c o m e
in c o rp o ra te d in a G e r m a n Grossraumurirtschafi d ire c te d b y the
N a z i M in isters o f E c o n o m ic s S c h a c h t a n d F u n k . T h e re gio n w as
to p r o d u c e w h a t w a s c o n v e n ie n t fo r th e G e rm a n e c o n o m y , and
tra d e b o th w ith in th e re gio n a n d b e tw e e n it a n d th e rest o f th e
w o rld w a s to b e su b je c t to G e rm a n a p p ro v a l. T o - d a y th e tren d is
to w a r d s th e in c o rp o ra tio n o f th e w h o le re gio n in th e S o v iet
e c o n o m y . T r a d e w ith in th e re g io n , e sp e c ia lly b e tw e e n th e m o re
a d v a n c e d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y an d the less
a d v a n c e d co u n trie s to th e sou th -ea st, is e n c o u ra g e d . S o v iet
e x p o rts to th e re g io n a rc fo r th e m ost p a rt ra w m a te r ia ls : th e p la c e
o f G e r m a n y as a su p p lie r o f m a c h in e r y an d h e a v y e q u ip m e n t is
b e in g ta k e n ra th e r b y w estern P o la n d a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , to
w h ic h m a y in tim e b e a d d e d th e e astern zo n e o f G e r m a n y . T h e
U .S .S .R . h as re p la c e d G e r m a n y n o t so m u c h in th e ty p e o f go od s
it su p p lie s as in th e p ro p o rtio n o f tra d e w h ic h it secu res.
B u t e v e n tra d e w ith in th e re g io n is n o t u n re se rv e d ly e n c o u ra g ed
b y th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t. I f id e o lo g ic a l fa cto rs o p p o se it, it w ill be
p r e v e n te d , as th e case o f h e re tic a l Y u g o s la v ia show s. A n im p o rta n t
d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e p o sitio n o f th e U .S .S .R . in E astern

■ A cco rd in g to R a d io T ir a n a (21 J u n e 1949) A lb a n ia ’s im p o rls for 19.(9 w ere

es tim a te d at a v a lu e o f 2,480 m illio n lek , her ex p o rts at o n ly 890 m illio n lek.
26o THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
E u ro p e ’ s tra d e to -d a y a n d th a t o f G e r m a n y ten y e a rs a g o is th at
e co n o m ic c o n n e ctio n s a rc fa r m ore stro n g ly a n d r ig id ly re in fo rced
b y id e o lo g ic a l links th a n w as e v e r th e c a sc e v e n w ith th e m ost
fascist o f G e r m a n y 's d ep e n d e n t g o v e rn m e n ts.
L ik e G e rm a n tra d e in th e th irties, S o v ie t tra d e to -d a y h as b o th
b e n e ficial and h arm fu l aspects fo r E astern E u ro p e .
G e rm a n y o ffere d fo r E ast E u ro p e a n food stu ffs a n d ra w m a te ria ls
prices w ell a b o v e w o rld m a rk e t levels, a n d so raised th e cost o f
these p ro d u cts th a t th e y c o u ld n o lo n g e r c o m p e te in o th e r m a r­
kets. T h e n th e G e rm a n s w e re a b le to e x p lo it this d e p e n d e n c e on
th em to d e m a n d n e w e x c h a n g e ra tes to th e a d v a n ta g e o f th e
R e ic h sm a rk , an d to im p o se h ig h p rices fo r th eir o w n e x p o rts.
S o v iet p rice p o lic y is co v e re d in se c re c y . E x c h a n g e s a re a n n o u n c e d
to th e w o rld in term s o f th e c a te g o rie s o f go od s to b e d e liv e re d
o n e a ch sid e, an d it is u su a lly sta ted th a t th e y a re p r ic e d ‘ on
th e basis o f w o rld p r ic e s ’ . In th e first p e rio d a fte r ‘ lib e r a t io n ’
S o v ie t goo d s w e re c e rta in ly o v e rp ric e d a n d th ose o f E astern
E u ro p e u n d e rp ric e d . B y th e S o v iet-P o lish a g re e m e n t o f S e p te m b e r
'9 4 5 very la rg e q u a n titie s o f Polish c o a l h a d to b e d e liv e re d
to th e U .S .S .R . a t o n c -te n th o f th e p ric e th en o ffe re d b y D e n ­
m a r k .' S in c e th en th e q u a n tity re q u ire d h as b e en re d u c e d ,
an d th e p ric e m a y h a v e b een raised . T h e re v ela tio n s o f Y u g o s la v
spo kesm en sin ce th e C o m in fo r m - T ito q u a rr e l h a v e sh o w n th a t
Y u g o s la v go o d s w e re u n d e rp rice d a n d S o v ie t goo d s o v e r p ric e d in
th e e a r lie r S o v ie t- Y u g o s la v tra d e a g re e m e n ts. A n o th e r tric k fo r­
m erly used b y th e G e rm a n s — to re -e x p o rt to h a rd c u r r e n c y ’
co u n trie s a t h ig h e r p rices goo d s b o u g h t in E astern E u ro p e — has
also b e en p ractised b y th e U .S .S .R ., fo r in sta n ce w ith B u lg a ria n
ro se-w ater.
S o m e w ell-in fo rm e d ob servers b e lie v e th a t th e e x to r tio n
ta ctics o f th e first p e rio d w e re la r g e ly d u e to su sp ic io n an d
in e x p e rie n c e , an d th at th e y a re n o w c h a n g in g fo r th e b e tte r.
T h e y a rg u e th a t th e S o v ie t n e g o tiato rs are fin d in g th a t su ch
b e h a v io u r sim p ly d oes n ot p a y , in fa ct th a t it is a m ista k e to k ill
a goose th a t lays a g o ld e n e g g . H o w sw ift a n d h o w g r e a t this
im p ro v e m e n t w ill b e re m ain s an o p e n q u estio n . O n e m u st n o t
forget th a t th e E ast E u ro p e a n c o m m u n ist tra d e n e g o tia to rs a re
d e a lin g , w h e n th e y visit M o sc o w fo r tra d e talks, w ith th eir
h ie ra r c h ic a l su p eriors in a h ig h ly d isc ip lin e d w o rld o rg a n is a tio n .
I t is n o to rio u sly d iffic u lt fo r a se rg e a n t to a rg u e w ith a g e n e ra l.
A n o th e r fo rm e r G e r m a n a b u se w as to fo rce E ast E u ro p e a n
1 M ik o ła jc z y k , The r a .tn n o f Soiiei Domination, p p . 1 5 8 -9 .
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y A ND P L A NNI NG 261
c o u n trie s to b u y go o d s o f little v a lu e to th em . T h e m ost im p o rta n t
c a te g o r y w e re a rm a m e n ts, u su a lly n o t o f th e latest ty p e . A s sp are
p a rts w o u ld h a v e to b e g o t fro m th e sa m e so u rce , this in crea sed the
c o u n trie s ’ p o litic a l d e p e n d e n c e o n th e R e ic h . T h e r e w e re a lso the
c o n sig n m e n ts o f fo u n ta in -p e n s, m o u th -o rg a n s a n d a sp irin s w h ich
r e c e iv e d so m u c h p u b lic it y in th e th irties. B u t im p orts from
G e r m a n y a lso o f c o u rse in c lu d e d v a lu a b le m a c h in e r y , tra n sp o rt
e q u ip m e n t, c h e m ic a ls an d m e ta llu rg ic a l go od s. B e tw ee n 1934 an d
1938 im p o rts o f G e r m a n m a c h in e r y in to R u m a n ia in crea sed e igh t
tim es, a n d in to Y u g o s la v ia fo u r tim es. M a c h in e r y fo rm e d b e tw e e n
tw o -th ird s a n d th re e -q u a rte rs o f e x p o rts from G e r m a n y to b o th
H u n g a r y a n d B u lg a ria in 1 9 3 6 .1
S o v ie t e x p o rts to E a ste rn E u ro p e a lso consist m a in ly o f useful
go o d s, e sp e c ia lly c o k e , ores, ra w c o tto n , a g r ic u ltu r a l m a c h in e ry ,
v eh ic le s a n d o il p ro d u c ts. B u t go o d s o f less o b v io u s p ro d u c tiv e
v a lu e a re a lso sent in la rg e q u a n titie s. F irst a m o n g th ese co m e
a rm a m e n ts, w h o se s u p p ly h as o f co u rse e x a c tly th e sam e p o litic a l
aim s a n d c o n se q u e n c e s as in th e p e rio d o f G e rm a n p re d o m in a n c e .
A p a ra lle l for th e m o u th -o rg a n s m a y b e fo u n d in the flood o f
S o v ie t lite ra tu r e — m a in ly p o litic a l— a n d film s. T h e G e rm a n s d id
n o t a tte m p t to d r iv e W e ste rn film s fro m E ast E u ro p e a n cin e m a s
u n til th e y w e re a t w a r w ith th e W e ste rn P ow ers. In E astern
E u ro p e to -d a y th e d r iv e a g a in st W e ste rn c o n te m p o r a r y c u ltu re o f
a ll k in d s is o n e o f th e first d u tie s o f th e co m m u n ist p a rtie s: it is
e x tr e m e ly lu c r a tiv e to th e S o v ie t c in e m a a n d p u b lish in g trusts,
w h ic h a r c w e ll o n th e ir w a y to a c q u ir in g a m o n o p o ly . It w o u ld be
in te re stin g to k n o w h o w m u c h th e E ast E u ro p e a n states h a v e h ad
to p a y , in e x p o rts o f g o o d p ro d u c e , fo r c o p ie s o f S ta lin ’s m aster­
p ie c e , th e Short History o f the All-U nion Communist l'arty {Bolshevik),
p u b lish e d in th e ir o w n la n g u a g e s in M o sc o w , o r fo r th e rig h t
to p u b lish in th e ir o w n c o u n tr y tra n slatio n s o f this w o rk , o f the
w o rk s o f L e n in a n d S ta lin , o f v ast e d itio n s o f G o r k i a n d o f m u ch
sm a lle r b u t c o n sid e ra b le ed itio n s o f R u ssia n classics. T h e r e is
a b s o lu te ly n o c o m p a r iso n h e re w ith G e r m a n y . In th e th irties
th e re w as a g e n u in e d e m a n d for G e r m a n te c h n ic a l an d scien tific
w o rk s in E a ste rn E u ro p e , b u t N a z i id e o lo g ic a l lite ra tu re w as
h a r d ly o b ta in a b le o u tsid e th e R e ic h , e x c e p t p e rh a p s a m o n g
so m e o f th e G e r m a n m in o ritie s. It w o u ld also b e in te re stin g to
k n o w h o w m u ch is p a id fo r th e tens o f m illio n s o f p h o to g ra p h s o f
S ta lin , a n d th e h u n d re d s o f th o u san d s o f p h o to g ra p h s o f o th er

1 See article by K rugm ann in D tutsdu r Volkswirt (Berlini of 31 M a r c h 19 39 ; G.

G rdjić in AJJairts danubunrus (Bucarest), M arch 1939.
2 Ö2 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
m em b ers o f th e S o v ie t P o litb u ro , a n d w h a t p ro p o rtio n o f th e ra w
c o tto n im p o rte d from th e U .S .S .R . h as to b e used to m a n u fa c tu re
th e S o v iet flags w h ic h on p u b lic h o lid a y s a d o rn a lm o st e v e ry
hou se a n d a re c a rrie d b y ch ild re n a n d a d u lts in o fficia l procession s.
T h e G e rm a n s a c q u ire d im p o rta n t in ve stm e n ts in E astern
E u ro p e b y p o litic a l p ressure, for in sta n ce u n d e r th e G e rm a n -
R u m a n ia n tra d e tre a ty o f 1939 w h ic h p r o v id e d fo r ‘jo in t e c o n o m ic
p la n n in g ’ , a n d b y th e tra n sfe re n ce o f J e w ish -o w n e d en terp rises to
m em b ers o f th e G e rm a n m in o rities. T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h as
d o n e w ith G e rm a n -o w n e d p r o p e rty w h a t th e G e rm a n s d id w ith
J e w ish -o w n e d . M o r e o v e r ‘ G e r m a n p r o p e r t y ’ h as b een w id e ly
in te rp re te d so as to in c lu d e fo rm e r A llie d p r o p e rty w h ic h th e
G e rm a n s fo rced th e F re n c h o r B e lg ia n o w n e rs to sell to th em
d u r in g th e w a r. T h e U .S .S .R . c a n c e lle d th e h u g e o u tsta n d in g
d eb ts o f G e r m a n y to th e e x -G e rm a n sa te llite c o u n trie s, b u t
d e m a n d e d fu ll p a y m e n t to h e rse lf o f th e ir d eb ts to G e r m a n y , an d
th en ‘ g e n e r o u s ly ’ co n sen ted to a c c e p t o n ly a p a rt. S o v ie t-
R u m a n ia n a n d S o v ie t- H u n g a r ia n jo in t c o m p a n ie s h a v e been
fo rm e d , in w h ic h th e S o v ie t c o n trib u tio n consists o f fo rm e r G e r ­
m a n assets in th e b ra n c h o f p r o d u c tio n in q u estio n a n d th e c o n ­
trib u tio n o f th e R u m a n ia n o r H u n g a r ia n g o v e rn m e n t consists o f
fu rth e r resou rces in th e sam e b ra n c h . S u c h c o m p a n ie s m o n o p o lise
a ir a n d riv e r tra n sp o rt in b o th c o u n trie s, a n d co n tro l m ost o f
H u n g a r y ’s b a u x ite an d a la rg e p a rt o f R u m a n ia ’ s p e tro l an d
tim b e r. E v e n in e x -A llie d co u n trie s th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s c o n tro l
im p o rta n t reso u rces, su ch as th e J a c h y m o v u ra n iu m m in es in
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia .
T h e r e is, h o w e v e r, o n e v e r y im p o rta n t d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n
G e rm a n a n d S o v ie t e c o n o m ic p o lic y to w a rd s E a ste rn E u ro p e .
G e rm a n d e m a n d for E ast E u ro p e a n foo d stu ffs a n d r a w m a te ria ls
in th e th irties sa ve d th ese co u n trie s from th e slu m p , a n d restored
th em to re la tiv e p ro sp e rity on th e sa m e e c o n o m ic fo u n d a tio n s
w h ic h th e y h a d h a d b efo re th e slu m p . I t is n ot tru e th a t G e r m a n y
tried to d estro y th e ir in d u strie s: ra th e r she so u g h t to e n c o u ra g e
su ch b ra n c h e s as w e re b ased on lo c a l resou rces, a n d to a v o id
c o m p e titio n w ith b ra n c h e s w h ic h w e re b e tte r d e v e lo p e d in
G e r m a n y . E v e n this a ttitu d e w as m o d ifie d d u r in g th e w a r , w h e n
in d u stries w e re even tra n sfe rre d from th e R e ic h to E a ste rn E u ro p e
to esca p e A llie d b o m b in g . B u t it is tru e th a t th e G e r m a n s sh o w e d
n o in terest in c r e a tin g e n o rm o u s n e w in d u stries on q u ite d iffe re n t
lines th ro u g h o u t E a ste rn E u ro p e . T h is th e S o v ie t U n io n is d o in g .
A s a g re a t d e v e lo p m e n t o f in d u str y is th e o n ly h o p e o f c u r in g th e
 ECONOMI C R E C O V E R Y AND P L ANNI NG 263
ru ra l o v e r -p o p u la tio n a n d g r o w in g p o v e r ty w h irh w e re the cu rse
o f pre-w a r E astern E u ro p e , it m a y b e a rg u e d th a t S o v ie t e c o n o m ic
p o lic y , u n lik e p r e -w a r G e r m a n , serves th e interests o f th e E ast
E u ro p e a n peop les.
T h is is a seriou s a rg u m e n t. R u ssia p ro vid e s a v ast a n d alm ost
in sa tia b le m a rk e t. A lr e a d y b efo re 19 14 th e in d u stry o f c e n tra l an d
so u th ern P o la n d — o f L ó d ż , W a r s a w a n d th e D o m b ro w a b asin —
th riv e d o n tra d e w ith th e R u ssia n in te rio r.1 P olish in d u stry
d e r iv e d g re a t b e n e fit from R u ssia n e x p a n sio n in A s ia . T h e
p ro sp e cts fo r B o h e m ia n tra d e w ith R u ssia a lso lo ok ed g o o d .
T h e p a n sla v ism o f th e P ole D m o w sk i an d th e C z e c h K r u m a r 2
h a d a so u n d business basis. B e tw ee n th e w o rld w ars th e w h o le
o f E a s te rn E u ro p e w as c u t o f f from this m a rk e t— b y th e re lu c ta n c e
o f th e U .S .S .R . as w e ll as b y th e p r e ju d ic e o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n
r u lin g classes to w h ic h co m m u n ists n o w e x c lu s iv e ly a ttr ib u te it.
I t is n o t su rp risin g th a t to -d a y th e im a g in a tio n o f m a n y sh ou ld
b e fired b y th e v isio n o f o n e g re a t E u ra s ia n e c o n o m y s tre tc h in g
from C a n t o n to P e tsa m o a n d fro m J e n a to S h a n g h a i.
It is, h o w e v e r, n ot e n o u g h th a t th e U .S .S .R . sh o u ld b e w illin g to
ta k e th e p ro d u c ts o f E aste rn E u ro p e : it is n ecessary also th a t she
sh o u ld g iv e in e x c h a n g e . T h e r e a re ra w m a te ria ls an d m a c h in e r y
w h ich th e U .S .S .R . c a n n o t su p p ly to E astern E u ro p e . T h e se m ust
b e o b ta in e d fro m W e ste rn E u ro p e o r from o u tsid e E u ro p e . I t is
to th e e c o n o m ic in terest o f th e U .S .S .R . th a t h e r satellites sh o u ld
tra d e fo r th ese th in g s w ith th e W e st. A g a in s t this m u st be set, in
th e S o v ie t v ie w , th e d a n g e r o f c u ltu r a l a n d p o litic a l c o n ta m in a tio n
b y c o n ta c t w ith th e W e st, w h o se in flu e n ce is in a n y ca se d e e p ly
ro o te d a lr e a d y . T h e r e are o th e r ra w m a te ria ls a n d in d u stria l
e q u ip m e n t w h ic h th e U .S .S .R . c a n su p p ly , b u t w h ic h a re also
n e ed e d b y h e r o w n in d u stry . A s th e la tte r g ro w s, it m a y b e co m e
m o re d iffic u lt to sp a re th em for E astern E u ro p e . T h is is o n e reason
w h y th e e x p a n sio n o f h e a v y in d u stry in E astern E u ro p e m a y lead
to su rp lu s c a p a c it y in th e fu tu re .
T h e m a in clan gers in th e g r o w in g d e p e n d e n c e o f E astern E u ro p e
o n th e U .S .S .R . a rc , h o w e v e r, p o litic a l. O w in g to th e n atu re
o f th e n e w re g im e s, an d th e n a tu re o f in te rn a tio n a l co m m u n ist
o rg a n is a tio n , th e c e n tre o f p o litic a l c o m m a n d lies in M o sc o w , a n d
th e a p p a r a tu s for se c u rin g o b e d ie n c e exists. M o re o v e r the sta n ­
d a rd o f liv in g o f th e S o v ie t p eo p les is fa r b e lo w th a t o f th eir E ast

1 S e e , fo r in sta n ce, R o s a L u x e m b u r g , D ie industritlle Entwicklung Polens, p u b lish ed

in 1899.
8 Sec above, p. 34.
264 the EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
E u ro p e a n n e ig h b o u rs. T h u s , q u ite a p a r t fro m id e o lo g ic a l d isci­
p lin e , a p p e a ls b y E ast E u ro p e a n le a d e rs fo r th e m a in te n a n c e o f
w h a t in M o sc o w m ust seem a n u n ju stifia b le d e g re e o f b o u rg e o is
co m fo rt a re n ot lik e ly to m eet w ith s y m p a th y from th e S o v ie t
lea d ers. D o m in a tio n b y a n y fo reign p o w e r is an u n p le a s a n t th in g ,
b u t i f th e sta n d a rd o f liv in g o f th e d o m in a n t p o w e r is lo w e r th an
th at o f th e su b je c t c o u n try , the p lig h t o f th e d o m in a te d is p a r­
t ic u la r ly b a d .
T h e prospects o f W e st-E a st tra d e a re n ot b rig h t. T h e c h ie f
o b stacles a re p o litic a l. T h - W estern P o w e rs, a n d e s p e c ia lly th e
U n ite d S tate s, a rc u n d e rs ta n d a b ly u n w illin g to sell to th e S o v ie t
U n io n o r h e r satellites go o d s w h ich c o u ld in a n y w a y stre n g th e n
th eir w a r p o te n tia l. It is n ot easy to d e c id e w h a t go o d s fall in to
this c a te g o ry . T h e o n ly sa tisfa c to ry a p p r o a c h is a p e rio d ic
e m p iric a l b a la n c e o f risk w ith a d v a n ta g e .
But th ere a re a lso lo n g e r-te rm e c o n o m ic o b sta cle s. A p o lo g ists
o f the C o m m u n ist regim es like to ta lk as i f a v a st v o lu m e o f tra d e
w ith E astern E u ro p e is re a d y to h a n d as soon as th e W e ste rn
n atio n s ch o o se to e n jo y it, b u t th at this is w ith e ld from th em b y
th e w ick ed m en o f W a ll S tre e t. T h e tru th is d iffe re n t. T h e d e m a n d
o f the eastern co u n trie s fo r w estern p ro d u c ts, e s p e c ia lly fo r in ­
d u s tria l ra w m a te ria ls a n d m a ch in es, is in d e e d g re a t, b u t th e ir
a b ility to o ffer th e W est p ro d u cts e q u a lly a ttr a c tiv e is m o re d o u b t ­
fu l. T h e ir best ra w m a te ria ls a rc re q u ire d b y th e U .S .S .R . O f
food stu ffs th e y still h a v e a su rp lu s. B u t as th e ir u rb a n p o p u la tio n s
in crea se, th e su rp lu s a v a ila b le fo r e x p o rt w ill d im in ish . I f th e
o fficia l p rom ises o f a b e tte r sta n d a rd o f liv in g e v e n a p p ro a c h
fu lfilm e n t, it w ill d im in ish v e r y q u ic k ly . T r a d e c a n n o t b e o n e ­
sid ed . It is n ot th e fa c t o f in d u stria lisa tio n th a t m ak es E a st-W e st
tra d e u n lik e ly : o n th e c o n tra ry , tra d e b e tw e e n in d u str ia l co u n trie s
is p e rfe c tly possib le. T h e e co n o m ic lim itin g fa c to rs a re th e ty p e
o f in d u stria lisa tio n a d o p te d b y th e co m m u n ists, a n d th e S o v ie t
grip on E astern E u ro p e ’ s e c o n o m ic resou rces.
 C H A P T E R TE N

S O C IA L A N D R E L IG IO U S P O L IC Y

THE PEASANTS

H E a g ra r ia n p o lic y o f th e n e w regim es has g e n e ra lly

T fo llo w e d th a t o f th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e y b e g a n w ith the

d istrib u tio n o f la rg e estates a m o n g th e p easan ts. T h e n c a m e
a tra n s itio n a l sta g e , c o rre s p o n d in g to som e e x te n t to th e ‘ N .E .P . ’
p e rio d in th e U .S .S .R . D u r in g this p e rio d th e g o v e rn m e n ts’ m ain
c o n c e rn w a s to o rg a n ise a m o re e ffic ien t a n d ce n tra lise d system o f
e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n to w n an d v illa g e . T h e m a in fea tu res w ere
q u o ta s fo r d e liv e rie s o f c ro p s, c h a n g e s in ta x a tio n , a n d the
e sta b lis h m e n t o f sta te -o w n e d c o -o p e ra tiv e shops in th e c o u n tr y ­
sid e. P r e p a ra tio n s w e re a lso m a d e fo r th e m ech a n isa tio n o f
a g r ic u ltu r e . T h e th ird sta ge has o n ly ju s t b e g u n in th e g re a te r
p a rt o f E astern E u ro p e . I t is the sta g e o f ‘ liq u id a tio n o f the
k u la k s ’ a n d co lle c tiv isa tio n o f a g ric u ltu re .
F a r th e m ost im p o rta n t o f th e p o st-w a r la n d reform s w as the
H u n g a r ia n . A c c o r d in g to a 1935 su rv e y , h o ld in g s o f m o re th an
100 H u n g a r ia n acre s, a m o u n tin g to o-8 p e r ce n t o f th e to tal
n u m b e r o f h o ld in g s, possessed 48 p e r ce n t o f th e la n d , w h ile
93 p e r c e n t o f th e h o ld in g s (those o f less th an 20 acres) possessed
o n ly 32 p e r ce n t. A s a resu lt o f th e la n d refo rm , w h ic h w as b egu n
in h a lf o f H u n g a r y a t th e b e g in n in g o f 1945, a n d e x te n d e d to the
rest o f th e c o u n tr y as soon as th e G e rm a n s h ad b een d riv e n ou t,
th e sh a re o f h o ld in g s u n d e r 20 acres w as raised to 65 p e r cen t.
F ig u re s p u b lish e d in 1947 sh o w 20 p e r cen t as still b e lo n g in g to
h o ld in g s a b o v e 100 acre s, b u t this fig u re in c lu d es sta te-o w n ed
forests. N o p r iv a te la rg e estates re m a in e d . T h e lan d seized u n d er
th e reform a m o u n te d to 3,222,000 h e cta re s. O f this 26 p e r cen t
w a s forest la n d re ta in e d b y th e sta te, 7 p e r c e n t w as p a stu re lan d
a lso r e ta in e d , a n d 9 p e r ce n t w as p u t to m isce lla n e o u s uses. T h e
re m a in d e r, 58 p e r ce n t o f th e co n fisca te d la n d , w a s re d istrib u te d
to p r iv a te p ersons. C la im a n ts w e re lan d less la b o u re rs a n d sm a ll­
h o ld e rs w ith to o little la n d to su p p o rt th e ir fam ilies. 6 63 ,3 59
c la im a n ts re ce iv e d som e la n d . T h is refo rm in d ee d tra n sfo rm ed
265
266 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
H u n g a ria n a g ric u ltu re , an d w as an e v e n t o f g re a t p o litic a l as w ell
as e co n o m ic im p o r ta n c e .1
In P o la n d , too, la n d refo rm w as o v e r d u e . B u t th e issue w as
c o m p lic a te d b y th e p o s t-w a r c h a n g e s o f fro n tie r. T h e p a rts o f
p r e -w a r P o la n d w h e re la rg e estates h a d b e e n m ost d o m in a n t w e re
a n n e x e d b y th e S o v ie t U n io n in 1939 a n d a g a in in 1944. N e v e r ­
theless co n sid e ra b le areas b e lo n g in g to b ig la n d o w n e rs re m a in e d
in th e c e n tra l a n d w estern regio n s o f th e o ld P o la n d . T h e L u b lin
C o m m itte e in S e p te m b e r 1944 a n n o u n c e d th e c o n fisc a tio n o f
la rg e estates, a n d th e process w as c o n tin u e d w h e n th e rest o f
th e c o u n try w as c le a re d o f G e rm a n s. A c c o r d in g to figu res
p u b lish e d in 1947, th e a m o u n t seized w as m o re th a n 3,000,000
h e cta re s, o f w h ic h n e a rly 1,000,000 w as forest la n d , w h ic h th e
sta te took o v e r . T h e r e re m a in e d 2 ,1 3 1 ,2 8 4 h e c ta re s fo r red is­
trib u tio n . O f this 4 6 5 ,6 14 h e cta re s w e re g iv e n to a g r ic u ltu r a l
sch ools, resea rch sta tion s a n d o th e r sta te a g r ic u ltu r a l e n terp rises.
O f th e re m a in d e r, b y th e su m m e r o f 194 7, 1,125 ,0 0 0 h e cta re s h ad
b een g iv e n to 379,000 c la im a n ts w h o h a d to o little la n d o r n on e
a t a ll.2 B u t fa r th e m ost im p o rta n t so u rce o f n e w la n d in P o la n d
w e re th e w estern p ro v in c e s a n n e x e d fro m G e r m a n y . O f th e
5.500.000 P oles w h o h a d settled in this te rrito r y u p to th e en d
o f 1948, 2,500,000 c a m e fro m c e n tra l P o la n d , fro m d istricts o f
ru ra l o v e r-p o p u la tio n .
I n C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , too, e x p ro p r ia tio n o f G e rm a n s fo rm e d th e
m a in basis o f la n d reform . T h e exp u lsio n o f m o re th a n 2,000,000
G e rm a n s fro m th e w estern b o rd e r p ro v in c e s p r o v id e d 2,600,000
h e cta re s o f la n d , o f w h ic h 1,650,000 w e re a r a b le a n d th e rest
forest. O f th e c o n fisc a te d a ra b le la n d , 1,300,000 h e c ta re s w e re
d istrib u ted a m o n g 127,500 n e w o w n e rs, o f w h o m tw o -fifth s
w e re sm allh o ld e rs w ith too little la n d a n d th e rest w e re la n d le ss
la b o u rers. A sm a ll la n d refo rm w as also c a rrie d o u t in S lo v a k ia .
A little less th a n 300,000 h e cta re s w e re se ize d , o f w h ic h a b o u t
100.000 e ach from H u n g a ria n s, fro m S lo v a k ‘ c o lla b o r a t o r s ’ a n d
from th e G e r m a n m in o r ity .3
O f th e B a lk a n la n d reform s, re la tiv e ly th e m ost im p o rta n t w as
in A lb a n ia . It w as estim a te d th a t b e fo re th e w a r o n e -th ird o f the
fe rtile la n d o f th e c o u n tr y b e lo n g e d to som e 200 la n d o w n e rs. A
la n d reform p la n n e d in 1930 h a d n ot b e en c a rrie d o u t. In th e
m o u n ta in o u s d istricts sm a llh o ld e rs w ru n g a liv in g fro m sm all

1 U .N .R R .A . o p e ra tio n a l an a ly sis p a p e r N o . 33.

2 M ik o ła jc z y k , The PatUrn o f Soviet Domination, p . .243.
3 D ia m o n d , Czechoslovakia between West and East.
 S OCI A L A ND RELI GI OUS P O L I C Y 267
plots o f p o o r la n d , a n d in th e fe rtile areas th ere w as a class o f
la n d less la b o u re rs. T h e n e w re g im e th erefo re in A u g u s t 1945
c o n fisca te d a ll h o ld in g s o f m ore th an 20 h e cta re s, w ith the
re se rv a tio n th a t o n p ro p e rtie s w h e re ‘ a d v a n c e d m e th o d s’ w ere
u sed 40 h e cta re s m ig h t be k e p t.1 P r iv a te forest la n d w as tak e n b y
th e sta te , a n d so m e a r a b le w as g iv e n to sta te farm s an d a g ric u l­
tu ra l sch ools. A c c o r d in g to a sta te m e n t b y P rem ie r E n v e r H o x h a
to th e con gress o f th e A lb a n ia n C o m m u n ist P a rty in N o v e m b e r
1948, 320,000 h e cta re s w e re d iv id e d a m o n g 60,000 p ea san t
fam ilies.
In R u m a n ia th e g r e a t estates h ad b e en d estro y e d b y th e lan d
refo rm o f 19 18 , b u t in th e fo llo w in g tw e n ty y e a rs la n d h ad a g a in
c h a n g e d h an d s. B y 1944 th ere w as a su b sta n tia l class o f b ig la n d ­
o w n e rs, o w n in g a q u a n tity o f la n d w h ic h , th o u g h fa r sm a ller th an
in 19 18 , w as still w o rth re d istrib u tin g . T h e n e w la n d reform o f
194 5, b y co n fisc a tin g this la n d , a c q u ire d a to ta l o f 1,4 2 3 ,14 5
h e cta re s. O f this th e sta te k ep t 329,048 fo r its v a rio u s a g ric u ltu ra l
en terp rise s, w h ile 1,0 94,0 97 w e re g iv e n to 828,853 p easan ts.
A b o u t h a lf th ose w h o re c e iv e d la n d w e re sm allh o ld e rs a n d h a lf
lan d less la b o u rers. M o re th an 200,000 m o re c la im a n ts, th ou g h
o ffic ia lly d e c la re d e n title d to re c e iv e la n d , c o u ld not be p ro vid e d
fo r .2
In Y u g o s la v ia 392,000 h e cta re s w e re co n fisca te d from th e G e r ­
m a n m in o r ity in V o iv o d in a a n d S la v o n ia . O f this 280,000 w ere
u sed for th e co lo n isa tio n o f 50,000 p easan ts from d e v a sta te d areas,
e sp e c ia lly o f those w h o h a d se rv e d in th e p a rtisa n forces d u r in g
th e w a r . L a n d a c q u ire d fro m o th e r sou rces, b y th e co n fisca tio n
o f c h u r c h p ro p e rtie s o f m o re th a n 10 h e cta re s an d o f p riv a te
a r a b le la n d a b o v e 35 h e cta re s, w as o f sm all d im e n sio n s.3 In
B u lg a r ia it w a s d e c id e d to co n fisca te th e p r o p e rty o f a b sen tees
a n d co lla b o ra to rs, a n d a ll p r iv a te la n d a b o v e 20 h e cta re s. It
w a s h o p e d th us to o b ta in 450,000 h e cta re s, b u t th e a m o u n t
a c tu a lly a v a ila b le w as o n ly 15 0 ,0 0 0 /
T h e la n d refo rm s re m o v e d so cia l in ju stices an d d estro y e d th e
re m n a n ts o f a so cia l class w h ic h w a s th e tra d itio n a l e n e m y o f the
left, b u t th e y d id n ot solve e c o n o m ic p ro b lem s. O n e o f th e m ost
u rg e n t tasks o f th e n e w regim es w as to assure fo od su p p lies for
th e to w n s. T h e fa cto rie s c o u ld not p ro d u c e i f th e w ork ers w e re not
fed , b u t th e p ea san ts w e re n ot k een to sell th e ir cro p s unless th ey
1 U .N .R .R .A . o p e ra tio n a l an a ly sis p a p e r N o . 46.
* R u m a n ia n M in is try o f A g r ic u ltu r e figures, d a te d 18 F e b ru a ry 1947.
5 U .N .R .R .A . o p e ra tio n a l an a ly sis p a p e r N o. 23
* B a rk e r. Trute in the Balkans, p p . 10 7 -8 .
268 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
co u ld b u y th e p ro d u c ts o f in d u stry . T h e p ea san ts felt th a t th e y
w e re b e in g fo rc e d to feed th e tow n s fo r n e x t to n o th in g , w h ile th e
to w n sp e o p le im a g in e d to th em selves th e p e a san ts g u z z lin g in th e ir
v illa g e s.
T h e g o v e rn m e n ts’ so lu tio n w as to fix a p ro p o rtio n o f th e
c ro p w h ic h m ust be d e liv e re d to th e sta te a t fix e d lo w p rices, a n d
to p e rm it th e sale o f th e rest o n th e ‘ free m a r k e t ’ , th a t is, a t a
p r ic e d ete rm in e d b y su p p ly a n d d e m a n d . In g e n e ra l, a g r ic u ltu r a l
p rices w e re fo rced m u c h lo w e r th a n in d u stria l. T h e ‘ p rice
scissors’ b e tw e e n to w n a n d c o u n try , w h ic h h a d b een o n e o f th e
m ain cu rses o f E ast E u ro p e a n e c o n o m y b e fo re 1939, w a s as w id e
as e ve r. E v e n th e h ig h p rices re c e iv e d fro m th e p o rtio n o f th e ir
p ro d u ce sold ‘ fr e e ly ’ d id n o t e n a b le th e p ea san ts to b u y m u ch
from th e to w n s. A n d th e size o f th e ‘ fr e e ’ m a rg in v a rie d w ith th e
h arvest results. H e re E aste rn E u ro p e w as u n lu c k y . In 1945 so w in g
h ad b een d iso rga n ise d b y m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s, a n d in 1946 a n d
1947 th ere w e re severe d ro u g h ts. R u m a n ia su ffered e s p e c ia lly in
1946 a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia in 194 7. B oth y e a rs w e re b a d in
B u lg a ria , an d th e first in Y u g o s la v ia .
P o lan d fared least b a d ly , p a r t ly n o d o u b t b e c a u se th e c h a n g e s
o f fro n tier h ad c re a te d a m o re fa v o u ra b le re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n
p o p u la tio n an d a r a b le la n d . O f th e o th e r c o u n trie s H u n g a r y w as
th e m ost fo rtu n a te . E lse w h e re ra tio n in g c o u ld o n ly slo w ly be
a b a n d o n e d , an d h ad to be re v ive d fro m tim e to lim e . E v e r y w h e re
g re a t efforts w e re m ad e to en su re b e tte r su p p lie s o f in d u stria l go o d s
fo r th e c o u n try sid e , as th e best in c e n tiv e to th e p e a san ts b o th to
p ro d u ce an d to sell m o re to th e to w n s. In Y u g o s la v ia a system o f
‘ lin k e d p r ic e s ’ w as in tro d u c e d e a r ly in 194 7. P a y m e n t fo r p r o d u c e
sold to th e sta te a u th o ritie s w as m a d e p a r tly in b o n d s, w h ic h
e n a b le d th e p e a san t to b u y in d u stria l g o o d s a t lo w p rices. S a le
at ‘ fr e e ’ p rices w o u ld b rin g h im m o re c a sh , b u t w ith o u t th e b o n d s
h e w o u ld h a v e to p a y m u c h h ig h e r p rices fo r in d u stria l g o o d s.
T h e system w a s p a r tly su ccessfu l d u r in g 194 7, b u t a fle r th e C o m in -
fo rm b o y c o tt th e shops w e re o ften u n a b le to h o n o u r th e c o u p o n s,
a n d th e p e a san ts w e re o n c e m ore dissatisfied . In g e n e ra l, b e tw e e n
1945 a n d 1950 e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n to w n a n d c o u n tr y su b s ta n tia lly
im p ro v e d th ro u g h o u t E astern E u ro p e , b u t d isc o n te n t a n d frictio n
w e re c e r ta in ly n o t e lim in a te d .
R u r a l c o -o p e ra tiv e s b e fo re I he w a r in E a ste rn E u ro p e w e re fo r
th e m ost p a rt c re d it o r m a rk e tin g asso cia tio n s. T h e r e w as c o n ­
sid e ra b le v a r ie ty b e tw e e n d iffe re n t regio n s in th e sa m e c o u n t r y ,
a n d lo c a l b ra n c h e s o f th e sam e c o - o p e r a tiv e o rg a n isa tio n often
 S O C I A L A ND RELI GI OUS POLICY 269
e n jo y e d c o n sid e ra b le a u to n o m y . T h e r e w as a g o o d d e a l o f tru th in
th e co m m u n ist c riticism o f th e o ld c o -o p e ra tiv e s, th a t th ey
fa v o u re d th e w e a lth ie r p ea san ts an d d id little fo r th e poorest.
T h e n e w g o v e rn m e n ts set o u t to ce n tra lise th e e x istin g co -o p c ra -
tives u n d e r a sin g le co m m a n d an d to re m o v e th e w e a lth y peasan ts
fro m position s o f in flu e n c e . A ty p e o f g e n e ra l c o -o p e ra tiv e sh op
fo r th e v illa g e w a s c re a tc d . It b e c a m e a p o w e rfu l in stru m e n t o f
g o v e rn m e n t p o lic y . U s u a lly co n tro lle d b y c o m m u n ists o r re lia b le
s y m p a th ise rs, it b e c a m e a lm o st th e o n ly c h a n n e l th ro u g h w h ic h
th e to w n -m a d e go o d s th e p ea san ts n e ed e d c o u ld re a c h th em .
A n o t h e r p o w e rfu l in stru m e n t w e re th e stations fo r tra cto rs an d
a g r ic u ltu r a l m a c h in e r y , b ased on th e M .T .S . o f th e S o v ie t U n io n .1
T h e sta tio n s m o n o p o lise th e m o re c o m p lic a te d a g r ic u ltu r a l
m a ch in e s . T r a c t o r team s, o r ‘ b r ig a d e s ’ , m a k e a g re e m e n ts w ith
in d iv id u a l p ea san ts to p lo u g h th e ir la n d fo r p a y m e n t in cash o r in
a p o rtio n o f th e c ro p . A s m ech a n is a tio n , th e a v o w e d a im o f a ll th e
n a tio n a l e c o n o m ic p la n s, p ro cee d s, as tra c to rs re p la c e d ra u g h t
a n im a ls, th e g o v e rn m e n ts ’ c o n tro l o v e r th e p easan ts in creases.
T h e lim itin g fa c to r is o f co u rse th e n u m b e r o f m ach in es, e sp e cia lly
o f tra cto rs. P r o d u c tio n o f tra cto rs is to b e sta rte d in Y u g o s la v ia
a n d R u m a n ia , a n d g r e a tly in crea sed in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , H u n g a ry
a n d P o la n d . T h e less d e v e lo p e d co u n trie s also h op e to im p o rt
tra cto rs in la rg e q u a n titie s from th e U .S .S .R . A t th e en d o f
1949 m a n y o f th e sta tio n s w e re still p o o rly e q u ip p e d . B u t w h en
w e ll su p p lie d w ith m a ch in es, th e y sh ou ld b e as p o w e rfu l a w e a p o n
as th e M .T .S . h a v e b e en in th e U .S .S .R . T h e la tte r in th e th irties
w e re p o litic a l as w e ll as e c o n o m ic in stru m en ts. S p e c ia l ‘ p o litic a l
d e p a r tm e n ts ’ (Politotdely) w e re set u p in S o v iet M .T .S . in 19 3 3 -4
d u r in g th e fa m in e crisis in c o lle c tiv isa tio n . T h e y con sisted o f C o m ­
m u n ist P a rty m em b e rs, w h o su p ervised th e e x e c u tio n o f g o v e rn ­
m e n t p o lic y in th e w h o le re gio n served b y th eir M .T .S . T h e y w ere
in fa ct th e d ic ta to rs o f th e R u ssia n c o u n try sid e . T h e first Politotdely
to a p p e a r in E aste rn E u ro p e w e re cre a ted in P o la n d b y a d ecision
o f th e P olish P o litb u ro o f D e c e m b e r 1950. T h e ir task w a s d efin ed
as th e c o m b in a tio n o f ‘ the stro n g in flu e n c e o f M .T .S . te c h n o lo g y
a n d a g r o n o m y w ith th e a u th o rity o f the p a r ty o r g a n is a tio n ’ .
T h e n a tio n a l e c o n o m ic p la n s p ro m ise ra d ic a l tre a tm e n t o f the
p r e - w a r p r o b le m s o f ru ra l o v e r -p o p u la tio n a n d u n d e r-e m p lo y m e n t
b y p r o v id in g m illio n s o f n e w jo b s b o th in in d u stry p ro p e r a n d in
p u b lic w o rk s. N o t u n e m p lo y m e n t b u t la b o u r s h o rta g e is n o w the
1 F o r S o v ie t a g r a r ia n p o lic y in g e n e ra l, see P ro k o p o v ic h , Russlands Volkswirtschaft
unter den Sowjets. F o r a v ie w co n fo rm in g to th e ex istin g S talin ist ‘ l in e ’ , w ell su p p o rted
w ith o ffic ia l S o v ie t in fo rm a tio n , sec D o b b , Soviet Economic Development.
2 yo THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
p ro b le m . T o the p la n n ers, su rp lu s v illa g e la b o u r is n o lo n g e r an
e co n o m ic loss b u t a so u rce o f w e a lth . T h e v illa g e s a re re q u ire d
to send re cru its to th e fa cto rie s o n a m u ch g re a te r sc a le th a n e v e r
b efo re. A t th e sam e tim e , an im p ro v e m e n t o f a g r ic u ltu r a l o u tp u t
b eco m es m o re n ecessary th a n b efore, in o r d e r b o th to in cre a se th e
food su p p ly fo r th e r a p id ly g ro w in g in d u stria l u rb a n c e n tre s an d
to econ om ise la b o u r in th e field s b y th e use o f m o re m o d e rn
m eth od s. B oth pu rp oses a rc served b y m e c h a n is a tio n o f a g r ic u l­
tu re. A n d m e c h a n isa tio n is a p re p a ra tio n fo r a n e w o rg a n isa tio n
o f a g ric u ltu re , th e c o llc c tiv e farm .
T h e e c o n o m ic a rg u m e n ts in fa v o u r o f c o lle c tiv e farm s a r c w ell
k n o w n . S trip c u ltiv a tio n , w ith its in e v ita b le w a s ta g e o f la n d a n d
tim e, is re p la ce d b y c u ltiv a tio n o f la rg e a re as on w h ic h m o d e rn
m ach in es c a n b e fu lly used. M o re scien tific m eth o d s o f liv e sto ck
b re e d in g c a n be a d o p te d . T h e e x p e rie n ce a n d id eas o f a ll th e
p easan ts o f a n a re a ca n b e p o o le d . B u t th e p o litic a l reason s for
co lle c tiv isa tio n a rc p e rh a p s m o re im p o rta n t still. A c o lle c tiv e fa rm
m a y be d escrib e d as an a g r ic u ltu r a l fa c to ry . T h e m em b e rs a re
p a rt-o w n e rs, b u t th e y are also e m p lo y e e s. T h e y re c e iv e th e ir
o rd ers a n d th eir p a y fro m th e co m m itte e o f th e c o lle c tiv e fa rm , in
w h ich th e k ey posts a re held b y co m m u n ists o r re lia b le sy m ­
pathisers. T h e c o m m itte e is th e g o v e rn m e n t’ s in stru m e n t o f
p o litic a l c o n tro l o v e r th e p e a sa n try , fa r m o re e ffe c tiv e th a n th e old
b u r e a u c r a c y w h ic h s p o ra d ic a lly re g im e n te d th e sca tte red p e a sa n t
c o m m u n itie s o f th e p a st. T h r o u g h th e c o m m itte e th e c o m m u n ist
g o v e rn m e n ts c a n m a k e th e ir p o litic a l d ic ta to rs h ip e ffe c tiv e in th e
v illa g e s as w ell as in th e tow n s. T h r o u g h it th e y c a n en su re r e g u la r
su p p lies o f food a n d la b o u r for th e cities.
B oth th e lo c a l c o m m u n ist le a d e rs a n d th e ir S o v ie t m asters
w e re a lw a y s d e te rm in e d th at the ‘ c o r r e c t ’ p o lic y o f c o lle c tiv e
farm s sh ou ld b:- a p p lie d in E astern E u ro p e . It w as a m a tte r o f
e x p e d ie n c y w h e n to b e g in . In th e S o v ie t U n io n n in e y e a rs elapsed
b e tw e e n th e en d o f th e c iv il w a r an d th e in tro d u c tio n o f c o lle c ­
tiv isa tio n . W ith th e lessons o f S o v ie t h isto ry b e fo re th em , th e E ast
E u ro p e a n lead ers a n d th e ir p a tro n s in M o sc o w b e lie v e d th a t th e y
c o u ld a c t m o re q u ic k ly .
A n e w ph ase in a g r ic u ltu r a l p o lic y w a s in tro d u c e d b y th e
C o m in fo r m d e n u n c ia tio n o f th e Y u g o s la v c o m m u n ist le a d e rs in
J u n e 1948. T h e C o m in fo r m d o c trin a ir e s w e re sh o ck ed th a t T i t o
in a sp eech h ad d escrib e d th e p easan ts as ‘ th e m ost sta b le fo u n d a ­
tion o f th e Y u g o s la v s t a te ’ . T h is w a s in c o m p a tib le w ith th e b asic
co m m u n ist n o tio n o f th e le a d e rsh ip o f th e in d u stria l w o r k in g class.
 SOCI A L A ND RELI GI OUS POLICY 271
T h e Y u g o s la v le a d e rs h a d ig n o re d class d iffe re n tia tio n in th e
c o u n try s id e a n d tre a te d th e p e a sa n try as a sin gle e n tity . T h e y h ad
th u s ig n o re d 't h e w e ll-k n o w n L e n in thesis th a t sm all in d iv id u a l
fa r m in g g iv e s b irth to c a p ita lism an d th e b o u rg e o isie c o n tin u a lly ,
d a ily , h o u rly , sp o n ta n e o u sly a n d on a m ass s c a le ’ . 1
In a c tu a l fa c t, T i t o ’s e rro r in a g r ic u ltu r a l p o lic y w as ra th e r on e
o f w o rd s th a n o f d eed s. T h e Y u g o s la v le a d e rs d id n ot ta lk m u ch
a b o u t class d iffe re n tia tio n in th e v illa g e s, b u t n e ith e r d id th e
c o m m u n ist le a d e rs o f th e n e ig h b o u r in g co u n trie s. T h e p o lic y
p u rsu e d in p r a c tic e b y th e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t w as m ore
r a d ic a l, a n d less c o n c ilia to r y to p e a san t n otion s o f p riv a te
p r o p e r ty , th a n th a t o f a n y o th e r e x c e p t p e rh a p s B u lg a ria . In
B u lg a r ia a n d Y u g o s la v ia a lr e a d y in 1945 som e v o lu n ta r y c o ­
o p e r a tiv e fa rm s h a d b e en fo rm e d , a n d in th e fo llo w in g th re e years
th e y re c e iv e d g r e a te r e n c o u ra g e m e n t from th e a u th o ritie s th an
p r iv a te h o ld in g s. In B u lg a r ia a fe w h a d e xisted e v e n u n d e r the
F ilo v re g im e , in th e p ro v in c e s o f S v is h to v , P lo v d iv a n d P le v e n .2
I n 1945 oth ers w e re set u p in n e w areas. E xcess o f z e a l b y lo c a l
co m m u n ists, w h o tried to b u lly p ea san ts in to jo in in g , o r e x c h a n g ­
in g th e ir la n d w ith oth ers w h o w ish ed to jo in , ca u sed o p p o sition
in so m e d istricts, a n d in stru ctio n s w e re issued from th e M in istry
o f A g r ic u lt u r e to p ro c e e d m o re slo w ly a n d ta c tfu lly . B y th e en d o f
1946 th ere w e re m ore th an 400 in th e c o u n try , c o v e rin g a b o u t
200,000 h e cta re s. In Y u g o s la v ia c o -o p e ra tiv e farm s w e re set u p in
th e V o iv o d in a , o n la n d ta k e n from th e G e r m a n m in o rity an d n ow
w o rk e d in c o m m o n b y p ea san ts b ro u g h t fro m th e d e v a sta te d and
o v e r -p o p u la te d m o u n ta in o u s regio n s. T h e r e w e re also a few o u t­
sid e th e V o iv o d in a . In b o th B u lg a ria a n d Y u g o s la v ia th e n am e
L a b o u r C o -o p e r a tiv e s w as a d o p te d . T h e y w e re g e n u in e ly v o lu n ­
ta r y en terp rise s. T h e ru les w e re n ot a lw a y s id e n tic a l. B u t th e y
u s u a lly p r o v id e d fo r p a y m e n t to m em b ers p a r tly a c c o rd in g to th e
a m o u n t o f la n d th e y c o n trib u te d to th e c o -o p e ra tiv e , an d p a rtly
a c c o r d in g to th e w o rk th e y p e rfo rm e d . T h e y a lso u su a lly p ro v id e d
fo r secession o f m em b e rs fro m th e c o -o p e ra tiv e , in w h ic h ca se th ey
w o u ld b e e n title d e ith e r to th e ir o rig in a l la n d o r to a h o ld in g o f
e q u a l size a n d q u a lit y in a n o th e r p a rt o f th e v illa g e .3
T h u s Y u g o s la v ia w as n o t b e h in d h er n e ig h b o u rs in ‘ socia lisa tion
o f a g r ic u lt u r e ’ . I t w as n o t th e fa u lts o f T i t o ’s a g r ic u ltu r a l p o lic y
th a t d re w th e w ra th o f th e C o m in fo r m on his h e ad . B u t, h a v in g
1 The Soviet-Yugoslav Dispute, ( R .I .I .A . e d itio n ), p . 63.
* B o n e v , Ednolichno ill kooperatnwo stopanisvane na zemyata v Bulgaria ( ‘ I n d iv id u a l o r
c o o p e ra tiv e m a n a g e m e n t o f the la n d in B u lg a r ia ’ ) (S o fia , 19 4 5 ), p p . 25 fT.
* F o r a d e scrip tio n o f th e d ifferen t types o f co -o p e ra tiv e fa rm in Y u g o s la v ia , see
a r tic le b y D je v a d H o rić in Js'arodna D r ia ia , A p r il 1949.
272 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
d e c id e d fo r o th e r reason s to b re a k w ith T i t o , th e S o v ie t m asters o f
th e C o m in fo r m also d e c id e d to use th e o c c a sio n to in itia te a n e w
p o lic y . T h is w as in k e e p in g w ith th e tra d itio n s o f th e U .S .S .R .,
w h ere ch a n g e s o f p o lic y w e re o fte n a sso cia te d w ith th e d e n u n ­
cia tio n o f p ro m in e n t in d iv id u a ls o r gro u p s.
T h e C o m in fo r m sta te m e n t w as th e sig n a l fo r a series o f sta te ­
m en ts o f a g r ic u ltu r a l p o lic y b y th e E ast E u ro p e a n c o m m u n ist
p a rtie s. O n 11 J u n e 1948 th e R u m a n ia n p a r ty p u b lish e d a lo n g
re so lu tio n o n th e n eed to ‘ e x a m in e class re la tio n s in th e c o u n tr y ­
s id e ’ , to ‘ lim it c a p ita lis t e lem en ts in th e v illa g e s ’ a n d to ‘ o rg a n ise
th e a g r ic u ltu r a l p r o le t a r ia t ’ . In a sp eech to th e first co n gre ss o f th e
‘ fu s e d ’ H u n g a r ia n W o rk e rs’ P a rty o n 10 J u ly , G e r o sp o k e o f th e
n eed to c o m b a t th e in flu e n c e o f th e k u lak s. T h e r e sh o u ld , h o w e v e r,
be n o h u r ry to c re a te c o -o p e ra tiv e fa rm s. T h e s e w o u ld b e e stab ­
lish ed ‘ to th e e x te n t, a n d in su ch form s, as th e w o r k in g p e a sa n try
w ish es th e m ’ . In th e sm all N a tio n a l P e a sa n t P a rty th ere w e re
liv e ly a rg u m e n ts b e tw e e n E rd e i, w h o fa v o u re d c o -o p e ra tiv e fa rm s,
a n d V e r e s, w h o o p p osed th em . In A u g u s t th e P o lish p a r t y ’s
C e n tr a l C o m m itte e h eld a p le n a ry session, a n d p u b lish e d a sta te ­
m en t sim ila r to th a t o f th e R u m a n ia n . O n 3 A u g u s t th e B u lg a ria n
g o v e rn m e n t a n n o u n c e d a p la n fo r a g r ic u ltu r e w h ic h re q u ire d
th at b y 1953 30 p e r c e n t o f a g r ic u ltu r a l la n d in B u lg a r ia sh o u ld be
h e ld b y L a b o u r C o -o p e ra tiv e s .
T h e n e w p o lic y w as b ased on th e ta c tic s o ffic ia lly a d o p te d in
th e S o v ie t U n io n tw e n ty ye a rs e a r lie r— re ly o n th e s u p p o rt o f th e
p o o r p easan ts, w in o v e r th e b u lk o f th e m e d iu m p e a san ts, iso la te
a n d d estro y th e k u lak s. T h u s in its first s ta g e th e n e w p o lic y
c o n c e n tr a te d ra th e r on th e o ffen sive a g a in st th e k u la k s th a n on
re c ru itm e n t o f th e p e a san t m asses in to c o lle c tiv e fa rm s. A fu rth e r
reso lu tio n o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e R u m a n ia n W o rk e rs ’
P a rty , d a te d 5 M a r c h 1949, sta ted th a t th e k u la k s sh o u ld b e m a d e
p ow erless b y ‘ d iffe re n tia l class ta x a tio n , w h ic h m ust lig h te n th e
b u rd e n o f th e p o o r an d m ed iu m p e a sa n t a n d w e ig h u p o n th e
k u la k , b y a class p o lic y in c e re a l c o lle c tio n a n d in th e a llo c a tio n
o f c r e d it s ’ . A ll th ese m eth o d s w e re a lso a p p lie d in H u n g a r y ,
P o la n d a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . In a ll fo u r c o u n trie s g r e a t im p o rta n c e
w a s also a tta c h e d to th e v illa g e c o -o p e ra tiv e shops. A s th ese su c­
ce e d e d in m o n o p o lisin g th e e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s b e tw e e n to w n an d
c o u n tr y , so th e k u la k s’ c h a n c e s o f m a k in g p ro fits fro m th e sale
o f th e ir su rp lu s d im in ish e d — i f in d e e d a n y su rp lu s re m a in e d a fte r
th e in cre a se d tax es h a d b e en p a id a n d th e in c re a se d g r a in d e liv e r ­
ies h a d b e en fu lfille d . A t th e sa m e tim e k u la k s w e re s y s te m a tic a lly
 SOCIAL AND RELI GI OUS POLICY 273
re m o v e d fro m d ir e c tin g posts, a n d e ve n from m e m b e rsh ip , in the
c o -o p e ra tiv e s w h ic h ra n th e shops. In p r a c tic e , th e d riv e a g a in st
th e k u la k s w a s less p e a c e fu l a n d o rd e rly th a n these official
d ire c tiv e s w o u ld su g g e st. V io le n c e w a s u sed , b o th b y th e p o lic e and
b y o rg a n ise d m o bs. K u la k s w e re a rre ste d for fa ilu re to fu lfil th eir
o b lig a tio n s — e v e n i f these w e re assessed, d e lib e r a te ly o r th ro u g h
ig n o r a n c e , a t an im p o ssib ly h ig h le v e l— an d k u la k houses w e re
sa ck e d b y c r o w d s .'
T h e tro u b le w as th a t it w as not e a sy to d efin e a k u la k . T h e m ere
size o f a h o ld in g w as, th e co m m u n ists p o in te d o u t, an in su fficien t
g u id e . K u la k s d iffe re d fro m ‘ w o rk in g p e a s a n ts ’ (th e official
p h ra se u s u a lly e m p lo y e d fo r th e tw o c a te g o rie s o f p o o r and
m e d iu m p e a san ts to g e th e r) b y g re a te r w e a lth an d b y the
e x p lo ita tio n o f th e la b o u r o f oth ers. E x p lo ita tio n m ig h t tak e the
form s o f h irin g la b o u r o n th e ir farm s, o r le n d in g m o n e y , o r
‘ s p e c u la t io n ’ . O b v io u s ly p e rso n a l e n m ity o r e n v y m ig h t p la y a
p a rt in th e d e fin itio n o f th e k u lak s in a n y lo c a lity . In M a r c h 1949
R á k o s i, in a sta te m e n t to th e H u n g a ria n W o rk e rs’ P a rty , d re w
a tte n tio n to tw o d istin c t ‘ d e v ia tio n s ’ w h ic h h ad b e en o b se rv e d in
th e last m o n th s. T h e ‘ r ig h t- w in g d e v ia t io n ’ w a s to tak e such
tr o u b le n o t to a n ta g o n ise th e m ed iu m p easan ts as to a llo w k ulaks
to d isg u ise th em selves as m ed iu m p easan ts a n d so re ta in th eir
p e rn icio u s in flu e n c e , w h ile th e interests o f th e p o o r p easan ts w ere
n e g le c te d . T h e ‘ le ft-w in g d e v ia t io n ’ w as to g o so fa r in d e fe n c e o f
th e p o o r p ea san ts as to lu m p to g e th e r a ll m e d iu m p easan ts an d
k u la k s. I f th e first e rro r w e re p u rsu ed , n o ra d ic a l c h a n g e s w o u ld
e v e r ta k e p la c e a t a ll. I f th e scco n d sh o u ld p r e v a il, th e g rea t
m a jo r ity o f th e p e a s a n try w o u ld sid e w ith th e k u lak s a g a in st the
g o v e r n m e n t’s policy.® In P o la n d sim ila r erro rs w e re o fficia lly
d e n o u n c e d . In th e .w estern p ro vin ce s th ere h a d b e e n too m u ch
ten d ern ess to k u lak s. In o th e r a re as ‘ p e tty -b o u rg e o is p se u d o ­
r a d ic a lis m ’ h ad led to th e o p p o site e x tr e m e .3
W ith re g a rd to co lle c tiv isa tio n p ro p e r, th e R u m a n ia n , H u n ­
g a r ia n , P olish a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k p a rtie s re p e a te d ly stressed the
n e ce ssity o f p r u d e n c e . T h e R u m a n ia n re so lu tio n o f M a r c h 1949
s a id : ‘ I t w o u ld b e m istak e n a n d d a m a g in g to p ro c e e d to mass
c o lle c tiv is a tio n as lo n g as th ere a re n o te c h n ic a l fo u n d atio n s,

1 E x a m p le s o f excesses in tre a tm e n t o f k u lak s in H u n g a r y are g iv e n in an a rtic le b y

A . H e g e d ű s, ‘ E lh a jlá so k P á rtu n k falusi p o litik á já n a k v é g r e h a jt á s á b a n ’ ( ’ D e v ia tio n s
in th e e x e c u tio n o f o u r p a r t y ’s v illa g e p o l ic y ’ ), in Társadalm i Szemle, A p r il 1949.
* Társadalmi Szemle, lo c. c it.
3 S e e a r tic le b y J e r z y T e p ic h t , ‘ W sp ra w ie w a lk i k la so w e j n a w s i’ (' In th e m a tte r o f
th e class s tru g g le in th e v il la g e ’ ) , in Nowe Drogi, D e c e m b e r 1948.
274 THE EAST EUROPEAN R E V O L U T IO N

in su fficien t sp ecialists, a n d th o ro u g h p r o p a g a n d a w o rk a m o n g th e
masses has n ot c o n v in c e d th em v o lu n ta r ily to o rg a n ise c o lle c ­
tiv e s ’ . It sp ecified th a t 30,000 tra c to rs w o u ld be n e ed e d b efore
R u m a n ia n a g ric u ltu re w as re a d y fo r la rg e -sc a le c o lle c tiv isa tio n .
R á k o s i in H u n g a r y a d o p te d th e sa m e lin e. ‘ H e w h o exerts pressure
o r c o m p u lsio n ,’ h e sa id , ‘ is p la y in g in to th e h an d s o f th e k u l a k .’
A t th e first con gress o f th e P olish U n ite d W o rk e rs’ P a r ty in
D e c e m b e r 1948, M in e a n n o u n c e d th a t d u r in g th e p e rio d o f th e
S ix - Y e a r P la n , ‘ g r a d u a lly , sy ste m a tic a lly , on th e basis o f c o m p le te
free w ill, p ro d u c tio n co -o p e ra tiv e s w ill d e v e lo p ’ . D u r in g 1949 n o t
m o re th a n on e p e r c e n t o f th e ru ra l h o u seh o ld s o f P o la n d w o u ld
b e lo n g to th em . C z e c h o s lo v a k a g r a r ia n p o lic y w a s la id d o w n in a
sta te m e n t b y G o ttw a ld to th e C o m m u n ist P a r ty ’ s C e n t r a l C o m ­
m itte e in N o v e m b e r 1948. It stressed m easu res a g a in st th e k u lak s
b u t w as v a g u e a b o u t c o -o p e ra tiv e farm s. T h e sa m e c a u tio n m a rk e d
th e referen ces to a g r ic u ltu r e in th e re p o rt o f S la n s k y to th e n in th
con gress o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k C o m m u n ist P a rty in M a y 1949.
B u lg a ria n p o lic y w as m o re a m b itio u s. A s w e h a v e seen , th e F iv e -
Y e a r P la n la id d o w n th at b y 1953 c o lle c tiv e fa rm s m ust p r o d u c e
60 p e r ce n t o f th e c o u n tr y ’ s a g r ic u ltu r a l o u tp u t. T h is resu lt, it w as
c la im e d , w o u ld be a tta in e d not b y fo rce b u t b y p r o p a g a n d a a n d
persu asion . In J u n e 1949 h o w e v e r th e B u lg a ria n p a rty o ffic ia lly
a d m itte d th at ab u ses h ad o c c u rre d a n d a ttr ib u te d th em to ‘ left-
w in g s e c ta r ia n is m ’ , fo r w h ic h the d isg ra c e d le a d e r T r a ic h o R o s to v
w as b la m e d .1 T h e Y u g o s la v co m m u n ists w e n t e v e n faster. A t th e
en d o f 1948 th ere w e re 1,3 18 c o -o p e ra tiv e fa rm s in th e c o u n tr y .
D u r in g 1949 th ere w as a ra p id d riv e fo r c o lle c tiv isa tio n . M ass
p r o p a g a n d a w as d ire c te d to th e m e d iu m a n d p o o r p e a san ts, w h ile
those w h o sh ow ed th em selves u n w illin g — n o t n e c e ssa rily th e
ric h e r p ea san ts— w e re assessed fo r d eliv e ries to the sta te a t im p o s­
sib ly h ig h a m o u n ts a n d so d riv e n in to b a n k r u p tc y . E a r ly in 1950
th e n u m b e r o f c o -o p e ra tiv e farm s h a d risen to a b o u t 7,000, a n d
these co n tro lle d a b o u t 25 p e r c e n t o f th e c o u n tr y ’ s a r a b le la n d .
In M a c e d o n ia th e p e rc e n ta g e w as 50, a n d in th e rich w h e a tla n d s
o f V o jv o d in a it w as n e a rly 50. In C r o a t ia h o w e v e r it w a s o n ly 14
a n d in S lo v e n ia 1 1 . D u r in g 1950 th e p a c e sla ck en e d . In m ost p a rts
o f th e cou n try' th e a u th o ritie s so u g h t r a th e r to c o n so lid a te th e
farm s w h ich h ad b een c re a te d th a n to in cre a se th e ir n u m b e r still
fu rth e r. T h e e x c e p tio n w as M a c e d o n ia , w h e r e pressu re c o n tin u e d
a n d b y m id - 1951 th e p e rc e n ta g e o f a r a b le h e ld b y c o lle c tiv e s h a d
risen to 63.
1 See below p. 315.
 S O C I A L AND RELI GI OUS POLICY 275
I t w o u ld b e w ro n g to a tta c h to o m u c h im p o rta n c e to th e m a n y
d e c la ra tio n s b y th e E ast E u ro p e a n c o m m u n ist leaders th a t c o lle c ­
tiv isa tio n w o u ld be v o lu n ta ry . T h e w o rd ‘ v o lu n t a r y ’ m ust be
u n d e rsto o d in th e lig h t o f S o v ie t e x p e rie n c e.
T h e a v o w e d in te n tio n o f S o v ie t p o lic y in th e ‘ S e c o n d R e v o lu ­
t io n ’ o f th e th irties w as th e sam e as is n o w a n n o u n ce d in E astern
E u ro p e — to iso late an d d e stro y th e kulaks,, form a n a llia n c e o f the
w o rk e rs w ith th e ‘ w o r k in g ’ (p o o r an d m ed iu m ) p e a sa n try , and
p e rsu a d e th e p e a sa n t m asses o f th e a d v a n ta g e s o f c o lle c tiv e farm s
so th a t th e y sh ou ld v o lu n ta r ily e n ter th em . W h a t a c tu a lly h a p ­
p e n e d w a s t h a t th e em issaries o f th e C o m m u n ist P a rty in m an y
a re as a n ta g o n ise d th e w h o le p e a sa n try . M a n y v illa g e s re v o lte d ,
a n d h a d to b e su ppressed w ith troop s. M illio n s o f p easan ts, o f
w h o m m a n y w e re n e ith e r w e a lth y n o r e x p lo ite rs o f th e la b o u r o f
o th e rs, w e re d ep o rte d as k u lak s to fo rced la b o u r in d istan t
p ro v in ce s. S o m e a n im als w e re sla u g h te red b y th eir o w n ers, others
p e rish e d u n te n d e d in th e c o lle c tiv e farm s to w h ich th ey w e re su d ­
d e n ly tra n sfe rre d . T h e m a jo rity o f th e p easan ts w e re forced
in to c o lle c tiv e farm s. A s tra cto rs w e re n o t a v a ila b le in su fficient
n u m b e rs, a n d d r a u g h t a n im a ls w e re g r e a tly re d u c ed b y the
s la u g h te r , la rg e a re as re m a in e d u n p lo u g h e d a n d th e cro p s w ere
to o sm a ll to feed th e p e o p le . P rio rity o f food su pplies w as assured
to th e cities b y fo r c ib le req u isitio n s, a n d g re a t n u m b e rs o f peasan ts
s ta rv e d .
S ta lin h im self, in his fa m o u s ‘ D izzin e ss fro m su cce ss’ sta tem en t
o f M a r c h 1930, th re w the b la m e fo r in ju stices o n lo c a l officials,
a n d d escrib e d fo r c ib le c re a tio n o f c o lle c tiv e farm s as ‘ stu p id an d
r e a c t io n a r y ’ . Y e t o n ly a fe w m on th s e a r lie r he h ad u rge d ru th -
lessness a n d s p e e d .1 A ft e r 1930 th e p a ce w as sla ck en e d , an d c o n ­
cessions w e re m a d e to th e p easan ts. B u t co n fu sio n a n d fa m in e
co n tin u e d in pa rts o f th e c o u n tr y u n til 1933 at least. Y e t the
a c c o u n ts g iv e n b y o fficia l w rite rs in th e S o v ie t U n io n , a n d b y
co m m u n ists in o th e r c o u n trie s, c la im in retro sp ect th a t th e process
w a s v o lu n ta ry , a n d o n ly to som e e x te n t m a rred b y m istakes.
T h e s e m istak es, th e y a rg u e , w e re in e v ita b le in th e e x e cu tio n o f a
p io n e e r p o lic y in a b a c k w a r d c o u n try b y in e x p e rie n c e d o fficials.
T h e y w e re re ctifie d b y th e w isd o m o f th e g re a t S ta lin . B u t the
tru th is th a t th e m istak es w e re n ot in c id e n ta l, b u t w e re th e v ery
essen ce o f th e p o lic y . R u ssia n a g r ic u ltu r e w as c o lle c tiv ise d b y
fo rce , a n d th e m a n resp o n sib le for this w as S ta lin h im self.
W h e n th erefo re th e E ast E u ro p e a n co m m u n ists d e c la re d th at
1 D e u tsc h e r, Stalin, a Political Biography, p p . 3 2 3 -5 .
276 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
th ey w o u ld use o n ly persuasion an d p r o p a g a n d a , th e y w e re u sin g
these w ord s in th eir sp ecia l S o v ie t m ea n in g . A d m itte d ly th ey
w o u ld prefer to a v o id th e m istakes co m m itte d in R u ssia in 1 9 2 9 -
33. But p o lic y d e p e n d e d n ot o n th eir p referen ces b u t o n th e speed
a n d typ e o f in d u stria lisa tio n ch o sen for th em b y th eir m asters in
M o sc o w . A n d M o s c o w ’ s d ec isio n is d e te rm in e d less b y e c o n o m ic
factors th an b y a n e stim a te o f th e in ten tio n s o f th e W e ste rn p o w e rs
a n d o f the w a r p o te n tia l o f the S o v ie t b lo c k in th e fa ce o f ‘ th e
im p e ria lis ts ’ .
T h is w as sh o w n b y d e v e lo p m e n ts sin ce m id - 1950, th a t is sin ce
the o u tb re a k o f th e w a r in K o r e a . T h e u p w a r d re v isio n o f th e
P olish S ix - Y e a r P lan an d o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k a n d H u n g a r ia n
F iv e - Y e a r P lan s co in c id e d w ith n e w pressure on th e p e a sa n try .
T h is w as m ost m a rk e d in B u lg a ria . A lr e a d y in 1951 it w as sta ted
th a t 48 p e r c e n t o f th e a ra b le la n d w as h eld b y c o lle c tiv e o r state
farm s. H a v in g d e n o u n ce d K o s to v fo r fo r c in g th e p a c e , th e c o m ­
m un ist le a d e rs fo rced it still m o re. T h e p e a sa n ts resisted . E ven
o fficia l in fo rm a tio n sh o w e d th a t th ere h ad b een w id e sp re a d
sla u g h te r o f liv esto ck . A r m e d c la sh es b e tw e e n p ea san ts a n d p o lice
w e re also re p o rted . T h e d ism issal o f th e M in is te r o f A g r ic u ltu r e ,
C h e rn o k o le v , in J u n e 1951 d id n ot le a d to a m ild e r p o lic y . In th e
a u tu m n o f 19 5 1 c o llc c tiv c an d sta te farm s in H u n g a r y h e ld o v e r
20 p e r ce n t o f th e a ra b le , in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia 27 p e r c e n t. In b o th
th ese c o u n tr ifs it w a s e x p e c te d th a t h a lf th e a r a b le la n d w o u ld
b e in th e possession o f co lle c tiv e o r sta te farm s b y th e e n d o f 1952 .
T h e situ atio n in P o la n d an d R u m a n ia w as less c le a r .1
In Y u g o s la v ia th e o p p o site te n d e n c y w as seen. P e a san t o p p o si­
tion w as stu b b o rn , e sp e c ia lly in C r o a tia , w h e re th e m e m o ry o f a
stro n g p e a san t m o v e m e n t is still a liv e , a n d in M a c e d o n ia , w h ere
m istru st o f B e lg ra d e is o ld a n d d ee p -ro o te d . A severe d ro u g h t in
1950 in crea sed th e g o v e rn m e n t’ s tro u b le s. O ffic ia l sp o kesm en
a d m itte d th a t sta le farm s w asted m a n p o w e r in exc essive a d m in is­
tra tio n . T h e a tte m p t to fo rce in d iv id u a l p ea san ts in to co lle c tiv e
fa rm s w as v ir tu a lly a b a n d o n e d in 19 5 1. A s a n in c e n tiv e to in d iv i­
d u a l o u tp u t, c o m p u ls o ry d e liv e rie s w e re a b o lish e d fo r m e a t, m ilk
a n d fo d d e r— th o u g h n ot fo r cere als. B u t as pressure w a s re la x e d
th e p ea san ts sh o w e d m o re o p e n ly th e ir d islik e o f c o lle c tiv is a tio n .
T h e g o v e rn m e n t fa c e d th e u n p le a s a n t c h o ic e o f to le ra tin g an
1 C o llc c t iv c farm s in P o la n d in creased fro m 243 e a r ly in 1950 to 2,500 a y e a r la ter,
b u t still h e ld o n ly a sm a ll jx>rtion o f th e a ra b le . S ta te farm s w e re m o re n u m e ro u s a n d
h e ld m o re la n d in P o lan d th a n else w h e re in E a ste rn E u ro p e . F o r P o lish in ten tio n s
fo r a g r ic u ltu r e u n d e r th e rev ise d P la n , see a b o v e , p . 249. I n R u m a n ia in m id - 1951
th ere w ere 1,000 c o lle c tiv e farm s, h o ld in g 2 4 p er ce n t o f th e a r a b le la n d .
 SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS POLICY 277
ex o d u s from the e x istin g c o lle c tiv e farm s o r re tu rn in g to c o e rcio n .

LABOUR

In d u stria l w ork ers a re th e class in w h o se n am e th e n e w regim es

ru le , th e ‘ le a d in g ’ a n d th e 'm o s t r e v o lu tio n a r y ’ class. T h e
w o rk e rs, despised u n d e r th e o ld re g im e , are n o w a p o w erfu l
org an ise d fo rc e . T r a d e u n ion s h a v e sw o lle n in n u m b e rs an d h av e
b e en re o rg a n ise d . N ew u n io n s h a v e sp ru n g u p w h ere n on e w ere
k n o w n b e fo re . E v e n b a c k w a r d A lb a n ia n o w has m o re th an 60,000
tra d e u n io n m em b ers. T h e stru c tu re o f th e tra d e u n io n m o vem en ts
h as c h a n g e d . It h as b e en sim p lified a n d c e n tra lise d . S m a ll unions
h a v e b een m erg e d . L o c a l d iffe re n ce s a n d a u to n o m ies h a v e been
a b o lish e d . Both re g io n a lly a n d in d u stria lly th e u n ion s are su b ject
to strict ce n tra lise d d isc ip lin e . A t th e h ead o f th e w h ole h ie ra rc h y
is th e ce n tra l e x e c u tiv e co m m itte e , firm ly co n tro lled b y re lia b le
co m m u n ists. T h e w h o le p o w e r o f th e state is th ro w n b eh in d the
un ion s. In fa ct th e u n ion s a re p a rt o f th e sta te m ach in e.
B efore th e w'ar, in th e less in d u stria lly d ev e lo p e d o f th e E ast
E u ro p e a n co u n trie s, u n io n a c tiv itie s w e re h in d e re d n ot o n ly b y
p o lic e repression b u t also b y th e in flu x o f u n skilled la b o u r from
th e o v e r -p o p u la te d v illa g e s. T h is c o n stan t su p p ly o f c h e a p la b o u r
fo rced d o w n th e w ag es o f th e w o rk in g class as a w h o le . O n ly som e
skilled tra d es w e re u n a ffe c te d . T h is p ro b le m w as less a c u te in
in d u strialise d B o h e m ia an d w estern P o lan d th an in th e sou th ­
e astern co u n trie s, b u t e ve n th ere it w as felt. T h e n a tio n a l e co n o m ic
p la n s o f th e n e w regim es re q u ire an e n o rm o u s an d ra p id in crease
in th e n u m b e r o f in d u stria l w o rk ers. T h e in flu x from th e v illa ge s
w ill b e fa r g r e a te r n o w th an e v e r in th e past. Its effects w ill be felt
as m u ch in th e co u n trie s w h ere in d u stry is w e ll estab lish ed as in
th ose w h e re it is orţly b e g in n in g . I t is w ith this p ro b le m a b o v e a ll
o th ers th a t th e tra d e u n ion s m ust d ea l.
B efore th e w a r , th e u n ion s, w h en th e p o lic e a llo w e d th em to a ct
a t a ll, fo u g h t th e bosses on b e h a lf o f th e w ork ers. T h e irs w as the
cla ssica l fig h t for w a g es a n d h ours o f w o rk , fo u gh t in co n d itio n s
as d ifficu lt as in E n g la n d a h u n d re d y ears a g o . T o - d a y the fa c ­
tories a re ru n b y th e g o v e rn m e n t, w h ich is its e lf c o n tro lle d b y the
p o litic a l p a r ty to w h ic h th e u n io n lead ers b e lo n g . T h e y c a n n o t
fig h t th e boss to -d a y . T h e m a in task is now' to in crease p ro d u c tio n .
E a c h w o rk e r’ s slice w ill b e b ig g e r i f th e w h o le c a k e is in cre a se d .
T h e u n io n s’ task is th us to m a k e th e w o rk e r w o rk h a rd e r. T h is
p r o b le m is o f co u rse fa m ilia r in th e W e s t : b u t in E astern E u ro p e it
is on q u ite a d iffe re n t sca le . T h e tasks a re r e la tiv e ly m u ch g re a te r,
278 THE EAST E U R O P E A N RE V O L U T I O N
th e tim e a llo w e d for th em is m u c h sh orter, a n d th e a m o u n t o f
skilled la b o u r a v a ila b le is u tte rly in su fficien t. T h u s th e tra d e
u nions in E astern E u ro p e h a v e a d o u b le task: to e x tr a c t th e
m a x im u m effo rt o u t o f th e e xistin g n u m b e r o f sk illed w ork ers,
a n d to m ou ld in to a la b o u r fo rce th e h u n d re d s o f th o u san d s o f
stron g b u t in e x p erie n c ed p ea san ts’ sons a n d d a u g h te rs from the
v illa ges.
T h e sh o rta ge o f skilled w o rk ers is a g g ra v a te d b y a n e w fa cto r.
M a n y w o rk ers h a v e b een tran sferred from th e fa ctories to posts in
one o f th e th re e b u re a u c ra c ie s— th e sta te m a c h in e , th e C o m ­
m un ist P a rty an d th e tra d e un ion s. T h o u g h th e p r o p o rtio n o f
w ork ers in the c o m m u n ist p a rties is n o t as h ig h as th e ir lead ers
w ish an d d o c trin e req u ires, y e t it is c o n sid e ra b le . I n e v ita b ly th e
a b lest w o rk ers in th e p a rty a re those w h o are m ost lik e ly to be
g iv e n a d m in istra tiv e posts. P a rty o r tra d e u n io n d u tie s a t the
low est le v el c a n b e co m b in e d w ith w o rk in th e fa cto ry , th o u g h
th e y d istra ct th e w o rk e r a n d d im in ish his e ffic ien cy to som e e x te n t.
B u t as h e rises w ith in th e tra d e u n io n o r th e p a r ty h ie ra r c h y , his
u n io n o r p a rty a c tiv itie s a b so rb a ll his tim e , a n d he ceases to b e a
w o rk e r. M o re o v e r a n u m b e r o f w o rk ers a rc m o v e d from th e
fa ctories to fu ll-tim e jo b s in th e c iv il a d m in istra tio n . T h e s e m en
c a ll th em selves w ork ers still, b u t th e y a re in fa ct b u re a u c ra ts.
T h e use o f th e w o rd m erely d en o tes p rid e o f b irth , n o t e sse n tially
d iffe re n t from th e a risto cra tic titles o f th e p rev io u s so cia l
o rd er.
In o rd e r to in crea se th e o u tp u t o f th e w o rk e rs, th e n e w regim es
h a v e co p ie d S o v ie t m eth od s. P ie ce ra tes a rc b e in g e x te n d e d to as
m a n y in d ustries as possib le. T itle s su ch as ‘ s h o c k -w o r k e r ’ a n d
‘ h ero o f la b o u r ’ a rc b e in g in tro d u c e d . M o n e y p rizes a n d m ed als
a re a w a rd e d fo r o u tsta n d in g p e rfo rm a n ce s b y in d iv id u a ls a n d
gro u p s. O v e r tim e is su p p o sed to b e v o lu n ta r y , b u t g r e a t efforts
are c e rta in ly m ad e to p e rsu a d e w o rk ers to v o lu n te e r. It is p a id a t
h ig h e r rates th a n o rd in a r y hou rs. F o r in stan ce , in th e c o lle c ­
tiv e co n tra c ts sign ed b e tw e e n m a n a g em e n ts a n d u n ion s in P o la n d
in J a n u a r y 1949, p a y rises b y 50 p e r ce n t for th e first tw o h o u rs o f
o v e rtim e , a n d b y 100 p e r cen t fo r th e th ird a n d a n y fu rth e r hou rs.
T h e fa ct th a t these p ro vision s w e re m ad e sh ow s th a t th ere a re at
least som e P olish w o rk e rs w h o w o rk as m a n y as tw e lv e h o u rs a d a y .
T h e S o v ie t system o f ‘ so cialist c o m p e titio n ’ h as a lso b een in tro ­
d u ce d th ro u g h o u t E astern E u ro p e . I n d iv id u a l fa c to rie s c h a lle n g e
e a ch o th e r to a c h ie v e c e rta in targ e ts b y a c e rta in d a te . T h e d ate s
ch osen a re u su a lly sp e c ia l festivals, su ch as M a y D a y , o r a C o m ­
 SOCIAL A ND RELI GI OUS POLICY 279
m u n ist P a r ty con gress. W h ile th e c o m p e titio n is on , th e trad e
u n io n o fficials m ust sp u r on a n d speed u p th e w orkers to eve r
g r e a te r efforts.
T h e tra d e u n io n s a re c o n c e rn e d w ith th e e n fo rce m en t o f la b o u r
d isc ip lin e . L a te n e ss in a rriv a l a t w o rk , o r slackness a t th e b en ch ,
a re lia b le to se v ere p u n ish m e n t. T h e tra d e u n io n officials exercise
th e ir p o w e rs w ith a co n fid e n c e th a t th e m an ag ers o f p riv a te
e n terp rise in c a p ita lis t co u n trie s c a n n e v e r h a v e . T h e y k n o w th at
th e y w ill b e fu lly b a c k e d b y th e g o v e rn m e n t. I f th e w orkers
g ru m b le , th e ir re p ly is th a t n o w th a t th e fa c to ry is ‘ th e ir s ’ th ey
m u st w o rk h a rd e r to raise th eir o w n sta n d a rd o f liv in g . A n
essen tial p a rt o f th e d u tie s o f tra d e u n ion s is p o litic a l p r o p a g a n d a .
C o n fe re n c e s a n d le ctu re s a re freq u e n t. T h e w ork ers are to ld o f the
su fferin g s o f th e e x p lo ite d In d o n esia n s, G ree k s o r S p a n iard s.
A tte n d a n c e is c o m p u lso ry fo r p a rty m em b ers a n d d e s ira b le for
o th ers. T h o s e w h o c o n siste n tly miss m eetin gs w ill h a v e b la ck
m ark s a g a in st th em . In th e c o m m u n ist v ie w p o litic a l e d u ca tio n
a n d p r o d u c tiv e e ffic ie n c y a re co n n e c te d . S h o rtc o m in g s in on e
d ire c tio n w ill a ffe c t also th e o th er.
T h o u g h o u tp u t has re c o v e re d r e m a rk a b ly sin ce the w a r the
le a d e rs are fa r fro m satisfied . A lo w basic w a g e is p a id for a
m in im u m ‘ n o r m ’ o f o u tp u t p e r h e a d , a b o v e w h ic h le v el e x tra p a y
b e gin s. T h e n orm s d iffe re d w id e ly b e tw e e n d iffe re n t in d ustries,
a n d sin ce 1948 h a v e often b een raised . In effect the aim has been
to c o n v e r t th e S ta h a n o v ite o u tp u t o f to d a y in to the n orm o f to ­
m o rro w , a n d so in cre a se the la b o u r w ru n g from th e w o rk e r. S o m e
e x a m p le s o f th e C o m m u n ist le a d e rs’ a ttitu d e m a y be tak en from
H u n g a r y . In J a n u a ry 1950 h e a v y p e n alties w e re in tro d u c ed for
n e g lig e n c e a n d d a m a g e to sta te p ro p e rty , a n d a n y w o rk e r c h a n g ­
in g his j o b w ith o u t w ritte n p erm ission from his fo rm e r m a n a g e r
a n d lo c a l L a b o u r e x c h a n g e w a s to forfeit his rights to p a id h o lid ay s
a n d sickness b en efit. In M a y 1950 the C o m m u n ist m a n a g e r o f the
R á k o s i (fo rm e rly M a n fre d W eiss) m etal w o rk s in B u d a p est a ccu sed
th e w o rk ers o f m a lin g e rin g a n d th e sta te d o cto rs o f b e in g too k in d-
h e a rte d to th em . O n 3 1st M a y G e rö c o m p la in e d o f ‘ u n d isc ip lin e d
c o n s u m p tio n ’ b y w o rk ers, w h ic h h am p e rs th e p ro d u c tio n o f ‘ the
fa c to rie s, en terp rises a n d m a ch in es w h ic h a rc m ea n t to raise o u r
sta n d a rd o f liv in g at a m u ch g re a te r p a c e to m o rro w , to co n so lid a te
th e p e a c e fro n t a n d to c o n so lid a te o u r fu t u r e ’ .
T h e regim es cla im th at in re tu rn fo r the g re a t effo rts w h ich
th e y re q u ire fro m th e w ork ers, th ey are a ssu rin g th em b e tte r c o n ­
d itio n s o f la b o u r th a n in th e past. T h e n e w social in su ra n ce
î 80 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

sch em cs are based on th e S o v ie t m o d el. F a c to r y c a n te e n s, re a d in g

room s, a n d nurseries for c h ild re n o f w o m e n e m p lo y e e s a rc b e in g
in tro d u c ed . E ffo rts are m ad e to p ro v id e ‘ fa cilitie s fo r r e c r e a t io n ’
— th at is, c o lle c tiv e h o lid ay s. I n d iv id u a l p r iv a te leisu re is less
e n co u ra g e d . S p o rt, o r ‘ p h y s c u ltu r e ’ , is o ffic ia lly su p p o rte d on a
m ass ra th e r th an o n an in d iv id u a l basis. I n d iv id u a l sp o rtsm en
m ust be p o litic a lly re lia b le , as w as sh ow n b y th e ca se o f th e C z e c h
tennis stars D r o b n y an d C e rn ik .
T h e social services look im pressive on p a p e r. T w o p oin ts should
h o w e v e r be re m em b e re d . T h e first is th a t first p r io rity in th e use
o f a ll sca rce social fa cilitie s go es to p a rty m em b e rs, a n d secon d
p rio rity to sh ock w o rk ers w h o a rc n ot in th e p a rty . T h e m ass o f
th e w ork ers h a v e to w a it u n til the prom ised fa c ilitie s a rc a v a ila b le
on a m u ch la rg e r sca lc th an a t presen t. T h e secon d p o in t is th a t
in the fu lfilm en t o f the e c o n o m ic p lan s, p ro jects o f so c ia l reform
a lw a y s h a v e the low est p rio rity . W h e n e v e r th e p la n s h a v e to be
m o d ified , it is these th a t a re scra p p ed . F o r e x a m p le on 26th
F e b ru a ry , 1 9 5 1 , M in e told th e Polish p a rlia m e n t th at, as o u tp u t
w as la g g in g , so cia l e x p e n d itu re w o u ld be c u rta ile d in o r d e r to
m ak e g re a te r fu n d s a v a ila b le fo r in d u strial p ro d u c tio n . M in in g
disasters h a v e o c c u rre d in H u n g a ry an d P o la n d , w h ich c o u ld sh ow
th at safety p reca u tio n s a re in p r a c tic e less c o m p le te th a n official
d icta w o u ld suggest.
It is d ifficu lt to ge n e ralise a b o u t the statu s o f th e w o rk e r u n d e r
th e n ew regim e in E astern E u ro p e . H e n eed n o t fe a r u n e m p lo y ­
m en t, an d he m a y d e riv e som e sa tisfa ctio n fro m the flo o d o f
speech es w h ich tell him th at he is a m em b e r o f th e le a d in g class
in the n a tio n . T h e m in o rity o f tru ly sk illed w o rk e rs a n d o f sh ock
w ork ers e arn v e r y h igh p a y , b u t a g a in st this m ust be set th e c o n ­
sta n t stra in o f o v e rw o rk . F o r th e m illion s in R u m a n ia a n d the
B a lk a n co u n trie s w h o b efo re 1945 liv e d in m isery a n d in se c u rity
as u n skilled w o rk ers o r as u n d e re m p lo y e d sm a llh o ld e rs, it is
possible th at n ot o n ly d istan t p ro sp ects b u t e v e n presen t c o n d itio n s
h a v e im p ro v e d . In P o la n d an d H u n g a r y this is m o re d o u b tfu l,
a n d in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th e situ a tio n o f a la rg e p a rt o f th e w o rk in g
class has c e rta in ly d ete rio ra te d .
In g e n e ra l sin ce th e revisio n o f the pla n s in 1951 th e pressure
on all w o rk ers h as gro w n . In p a r tic u la r , w o m e n a n d c h ild re n a re
b e in g in cre a sin g ly d ire c te d to in d u stry . In F e b r u a r y 1951 the
Polish p a rlia m e n t re p e a le d a la w o f 1924 w h ic h fo r b a d e w o m e n
a n d yo u th s to d o h e a v y la b o u r . T h is la w w a s re p resen te d as a
r e a c tio n a ry in frin g em e n t o f e q u a l rig h ts fo r w o m e n . A t th e sam e
 S OCI A L AND RELI GI OUS POLICY 281
tim e the p ra ctise o f fo rced la b o u r , lo n g estab lish ed in the S o v iet
U n io n , is b e in g ra p id ly d e v e lo p e d in E astern E u ro p e . B u lg a ria
w as th e p io n e e r in this field , b u t th e e x a m p le has been fo llo w ed
e lse w h e re , e sp e c ia lly in R u m a n ia a n d C z e c h o slo v a k ia . In Y u g o ­
sla v ia th e in tro d u c tio n in J u n e 1950 o f e le cte d w orks co u n cils,
w h ic h w e re to m a n a g e th e fa cto rie s, w as o ffic ia lly in te rp re te d as
a step a w a y from b u re a u c ra tic d esp otism to ‘ w ork ers c o n t r o l’ .
S u c h m a y b e th e le a d e rs’ sin ce re in te n tio n . B u t th e c a n d id a te s for
e le c tio n to w o rk s co u n c ils a re still o n ly persons a p p ro v e d b y the
C o m m u n ist P a rty . N e v e rth e le ss it is safe to say th at th e tren d in
Y u g o s la v ia is to w a rd s g re a te r freed o m a n d b e tte r co n d itio n s for
th e w o rk e r, w h ile the tren d in the ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c ra c ie s ’ is
to w a rd s in c re a sin g e x p lo ita tio n o f the w o rk e r b y a system w h ich
c o m b in e s th e callo u sn ess o f B ritish ca p ita lism b efore the fa cto ry
le g isla tio n o f th e 1840's w ith the m ost m o dern te c h n iq u e o f
to ta lita ria n p o lic e ru le.
T h e m ain e c o n o m ic fa c to r lim itin g th e sta n d a rd o f liv in g o f
th e E ast E u ro p e a n w o rk e r is th e d iffic u lty o f a b so rb in g in to
in d u str y th e u n skilled la b o u r o f the v illa g e . L a c k o f m a c h in e ry ,
refu sal to a c c e p t fo reig n c a p ita l, an d fo reign tra d e d ifficu lties
m a k e the la b o u r s u p p ly th e m ost im p o rta n t fa c to r for the a c h ie v e ­
m en t o f th e n a tio n a l e c o n o m ic p lan s. T h e surplus la b o u r o f the
o v e r -p o p u la te d v illa g e s, the c h ie f w eak n ess o f the p re -w a r E ast
E u ro p e a n e co n o m y , is n o w the re g io n ’s m ain reso u rce. I f m ach in es
a n d sk illed w o rk ers are sc a rc e , th en w h a t c o u ld be d o n e b y on e
sk ille d w o rk e r w ith a m a c h in e m ust o ften b y d o n e b y five, ten or
tw e n ty p airs o f u n skilled stro n g h an d s. T h e process m ust be
im m e n se ly p a in fu l. T h e few skilled m an ag ers an d fo rem en , o v e r­
w o rk e d a n d h arrassed , c a n no m ore sh ow ta ct o r k in dn ess to the
meri th an th e o ld -sty le se rg e a n t-m a jo r co n fro n te d b y a m ass o f
ra w re cru its: h e w ill re g a rd th em as a herd o f c a ttle an d d riv e
th em a c c o r d in g ly . O n ly w h en the n e w in d u stries are tu rn in g ou t
m a ch in es an d th e n e w tra in in g co lleg es skilled perso n n el in fa r
g re a te r n u m b e rs w ill a b e tte r life be a v a ila b le for skilled a n d u n ­
sk illed w o rk e r a lik e .

TH E IN T E L L IG E N T S IA

Besides w o rk e rs an d p easan ts, p o p u la r d e m o c r a c y reco gn ises a

th ird class— th e ‘ p ro gre ssiv e in te llig e n ts ia ’ . W h o is progressive
is o f co u rse d e c id e d b y th e C o m m u n ist P a rtie s. T h e q u a lify in g
a d je c tiv e c le a r ly sh ow s th e in fe rio rity o f this so cia l g ro u p .
T h e co re o f th e in te llig e n tsia consists o f th e p rofession al cla ss—
282 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
th e d octors, la w y e rs, en gin eers a n d te ach e rs. B u t as a t presen t
in te rp re te d in E astern E u ro p e it e xte n d s also to a p a rt o f th e
b u r e a u c r a c y an d o f th e in d u stria l m an ag ers a n d business e xp e rts.
I f th e n a tio n a l e c o n o m ic p la n s a re to b e fu lfille d , e v e r y m a n an d
w o m a n possessing sp ecia l skill o r k n o w le d g e is u rg e n tly n e ed e d .
B u t th e p r e -w a r in te llig e n tsia w as b ro u g h t u p in a sp irit u n ­
s y m p a th e tic o r h ostile to c o m m u n ism . It w a s in fe c te d w ith th e
p reju d ice s o f b o u rge o is e d u c a tio n . I t h ad n ot m astered ‘ M a rx ist-
L e n in ist m e th o d o lo g y ’ , a n d w as in fa ct u n lik e ly e v e r to m aster it.
C o n s e q u e n tly th e tre a tm e n t o f th e in te llig e n tsia b y th e n e w
regim es is a m ix tu re o f c a jo le ry a n d p e rsec u tio n . T h e y h a v e c o n ­
tin u ed to e m p lo y a la rg e n u m b e r o f th e fo rm e r d o cto rs, te a ch e rs,
e n gin eers, b u re a u c ra ts, a n d e v e n a r m y a n d p o lic e o fficers. S o m e
exp erts, e sp e c ia lly te c h n ic ia n s an d w riters, a re o ffere d e x tr e m e ly
gen erou s salaries an d m a te ria l co n d itio n s. T h e y h a v e to w o rk v e r y
h a rd , b u t th e y e n jo y a g o o d sta n d a rd o f liv in g as lo n g as th e y
k eep th e ir jo b . T h e y h a v e , h o w e v e r, n o re a l se c u rity . A t a n y
m o m e n t th e c o m m u n ist le a d e rs m a y h a v e a b o u t o f p a n ic sus­
p icio n , o r n eed a s c a p e g o a t fo r th e ir o w n fau lts, o r sim p ly w ish
to m ak e a few e x a m p le s pour encourager les autres. T h e n w ith o u t
w a r n in g th e u n h a p p y m a n a g e r , o ffic ia l o r jo u r n a lis t is t o m fro m
his life o f lu x u r y a n d cast in to p riso n , to a p p e a r in d u e co u rse in
co u rt as a n a g e n t o f W e ste rn im p e ria lism , s p y in g fo r th e c a p ita lists
o r d e fa m in g his c o u n try ’ s go o d n a m e , o r d e lib e r a te ly s a b o ta g in g
p ro d u ctio n . T h e n e w re g im e s’ a ttitu d e to th e in te llig e n tsia is in
fa ct th e sam e as th a t o f th e S o v ie t re g im e in th e tw en ties. It
in e v ita b ly in d u ce s u n w illin gn e ss to ta k e re sp o n sib ility , a n d d e te r­
m in a tio n to plea se e v e ry w h im o f th e n e w m asters ra th e r th a n p e r­
form th e w o rk th e w a y th a t k n o w le d g e an d e x p e rie n c e w o u ld sh o w .
T h e co m m u n ists o f co u rse re g a rd this as an u n sa tisfa cto ry
tra n s ito ry sta g e . T h e ir a im is to p r o d u c e as q u ic k ly as p o ssib le a
n e w in te llig e n tsia , tra in e d in M a rx is t-L e n in is t p rin c ip le s. T h is
n e w in te llig e n tsia w ill in c lu d e n o t o n ly th e profession s w h ic h in
th e W e st m ig h t b e term ed in te lle c tu a l, b u t also th e w h o le h ig h e r
a d m in istra tiv e p e rso n n e l— th e le a d in g b u re a u c ra ts, th e fa c to ry
m a n a g ers, th e tra d e u n ion bosses, a n d th e c a d re s o f th e C o m m u n ­
ist P a r ty itself. T h is n e w in te llig e n tsia w ill n ot h a v e a lo w e r so cia l
sta n d in g th an th e w o rk ers a n d p e a sa n ts: it w ill form th e n e w
r u lin g class, as is th e case in th e U . S . S . R . 1 O f c o u rse e v e n at

1 B y this I m ea n o n ly th a t th e in te llig e n tsia , in th e b ro a d sense d e fin ed a b o v e , is the

class w h ic h at present ru les the U .S .S .R . a n d w ill in th e n e a r fu tu re (in d e ed to a g rea t
ex te n t a lr e a d y does) ru le E a ste rn E u ro p e . I d o not m e a n th a t th e re has y e t been
fo rm e d a n ew h e re d ita ry ru lin g class in th e U .S .S .R ., o r w ill be in E a ste rn E u ro p e .
It m a y b e th a t this is o r w ill soon b e th e ca se, but the e v id e n c e is in su fficien t.
 SOC: I AI. A ND RELI GI OUS POLICY 283
present those a d m in istra to rs an d exp e rts w h o a rc d o c ilc C o m ­
m un ist P a r ty m em b e rs e n jo y g re a te r so cia l p restige th an a n y
o th e r g ro u p . B u t fo r th e m ost p a rt th ey d o not ca ll th em selves
e ith e r in te lle c tu a ls o r b u re a u c ra ts, b u t ‘ w o r k e r s ’ , th o u g h m a n y
h a v e lo n g a b a n d o n e d th e facto ry-ben c.h fo r th e life o f profession al
p a r ty o rg a n ise r, an d som e w e re n e v e r a t the b e n c h a ll th eir
lives.
T h e n e w in te llig e n tsia is to b e c re a ted b y th e n e w system o f
e d u c a tio n . T h e p o sitiv e sid e o f th e n e w system is th a t p o o rer
c h ild re n g e t a b e tte r o p p o rtu n ity o f m o u n tin g th e e d u ca tio n a l
la d d e r. B e tw e e n th e w o rld w ars, it is tru e, g re a t progress w as m ad e
in e d u c a tio n th ro u g h o u t E astern E u ro p e . P r im a ry e d u c a tio n w as
g r e a tly d e v e lo p e d , a n d w h e re it w as n ot e ffe c tiv e th e o b stacles la y
as m u ch in th e d iffic u lty o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s an d th e p reju d ice s o f
th e p a re n ts as in th e p o lic y o f th e g o v e rn m e n ts. S e c o n d a ry an d
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n w ere a lso g re a tly im p ro v e d in co m p a riso n w ith
th e R u ssia n o r O tto m a n e m p ires, o r th e H u n g a ria n h a lf o f the
H a b s b u rg e m p ire . B u t th e y w e re still q u ite in a d e q u a te . W h a t h ad
b e en a lu x u r y for th e a risto c ra c y a n d th e w e a lth y b o u rge o isie
b e ca m e a ccessib le to c h ild re n o f m ed iu m peasan ts a n d sm all state
o fficia ls: b u t fo r c h ild re n o f p o o r p e asan ts o r fa cto ry w o rkers
e x c e p tio n a l a b ility a n d go o d fo rtu n e w e re n ecessary to secu re a
h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . T h e presen t regim es h a v e set o u t to fa v o u r
c h ild re n o f w o rk ers an d to a lesser e x te n t o f p o o r p easan ts. In
H u n g a r y e ve n b e fo re th e w a r a m o v e m e n t w as sta rted to cre a te
‘ p e o p le ’s c o lle g e s ’ fo r p o o r p e a sa n ts’ ch ild re n . T h e p io n e e r w as a
c e rta in G y ö r ffy , w h o se n a m e w as g iv e n to th e first co lleg e.
T h e m o v e m e n t w as led b y th e le ft-w in g g ro u p o f in te lle ctu als
a n d p easan ts c o n n e c te d w ith th e N a tio n a l P ea san t P a rty . B u t
in 1948 th e m o ve m e n t w as re b u k e d b y th e co m m u n ists for
p a y in g to o m u c h a tte n tio n to p easan ts a n d to o little to w o rk ers.
T h e co lleg es w e re b ro u g h t u n d e r clo ser c o n tro l b y th e c o m ­
m un ists, a n d th e so cia l c o m p o sitio n o f th e p u p ils re ce iv ed w as
c h a n g e d to th e a d v a n ta g e o f w o rk ers. N e ve rth e le ss, th o u g h less
fa v o u re d th an w o rk ers, p o o r p e asan ts h a v e a b e tte r c h a n c e to g e t
th e ir ch ild re n e d u c a te d th ro u g h o u t E astern E u ro p e th a n th ey
h a d b e fo re th e w a r.
B esides h e lp in g c h ild re n o f th e p o or, th e n e w regim es also
d isc rim in a te a g a in st th e c h ild re n o f th e fo rm e rly w e a lth y . I t is
m a d e in c re a sin g ly d iffic u lt fo r e x -b o u rg e o is c h ild re n to a tte n d
u n iversities. T h is represen ts a loss, fo r su ch c h ild re n h a v e the
a d v a n ta g e , w h ic h sh o u ld n ot be u n d e re stim a te d , o f g ro w in g u p
284 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
in a m ore c u ltu re d b a c k g ro u n d . It sh ou ld be b y n o m ean s im poss­
ib le for th e regim es to w in o v e r m a n y o f these c h ild re n a t sch ool
a nd u n iv e rsity : th e y prefer, h o w ev e r, to tre a t th em as en em ies,
irre m e d ia b ly co rru p te d b y th e r e a c tio n a ry p reju d ic e s o f th eir
parents.
T h e m ain co n ce rn o f th e e d u c a tio n a l reform ers h as b e en to
c re a te a u n iform ty p e o f sch oo l. It is c o n sid e re d m o re im p o rta n t
to sta n d a rd ise te a c h in g th an to e n a b le th e a b le r p u p ils to rise
q u ick ly . T h is w as th e pu rp o se o f th e A c t passed in A p r il 1948 in
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia an d o f a series o f law s passed in H u n g a r y in th e
sa m e y e a r. H u n g a r y ’s C a th o lic sch ools w e re n a tio n a lise d in J u n e
1948. T h e R u m a n ia n e d u c a tio n a l reform w as in tro d u c e d in A p r il
1948. D u rin g th e su m m e r foreign re lig io u s an d o th e r sch o ols w e re
closed in b o th R u m a n ia a n d B u lg a ria . T h e b an e lim in a te d su ch
fin e in stitu tio n s as th e A m e r ic a n c o lle g e o f S o fia a n d F re n ch
fo u n d atio n s in R u m a n ia . In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , th e S lo v a k relig iou s
sch ools h ad been tak e n o v e r b y th e sta te d u r in g th e ru le o f th e
‘ in d e p e n d e n t’ S lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t o f th e C a th o lic M g r. T is o : th e
new' re g im e k ep t its c o n tro l, th o u g h o f co u rse a p p ly in g it in a v e r y
d iffe re n t sp irit, e sp e c ia lly a fte r F e b ru a ry 1948. In th e C z e c h la n d s
o b stacles b e gan to b e p la c e d in th e w a y o f C a th o lic sch ools from
1948 o n w a rd s. T h e sa m e process w as slo w e r in P o la n d .
T h e p u rp o se o f th e n e w e d u c a tio n is te c h n ic a l p r o fic ie n c y
a n d M a rx ist-L e n in ist in d o c trin a tio n , ra th e r th a n p r e p a ra tio n o f
th e p u p ils to th in k fo r th em selves. T h e e m p h a sis on scie n tific a n d
te ch n ica l k n o w le d g e is to a la rg e e x te n t ju s tifie d . B e fo re th e w a r
a ll E astern E u ro p e su ffered fro m a su rfeit o f law' g ra d u a te s
e x p e c tin g as o f rig h t e m p lo y m e n t in th e c iv il se rv ice . O n th e o th e r
h a n d th ere w e re too fe w d o cto rs, a n d fa r to o fe w in d u stria l an d
a g ric u ltu ra l en gin eers. B u t th e n e ed to re m e d y th ese d efects does
n ot ju s tify th e re g im e n ta tio n o f th o u g h t w h ic h is b e c o m in g
u n iv e rsa l in th e e d u c a tio n system o f th e w h o le re gio n .
D iffe re n t co u n trie s a re o f co u rse a t d iffe re n t stages. Y u g o s la v ia
w as th e p io n e e r in M a rx ist-L e n in ist in d o c trin a tio n u n til th e T ito -
C o m in fo rm b re a ch . S in c e th en , th e d o c trin e h as b e en in te rp re te d
so as to a llo w for e m p h a sis on th e v a r ie ty o f M a rx is t d e v e lo p m e n t
possible in in d iv id u a l c o u n trie s, an d e sp e c ia lly in Y u g o s la v ia . A
ca re fu l w a tc h is kept for C o m in fo rm ism , w h ic h is o f c o u rse as
m u ch a h eresy in T ito is t eyes as T ito ism in C o m in fo r m ist. B u t
th ere is n o e v id e n c e th a t th e e xc lu sio n o f n o n -M a r x is t id eas is a n y
less severe th an b efore th e b re a c h . In A lb a n ia in d o c trin a tio n is
m ad e easier b y th e v e r y slig h t p re v io u s g ro w th o f n o n -M a r x is t
 S OCI AL AND RELI GI OUS POLICY 285

d e m o c r a c y . B e tw ee n Isla m ic tra d itio n a lism a n d M arx ism -

L e n in ism th e in te rm e d ia te stages a rc a lm o st a b se n t. H o x h a and
his frien d s a rc th erefo re fa c e d w ith a task o f m o d ern isa tio n not
u n lik e th a t o f th e S o v ie t B olsh eviks a m o n g th e T a d jik s o r T u r k ­
m en s. T h e M a rx is t sch ools a rc the first m o d ern sch ools for most
A lb a n ia n s . In B u lg a ria a lr e a d y in 1946 e n try to th e u n ive rsity
d e p e n d e d o n p resen ta tio n o f a c e rtific a te from th e b ra n c h o f the
co m m u n ist-le d F a th e rla n d F ro n t in th e stu d e n t’s h o m e a re a th at
h e o r she w a s p o litic a lly re lia b le . In d o c trin a tio n is in tense from
th e p r im a r y sch oo l u p w a rd s. In R u m a n ia , schools a n d u n ive rsity
fa cu ltie s h a v e ‘ e d u c a tio n a l c o u n c illo r s ’ a n d ‘ sp iritu a l g u id e s ’ ,
a p p o in te d b y th e M in iste r o f F .d ucation , w h ose task is to in d o c ­
trin a te n o t o n ly p u p ils b u t also th e ir p aren ts. C o m m itte e s o f
stu d en ts a n d sch o o lch ild re n a re e n c o u ra g e d to sp y on th eir c o m ­
ra d e s a n d re p o rt th em . In P o lan d a su b ject c a lle d 'P o lis h c o n ­
te m p o ra r y h is t o r y ’ is ta u g h t in th e sch ools. It is a e u p h em ism for
M a rx ist p r o p a g a n d a . In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th in gs h a v e m oved m ore
slo w ly . B u t a t th e n in th co n gress o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k C o m m u n ist
P a rty , in M a y 1949, th e M in iste r o f In fo rm a tio n , V a c la v K o p e c k y ,
d e c la re d th a t th e g o v e rn m e n t in te n d e d to ‘ c o n d u c t th e en tire
sta te e d u c a tio n , b o th in an d o u t o f sch o ol, in th e spirit o f o u r
id e o lo g y , in the sp irit o f o u r scie n tific tru th s, o f M a rx ist-L e n in ist
th e o r y ’ .
T h e r e is o f co u rse no d o u b t th a t b e fo re the w a r not o n ly the
im p o rta n t w orks o f M a r x , b ut also th e w h o le field o f the social
scien ces, w e re n e g le cte d th ro u g h o u t E astern E u ro p e . C z e c h o ­
s lo v a k ia w a s th e o n ly c o u n try w h e re th ey w e re at a ll a d e q u a te ly
co n sid e re d . B u t th e fo rc e d g ro w th o f M a rx ism -L e n in is m u n d e r
th e n e w regim es is m o re th an a c o rr e c tiv e to th e re a c tio n a ry
ro m a n ticism o f th e past. M a rx ism -L e n in is m m ean s in p ra c tic e
th e p a rro t-lik e re p e titio n o f the slo g an s o f the A g itp r o p d ep a rtm e n t
o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e A ll-U n io n C o m m u n ist P a rty in
M o sc o w . A s th e n u m b e r o f e d u c a te d M a rx ists, re a lly fa m ilia r w ith
th e w ritin g s o f M a r x , E n gels a n d L e n in , is e x tr e m e ly sm all,
sla vish re p e titio n o f ph rases le a rn ed b y h e a rt is the o n ly sa fe g u ard
fo r te ach e rs w h o k n o w th at th e y w ill be se v ere ly p u n ish ed i f th ey
d e v ia te fro m a n o rth o d o x y w h ic h m ost o f th em d o n ot y et u n d e r­
sta n d . L e ctu re s on F re n c h lite ra tu re , P la to ’ s p h ilo so p h y o r h y d r o ­
statics h a v e to b e sp iced w ith q u o ta tio n s from M a r x , L e n in ,
S ta lin , o r— in Y u g o s la v ia — T i t o a n d K a r d c lj. L ittle co llectio n s o f
q u o ta tio n s 011 a ll su b je cts b y these g r e a t m en a re m a d e a v a ila b le
fo r th e b e n e fit o f teach ers.
286 THE EAST E U R O P E A N RE VOL U T I ON
T h e m ind s o f a d u lts a re c a re d for h a rd ly less th o ro u g h ly th an
those o f c h ild re n . Press, ra d io an d p u b lica tio n s a rc o f c o u rse c o n ­
trolled b y th e C o m m u n ist P arties. B u t p e rh a p s m o re g r a v e is th e
fa ct th at cen sorsh ip exten d s n ot o n ly to id e as exp ressed to -d a y b u t
to those exp ressed in th e past. P u b lic lib ra ries a re p u rg e d b y stages.
P u b lish in g is n a tio n a lise d , w ith v e r y few e xc ep tio n s. T h is m ean s
th at th e C o m m u n ist P a rty c a n d e c id e w h a t b oo k s sh all be
re p rin te d . A s th e w a r left a severe b o o k sh o rta g e th ro u g h o u t
E astern E u ro p e , c o m m o n text-b o o k s a n d classics from b efo re th e
w a r a rc h a rd to o b ta in .
Books in p r iv a te possession a r c b o u n d to d w in d le . P e rh a p s th e
m ain reason for this is th e sh o rta g e o f h o u sin g sp a ce. A s resid en tial
b u ild in g has a low p r io rity in all th e n a tio n a l e c o n o m ic p lan s,
an d a ll also p r o v id e for a n e n o rm o u s in crease in th e n u m b e r o f
in d u strial w ork ers— a n d so o f th e u rb a n p o p u la tio n — pressure on
liv in g sp a ce w ill ste a d ily in crease. A lr e a d y re g u la tio n s are b e in g
in tro d u ce d to fo rce e x -b o u rg e o is fa m ilies to g iv e u p som e o f th eir
room s— th e o n ly asset re m a in in g to th em — a n d in som e cases
to le a v e th e c a p ita ls o r p rin c ip a l cities. I n e v ita b ly w ith in a few
years h o u sin g c o n d itio n s in E ast E u ro p e a n cities w ill resem ble
those w h ich h a v e lo n g p re v a ile d in S o v ie t cities. F o rce d to m o ve
in to o n e room w ith th e ir fam ilies, o w n e rs o f b ooks w ill h a v e to
je ttiso n th em . A s th e n e w p r iv ile g e d a re u n lik e ly to w ish to b u y
th em , th e y w ill find th eir w a y to th e d u stb in . B efo re lo n g sou rces
o f n o n -M a rx is t-L e n in ist k n o w le d g e w ill h a v e d isa p p e a re d .
T h is system is based on force, an d c o u ld n ot b e m a d e to w o rk
w ith o u t force. It is b itte r ly resen ted b y m a n y p e o p le , a n d th ere
is n o in d ep en d e n t e v id e n ce to su ggest th a t it is w e lc o m e d b y a n y
b u t th e sm all m in o rity o f c o n v in c e d co m m u n ists a n d th e ra th e r
la rg e i n u m b e r o f c y n ic a l careerists. T h e r e is c e rta in ly n o e v id e n c e
for th e v ie w , w id e ly h eld b y a p o lo gists fo r co m m u n ism in W e ste rn
E u ro p e , th a t ‘ o n ly a fe w in te lle c tu a l m a lc o n te n ts ’ c a re a b o u t
in te lle ctu a l free d o m , th a t th e w ork ers a n d p ea san ts c a re o n ly for
th eir d a ily b re a d an d a jo b . N e ith e r in E astern n o r in W e ste rn
E u ro p e d o w o rk ers o r p e asan ts c a re o n ly fo r m a te ria l c o m fo rt.
T h e r e a re 110 d o u b t in d iv id u a l w o rk ers a n d p e a san ts, lik e in d iv i­
d u a l b u re a u c ra ts, c a p ita lists o r m em b ers o f a n y o th e r so cia l
g ro u p , w h o c a re o n ly fo r th ese th in gs. B u t n o W e ste rn a p o lo gist
for co m m u n ism , n o r a n y o u tsid e o b se rv e r o f a n y p o litic a l c o m ­
p le x io n , h as th e rig h t to d e c id e w h e th e r th e w o rk e rs a n d p easan ts
o f E astern E u ro p e a re c a p a b le o f ‘ a p p r e c ia tin g free d o m o f
th o u g h t’ .
 SO C IA L AN D RELIG IOU S POLICY 287

T H E C H U R CH E S

C o m m u n ist c o n tro l o f th e sch ools w as b o u n d to lead to c o n flic t

w ith th e C h ris tia n c h u rc h e s. N o c h u r c h ca n con sen t to th e fo rcib le
in d o c trin a tio n o f c h ild re n w ith M a rx ist-L e n in ist ath eism . I t m ust
p u t u p a fig h t.
E aste rn E u ro p e is d iv id e d b e tw e e n th e R o m a n C a th o lic and
O r t h o d o x ch u rc h e s, w ith se v eral sm all b u t in flu e n tia l P ro testan t
c o m m u n itie s as m in o rities. P o la n d , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , H u n g a ry a n d
th e n o rth e rn p ro vin ce s o f Y u g o s la v ia (S lo v e n ia , C r o a tia a n d the
V o iv o d in a ) a re m a in ly C a th o lic . T h e O r th o d o x c h u rc h is
d o m in a n t in R u m a n ia , sou th ern Y u g o s la v ia (B osn ia, M o n te ­
n e g ro , S e rb ia , M a c e d o n ia ) a n d B u lg a ria . In T r a n s y lv a n ia th ere
w as a n im p o rta n t m in o rity b e lo n g in g to th e U n ia te (or G ree k
C a t h o lic ’ ) C h u r c h .1
T h e P ro testa n ts fa ll in to th re e m ain g ro u p s. C a lv in ists a m o u n t
to a b o u t a q u a r te r o f th e p o p u la tio n o f H u n g a ry , a n d a re also
n u m e ro u s a m o n g th e H u n g a ria n m in o rity in T r a n s y lv a n ia . C z e c h
Pro testa n ts in c lu d e v a rio u s g ro u p s w h ic h tra cc th eir sp iritu al
d esce n t from th e m e d ie v a l re fo rm e r J o h n H u s. T h e th ird b ra n ch
a re th e L u th e ra n s, w h o form a b o u t 20 p e r cen t o f th e p o p u la tio n
in S lo v a k ia , h a v e a fo llo w in g in H u n g a r y , a n d p red o m in a te
a m o n g th e ‘ S a x o n s ’ o f so u th ern T r a n s y lv a n ia , th e o ld e r o f the
tw o G e r m a n c o m m u n itie s in R u m a n ia .
F in a lly Islam p red o m in a te s in A lb a n ia , an d th ere a re im p o rta n t
M o sle m m in o rities in B osn ia, S a n d ja k , M a c e d o n ia an d eastern
B u lg a ria , e x te n d in g m o re sp a rsely a lo n g th e B la ck S e a coast o f
R u m a n ia .
T h e a ttitu d e o f E ast E u ro p e a n co m m u n ists to th e c h u rch e s,
lik e th a t o f th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t, is la rg e ly d e te rm in e d b y th eir
in te rn a tio n a l co n n e ctio n s. T h e C a th o lic c h u r c h , o w in g a lle g ia n c e
to a su p re m e in te rn a tio n a l a u th o r ity resid in g ou tsid e th e S o v iet
z o n e , is co n sid e re d a d a n g e ro u s e n e m y . T h e d e p e n d e n c e o f the
V a t ic a n o n th e A m e r ic a n im p e ria lists is a fa v o u rite th em e o f
c o m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a w ith in a n d w ith o u t the S o v ie t zo n e. I h e
P ro te sta n t ch u rc h e s h a v e m u c h looser b u t im p o rta n t co n n ectio n s
w ith th e P ro testa n ts o f th e A n g lo -S a x o n co u n trie s, S c a n d in a v ia
a n d G e r m a n y . T h e y a re th erefo re re g a rd e d w ith su sp icion . M o s ­
lem s a re to som e e x te n t su spect o f s y m p a th y w ith T u r k e y , th e b ase
to ol o f th e W e ste rn im p e ria lists. T h e O r th o d o x c h u r c h has co n ­
n e ctio n s w ith G r e e c e an d w ith th e O r th o d o x co m m u n itie s o f the
1 See above, p. 3.
288 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
L e b a n o n , P alestin e an d E g y p t. H ith e r to M o sc o w a p p e a r s to h a v e
b e lie ve d th a t these co n n e ctio n s c o u ld b e used to fu rth e r S o v ie t
p o lic y ra th e r th an b e tu rn e d a g a in st it. T h e re fo r e , th o u g h the
O rth o d o x c h u rc h too is a n id e o lo g ic a l e n e m y , it h as e n jo y e d a
p riv ile g e d position in E astern E u ro p e .
T h e go v e rn m e n ts o f Y u g o s la v ia , B u lg a ria a n d R u m a n ia h a v e
so u gh t to c o n tro l th eir O r th o d o x c h u rch e s a n d m a k e o f th e m a
bu ttress— n ot v e r y re lia b le , y e t u sefu l— o f th e n e w re g im e .
Priests o r bish ops w h o stro n g ly o p p o sed th e g o v e rn m e n t h a v e
re ce iv ed th e c u sto m a ry ru th less tre a tm e n t.
In Y u g o s la v ia m a n y priests su p p o rte d M ih a ilo v ic ’ s C h e tn ik s
o r N c d ic ’ s ‘ g o v e rn m e n t o f n a tio n a l s a lv a tio n ’ . S o m e o f these fled
th e c o u n try , oth ers w e re p u n ish ed . B u t th ere w e re also O r th o d o x
priests in th e p a rtisa n ran ks. A fte r th e w a r th e P a tria rc h G a v r ila ,
w h o h ad m a in ta in e d a d ig n ifie d an d p a trio tic a ttitu d e u n d e r
o c c u p a tio n , a n d h a d b een d ep o rte d to G e r m a n y , re tu rn e d to
Y u g o s la v ia . H is rela tio n s w ith T i t o ’ s re g im e c a n n o t b e e x p e c te d
to be g o o d , bu t he p erfo rm e d his fu n ctio n s till his d e a th in 1950.
T o som e e xte n t th e c h u rc h has b e co m e a focus o f o p p o sitio n to the
re g im e , an d it is n o te w o rth y th a t a tte n d a n c e o f m en a t c h u r c h
services is h ig h e r th an it used to be. T h e S erb s took th e ir re lig io n
as lig h tly as a n y n a tio n e x c e p t in tim es o f n a tio n a l e m e rg e n c y . It
m a y be su sp ected th a t th eir in terest in th e c h u r c h is n o t e n tire ly
d u e to relig io u s c o n v ic tio n . B ut th e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t to le r­
a te d th e c h u r c h a fte r lib e ra tio n , a n d sin ce th e T ito - C o m in fo r m
b reach pressure h as not in crea sed .
In B u lg a ria , th e M e tr o p o lita n o f S o fia , S te fa n , w h o w ith
M o s c o w ’s a p p r o v a l visite d th e o e c u m e n ic a l P a tria rc h in C o n s ta n t­
in o p le and b e c a m e re c o n c ile d ,1 a c c e p tin g th e title o f E x a rc h u n d e r
th e P a tria rc h a l a u th o rity , c o lla b o ra te d w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t u n til
1948. T h o u g h a su b tle d ip lo m a t, S te fa n w as u n a b le to p reserve

1 T h e o e c u m e n ic a l P a tria rc h in C o n sta n tin o p le in th e d a y s o f th e B y z a n tin e

e m p ire cla im e d su p rem e sp iritu a l a u th o rity o v e r th e w h o le O r t h o d o x c h u rc h . T h is
a u th o rity w as o n th e w h o le su p p o rte d b y th e O t to m a n T urkish S u lta n s afte r the
co n q u est o f C o n sta n tin o p le in 14 5 3, as fa r as the O r th o d o x su b jects o f the O tto m a n
e m p ire w ere c o n c e rn e d . In 1870, h o w e v e r, an E x a r c h a te w a s set u p fo r th e O r t h o d o x
c h u rc h o f B u lg a ria , \\hich till then ha d been d o m in a te d at the h ig h e r le v e l b y G re e k
bishops. T h e S u lta n g ra n te d th e E x a rc h a te ag a in st ih e o p p o sitio n o f th e P a tria rc h a te .
W h e n in 1878 B u lg a ria b e c a m e a n in d e p e n d e n t state, its ch u rc h b e c a m e in p ra c tic e
in d e p e n d e n t o f C o n sta n tin o p le . T h e E x a rc h resided in C o n s ta n tin o p le , b u t th e
se co n d h o ld er o f th e office, th e E x a rc h J o se p h , w as a n o m in e e o f th e P a tria rc h a n d
ha d n o a u th o rity inside B u lg a ria . W h e n J o sep h d ie d in 19 15 n o E x a r c h w as e le c te d ,
a n d th e B u lg a ria n ch u rc h th u s rem a in e d w ith o u t a n o ffic ial h e a d . T h e rec o n c ilia tio n
b etw een the B u lg a ria n c h u rc h a n d th e P a tria rc h a te , b ro u g h t a b o u t in 19 45 , w as
essen tially a p a rt o f a S o v ie t p o litica l m a n o e u v re to use th e a u th o rity o f th e P a tria rc h
in o rd e r to w in th e sy m p a th y o f the O r t h o d o x ch u rc h e s o u tsid e th e S o v ie t te rrito ria l
sp h ere. The A rc h b ish o p o f S o fia , S te fa n , w as reco g n ised as E x a rc h b y th e P a tria rc h
on 26 February- 1945. In O c to b e r 1943 S tefa n p a id an o ffic ial visit to C o n s ta n tin o p le .
 S O CI A L AND RE LIG IOU S POLICY 28 9
g o o d re la tio n s w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t, an d resign ed . A la w d efin in g
th e p osition o f th e c h u r c h w as passed in F e b ru a ry 1949. A rtic le 12
p ro v id e s th a t ‘ m inisters, as w e ll as o th e r officials o f th e ch u rch es,
w h o b re a k th e law', o ffen d a g a in st p u b lic o rd e r o r m o ra lity , or
w h o w o rk a g a in st th e d e m o c ra tic in stitu tion s o f th e state, m a y at
th e p ro p o sa l o f th e M in iste r o f F o re ig n A ffa ir s be te m p o ra rily
su sp en d ed from o ffice o r d ism isse d ’ . T h e le a d e rs o f th e ch u rc h a rc
in fo rm e d o f th e p ro p o sa l, a n d i f th ey d o not suspen d th e g u ilty
person h e is ‘ su sp en d ed b y a d m in istra tiv e o r d e r ’ . This a rtic le ,
to g e th e r w ith th e a rtic le in th e co n stitu tio n fo rb id d in g p o litica l
a c tiv it y b y priests, p ro v id e s th e g o v e rn m e n t w ith p o w ers c a p a b le
o f w id e in te rp re ta tio n .
T h e R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t h ad th e a d v a n ta g e o f an o b lig in g
c o lla b o r a to r in th e person o f J u stin ia n , a p p o in te d M e tr o p o lita n
o f Ia şi a fte r th e w a r , w h o w as e le cte d P a tria rc h in 1948. T h e
O r t h o d o x c h u r c h o f R u m a n ia has b e en used m o re su ccessfu lly
as a n in stru m e n t o f state p o lic y th a n th a t o f a n v o th er co u n try
b u t th e U .S .S .R .
T h e g o v e rn m e n t su p p o rte d a c a m p a ig n b y th e O rth o d o x
c h u r c h fo r th e ‘ re tu rn to th e f o ld ’ o f th e R u m a n ia n U n ia tes.
S e v e r a l U n ia t e b ish o ps a n d priests w e re arrested b y th e a u th o ri­
ties d u r in g th e su m m e r o f 1948. In th e a u tu m n these m eth od s h ad
th e ir d esired resu lt. A n u n re p re se n ta tiv e b o d y o f c o w e d U n ia te
p riests fo r m a lly asked , on b e h a lf o f th e ir c h u r c h , to b e re a d m itted
in to th e ran ks o f O r t h o d o x y . I he O r th o d o x ch u rc h w as h a p p y to
a c c e p t, a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t re co gn ise d th e c h a n g e . T h e U n ia te
c h u r c h th erefo re n o lo n g e r le g a lly existed in R u m a n ia , a n d its
p r o p e r ty h as passed to th e O r th o d o x . In u sin g p o lice te rro r to
fo r c e on e relig io u s c o m m u n ity in to su b o rd in a tio n to a n o th e r, th e
R u m a n ia n co m m u n ists w e re fo llo w in g th e e x a m p le o f th e S o v iet
co m m u n ists. T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t used sim ila r m eth od s in
194 5 to fo rce th e U n ia te s o f eastern G a lic ia (re an n e xe d from
P o la n d ) a n d R u th e n ia (a n n e x e d from C z e c h o slo v a k ia ) to ‘ re­
e n t e r ’ th e O r t h o d o x c h u r c h . I t is a c u rio u s iro n y o f h istory th at
th is p ie ce o f re lig io u s p e rsec u tio n , w h ic h th e th e o cra tic im p e ria l
R u ssia o f P o b e d o n o stse v n e v e r a c h ie v e d , w as c a rrie d ou t b y th e
e x -se m in a rist from T iflis, D ju g a s h v ili-S ta lin . I t is tru e th a t for
g e n e ra tio n s th e O r th o d o x c h u rc h h ad w ish ed to re co n v ert the
U n ia te s , b u t n e ith e r its le a d e rs n o r th e h ead s o f go v e rn m e n ts h ad
m a d e m u ch e ffo rt, a n d th ere w as no p o p u la r d e m a n d for it. It
h a s b e en d o n e n ot fo r relig io u s b u t fo r in te rn a tio n a l reasons, in
290 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
o rd e r to cru sh tw o d efen celess ou tposts w h ic h h a d c o n n e ctio n s
w ith th e W est.
T h e position o f th e O r th o d o x c h u r c h in R u m a n ia w as sta b ilised
b y a la w o f A u g u st 1948. T h e sen ior ran ks o f th e h ie r a r c h y c a n
o n ly b e filled ‘ a fte r a p p ro v a l b y th e P resid iu m o f th e G r a n d
N a tio n a l A ss e m b ly , g iv e n b y d e c re e , a t th e p ro p o sa l o f th e
g o v e rn m e n t, fo llo w in g th e re c o m m e n d a tio n o f th e M in is te r o f
R e lig io n .’ B efo re ta k in g u p th e ir d uties, th e y m ust sw e a r n o t to
allow ’ th eir su b o rd in ate s to u n d e rta k e o r ta k e p a rt, o r th em selves
u n d e rta k e o r tak e p a rt in, ‘ a n y a c tio n lik e ly to a ffe c t p u b lic o rd e r
a n d th e in te g rity o f th e R u m a n ia n P e o p le ’ s R e p u b lic ’ . It re m ain s
to be seen w h e th e r th e g re a te r su b se rv ie n c e o f th e R u m a n ia n
O r th o d o x c h u rc h w ill in p r a c tic e secu re it b e tte r tre a tm e n t b y th e
g o v e rn m e n t th an its sister c h u rch e s.
T h e hopes w h ic h M o sc o w has p la c e d o n th e e x p lo ita tio n o f
O r th o d o x c h u rch e s o u tsid e th e S o v ie t sp h ere d o n o t a p p e a r to
h a v e b e en realised . T h e O r th o d o x c h u r c h in G r e e c e is a lm o st
solid a g a in st the co m m u n ists. T h e n e w o e c u m e n ic a l P a tria rc h
A th c n a g o r a s is a n A m e r ic a n .1 T h e O r th o d o x c h u rc h e s o f th e
M id d le E ast resp on d b u t little to S o v ie t b la n d ish m e n ts. A s these
h opes a re p ro g re ssiv e ly d isa p p o in te d , it seem s lik e ly th a t th e u tility
o f th e O r th o d o x c h u rc h to M o sc o w w ill d im in ish , a n d its t r e a t­
m en t th e ic fo re d e te rio ra te .
T h e H u n g a ria n C a lv in ists re a c h e d a n a g re e m e n t w ith th e
g o v e rn m e n t in 1948. T h is left th em som e o f th e ir sch o ols a n d all
th e ir re lig io u s tra in in g colleg es. A g r e e m e n t w as, h o w e v e r, o n ly
a c h ie v e d a fte r th e h e a d o f th e c h u r c h , B ish o p R a v a s z , re tire d an d
w as su cce e d e d b y th e m o re a c c o m m o d a tin g B e re c z k y . T h e a g re e ­
m en t w as n ot u n fa v o u ra b le , b u t o p p o sitio n to it w ith in th e c h u r c h
w as b ased on th e b e lie f th a t it w o u ld n o t in fa c t b e h o n o u re d . T h e
h e a d o f th e L u th e r a n c h u rc h in H u n g a r y , B ish o p O rd a ss , w as
a rrested for a lle g e d c u rre n c y o ffen ces. F ifte e n P ro te s ta n t pastors
in B u lg a ria w ere tried fo r v a rio u s acts o f treaso n in F e b r u a r y 1949,
an d d u ly confessed in c o u rt. I t w as c le a r fro m th e c o u r t p r o ­

1 A th e n a g o ra s left G re e c e i n 19 31 to b ec o m e A rc h b is h o p o f th e O r t h o d o x c o m ­
m u n ity o f G re e k o rig in in th e U n ite d S tates. H e b e c a m e a n A m e ric a n c itiz e n in 1938.
H e w as en th ro n ed as P a tria rc h in C o n s ta n tin o p le in J a n u a r y 1949. H e re c e iv e d
b e la te d co n g ra tu la tio n s fro m A le x e i, P a tria rc h o f M o sco w , in A p r il 1949. O n 18
J u ly 1949 he sa w fit to fo llo w th e P o p e ’s e x a m p le b y th re a te n in g w ith e x c o m m u n ic a ­
tio n O r th o d o x belie ve rs w h o b e c a m e co m m u n ists. T h e P a t r ia r c h ’s a u th o r ity o v e r
m em b ers o f O r t h o d o x ch u rc h e s o u tsid e T u r k e y is o f co u rse not c o m p a r a b le w ith th at
o f th e P o p e o v e r C a th o lic s th ro u g h o u t th e w o rld . It is th erefo re d o u b tfu l w h e th e r
A th e n a g o r a s ’s d e cla ra tio n w ill h a v e m u ch effe ct.
 SO C IA L AN D RELI GIOU S POLICY 29I
c e e d in g s th a t th e ir sin w a s th a t th e y h ad frien d ly relation s w ith
A m e r ic a n a n d B ritish P ro testan ts.
T h e m ost seriou s c h u r c h con flic ts h a v e co n c e rn e d th e R o m a n
C a th o lic ch u r c h . T h e first arose in Y u g o s la v ia . A p a rt o f the
C a t h o lic c le r g y in S lo v e n ia an d C r o a t ia g a v e a m o re p ositive
su p p o rt to th e G e rm a n o r Ita lia n in v a d ers o f Y u g o s la v ia a n d to
th e C r o a tia n fascists o f P a v e lic th a n m erely relig io u s d uties
re q u ire d . B ish op S a r ić o f S a r a je v o is p erh a p s th e o u tsta n d in g
‘ c o lla b o r a t o r ’ .1 T h e r e w e re a lso in d iv id u a l cases w h ere C a th o lic
priests e n c o u ra g e d th e m assacres o f S erb s an d J e w s. T h e resen t­
m en t o f m a n y Y u g o s la v p a triots a t this b e h a v io u r , a n d th e tra d i­
tio n a l d islik e o f th e O r th o d o x for C a th o lic ism , w e re e x p lo ite d by
T i t o ’ s g o v e rn m e n t to m a k e a d ire c t a tta c k o n th e c h u r c h . N o t
o n ly those w h o h a d h e lp e d th e e n em y su ffered . T h e m ost strik in g
case w as A rc h b is h o p Stepin ac. o f Z a g r e b , h ead o f th e C a th o lic
ch u rc h in C r o a tia . P e rfo rm a n c e o f his religiou s d u ties h ad o b lig e d
h im to h a v e o fficia l d e a lin g s w ith P a v e lic an d w ith the o c c u p a ­
tion a u th o ritie s. B u t th ere w'as little e v id e n c e th a t he h ad p o sitively
su p p o rte d e ith e r, a n d su b sta n tia l e v id e n c e th at he h ad been in
fr e q u e n t co n flic t w ith th e m ; n o e v id e n c e th a t h e h ad e n c o u ra g ed
o u tra g e s a g a in st S erb s a n d J e w s , a n d su b stan tia l e v id e n c e th a t
h e h ad p ro te cte d persons w h o w e re in d a n g e r. B u t he w as an
a v o w e d o p p o n e n t o f c o m m u n ism , a n d it is fo r th a t sin th a t he
re ce iv e d a six te e n -y e a r prison sen ten ce. O n 5 D e c e m b e r 1951 the
Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t, p r o b a b ly in o rd e r to m ak e a g o o d im ­
pression on C a th o lic o p in io n in th e U n ite d S tates, released
S te p in a c . H is sta tu s re m a in e d u n se ttled . T h e V a tic a n still c o n ­
sid er h im A rc h b is h o p , w h ile th e B e lg ra d e g o v e rn m e n t d en ies
this.
T h e h e a d o f th e H u n g a r ia n C a th o lic c h u r c h , C a r d in a l J o sep h
M in d s z e n ty , w as o p e n ly an d lo u d ly h o stile to th e g o v e rn m e n t
fro m th e first d a y s o f th e n e w re g im e . A b ra v e an d o b stin a te m an ,
a n a r ro w H u n g a r ia n n a tio n a list, a n d a c o n se rv a tiv e w ith little
u n d e rs ta n d in g fo r so cia l issues, M in d s z e n ty w as an alm ost
m e d ie v a l fig u re, a p r e la te from th e h e ro ic tim es o f th e T u rk is h
in va sio n s. H e a n ta g o n ise d n ot o n ly th e co m m u n ists b u t th e la rg e
n u m b e r o f H u n g a r ia n d e m o c ra ts w h o a t first b e lie v e d th at
c o lla b o r a tio n w ith co m m u n ists w as p o ssib le, an d in a n y case
w ish ed as stro n g ly as th e co m m u n ists th em selves to tra n sfo rm the
s e m i-fe u d a l a n d c h a u v in ist H u n g a r y w h ic h th e c a rd in a l seem ed
to d efe n d . B u t as th e fra u d a n d force used b y th e co m m u n ists
1 S ee C lisso ld , Whirlwind, p p . IOO ff.
292 th e EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
b e ca m c e v e r cle a re r, M in d s z e n ty seem ed to be v in d ic a te d . H e
h ad from th e first insisted th at co m m u n ists c o u ld n ot b e tru sted ,
an d th a t no term s o ffered b y th em sh ou ld be a c c e p te d b e c a u se
th e y w o u ld not be k ep t. H e h a d criticised th e la n d reform , n ot
b ecau se h e felt th a t p easan ts sh o u ld n ot o w n la n d , b u t b e ca u se it
re m oved the re v en u e from w h ic h th e C a th o lic c h u r c h m a in ta in e d
its schools, w h ich w ere som e 60 p e r ce n t o f a ll sch ools in H u n g a r y .
T h e g o v e rn m e n t at first su p p o rted th e C a th o lic sch ools from its
funds, b u t M in d sz e n ty d id n ot tru st its in te n tio n s. A n d in J u n e
1948 th e go v e rn m e n t n atio n a lise d sch ools, a g a in st th e vo tes in
p a rlia m e n t o f th e fo llo w ers o f th e C a th o lic B a rá n k o v ic s. T h e
C a th o lic y o u th o rg a n isa tio n h a d a lre a d y b een d isso lv e d , a n d th e
C a th o lic press re d u c ed to o n e m u ch -cen so re d w e e k ly . T h e
g o v e rn m e n t d ec la re d th a t th o u g h sch ools w e re n a tio n a lise d ,
religiou s in stru ctio n w o u ld c o n tin u e . B u t M in d sz e n ty tru sted th e
g o v e rn m e n t less th an e ve r. T h e C o m m u n ist P a rty h a d its m ean s o f
b rin g in g pressure on w o rk in g -class an d p e a sa n t p a ren ts, a n d i f
n ecessary on th e ch ild re n th em selves, to ‘ re q u e s t’ th e su spen sion
o f re lig io u s te a c h in g at a la te r stage. S o M in d s z e n ty s tu b b o rn ly
o pp osed th e g o v e rn m e n t, a n d o rd e re d te a c h in g priests to g iv e u p
th eir jo b s. A b o u t 2,500 te ach e rs th us left. B y th e a u tu m n th e
g o v e rn m e n t c la im e d th at tw o -th ird s o f th e v a c a n t p la ce s w e re
filled . T h e c a rd in a l c o n tin u e d his d e n u n cia tio n s o f th e g o v e r n ­
m en t. H e b e ca m e th e sy m b o l o f a ll o p p o sitio n , p o litic a l as w e ll as
relig iou s.
O n 27 D e c e m b e r 1948 h e w as a rrested o n a c h a rg e o f c o n ­
s p ir a c y .1 T he e v id e n c e at his tria l sh o w ed th a t he h a d d e n o u n ce d
th e g o v e rn m e n t in co n v e rsa tio n w ith th e A m e r ic a n M in iste r , th a t
he th o u g h t a th ird w o rld w a r p r o b a b le a n d th at h e h o p e d for th e
o v e rth ro w o f the re g im e . T h e p ro se cu tio n a lso m a in ta in e d th a t
d u r in g a visit to th e U n ite d S tate s he h a d c o n ve rse d w ith th e ex-
A rc h d u k e O tto , P re te n d e r to th e th ro n e o f th e H a b sb u rg s. T h e
sum total o f e v id e n c e sh ow ed th a t h e w as a fa n a tic a l e n e m y o f th e
g o v e rn m e n t: this h e h a d n e v e r d e n ie d , a n d he h a d g o o d reason for
it. I f h e b e lie ve d a n o th e r w a r w as c o m in g , so u n fo rtu n a te ly d id
m illion s in H u n g a ry , in c lu d in g m a n y co m m u n ists. N o solid
e v id e n ce sh o w e d th at he h ad ta k e n steps to o v e r th r o w th e g o v e r n ­
m en t o r to sta rt a w a r. B u t th e g o v e rn m e n t a c h ie v e d a n u n d o u b te d
success b y b rin g in g h im in to co u rt a n d m a k in g h im confess th a t
1 T h e H u n g a ria n g o v e rn m e n t’s case is co n ta in e d in its ‘ Y e llo w B o o k ’ o n th e s u b ­
je c t. T h e case fo r M in d sze n ty is co n ta in e d in a co lle ctio n o f d o c u m e n ts a n d sta te ­
m en ts p u b lish ed o u tsid e H u n g a ry u n d er the title Four tears' Struggle o f the Church in
Hungary (L o n g m a n s, 1949).
 SO CI A L AND RE LIG IOU S POLICY 29 3
his p rev io u s a ttitu d e h a d b een m istak en . W h e th e r this w as
a c h ie v e d b y th reats, to rtu re o r sim p ly e x p lo ita tio n o f his m o ral
d o u b ts on th e best w a y to p ro te c t his flo ck , is n ot an d c a n n o t be
k n o w n . T h e le a d in g fig u re in th e H u n g a ria n c h u rc h a fter
M in d s z e n ty 's re m o v a l w as A rc h b is h o p G ro esz o f K a lo c s a , w h o
d id his best to p ro te ct C a th o lic s b y som e co m p ro m ise w ith the
a u th o ritie s. In A u g u s t 1950 an a g re e m e n t w as sign ed b y w h ich the
C a th o lic b ish ops p ro m ised th at th e c le r g y w o u ld n ot e n g a g e in
p o litic a l op p o sitio n (th e th ree issues o f the F iv e - Y e a r P lan ,
c o lle c tiv isa tio n o f a g r ic u ltu r e a n d th e M o sco w -sp o n so red ‘ p ea ce
c a m p a ig n ' w e re sp e c ific a lly m en tio n e d ), w h ile th e G o v e rn m e n t
p rom ised to en su re free d o m o f relig iou s b e lie f a n d a c tiv ity , to
restore a few' sch ools to th e ch u rc h an d to su p p o rt it fin a n c ia lly
a t a d im in ish in g ra te fo r th e n e x t e ig h te e n years. B u t g o v e rn m e n t
a tta c k s on th e c h u r c h soon re v iv e d . In J u n e 1951 A rc h b ish o p
G ro e s ż in his tu rn w as tried for treason , an d h e too con fessed to
his crim es. In J u ly th e b ish ops took the fo rm a l o a th o f a lle g ia n c e
to th e H u n g a ria n P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic . But the stru g g le fo r freed om
o f c o n scie n ce c o n tin u e d .
In P o la n d th e c h u r c h for a tim e e n jo y e d m ore freed o m th an in
n e ig h b o u r in g co u n trie s. M g r . W y szy ń sk i, w h o b e c a m e P rim a te o f
th e P olish C h u r c h 011 the d e a th o f C a r d in a l H lo n d in 1948, h ad a
r e p u ta tio n fo r c o n c ilia tio n a n d d ip lo m a c y . B u t this d id n ot p rev e n t
th e C o m m u n ists from d e n o u n c in g th e c h u rc h as a c e n tre o f
p o litic a l re a ctio n . In A u g u st 1949 a n e w la w w as passed w h ic h ,
w h ile p u rp o rtin g to g u a r a n te e freed om to all relig iou s beliefs,
g iv e s th e a u th o ritie s p o w e r to im p o se h e a v y p en alties on priests
show 'ing d islik e for th e re g im e . In A p r il 1950 a n a g re e m e n t w as
sign e d b e tw e e n g o v e rn m e n t an d e p isc o p a te on th e sam e basis as
th e H u n g a r ia n a g re e m e n t d escrib e d a b o v e . B y the a u tu m n it had
b ro k e n d o w n . T h e g o v e rn m e n t a ccu sed th e c h u rc h o f b re a k in g
it, th e c h u r c h le a d e rs re p lied th at th e v io la tio n h ad co m e from
th e g o v e rn m e n t sid e, w ith arrests o f priests an d in terferen ce w ith
th e sch ools th a t re m a in e d u n d e r c h u rc h c o n tro l.
A fe a tu r e o f C o m m u n ist a tta c k s on Polish C a th o lic ism has been
th e a lle g a tio n th a t th e V a t ic a n fa vo u rs G e r m a n y at the exp en se o f
P o la n d . A p a p a l le tte r to th e G e r m a n bish ops in 1948, w h ich e x ­
pressed s y m p a th y fo r th e p lig h t o f G e r m a n refu gees fro m te rrito ry
a n n e x e d b y P o la n d , w a s g iv e n m u c h p u b lic ity a n d a tcn d en cio u s
in te rp re ta tio n . S in ce th e w a r th e Sees in these territo ries h ad
re m a in e d v a c a n t. T h e P olish ch u rc h w as pressed b y the g o v e r n ­
m en t to fill th em , b u t c o u ld n o t d o so w ith o u t V a t ic a n a u th o rity .
294 TH E EASr EUROPEAN R E V O L U T IO N
In J a n u a r y 1951 the g o v e rn m e n t d e c la re d th at the Sees w o u ld be
ad m in iste re d b y five c a p itu la r v ica rs e le cte d b y th e c h a p te rs. In
p ra c tic e th e ‘ e le c tio n ’ m ea n t n o m in a tio n b y th e C o m m u n ist
P a rty . T h e pu rp ose o f this a ctio n w as to m o b ilise Polish n a tio n a l­
ism a g a in st th e ch u rc h in g e n e ra l an d th e V a t ic a n in p a rtic u la r.
In C z e c h o slo v a k ia the clash c a m e soon er. B e tw ee n the w o rld
w ars the C a th o lic c h u rch su ffered in B o h e m ia from th e o d iu m o f
its lo n g asso cia tio n w ith A u stria an d the H a b sb u rg s. B u t its p a t­
rio tic stand u n d e r G e rm a n o c c u p a tio n w o n it a n e w p o p u la rity .
T h e C z e ch s o f M o r a v ia h ad a lw a y s b een m ore d e v o u t th a n those
o f B o h e m ia , w h ile in S lo v a k ia th e in flu e n ce o f th e c h u r c h w as still
stron ger. T h e A rc h b ish o p o f P ra g u e a fter lib e ra tio n , M g r . B era n ,
e n jo ye d u n iversa l resp ect. U n lik e M in d sz e n ty , h e c o u ld n ot
possib ly be c a lle d a re a c tio n a ry . H e h ad also b e en in a c o n c e n tr a ­
tion ca m p in G e rm a n y . In F e b ru a ry 1948, h o w e v e r, B e ra n e a rn e d
th e C o m m u n ists’ h atred b y su sp en d in g the priest P lo jh a r w h o
a cce p te d a seat in the n e w G o ttw a ld g o v e rn m e n t in d e fia n c e o f
in stru ction s to C a th o lic priests to tak e n o p a rt in p o litics. In the
su m m e r o f 1949 n e go tiatio n s b etw een g o v e rn m e n t an d c h u r c h for
a settlem en t o f o u tsta n d in g q u estion s b ro k e d o w n . In J u n e th e
g o v e rn m e n t set u p a ‘ C a th o lic A c tio n C o m m it te e ’ co m p o se d o f
co lla b o ra tio n ist priests a n d la y m e n , w h ic h c la im e d to rep resen t
C a th o lic o p in io n , praised o fficial p o lic y an d d e n o u n c e d the
‘ re a c tio n a ry b ish o p s’ . W ith V a t ic a n a p p ro v a l, B e ra n th re ate n e d
‘ ecclesia stical s a n c tio n s’ a gain st a ll C a th o lic s w h o sh o u ld su p p o rt
it. In P ra g u e c a th e d ra l-th e A rc h b is h o p ’ s serm o n w as in te rru p te d
b y co m m u n ist to u gh s, a n d he him self w a s p la c e d u n d e r p o lice
su p ervision is his house. A n e w ch u rc h la w w as in tro d u c e d , sim ila r
to th e P olish la w d escrib e d a b o v e . In M a r c h 1951 B e ra n w as
d ep o rte d from P ra g u e , a n d the a rc h d io ce se w as p la c e d in the
h an d s o f a co lla b o ra tio n ist priest w h o m the g o v e rn m e n t a p p o in te d
as ‘ V ic a r - G e n e r a l’ .
T h e p a p a l d ecision o f J u ly 1949 to e x c o m m u n ic a te co m m u n ists
in e v ita b ly sh arp e n ed th e co n flic t. T h e E ast E u ro p e a n go v e rn m e n ts
th re a te n e d w ith prison priests w h o sh ou ld refuse th e sa cra m e n ts
to co m m u n ists, a n d in c e rta in cases th e th re a t w as ca rrie d o u t. It
n o w b e c a m e c le a re r th an e v e r th a t the a im o f th e re g im e s w a s to
se v er the lin ks b e tw e e n the n a tio n a l c h u rc h e s a n d th e V a t ic a n . It
is o f cou rse in to le ra b le to th e S o v ie t bosses th a t a n y o rg a n isa tio n
sh ou ld exist in E astern E u ro p e w h ic h h as co n n e c tio n s w ith the
W est. T h e C a th o lic c h u r c h , h ie r a r c h ic a lly su b o rd in a te to R o m e ,
is fa r th e m ost im p o rta n t su ch o rg a n isa tio n th at still rem ain s. T h e
 S O CI A L AND RE LIG IOU S POLICY 295

lin k w ith R o m e m ust b e b ro k e n , an d th e c h u rch e s d e p riv e d o f the

m o ra l p ro te ctio n w h ic h th a t lin k still represen ts. T h e n th e last
sta g e a n d re a l o b je c tiv e o f th e co m m u n ists, the d estru c tio n o f the
c h u rch e s a n d th e su p p ressio n o f re lig io n , c a n be seriou sly b e gu n .
D e fe n d e rs o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n regim es h av e tried to w in sy m ­
p a th y in P ro te sta n t n o rth -w e ste rn E u ro p e b y d e n o u n c in g the
rea ctio n a ry' re co rd an d in te rn a tio n a l in trigu e s o f the V a tic a n . T h e
new' regim es, th e y a rg u e , a re o n ly d o in g w h a t H e n ry V I I I d id .
T h e ir p o lic y is also c o m p a r e d to th a t o f C le m e n c e a u a n d B rian d
forty' ye a rs a g o . T h e s e a rg u m e n ts are false. I t is tru e th at the
C a th o lic ch u rc h has b e en a sso cia ted w ith p o litic a l a n d social
re a c tio n , a n d th a t M in d s z e n ty is a m an o f th e e x trem e rig h t.
B u t th e C a th o lic c h u r c h is n o t b e in g a tta c k e d b ecau se it has
to le ra te d so cia l in ju stice in th e p ast, o r becau se the V a t ic a n has
g o o d re la tio n s w ith N o rth o r S o u th A m e r ic a o r F ra n c o ’ s S p a in .
I t is b e in g a tta c k e d b e cau se the n e w regim es a re d ete rm in e d to
e x c lu d e relig io u s in flu e n ce from n a tio n a l life. T h e ‘ p o p u la r
d e m o c r a c ie s ’ a re n ot try in g , like H e n ry V I I I , to m ak e n a tio n a l
c h u r c h e s, o r like th e F re n c h ra d ic a ls, to m ak e re lig io n a m atte r
o f in d iv id u a l co n scie n ce . T h e ir a im is to d estro y all re lig io n , a n d
to re p la c e it b y th e to ta lita ria n d o c trin e o f M a rx ism -L e n in is m ,
to b e in c u la te d in to e v e r y ch ild from th e cra d le u p w ard s. T h is no
c h u r c h ca n a c c e p t w ith o u t stru ggle.
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

P O L IT IC A L POW ER

T H E STA TE M ACHINE
I X o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n co u n trie s h a v e a d o p te d con
stitu tion s clo sely m o d e lle d on th e S o v ie t co n stitu tio n o f
- 1936. T h e y are Y u g o s la v ia , A lb a n ia , B u lg a ria , R u m a n ia ,
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia an d H u n g a ry . P o la n d has a d o p te d a p ro v isio n a l
co n stitu tio n , a h a lfw a y sta ge b e tw e e n th e d e m o c ra tic c o n ­
stitu tion o f 1921 an d th e n e w co n stitu tio n — n o d o u b t o f th e S o v ie t
t y p e — w h ic h th e presen t p a rlia m e n t w ill m ak e.
A ll seven cou n tries a re re p u b lics. T h e ir o fficia l d escrip tio n is
‘ p e o p le ’ s r e p u b lic ’ , a h a lfw a y sta ge b e tw e e n ‘ b o u rg e o is re p u b ­
l i c ’ an d ‘ so v iet r e p u b lic ’ . T h e d isa p p e a r a n c e o f th e C o b u r g
d y n a sty in B u lg a ria w as in e v ita b le a fter th e seco n d unsu ccessfu l
w a r on th e side o f G e rm a n y . T h e A lb a n ia n m o n a rc h y o f K in g
Z o g h a d n ot d ee p roots, for A h m e d Z o g u h a d o n ly b een o n e o f a
n u m b e r o f n o tab les in a la n d o f tu rb u le n t b eys a n d c h ie fta in s.
T h e Y u g o s la v d y n a sty h a d a p e c u lia r p o sitio n . T h e K a r a d -
jo r d je v ic fa m ily w as o f S e rb ia n o rig in , a n d h a d a lte r n a te ly
o c c u p ie d an d c la im e d th e th ro n e o f S e rb ia sin ce th e e a r ly n in e ­
te e n th c e n tu r y . I t still e n jo y e d p o p u la r ity a m o n g th e p ea san ts o f
S e rb ia in 19 4 1, an d d ou b tless h as m a n y w 'ell-w ishers still. B u t
ou tsid e th e k in g d o m o f S e rb ia its h old w as slig h t. E v e n th e S erb s
o f B osn ia and th e V o iv o d in a w e re lu k e w a rm , w h ile C r o a ts,
S lo v en es, M a c e d o n ia n s an d M o n te n e g rin s h a d little use fo r it.
T h e re ign o f A le x a n d e r h ad a sso cia ted th e d y n a s ty to o clo se ly
w ith ‘ G r e a te r S e r b ’ n a tio n a lism . T i t o ’ s p a rtisa n s w e re ju stifie d in
a rg u in g th a t th e d y n a sty h a d b e c o m e a ca u se n ot o f u n ity b u t o f
d isco rd a m o n g th e p e o p le o f Y u g o s la v ia . T h e R u m a n ia n d y n a s ty ,
th o u g h o f G e rm a n { H o h en zo lle rn ) o rig in , w as th e m ost g e n u in e ly
p o p u la r o f those o f E astern E u ro p e . K in g M ic h a e l’ s o v e r th r o w o f
A n to n e sc u in A u g u s t 1944 h ad n ot o n ly v it a lly a ffe c te d th e co u rse
o f th e S e co n d W o rld W a r , b u t h a d also w o n h im in cre a se d
p o p u la rity fro m his su b jects. In th e fo llo w in g y e a rs h e b e c a m e a
sy m b o l in th e eyes o f R u m a n ia n s o f a ll classes o f th e ir c o u n tr y ’ s
in d e p e n d e n c e . It w as this w h ic h w o n h im th e h o stility o f th e
S o v ie t le a d e rs an d led to his fo rc e d a b d ic a tio n .
296
 POLITICAL POWER 297
C le a r ly a sovietised p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic system is n o t c o m ­
p a tib le w ith h e re d ita ry m o n a rc h y . B u t th e o v e r th r o w o f m o n a rc h y
sh o u ld n o t b e con sid e re d sim p ly a resu lt o f S o v ie t a n d co m m u n ist
fo rce . I t m a y b e d o u b te d w h e th e r th e in stitu tio n , w h ic h w as tak en
fro m th e W e s t E u ro p e a n m o d e l in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y w h en
th e E ast E u ro p e a n co u n trie s w o n th e ir in d e p e n d e n c e , is su ited to
th e m . T h e y h a d n o t e x p e rie n c e d th e h isto ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t from
w h ic h th e co n stitu tio n a l m o n a rch ie s o f B rita in an d S c a n d in a v ia
a rose. T h e m o n a rch s so u g h t to a p p ly W e ste rn sta n d a rd s w ith o u t
u n d e rs ta n d in g th e d iffe re n t fo u n d a tio n s o f th eir k in gd o m s. T h e y
a sso cia te d w ith th e sm all n u m b e r o f th eir su b jects w h o lived in
a W e st E u ro p e a n m a n n er, n ot re a lisin g th a t these m en h ad less
in co m m o n w ith th e ir o w n c o m p a trio ts th an w ith W estern ers o f
th e ir o w n class. T h e co u rts m a in ta in e d a le v el o f p o m p an d lu x u r y
a p p r o x im a tin g to th ose o f th e W e st. T h e co n tra st b e tw e e n this
a n d th e p o v e r ty o f th e ir co u n trie s w as p ro fo u n d . T h e kings w ere
fa r re m o v e d from th e p e a sa n t h o vels a n d w o rk e rs’ slum s. T h is
b e c a m e tru e e v e n o f th e K a r a d jo r d je v ic d y n a sty , w h o se fo u n d er
w a s a S e rb ia n p e a sa n t. T h e m o n a rc h ie s o f E astern E u ro p e , d espite
th e e x c e lle n t m o tive s a n d c o n sid e ra b le a ch ie v e m e n ts o f m a n y o f
th e k in gs, a n d th e p a trio tism o f w h ic h th e y som etim es b e c a m e a
sy m b o l, w e re a lie n gro w th s. It is u n lik e ly th at th e y w ill be
re v iv e d , o r i f th e y a re re v iv e d th a t th e y w ill last.
T h e h e a d o f the sta te in P o la n d a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia is a P resi­
d e n t o f th e R e p u b lic . B o th a re e le c te d fo r seven y ears b y the
p a rlia m e n t. T h e P olish P re s id e n t’ s p ow ers a re su b sta n tia lly the
sam e as u n d e r th e 1 9 2 1 c o n s titu tio n .1 H e is in e ffe ct b o u n d to a c t
as g o v e rn m e n t a n d p a rlia m e n t w ish . T h e C z e c h o s lo v a k P resid en t
h as g re a te r p o w e rs. H e m a y d issolve th e A ss e m b ly , a p p o in t b o th
th e P re m ie r a n d in d iv id u a l m inisters, p resid e o v e r c a b in e t m ee t­
in gs, a n d re q u ire rep orts b o th fro m th e g o v e rn m e n t as a w h o le
a n d fro m in d iv id u a l m inisters. T h e s e p o w e rs a rc n o t, h o w ev e r,
lik e ly to ca u se d iffic u lty as lo n g as th e p resid e n c y is h eld b y G o tt-
w a ld a n d th e g o v e rn m e n t is c o n tro lle d b y th e C o m m u n ist P a rty
o f w h ic h h e is c h a ir m a n . I f th e p re sid e n c y sh o u ld fall v a c a n t, it is
te m p o ra r ily h eld in P o la n d b y th e S p e a k e r, in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia b y
th e c a b in e t as a w h o le , w h ic h m a y d e le g a te sp ecific p ow ers to th e
P rem ie r.
In Y u g o s la v ia , R u m a n ia , B u lg a ria , H u n g a r y an d A lb a n ia th ere
is n o sin g le h e a d o f sta te. T h e fu n c tio n is c o lle c tiv e ly p erfo rm e d b y
th e P resid iu m o f th e A ss e m b ly .
A ll se v en co u n trie s h a v e le g is la tiv e a ssem b lies e le c te d b y d ire c t,
1T h is o ffic e has b ee n h e ld , sin ce its cre a tio n , b y B ie ru t, on w h o m see a b o v e , p . 15 5 .
298 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
e q u a l, sccrct an d u n iv e rsa l su ffra g e . Y u g o s la v ia is th e o n ly
c o u n try w ith a b ic a m e ra l le g isla tu re . T h e secon d c h a m b e r , like
th at o f th e U .S .S .R ., is b ased on n a tio n a lity . T h e six re p u b lic s, th e
a u to n o m o u s re gio n V o iv o d in a a n d th e a u to n o m o u s p ro v in ce
K o s o v o -M e to h ija , are re p resen te d re sp e c tiv e ly b y th irty , tw e n ty
a n d fifteen m em b ers e a c h in it. Its title is C o u n c il o f P eo p les. 1 he
p r in c ip a l c h a m b e r, th e F e d e ra l C o u n c il, is e le cte d in th e u su al
m a n n e r b y te rrito ria l co n stitu en cies. In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th ere is
o n ly o n e ce n tra l le g isla tu re , b u t th ere is also a s u b o rd in a te re g io n a l
le g isla tu re for S lo v a k ia , e le cte d d ire c tly b y th e S lo v a k voters.
T h e P olish, R u m a n ia n , B u lg a ria n , H u n g a r ia n an d A lb a n ia n
legislatu res a rc u n ic a m e ra l. In all seven co u n trie s th e c a b in e t is
form ed from a m a jo rity in th e le g isla tu re a n d is resp o n sib le to it.
T h e le gislatu re also elects from its n u m b e r a b o d y c a lle d th e
P resid iu m , m o d e lle d on th e in stitu tio n o f th e sa m e n a m e in th e
S o v ie t c o n stitu tio n . I t consists o f a p resid e n t, se v eral v ice -
presiden ts, a se cre ta ry , a n d a n u m b e r o f m em b e rs v a r y in g in
d iffe re n t c o u n trie s .1 It p erform s th e fu n ctio n s o f th e le g isla tu re
w h e n th e le g isla tu re is n ot in session. S in c e th e sessions o f th e
legislatu res a rc, as in th e U .S .S .R ., o n ly fo r a sh o rt p e rio d e a ch
ye a r, th e p resid iu m e n a cts a la rg e n u m b e r o f d ec rees. T h e s e la te r
h a v e to b e ra tifie d b y th e fu ll a sse m b ly . S in c e th e e lim in a tio n b y
th e su m m e r o f 1948 o f all p a rlia m e n ta r y o p p o sitio n , th e assem blies
h a v e b e c o m e m ere m ee tin g -p la ce s a t w h ic h p ro m in e n t su p p o rters
o f th e re g im e h a v e o p p o rtu n itie s to try th e ir h a n d a t p o p u la r
d e m o c ra tic rh e to ric. W h a t p o w ers b e lo n g to th em b y th e c o n ­
stitu tio n are in fact e xercised fo r th e g re a te r p a rt o f th e y e a r b y
th e presidiu m s.
A p a r t from this, a n d in a d d itio n to th e fu n ctio n s o f h e a d o f
state, th e p resid iu m a lso h as p o w e rs o f in te rp re tin g th e co n -
s titu tio n a lity o f law s. In th e case o f Y u g o s la v ia , th e p resid iu m m a y
d issolve p a rlia m e n t i f th ere is a d isa g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e tw o
ch a m b ers. It m a y also d e c id e w h e th e r la w s passed b y th e g o v e r n ­
m en ts o f th e c o n stitu e n t re p u b lics are in c o n fo r m ity w ith fe d e ra l
law s a n d w ith th e fe d e ral c o n stitu tio n ,2 a n d w h e th e r in stitu tio n s
o r e co n o m ic en terp rises sh o u ld b e a d m in iste re d b y th e re p u b lic a n
o r fe d e ral a u th o ritie s. In P o la n d th e p o w e rs o f a p resid iu m a re
1 In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia 24 m em b ers in c lu d in g the S p e a k e r a n d th e D e p u ty -S p e a k c r
o f the A ss e m b ly ; in Y u g o s la v ia a P resid e n t, six V ic e -P re s id e n ts (one fo r e a ch r e p u b lic ) ,
a S e c re ta ry a n d not m o re th an th irty m e m b e rs; in B u lg a ria a P res id e n t, tw o V ic e -
Presidents, a S e c re ta ry a n d fiftee n m e m b e rs; in R u m a n ia a P resid e n t, th ree V ic e -
P re s iie n ts , a S e c re ta ry a n d fo u rte en m em b ers; in H u n g a r y — w h e re it is c a lle d a
‘ p resid e n tial c o u n c il1— a P resid e n t, tw o V ice -P re s id e n ts, a S e c re ta ry a n d se ve n tee n
m em b ers. 2 O n ‘ fed e ra lism ’ in Y u g o s la v ia , see a lso b e lo w , p. 340.
 POLITICAL P OW ER 299
h eld b y th e S ta te C o u n c il. It is c o m p o se d o f th e P resid en t o f the
R e p u b lic , th e S p e a k e r a n d D e p u ty -S p e a k e rs o f th e A ss e m b ly , the
C h a ir m a n o f th e S u p re m e A u d itin g B o a rd , an d n ot m ore th an
th re e o th ers e le c tc d b y th e A ss e m b ly a t th e u n a n im o u s req u est o f
th e S ta te C o u n c il itself. In tim e o f w a r o n ly , th e c o m m a n d e r-in -
c h ie f is also a m e m b e r. T h e p o w e rs o f th e C z e c h o slo v a k presid iu m
a re m o re lim ite d . It m a y n ot e le c t th e P residen t o f th e R e p u b lic
o r in tro d u c e c o n stitu tio n a l a m e n d m e n ts in a n y circu m stan ce s, and
a t tim es w h en th e A ss e m b ly is n ot in session fo r n o rm al reasons it
m a y n ot e x te n d m ilita r y serv ice , d e c la re w a r, o r cre a te ‘ p e r­
m a n e n t ch a rg e s on th e sta te fin a n c e s ’ .
L o c a l g o v e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s— p e o p le ’ s co m m itte e s o r p e o p le ’s
c o u n cils— a rc also e le c tc d , a t e a ch a d m in istra tiv e le v el. T h e
p y r a m id o f c o u n c ils a n d co m m itte e s co rresp o n d s to th e p y r a m id
o f soviets in th e co n stitu tio n o f th e U .S .S .R . T h e Y u g o s la v c o m ­
m ittees a rc th e o n ly b o d ies w h o se o rig in resem bles th a t o f the
R u ssia n soviets. A s w e h a v e seen , th e y w ere m o re o r less d e m o ­
c r a tic bo'dies cre a te d b y th e circ u m sta n c e s an d n eed s o f n a tio n a l
a n d c iv il w a r. O n ly a fte r th e w a r w as o v e r w ere th ey e m a scu la te d
a n d m a d e su b se rv ie n t to th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t. T h e C z e c h o ­
slo v a k co m m itte e s, a p a r t from abu ses o f p o w e r in ce rta in areas,
re se m b led lo c a l a u th o ritie s in W e ste rn E u ro p e u n til in F e b ru a ry
1948 th e y w e re ta k e n o v e r b y th e c o m m u n ists. In th e re m a in in g
fiv e co u n trie s th e c o m m itte e s o r co u n c ils w ere bo rn e m a sc u la te d .
T h e y re se m b le th e R u ssia n soviets o f th e 1936 co n stitu tio n , not
th e sp o n ta n eo u s a n d d e m o c ra tic soviets o f 1905 o r 19 17 . In this
sense o n ly , th e sta te m e n t o f R á ko si th a t ‘ p e o p le ’s d e m o c ra c y is
d ic ta to rs h ip o f th e p r o le ta ria t w ith o u t th e so viet fo r m ’ is tr u e .1
A p a r t fro m p r o v id in g th e u su al m u n ic ip a l o r d istrict services,
th e co m m itte e s o r co u n c ils a re a lso th e lo c a l e x e c u tiv e a u th o ritie s
o f c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t d ep a rtm e n ts . T h e e x e c u tiv e co m m itte e s o f
th e lo c a l a u th o ritie s, a n d th e d ep a rtm e n ts w ith in th em , are resp ons­
ib le n ot o n ly to th e ir o w n b o d ies a n d th eir e lecto rs, b u t also to the
e x e c u tiv e s an d d e p a rtm e n ts o f th e a u th o r ity a t th e n e x t a d m in istra ­
tiv e le v el a b o v e th em , a n d to th e c o rre s p o n d in g c e n tra l m inistries.
T h e ju d ic ia r y is b e in g b ro u g h t s te a d ily n e a re r to th e S o v iet
m o d e l. In Y u g o s la v ia ju d g e s a re e le cte d a t e a ch le v el, from the
S u p re m e C o u r t — e le cte d b y th e fe d e ral le g isla tu re — d o w n to the
d istrict c o u rts— e le cte d b y th e d istric t p e o p le ’ s c o m m itte e s. In
B u lg a ria a n d R u m a n ia ju d g e s , w h o in c lu d e profession al ju d g e s

1 S ee a b o v e , p p . 16 7 -8 . F or ih r c h a n g e in the fu n c tio n s o f th e S o v iets in R u ssia see

R o se n b e rg , Geschuhte des Bolscheivismus, a n d T o w s ter, Political Power in the U .S .S .R .
300 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
a n d la y assessors, are e le cte d p a r tly b y p e o p le ’s co m m itte e s a n d
p a rtly d ire c tly b y th e vo ters. In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , P o la n d a n d
H u n g a ry th e process d id n ot g e t so fa r in 1949, b u t th e im p o rta n c e
o f la y assessors w as in crea sin g. T h e y w e re in p r a c tic e n o m in ees o f
th e C o m m u n ist P a rty . T h r o u g h o u t th e re gio n th ere h as b een
ste a d y pressure a g a in st p re -w a r professio n al ju d g e s , w h o a re
accused o f re a c tio n a ry p reju d ices, an d o f fa ilu re to a c t a c c o r d in g
to th e s p ir it o f p o p u la r d e m o c ra tic ju s t ic e .1 S o m e h a v e b een p u rg ed
a n d oth ers h a v e b een b ro u g h t to h eel. T h e w h o le le g a l profession
has b een reo rg an ised . T h e a ctivitie s o f p r iv a te la w y e rs h a v e b een
e v e r m o re circ u m sc rib e d . In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia d istrict co m m itte e s
d ire ct a ll la w y ers, assign to th em th eir clien ts, tak e from th em th eir
fees, an d p a y th em a sa la ry . In th e o th e r c o u n trie s sim ila r c o n ­
dition s exist.
A n im p o rta n t office is th a t o f P u b lic P ro se cu to r. H is task is to
w a tch o v e r th e e x e cu tio n o f th e law s from th e p o in t o f v ie w o f th e
g o v e rn m e n t’ s in terests. T h e B u lg a ria n p u b lic p ro se c u to r h as th e
‘ p a rtic u la r d u ty to a tte n d to th e p ro se cu tio n a n d p u n ish m e n t o f
crim es w h ic h a ffe ct th e sta te, n a tio n a l a n d e c o n o m ic interests o f
th e P e o p le ’ s R e p u b lic , a n d crim es a n d a ctio n s d e tr im e n ta l to
in d e p e n d e n ce an d n a tio n a l s o v e r e ig n ty ’ . 2 T h e te n d e n c y th r o u g h ­
o u t E u ro p e is, as in the U .S .S .R ., to stress th e in terests o f th e
state. O ffe n c c s a g a in st sta te p r o p e rty a rc m o re se v e re ly p u n ish ed
th an offen ces a g a in st p riv a te p ro p e rty . D isp u tes b e tw e e n p r iv a te
in d iv id u a ls are o f m in o r im p o rta n c e in th e le g a l system , b u t th ere
is n o essential reason w h y th ey sh o u ld n ot be fa irly ju d g e d . In
d ispu tes b e tw e e n a n in d iv id u a l a n d th e sta te, th e w e ig h t o f th e
la w is on th e side o f the state.
A ll th e co n stitu tio n s h a v e w id e g u a ra n te e s o f c iv il lib e rtie s—
sp eech , re lig io n , asso cia tio n , m ee tin g , in v io la b ility o f th e h o m e ,
rig h t to w o rk a n d leisu re. T h e y also c o n ta in clau ses on th e p u n ish ­
m en t o f ra c ia l o r n a tio n a list h a tre d , a n d g u a r a n te e th e rig h t o f
m in orities to use th e ir o w n la n g u a g e s. B u t th e y also c o n ta in
‘ esca p e c la u se s’ m a k in g these lib e rtie s in o p e ra tiv e i f u sed a g a in st
th e g o v e rn m e n t. F o r in stan ce , A r tic le 43 o f th e Y u g o s la v C o n ­
stitu tio n d e c la re s : ‘ It is ille g a l an d p u n ish a b le to use c iv il rig h ts
to c h a n g e and in frin g e th e c o n stitu tio n a l o rd e r w ith a n a n ti-

' A fa irly rep re se n ta tiv e e x a m p le is th e fo llo w in g sta tem en t b y th e P o lish M in is te r

o f J u s tic e in p a rlia m e n t o n 28 F e b r u a r y 1949: ‘ In a d e q u a te u n d e rs ta n d in g o f the
essence o f th e class stru g g le w as d e m o n stra te d o n o ccasio n s b y th e co u rts o f ju s tic e ,
w h ic h so m etim es d o n o t tak e in to co n sid e ra tio n th e fu n d a m e n ta l needs o f th e w o rk in g
class.'
1 B u lg a ria n C o n stitu tio n . A r t ic le 6 a.
 POLITICAL POWER 3OI
d e m o c ra tic a im .' T h e P olish D e c la ra tio n o f R ig h ts an d L ib e rtie s,
a fu n d a m e n ta l la w passed to g e th e r w ith th e p ro visio n a l c o n ­
stitu tio n , d e c la re s : ‘ A b u se o f c iv il rights an d lib erties for th e
p u rp o se o f o v e r th r o w in g th e d e m o c ra tic form o f g o v e rn m e n t o f
th e R e p u b lic o f P o la n d sh all be p rev e n te d b y l a w . ’ S im ila r
p ro visio n s a re fo u n d in S e c tio n 37 o f th e C z e c h o slo v a k , A r tic lc
32 o f th e R u m a n ia n a n d A r tic le 87 o f the B u lg a ria n co n stitu tio n s.
T h e r e a re also sp e cia l law s on ‘ D e fe n c e o f th e P e o p le ’ s P o w e r ’ and
o n ‘ e s p io n a g e ', w h ic h p rescrib e h e a v y p e n alties fo r a la rg e v a rie ty
o f o ffen ce s w h o se d efin itio n is c o n v e n ie n tly e la s tic .1
F ro m th e first d a y s o f ‘ lib e r a t io n - th e C o m m u n ist Parties p a id
g re a t a tte n tio n to th e p o lice . T h e r e w e re a t first c o n sid e ra b le lo ca l
v a ria tio n s. In P o la n d , as in th e U .S .S .R ., a M in istry o f S e c u rity
w as set u p d istin ct fro m th e M in istry o f th e In te rio r. In R u m a n ia
th e c o m m u n ist u n d e r-se c re ta ry o f th e P r e m ie r’s office, B o d n ăra ş,
to o k o v e r a sp e c ia l secret p o lic e o rg a n isa tio n w h ic h h ad b een
c re a te d b y K in g C a r o l I I an d m a n a g e d it in d e p e n d e n tly o f the
r e g u la r se c u rity p o lic e (S ig u ra n tsa ), w h ic h also h ad its ow n
p o litic a l se ctio n . In H u n g a r y , a p o litic a l d e p a rtm e n t in th e
G e n e r a l S ta ff, led b y C o lo n e l P á lffy -ö s te r r e ic h e r , perform ed
p o litic a l p o lice d uties in a d d itio n to th e p o litic a l d e p a rtm e n t o f
p o lic e h e a d q u a rte rs at N o. 60 A n d rá s sy Ü t . 2 In C z e c h o slo v a k ia
th e c o u n te r-e sp io n a g e d e p a rtm e n t o f th e G e n e ra l S taff, u n d e r
C o lo n e l R e iiin , p e rform ed p o lic e d u ties side b y side w ith the
P e o p le ’ s S e c u rity C o rp s c o n tro lle d b y th e co m m u n ist M in iste r o f
th e I n te rio r N osek.
O n ly in Y u g o s la v ia h a v e th e p o litic a l p o lice a c tu a lly relin q u ish ed
som e o f th eir p o w e r. I n a speech to th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f the
C o m m u n ist P a rty in J u n e 19 5 1, M in iste r R a n k o v ic a d m itted th at
th e p o lice h ad serio u sly a b u se d th eir p o w ers. O f a ll arrests m ad e in
194 9, as m a n y as 47 p e r cen t h ad been u n la w fu l. A n e w c o d e o f
la w w as in tro d u c e d in 19 5 1. It co n ta in e d m easures a g a in st a r b it­
r a r y arrest a n d excessive re lia n c e b y th e la w cou rts on confessions.
O f little less im p o rta n c e th an the p o litic a l a n d se cu rity sections

1 F o r in sta n ce, A r t ic le 10 o f th e B u lg a ria n ‘ L a w for the D efen c e o f th e P e o p le ’s

P o w e r ’ , passed 17 M a rc h 1945 a n d a m e n d e d 19 A p ril 1946, prescril»es im p riso n m en t
u p to ten y e a rs for ru m o u rs a n d statem en ts w h ic h m ig h t ‘ im p ed e ec o n o m ic l if e ’ or
'c r e a t e m is tru st’ o f g o v e rn m e n ta l ec o n o m ic en terprises. U n d e r the C z e ch o s lo v a k law
o f 6 O c to b e r 194H, o ffen ces in c lu d e w a rm o n g e rin g , atta ck s o n frie n d ly states, p r o p a ­
g a tio n o f fascism ‘ o r sim ila r m o v e m e n ts ’ , ‘ false rep o rts ten d in g to cre a te p a n ic ’ , an d
‘ m isuse o f th e p rie stly fu n ctio n to in flu en ce p u b lic l ife ’ .
* T h is street, n a m ed a fte r o n e o f H u n g a r y ’s g rea test n in e te en th -c en tu ry statesm en ,
a n d o n e o f the best laid -o u t in this fine c ity , w as ren a m ed S ta lin S treet in h o n o u r o f
th e se ve n tie th b irth d a y o f the ‘ te a c h e r o f g en iu s o f all p ro gressive h u m a n ity .’
302 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
o f th e p o lice w e re th e v a rio u s form s o f ‘ e c o n o m ic p o lic e ’ . L ik e
th eir o rig in a l m o d el, th e R u ssia n C h e k a , th e y sp e cia lise d in
th e fig h t a g a in st ‘ s p e c u la tio n an d th e b la c k m a r k e t ’ . T h is
fig h t w as in p ra c tic e used to c a tc h o u t business m en a n d sh op­
keep ers in v io la tio n o f som e re g u la tio n , in o rd e r to co n fisca te
th eir p ro p e rty w ith o u t c o m p e n satio n a n d p e rh a p s send th em to
fo rced la b o u r . G r e a t d istin ctio n w a s a tta in e d in this field b y
v ario u s ‘ sp ecia l co m m issio n s’ in P o la n d w h ic h w e re d ire c te d b y
the co m m u n ist Z a m b ro w sk i.
B y 1950 it seem s th a t th e v ario u s p o lice o rg a n isa tio n s w e re m ore
sy ste m a tic a lly o rg an ise d . It w o u ld b e su rp risin g i f th e p o lice
leaders w e re not ad vised b y exp e rts from th e S o v ie t M .V . D . , b u t
e x a ct in fo rm a tio n on this p o in t is n ot a v a ila b le to th e la y m a n .
T h e k ey positions in th e p o lic e a rc n ow h eld b y m o re o r less
re lia b le com m u n ists. A s lo n g as p u rg es c o n tin u e in th e p a rties,
th ere w ill a lw a y s o f co u rse b e a d a n g e r o f p u rg es in th e p o lice .
T h e M in istries o f th e In te rio r o f H u n gary ' a n d A lb a n ia w e re b o th
p u rg ed a fte r th e d isgra ce o f R a jk an d X o x e .1 I f n ot a lw a y s very
in te llig e n t, i f suspicious to th e p o in t o f in v e rte d n a iv e ty , th e E ast
E u ro p e a n co m m u n ist p o litic a l p o lice m e n a re w ith o u t d o u b t
in d ustriou s a n d p e rsev erin g. T h e ir te c h n iq u e o f p r o d u c in g th e
rig h t plots a n d th e rig h t con fessions a t th e rig h t tim e m ust h a v e
e a rn e d th em fa ir m arks fro m th e ir S o v ie t m asters, T h e ir dossiers,
i f not a lw a y s a c c u r a te , a re p r o b a b ly e xte n siv e . A n d th eir peop les
liv e in te rro r o f th em .
C o m m u n ist p e n e tra tio n o f th e a rm ie s also b e g a n e a r ly . T h e
p re -w a r officers o f th e P olish a r m y w e re a lm o st c o m p le te ly
re m o ve d b y th e co u rse o f th e w a r . T h e n u c le u s o f th e n e w P o lish
a rm y w as fo rm ed b y th e officers o f th e th re e d ivision s w h ich
served u n d e r G e n e ra l B e rlin g in th e R e d A r m y . M a n y w e re Poles
w h o h ad liv e d fo r y e a rs in th e U .S .S .R . T h e sen io r officers w e re fo r
th e m ost p a rt R u ssian s. T h e p re -w a r Y u g o s la v officers, m o stly
S erb s, w e re e ith e r tak e n p riso n er in 1941 o r a ssocia ted w ith the
C h e tn ik m o ve m e n t o r N e d ic. O n ly a few jo in e d th e p a rtisa n s.
T h e p o st-w a r Y u g o s la v a rm y w as fo rm ed b y th e e x p a n sio n o f th e
N a tio n a l L ib e ra tio n A r m y c re a te d b y T i to . Its officers w e re th e
lead ers w h o h a d co m e to th e fore d u r in g th e resistan ce.
T h e C z e c h o slo v a k a rm y w as c o m p o se d o f tw o sectio n s, w h ic h
h ad fo u g h t re sp ec tiv e ly in th e B ritish a n d S o v ie t a rm ie s. In th e
first th re e y e a rs a fte r th e w a r th ere w as ste a d y b u t q u ie t d is­
crim in a tio n a g a in st those w h o h a d b e en in B rita in . A fte r F e b -
1 P á lffy - ö s te r r e ic h e r w as trir d for treaso n a t the sa m e tim e as R a jit, a n d th e C z e c h
C o lo n e l (la te r G e n e ra l) R e ić in w as arrested in 19 51.
 POLITICAL POWER 3O3
r u a r y 1948 it b e c a m e o u trig h t p e rsecu tio n . A ir -M a rs h a l J a n o u ś e k
w a s se n te n ce d to e ig h te e n y e ars in p riso n for try in g to le a v e the
co u n try . T h e m ost fla g ra n t case w as th e ju d ic ia l m u rd e r o f
G e n e ra l H e lio d o r P ik a , w h o h a d served th e e xile d g o v e rn ­
m en t first in Ista n b u l a n d th en as h e ad o f th e m ilita r y m ission
in M o sc o w . H e h a d w o n th e h a tre d o f G o ttw a ld , N é je d ly and
c o m p a n y w h e n h e refu sed th eir b la n d ish m e n ts to b e tra y his
g o v e rn m e n t (w ith w h ic h o f cou rse th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h ad
fo rm a l d ip lo m a tic rela tio n s) an d serve th e ir riv a l g ro u p . T h e y
e n jo y e d a n ig n o b le re v e n g e a fte r th e F e b ru a ry p o lice re v o lu tio n .
G e n e r a l P ik a w as a rrested in 1948, tried for treason a n d espion ­
a g e in F e b r u a r y 1949, c o n d e m n e d to d ea th an d e x e c u te d in
J u n e 1949. O n e o f th e a ccu satio n s a g a in st h im w as th a t he
h a d p assed to th e B ritish in 1940 in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e R e d
A r m y . A t th a t tim e B rita in w as his c o u n tr y ’s o n ly fig h tin g
a lly , th e U .S .S .R . w as th e go o d frien d o f th e G e rm a n oppressors
o f th e C z e c h s , an d G o ttw a ld , N é je d ly a n d c o m p a n y w e re u rg in g
th e ir c o m p a trio ts to ig n o re th e a n ti-G e rm a n ‘ p r o v o c a tio n s ’ o f the
‘ to o l o f th e W e ste rn im p e ria lis ts ’ B eneś.
A n im p o rta n t sta ge in th e co m m u n ist p e n e tra tio n o f the arm ies
w as th e c r e a tio n o f ‘ p o litic a l d e p a r tm e n ts ’ , w h ich fo rm ed a h ie r­
a r c h y o f p o litic a l com m issars su ch as h as existed u n d e r v ario u s
n a m e s e v e r sin ce th e fo rm a tio n o f th e R e d A r m y in th e U .S .S .R .
In R u m a n ia sp e cia l u n its, th e T u d o r V la d im ire s c u an d th e H o ria
C lo ş c a C r i şan d ivisio n s, w e re fo rm ed from priso n ers-of-w ar
in d o c trin a te d in sp e cia l p o litic a l tra in in g ca m p s in R u s s ia .1
E x iles w h o h a d served in th e R e d A r m y o r in S p a in retu rn e d to
ta k e im p o rta n t positions in th e ir c o u n trie s’ n e w arm ies. S u ch w e re
G e n e r a l K in o v in B u lg a r ia a n d G e n e ra l Ś w ie rcze w sk i in Po lan d .*
T h e Y u g o s la v g e n e ra ls in c lu d e d se v eral S p a n ish v etera n s, b ut
th e y rose to th e ir p o sitio n s b y fo u r y e a r s’ lib e ra tio n w a r in th eir
o w n c o u n tr y , n o t th ro u g h th e ra n k s o f th e S o v ie t a rm y .
In H u n g a r y , R u m a n ia a n d B u lg a ria , th e d isa rm a m e n t clauses
o f th e p e a c e tre atie s m a d e it possib le to p u rg e selected officers,
le a v in g b e h in d those m ost re lia b le o r m a lle a b le . B y 1948, w h en
p u rg es a n d p o litic a l com m issars h ad d o n e th e ir w o rk , it b e cam e
possib le o n c e m o re to b u ild u p th e a rm ies. T h e le a d e rs o f th e ex-
1 T u d o r V la d im ire s c u led a n a tio n a l a n d social re v o lt ag a in st th e T u rk s a n d the
R u m a n o - G r e e k b ig la n d o w n e rs in 18 2 1. H o ria , C lo ş c a an d C r ij a n led a rev o lt o f
p ea san ts in c e n tra l T r a n s y lv a n ia in 1784 ag a in st th e r u lin g H u n g a ria n aristo c ra cy .
• Ś w ie r c z e w s k i, k n o w n in S p a in as ‘ G e n e ra l W a l t e r ’ , w as a p ro m in e n t fig u re in
th e In te rn a tio n a l B rig a d e . H e w as assassinated soon afte r his retu rn to P o lan d by
U k r a in ia n n atio n a lists. G e n e r a l K i n o v seem s to h a v e fa lle n in to d isfa v o u r, p o ssibly as
a * n a tio n a list d e v i a t i o n i s t in 1949.
304 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
e n e m y states b e g a n to speak o f th e n eed fo r stro n g a rm ie s. T h o u g h
sure figures a re n ot o b ta in a b le , th e B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n g o v e r n ­
m en ts b e lie v e d , on th e basis o f in fo rm a tio n from th e ir o fficia l
sources, th a t th e B u lg a ria n a rm y in 1948 a lr e a d y e x c e e d e d th e
provisions o f th e p e a ce tre a tie s.1 I t m a y be e x p e c te d th a t th e
su p p ly o f tra in ed R u m a n ia n a n d H u n g a r ia n c a n n o n -fo d d e r w ill
also b e in creased .
T a k e n a t th eir face v a lu e , the c o n stitu tio n a l d o c u m e n ts d o n o t
sh ow a d esp otic state. I f a p p lie d in a d iffe re n t sp irit, w h ic h w o u ld
g iv e re a lity to the c iv il lib erties, a n d free e le ctio n s, th e y c o u ld
p ro v id e e x tre m e ly d e m o c ra tic g o v e rn m e n t. The rea so n w h y this
is n ot the case is th a t a ll p o w e r is in fa c t h eld b y th e C o m m u n ist
Parties. A t election s o n ly co m m u n ists an d a p p ro v e d sy m p ath ise rs
h a v e a n y c h a n c e o f b ein g e le c te d . K e y positions, n o t o n ly in th e
c a b in e t an d u p p e r a d m in istra tio n b u t also in the e x e c u tiv e c o m ­
m ittees an d d ep a rtm e n ts o f lo c a l go v e rn m e n t b o d ies, a rc h e ld b y
co m m u n ists. T h r o u g h th e lo c a l g o v e rn m e n t b od ies th e co m m u n ists
a p p o in t th e ju d g e s . T h e P u b lic P ro se cu to r je a lo u s ly w a tc h e s o v e r
the a ctio n o f th e co u rts, an d he to o is ch o sen b y th e co m m u n ists.
A n o th e r im p o rta n t in stru m en t is th e S ta te C o n tr o l C o m m issio n ,
also m o d elled on S o v ie t e x p e r ie n c e .2 Its task is to e x a m in e th e
e ffic ien cy a n d h on esty o f th e a d m in istra tio n a n d to in v e stig a te
rep orts o f abu ses su b m itte d to it b y o ffic ia l b o d ies o r in d iv id u a l
citize n s. In p ra c tic e it sh ow s less z e a l for th e d efe n ce o f th e citiz e n
again st b u re a u c ra tic a b u se th a n fo r th e interests o ft h e g o v e rn m e n t
a g a in st b o th p r iv a te in d iv id u a ls an d s u b o rd in a te o fficials. In it
too the k e y positions a rc h eld b y co m m u n ists. I f th e sta te co n tro ls
th e citiz e n , the p a rty c o n tro ls th e state.

T H E COMMUNIST PARTIES

T h e C o m m u n ist P arties o f E astern E u ro p e , as o f o th e r c o u n trie s,

a re m o d e lle d on th e A ll-U n io n C o m m u n is t P a rty (B o lsh evik ) o f

1 M r. B evin stated in th e H o u se o f C o m m o n s in M a r c h 1948 th a t B ritish so u rces

estim a ted th e B u lg a ria n a r m y (w h ic h b y th e p e a c e tre a ty sh o u ld not e x c e e d 55,000)
at 70,000, the fro n tie r g u a rd s {élite tro o p s b ased o n th e m o d e l o f th e ‘ fro n tie r tro o p s
o f th e N .K .V .D .* in th e U .S .S .R .) at 10,000, a n d the m ilitia (p o lic e) at 8 0-10 0,00 0.
A m e ric a n S ta te D e p a rtm e n t so u rces in N o v e m b e r 1948 e s tim a te d th e a r m y a t B o .o o o ,
fro n tie r g u a rd s at 12,000 a n d th e j>ortion o f th e m ilitia possessing m o d e rn a rm s an d
e q u ip m e n t a t 30,000— the w h o le m ilitia force b r in g o f co u rse v e r y m u ch la rg e r. B y
th e en d o f «949 these figures h a v e p r o b a b ly b ee n c o n s id e ra b ly e x ce e d e d .
* T h e o rig in a l S o v ie t in stitu tio n w as ‘ W o rk e rs’ a n d P e a sa n ts' In s p e c tio n ’ ( R a b -
k rin ). It la te r b ec a m e the P e o p le ’ s C o m m issa ria t, th en the M in is try , o f S la t e C o n t r o l.
A S ta te C o n tr o l C o m m issio n w as in tro d u ce d in Y u g o s la v ia in A p r il 1946, b u t
a b o lish ed , on g ro u n d s o f re d u n d a n c y o f p erso n n el, in F e b r u a r y 1 9 5 1. T h e in s titu tio n
w as a d o p te d in B u lg a ria in 1948, a n d in R u m a n ia a n d H u n g a r y in 1949.
 POLITICAL POVVER 30 5
th e U .S .S .R ., th e d esc e n d a n t o f th e B o lsh evik fractio n in the
R u ssia n S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a r ty c re a te d b y L e n in a fter 1903.
L e n in ’ s id eas on th e re la tio n sh ip o f th e p a rty to so cie ty an d to the
sta te, a n d on its in te rn a l o rg a n isa tio n , a re still v a lid .
L e n in ’s B olsh evik P a rty w as in te n d e d to b e a ‘ p a r ty o f a n ew
t y p e ’ . L e n in as a d isc ip le o f M a r x b e lie v e d th e in d u strial p ro­
le ta r ia t to be th e class d estin ed to lea d th e fu tu re socialist
re v o lu tio n . B u t th e class its e lf re q u ire d le a d e rsh ip . R e v o lu tio n ­
aries m ust n o t fo llo w th e ‘ e le m e n ta l’ m o v e m e n t o f th e masses.
T h e y m ust lea d th e w o rk ers fo rw a rd , m ust u n d ersta n d the
in terests o f th e w o rk ers b e tte r th an th e w ork ers th em selves,
e x p la in th em to th em a n d ‘ p o litic a lly e d u c a t e ’ th em . T h e p a rty
m ust b e th e ‘ v a n g u a r d o f th e p r o le t a r ia t ’ , a n elite o f profession al
re v o lu tio n a rie s w h o lly d e v o te d to th e ca u se o f th e re v o lu tio n ,
clo se ly s tu d y in g th e te c h n iq u e o f p o w e r a n d b u ild in g u p a th eo ry
o f th e se izu re o f p o w e r. L e n in ’ s B o lsh eviks d id th eir best to c o n ­
fo rm to this m o d e l, a n d w h en w a r sh atte re d th e im p e ria l R u ssian
sta te th e y p ro v e d m o re effic ien t a t se izin g p o w e r th an riv a l
re v o lu tio n a rie s. T h e e x p e rie n c e o f th e B olsh evik P a rty w as m ad e
th e fo u n d a tio n fo r th e C o m m u n ist P arties o f o th er cou n tries,
w h ic h w e re set u p w h e n th e C o m m u n ist T h ir d In te rn a tio n a l
(C o m in te r n ) w as fo u n d ed in 19 19 . T h e p rin cip le s o f o rg an isa tio n
a n d a ctio n fo r a ll C o m m u n ist P a rtie s w e re la id d o w n in the
T w e n t y -o n e C o n d itio n s o f th e C o m in te r n ’s secon d con gress, held
in 19 2 0 .1
B e tw e e n th e w o rld w ars th e C o m m u n ist P arties ou tsid e the
U .S .S .R . w e re rebels w o rk in g to u n d e rm in e th e stru ctu re o f
th e sta te a n d to b rin g a b o u t re v o lu tio n in th eir resp ectiv e
c o u n trie s. T h e y d id th eir best to c o n fo rm to th e B o lsh evik m o d el,
w h e th e r th e y w e re fig h tin g d e m o c ra tic W e ste rn go v ern m en ts,
fascist d icta to rs h ip s o r E ast E u ro p e a n b u re a u c ra tic despotism s.
M e a n w h ile in th e S o v ie t U n io n its e lf the com m u n ists w ere no
lo n g e r reb els. H a v in g so lv ed th e p ro b le m o f se izin g p o w e r, th ey
b e c a m e e x p e rts in th e m a in te n a n c e o f p o w e r. H e re th e m erit
b e lo n g s to S ta lin , G e n e ra l S e c re ta r y an d th us p r in c ip a l o rg an iser
o f th e p a r ty , an d a fte r L e n in ’s d ea th th e ru le r of R u ssia .2 T h e p a rty
re m a in e d th e v a n g u a r d a n d th e elite. Its m em b ers h eld the key
p osition s a t a ll lev els in th e e x e c u tiv e o rg an s o f th e sta te, in the

1 F o r ih r m a in po ints o f th e T w e n ty -o n e C o n d itio n s, see B o rk en a u , The Commun'nt

International, o r W a lte r, Histoire du parti communiste franęais. T h e full text o f the speech es
a t th e co n g re ss is n o t e a sily o b ta in a b le in this c o u n try .
* T h e use b y S ta lin o f his p o sitio n as G e n e ra l S e c re ta ry is b rillia n tly d e scrib ed in
D e u ts c h e r, Stalin, a Political Biography.
3o6 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
in d u strial m a ch in e, an d in th e m ass o rg a n isa tio n s su ch as tra d e
unions, y o u th m o v e m e n t, w o m e n ’s a sso cia tion a n d c o -o p e ra ­
tives. In A rtic le 126 o f S ta lin ’ s co n stitu tio n o f 1936 th e p a r ty is
d escrib ed as ‘ th e d ire c tin g n u cleu s o f a ll o rg a n isa tio n s o f th e
toilers in so ciety a n d s t a te ’ .
W h e th e r in op p o sitio n o r in p o w e r, a ll C o m m u n ist P a rtie s a rc
o rg an ised on the p rin c ip le o f ‘ d e m o c ra tic c e n tr a lis m ’ . P a rty
officers are elected b y m em b ers a t e a c h le v el, th e p a r t y ’s su p re m e
a u th o rity is th e con gress o f d ele g a te s w h ic h assem b les a t sta ted
in terva ls, a n d issues o f p o lic y sh o u ld b e d iscussed w ith in th e p a r ty
b efore d ecision s a re tak e n . B u t b e tw e e n con gresses th e C e n tr a l
C o m m itte e a n d its P o litic a l B u re a u tak e th e d ecision s a n d pass
th e ord ers d o w n w a rd s, a n d e v e ry m e m b e r is o b lig e d to c a r r y o u t
th e ord ers w ith o u t q u estio n , eve n i f b e fo re th e d ec isio n w a s ta k e n
he w as o f a d iffe re n t o p in io n . T h is system c o u ld in th e o r y p ro v id e
e ffe ctiv e c o n tro l b y m em b ers o v e r th e lea d ers. I t w as p r o b a b ly th e
in te n tio n o f L e n in , a n d c e rta in ly th a t o f T r o ts k i, th a t d e m o c r a c y
a n d cen tralism sh ou ld b e e q u a lly b a la n c e d . B u t in th e e ra o f
S ta lin th ere is n o d o u b t th a t th e ce n tralism h as re d u c e d th e
d e m o c ra c y to sm all p ro p o rtio n s. E x a c tly h o w sm all it is d ifficu lt
fo r a n o n -co m m u n ist to sa y . In g e n e ra l, h o w e v e r, e x tr e m e c e n tr a l­
ism , o r in tra -p a rty d ic ta to rsh ip , ch a ra c te rise d n o t o n ly th e C o m ­
m un ist P a rty o f th e U .S .S .R . u n d e r S ta lin ’ s le a d e rsh ip , b u t also
the fo reign C o m m u n ist P a rties w h ic h w e re rig o ro u sly su b je cte d
to th e ord ers o f th e C o m in te rn .
W h ile th e y w e re in o p p o sitio n th e E ast E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ist
Parties fo llo w ed th e e x a m p le o f th e B olsh eviks u n d e r T s a ris t ru le .
S ta lin ’s p e c u lia r version o f th e h isto ry o f R u ssia n B o lsh evism — th e
Short History o f the All-U nion Communist Party (Bolsheviks)— p u b lish e d
in 1938, w as a b ib le for lead ers a n d m em b e rs a lik e . In th e first
p erio d a fter ‘ lib e r a tio n ’ th e y m o d e lle d th em selv es o n th e ta c tics o f
th e B olsheviks b e tw e e n M a r c h a n d N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7 . B u t, as th e ir
lead ers h a v e p u b lic ly a d m itte d , th eir p o sitio n w as m a d e e asier for
th em b y th e o v e r w h e lm in g p o w e r o f th e U .S .S .R . in E astern
E u r o p e .1 T h e y d id n ot n eed to sh ow m u c h skill in o rd e r to g e t
p o w e r. F in a lly , o n c e th e y h a d d e fin ite ly b ro k e n th e o p p o sitio n
o f all riv a l p a rties, th e y c o p ie d S ta lin ’ s m eth o d s o f e x e rc isin g
p o w e r. T h e n e w co n stitu tio n s d o n o t, lik e th a t o f th e U .S .S .R .,
m en tio n th e C o m m u n ist P a rty . T h e reason fo r this is n o d o u b t
th a t th e S o v ie t lead ers d o n ot c o n sid e r these co u n trie s y e t su ffic­
ie n tly ‘ a d v a n c e d ’ to have e a rn e d a c o n stitu tio n c o m p le te ly
1 S ee q u o ta tio n fro m R á k o si, a b o v e , p p . 16 7-8 .
 POLITICAL POWER 30 7
id e n tic a l w ith th at o f th e S o v ie t U n io n . W h e n p o litic a l sovietisa­
tio n h as b e en fo llo w e d b y th e c o m p le tio n o f e c o n o m ic a n d social
so v ie tisa tio n , m o re ‘ a d v a n c e d ’ co n stitu tion s w ill p r o b a b ly be
n e ed e d , a n d th e q u estio n o f fo rm a l in c o rp o ra tio n in th e U .S .S .R .
m a y b e co n sid e re d . B u t m e a n w h ile th e E ast E u ro p e a n C o m ­
m u n ist P arties h a v e a d o p te d th e S talin ist m eth od s o f in filtratio n
o f sta te a n d so cie ty . T h e y a re a lre a d y ‘ d ire c tin g n u c le i’ , c o n ­
tro llin g th e o rg an s o f p u b lic a d m in istra tio n , fa c to ry m a n a g e ­
m en ts, b o ard s o f co -o p e ra tiv e s, tra d e u n ion s an d y o u th and
w o m e n ’s o rg an isa tio n s. .
T h e le a d e rs o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n C o m m u n ist P arties are a
m ix tu re o f r e v o lu tio n a ry heroes an d m arty rs a n d S talin ist
b u re a u c ra ts. T h e m ost d istin gu ish ed v e te ra n is M a tth ia s R á k o si,
o f H u n g a r y . H e w as a lre a d y a P e o p le ’ s C o m m issa r in the H u n ­
g a r ia n c o m m u n ist go v e rn m e n t o f 19 19 , a n d w as la te r a d ele g ate
o f th e C o m in te rn a t im p o rta n t co m m u n ist congresses in I ta ly and
G e r m a n y . K o la r o v , o f B u lg a ria , w as a p ro m in e n t C o m in te rn
fig u re a lre a d y in th e tw en ties. H is c o m p a tr io t G e o rg e D im itro v
a tta in e d e m in e n ce la te r, as a resu lt o f his b rillia n t d efen ce at the
R e ic h s ta g fire tria l in L e ip z ig in 1933. Lesser figures w h o h av e
sp e n t lo n g p erio d s in e m ig ra tio n in M o sco w are Y lk o C h e rv e n k o v
( D im itr o v ’s b ro th e r-in -la w ) a n d V la d im ir P o p to m o v o f B u lga ria ,
A n n a P a u k e r a n d E m il B o d n ă ra ş o f R u m a n ia , K le m e n t G o ttw a ld
a n d Z d e n é k N é je d ly o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , a n d m ost o f th e lead ers o f
th e P o lish p a r ty . A m o n g th e m a rty rs are R á k o si an d V a s o f H u n ­
g a r y , w h o sp en t six teen y ears in prison , G h c o rg h iu -D e j o f
R u m a n ia (ten y e a rs), M o sh a P ia d e o f Y u g o s la v ia (fo u rteen y ears),
D o b r i T a r p e s h e v o f B u lg a ria (fo u rteen y e ars). T h o u sa n d s o f East
E u ro p e a n com m unisLs se rv e d sh o rte r term s, a n d w ere b e a te n or
se v e re ly to rtu re d in prison . T r a ic h o K o s to v o f B u lg a ria th rew
h im s e lf o u t o f th e w in d o w o f p o lic e h e a d q u a rte rs in S o fia becau se
h e fe a re d th a t h e c o u ld not resist fu rth e r to rtu re to m ak e him
re v e a l th e n am es o f his c o m ra d e s. B oth his legs w e re b ro k e n , bu t
h e w a s resto red to h e a lth to serve his prison sen ten ce, retu rn to
r e v o lu tio n a r y a c tiv ity , a n d be a g a in arrested , m a ltre a ted and
im p riso n e d .1 A m o n g th e heroes o f resistan ce th e first p la c e is o f
c o u rse tak e n b y th e Y u g o s la v lea d ers. T h e B u lg a ria n Y u g o v also
le d resista n ce d u r in g th e w a r. T h e A lb a n ia n co m m u n ist leaders
w e re m o stly a c tiv e resisters. T h e lead ers o f th e o th e r parties
1 W h e n K o s to v w as tried for treaso n in D e c e m b e r 1949, com munist journalists,
in sp ired b y the n o b le co n c e p tio n o f p o p u la r d e m o c ra tic justice, which consists in
h e a p in g insult o n th e a c cu se d w h ile th e case is b e in g tried, mo< ked him b ecau se he
was a h u n c h b a c k . H is d e fo rm ity d a te d fro m his to rtu re in prison.
3 <j8 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
w e re m ostly in e xile, an d th e stru g g le w as ca rrie d on b y c o m ­
m unists o f the secon d ran k.
It w o u ld b e u n fa ir to su ggest th a t th e c o m m u n ist exiles h ad a
cu sh ion ed existen ce in R u ssia w h ile th e ir co m ra d e s su ffered a t
h om e. E x ile in R u ssia h a d its perils, as w as sh o w n b y th e case o f
th e Polish co m m u n ist leaders, w h o d u r in g th e g re a t S o v ie t p u rg es
o f 19 3 6 -7 w e re ‘ u n m a s k e d ’ as T ro tsk y ists a n d d isa p p e a re d .
T h e co m m u n ist exiles w o rk e d h a rd , an d too k th e ir d u ties as
a p la n n in g s t a ff as seriou sly as h ad L e n in in his e x ile y e a r s .1
B u t ju s t as in th e S o v ie t U n io n o f th e th irties d e e p d iffe re n ce s
o f m e n ta lity a p p e a re d b e tw e e n th e o ld B o lsh eviks a n d th e
y o u n g e r m en w h o h ad g ro w n u p a fte r th e re v o lu tio n w as m a d e ,
so th e o u tlo o k o f th e co m m u n ist exiles a ccu sto m e d to th e w o rk ­
ings o f S o v iet b u re a u c ra c y d iffe re d from th a t o f th e u n d e rg ro u n d
re v o lu tio n arie s in th eir h o m e co u n tries. T h e d iffe re n c e in this
resp ect b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t U n io n an d E a ste rn E u ro p e is th a t
in th e first th e re v o lu tio n a rie s w e re th e o ld e r m en a n d th e
b u re a u cra ts th e y o u n g e r, w h ile in th e seco n d th e b u re a u c ra ts
w e re th e v e te ra a s an d th e reb els w e re th e y o u n g en thu siasts.
T h e d iffe re n ce in o u tlo o k b e c a m e v e r y im p o rta n t in E astern
E u ro p e in th e sta ge o f p a r ty c o n so lid a tio n w h ic h fo llo w e d th e
e stab lish m e n t o f p o litic a l p o w e r.
In th e first p e rio d a fter ‘ lib e r a tio n ’ , th e p e rio d o f stru g g le for
p o litica l p o w e r, the com m u n ists set o u t to re c ru it n e w m em b ers
as q u ic k ly as possible. Q u a n t it y w a s m o re im p o rta n t th a n
q u a lity . R e c ru its w e re o f sev eral m ain types. F irst w e re th e
idealists, a ttra c te d b y th e co m m u n ist id e o lo g y a n d p ro g ra m m e as
fa r as th e y u n d ersto o d th em . T o th em th e co m m u n ists stood for
social tra n sfo rm atio n an d ju s tic e , an d fo r a b ro a d n a tio n a l u n ity
o f all go o d pa triots a n d d em o cra ts. T h e y also b e lie v e d in th e
h eroism a n d n o b ility o f th e g re a t S o v ie t p e o p le w h o se a rm y h ad
d estroyed fascism . T h e n th ere w e re th e o p p o rtu n ists, w h o sa w in
co m m u n ism th e ‘ m o v e m e n t o f th e fu tu r e ’ a n d in th e U .S .S .R . the
w o r ld ’ s g rea test P o w e r. In m a n y , id ealism a n d o p p o rtu n is m w e re

1 T h e w o rds ‘ e m ig r a tio n ’ a n d ‘ e x il e ’ are in co n sisten tly u sed b y C o m m u n ist p r o p a ­

g a n d a . U p till 19 14 em ig ra tio n an d e x ile w ere c o n sid e red b y re v o lu tio n a rie s an
h o n o u ra b le co n d itio n . This w as es p e cia lly tru e o f th e R u ssia n a n d Polish e m ig ra tio n s,
to the first o f w h ic h o f co u rse L e n in b e lo n g e d for m a n y years. A g a in in th e fascist e ra ,
e x ile w as co n sid ered b y th e left, in c lu d in g th e co m m u n ists ail h o n o u ra b le state.
B u t d u rin g th e S ec o n d W o rld W a r the w o rd s w e re u sed b y co m m u n ist p ro p a g a n d a
as term s o f ab u se ag a in st the P olish a n d Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n ts in e x ile a n d th eir
a rm e d forces. T h e y w e re used to re c a ll th e F re n c h 'É m ig r é s ’ o f C o b le n z o f 1792,
rea ctio n a ries w a itin g to b e b ro u g h t b a c k to p o w e r b y fo re ig n b a y o n ets . Y e t th a t is
h o w , afte r th e S ec o n d W o rld W a r , the em ig res in R u ssia w e re b ro u g h t b ac k to p o w er.
D im itro v , R á k o si a n d G o t tw a ld are o u tsta n d in g ex am p les.
 POLITICAL POWER 309
m ix e d . M a n y in d u stria l w o rk ers n ot o n ly sym p ath ised w ith the
p a r ty p r o g ra m m e , b u t also fe lt th at th e C o m m u n ist P a rty w as
't h e ir p a r t y ’ , th e p a r ty for w h ic h a w o rk e r sh ou ld a u to m a tic a lly
v o te sim p ly b e c a u se h e is a w o rk er.
T h r e e sp e cia l ca te g o rie s, w h o se a lle g ia n c e to co m m u n ism m igh t
seem u n e x p e c te d , p la y e d an im p o rta n t p a rt. T h e first w e re officials
a n d profession al p e o p le w ith a d e fin ite ly c o n se rv a tiv e b a c k g ro u n d ,
w h o w e re in som e w a y co m p ro m ise d — b y asso ciatio n w ith G e r ­
m an s o r fascists, o r b y som e m o ra l or fin a n c ia l o ffen ce — an d co u ld
b e b la c k m a ile d in to su b se rv ie n c e to th e com m u n ists w h o k n ew
th e ir re co rd .
T h e secon d w e re m in o r fascists. T h e m ost e m in e n t fascists co u ld
h a r d ly b e a d m itte d in to th e C o m m u n ist P arties, b u t th eir fo l­
lo w e rs w h o h a d b e en ‘ m isled ’ b y fascist d e m a g o g y c o u ld , it w as
a r g u e d , b e g iv e n a n o th e r c h a n ce . S o m e o f these recru its from
fascism to co m m u n ism w e re g e n u in e c o n v e r ts : th e y h ad fo llo w e d
fascism b e ca u se th e y b e lie v e d its v a g u e prom ises o f social r e v o lu ­
tio n , a n d n o w sa w b e tte r p ro sp ects in co m m u n ism . O th e rs w ere
fo rm e r fascist tou gh s w h o e n jo y e d a b ra w l o r an o p p o rtu n ity to
b e a t th e ir fe llo w -citiz e n s : th e y h a d b e a te n ‘ le ftists’ on b e h a lf o f
fascists, an d w e re n o w c h e e r fu lly w illin g to b e a t ‘ r e a c tio n a rie s ’ on
b e h a lf o f co m m u n ists. T h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t la rg e n u m b ers o f
fo rm e r H u n g a r ia n A r r o w C ross m en an d R u m a n ia n Iro n
G u a rd ists jo in e d th e C o m m u n ist P arties. T h is d id not p rev e n t th e
H u n g a r ia n a n d R u m a n ia n co m m u n ist lead ers from p ro te stin g
w ith self-rig h teo u s in d ig n a tio n w h e n e v e r th ey fo u n d a n ex-fascist
in th e ra n k s o f th e H u n g a ria n S m a ll F a rm e rs’ P a rty o r th e
R u m a n ia n N a tio n a l P e a san t P a rty .
T h e th ird c a te g o r y w e re a n u m b e r o f b u re a u c ra ts in k ey
p osition s. T h e y a n d th e co m m u n ists w e re te m p o ra r ily an d p r a c ­
t ic a lly useful to e a c h o th e r. T h e la rg e r th e n u m b e r o f b u re a u cra ts
p re p a re d in a crisis to o b e y th e C o m m u n ist P a r t y ’s o rd ers, th e
e asier a n d q u ic k e r w o u ld b e th e c o m m u n ist se izu re o f p o w e r. A n d
fo r th e in d iv id u a l b u re a u c ra t m em b e rsh ip o f th e C o m m u n ist
P a rty w as a t least a te m p o ra r y p erso n a l rein su ra n ce.
A n im p o rta n t sta g e in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e C o m m u n ist
P a rtie s w as fusion w ith th e S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a rties. E v e r sin ce th e
fo u n d a tio n o f th e C o m in te rn , C o m m u n ist Parties h a v e h ad th re e
ta ctics , w h ich th e y h a v e a p p lie d a t d iffe re n t tim es to th eir rivals in
th e w o rk in g -cla ss m o v e m e n t— th e ‘ u n ited front from b e lo w ’ , th e
‘ p o p u la r f r o n t ’ , a n d ‘ o rg a n ic u n it y ’ .
‘ U n ite d fro n t fro m b e lo w ’ w as b ased o n a p p e a ls to th e
310 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
m em b ersh ip o f th e S o cia list P arties to a b a n d o n th e ir lead ers an d
tra n sfer th eir a lle g ia n c e to th e co m m u n ist lea d ers, th e ‘ o n ly tru e
re v o lu tio n a ry le a d e r s h ip ’ .
T h e ‘ p o p u la r fr o n t’ w as a n a llia n c e b e tw e e n C o m m u n ist and
S o cia list— an d i f possible also n on -so cialist— P a rtie s, in c lu d in g b oth
leaders an d su ppo rters. B u t th o u g h th e p o p u la r fro n t ta c tic
re q u ire d c o m m u n ist leaders to co -o p e ra te w ith so cia list le a d e rs
a g a in st a co m m o n e n e m y — fascism o r a fo reig n in v a d e r — it d id
n ot m ea n th at th e com m u n ists a b a n d o n e d th e ir a im o f d isru p tin g
th e S o cia list P arties a n d w in n in g a w a y th e ir fo llo w in g . O n the
c o n tra ry , th e close association b e tw e e n th e p a rtie s w as used to
im p ro v e o p p o rtu n itie s fo r u n d e rm in in g .
F in a lly , w h en co n d itio n s w e re m ost fa v o u ra b le , th e p o lic y o f
‘ o rg a n ic u n it y ’ w as a d o p te d . T h is a im e d a t c o m p le te fu sio n o f th e
tw o w o rk e rs’ p a rties. Stress w as la id o n th e co m m o n interests o f a ll
w ork ers a g a in st a ll ca p italists, a n d o n th e d isastrou s e ffects o f th e
sp lit in th e w o rk e rs’ ran ks in th e tw en ties a n d th irties, w h ic h h ad
so g re a tly c o n trib u te d to th e rise to p o w e r o f H itle r. T h e sp lit w as
o f co u rse a ttr ib u te d to th e w ick ed n ess o f th e so cia l d e m o c ra ts, n o t
to th e in e p titu d e o f th e co m m u n ists.
T h e a im o f a ll th ree ta ctic s w as o f co u rse th e sa m e, to d estroy
th e S o cia list P arties as riv als fo r w o rk in g -c la ss su p p o rt, a n d to
estab lish c o m p le te c o m m u n ist c o n tro l o v e r th e la b o u r m o ve m e n ts.
F ro m H itle r’ s in va sio n o f R u ssia u n til th e a u tu m n o f 1947 th e
C o m m u n ist P a rtie s in E a ste rn E u ro p e , as also in o th e r p a rts o f
th e w o rld , p u rsu ed a p o p u la r fro n t ta c tic . T h e c h a n g e w a s m a rk e d
b y th e cre a tio n o f the C o m in fo r m . A fte r this th e c o m m u n ists b e g a n
stro n g pressure o n th e socia l d em o c ra ts fo r o rg a n ic u n ity . T h e
stages b y w h ic h this process too k p la c e in R u m a n ia , H u n g a r y ,
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d P o la n d h as b e en d escrib e d a b o v e . I t m ust b e
e m p h a sised th a t th e ‘ w o rk e rs’ u n it y ’ th u s a c h ie v e d w as n o t u n ity
b u t co n q u e st. T h e S o c ia l D e m o c r a tic P a r ty m a c h in es w e re sim p ly
seized b y th e co m m u n ists. A c c o r d in g to o fficia l co m m u n ist
sta tem en ts th e resu lt w as a c h ie v e d b y persu asio n a n d ‘ p o litic a l
e d u c a t io n ’ . T h e m asses o f b o th p a rtie s w e re c o n v in c e d o f th e
n ecessity o f u n io n , a n d o f th e su p e rio rity o f ‘ s cien tific M a rx is t-
L e n in ist id e o lo g y ’ . T h e tru th , h o w ev e r, is th a t socialists w h o
sh o w e d re lu c ta n c e to h a n d o v e r th eir p a r ty to th e c o m m u n ist
c liq u e w e re fo r c ib ly e je cted fro m th e S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P a r ty b y
its o fficia l lea d ers, th e w illin g p u p p e ts o f th e co m m u n ists. U n it y
w as a ch ie v e d n ot b y free d iscu ssion b u t b y p o lic e m eth o d s.
A ll socialists w h o d id n o t u n c o n d itio n a lly su b m it to co m m u n ist
 POLITICAL POWER 31I
d ic ta tio n w e re d e n o u n c e d as ‘ rig h t-w in g e rs ’ an d tra ito rs to the
w o rk e rs’ m o v e m e n t. In fa c t m ost o f these m en — su ch as th e L ó d ż
b ra n c h o f th e P olish p a rty , o r the M in iste r o f In d u stry o f H u n gary',
A n ta l B á n — b e lo n g e d d e fin ite ly to th e left. T h e ir fa u lts w e re not
th a t th e y w e re rig h t-w in g , b u t th a t th e y w ish ed to p reserve the
in d e p e n d e n t o rg a n isa tio n o f p a rties m ore th a n fifty y ears o ld , w ith
tra d itio n s a n d p restige o f th e ir o w n , a n d th a t th e y still w ish ed to
m a in ta in som e c o n ta c ts w ith th e S o c ia list P arties o f W e ste rn
E u ro p e , e v e n th o u g h th e y o ften stro n g ly d isag re e d w ith the p o lic y
o f th e la tte r . B u t n o th in g less th a n c o m p le te su b je ctio n w o u ld
satisfy th e co m m u n ists, so th e y h a d to g o . A fte r a w h o le series o f
p u rg es, th e S o c ia l D e m o c ra t P arties w ere a t last co n sid e re d rip e
fo r fusion.
In th e n e w u n ite d p a rtie s th e k e y positions w e re h eld b y c o m ­
m un ists a n d th e n e w sta tu tes w e re fa ith fu l cop ies o f th e sta tu te o f
th e S o v ie t C o m m u n ist P a rty . A t th e ‘ u n ify in g ’ con gresses the
so cia l d e m o c ra t speakers w e re c o m p e lle d to m ak e h u m ilia tin g
a tta c k s o n th e p a st h isto ry o f th e ir o w n p a rties a n d to p o u r forth
a b je c t a d u la tio n o f th e S o v ie t le a d e rs. T h e P olish socialist
C y r a n k ie w ic z sta ted a t th e P olish u n ity con gress in D e c e m b e r
1948: ‘ T h e con gress is th e g rea test e v e n t in P o la n d since K o ś -
c iu s z k o ’ s r is in g .’ A n d a g a in : ‘ F o llo w in g P .P .R .’s e x a m p le , P .P .S .
h as e v o lv e d a p r o g ra m m e o f stru g g le fo r social a n d n a tio n a l
lib e r a t io n .’ P o lish so cia lism , w ith its h a lf-c e n tu ry o f b itter
stru g g le a g a in s t fo reig n a n d d o m e stic o p p ression , h a d lea rn ed
its d u t y from th e p u p p e t p a r ty set u p b y th e S o v ie t au th o ritie s
in 19 4 2 !
‘ U n ific a t io n ’ w as fo llo w e d b y fu rth e r p u rg es. H a v in g elim in ate d
a ll o rg a n ise d o p p o sitio n , th e co m m u n ists n ow b e g a n to p u rg e
th e ir ran ks. Q u a n t it y o f m em b ers w as n o w less im p o rta n t th an
q u a lity . M u c h g re a te r a tte n tio n w as p a id to ‘ m astery o f M a rx ist-
L e n in ist th e o r y a n d m e th o d o lo g y ’ b y p a rty m em b ers. T h e social
o rig in o f m em b ers w as also e x a m in e d m o re c a re fu lly : it w as
im p o rta n t th a t in d u stria l w o rk ers sh ou ld form a la rg e p ro p o rtio n ,
a n d th a t th ere sh o u ld n ot b e to o m a n y fo rm e r b o u rge o is. Stress
w as a lso la id on th e m o ra l d u tie s o f co m m u n ists. In p a rtic u la r,
th e y m ust be so b er, se x u a lly ir r e p ro a c h a b le a n d h a rd -w o rk in g .
C o n tr o l com m ission s w e re set u p b y th e p a r ty a ll o v e r the
c o u n try . T h e y w e re c o m p o se d o f p a rty m em b ers, b u t th e y co u ld
w h en th e y w ish e d c a ll n o n -p a rty w itn esses to g iv e e v id e n ce on the
re co rd o f p a r ty m em b e rs a p p e a r in g b efore th em .
In H u n g a r y a b o u t 17 p e r c e n t o f th e p a r t y ’s m em b e rsh ip w as
312 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
re m o v e d , b u t som e w e re a llo w e d to b e c o m e ‘ c a n d id a t e s ’ . A fte r
a p erio d o f p ro b a tio n , th eir read m issio n w o u ld b e co n sid e re d . In
R u m a n ia th e results w e re sim ila r. T h e m ost in fla te d p a r ty w as th e
C z e c h o slo v a k . A t th e n in th con gress, h e ld in M a y 1949, th e
g e n e ra l se c re ta ry S la n s k y stated th a t m em b e rsh ip h a d risen from
1 ,1 5 9 ,1 6 4 in 1946 to 2 ,3 11,0 6 0 a t th e tim e o f th e con gress. I t is
c le a r th a t this in crea se w as th e resu lt o f th e re c ru itin g c a m p a ig n
b e fo re a n d im m e d ia te ly a fter th e ‘ r e v o lu t io n ’ o f F e b r u a r y 1948.
It h ad o b v io u s ly b ro u g h t m a n y u n re lia b le o p p o rtu n ists in to th e
p a r ty ran ks. A s a resu lt o f th e ‘ v e r ific a tio n ’ in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ,
522,685 m em b ers h ad b e en m a d e in to ‘ c a n d id a t e s ’ . T h e p e rio d o f
p ro b a tio n w as to be on e y e a r for w o rk ers a n d tw o y e a rs fo r oth ers.
O n ly 10 7,13 3 persons w e re d e fin ite ly e x p e lle d from th e p a rty . A t
th e tim e o f the co n gress S la n sk y stated th a t th e p ro p o rtio n o f
w orkers a m o n g p a r ty m em b e rs w as 45 p er ce n t, b u t h a d b een 57
p er ce n t in 1946. T h e A lb a n ia n p a r ty w as m o re su ccessfu l in
in cre a sin g th e p e rc e n ta g e o f w ork ers. A c c o r d in g to th e re p o rt o f its
o rg a n isin g se c re ta ry , T u k J a k o v a , a t its co n gress in N o v e m b e r
1948, w ork ers h ad in creased from 15 p e r c e n t o f th e m em b e rsh ip
in 1945 to 23 p e r ce n t in 1948, p o o r p e asan ts from 25 p e r ce n t to
54 per ce n t. O n th e o th e r h a n d o th e r p easan ts h a d d e c lin e d from
22 per ce n t to 13 p e r ce n t, an d m id d le -class e lem en ts fro m 37 p e r
ce n t to 10 p e r cen t.
T h e co m m u n ist lead ers m ad e sta tem en ts th a t th e p u rg e m ust
n ot be re g a rd e d as a m easu re o f p u n ish m e n t. Its p u rp o se h a d b een
o n ly to im p ro v e th e q u a lity o f th e p a rties. T h o s e e x p e lle d from
th e p a rty m ust n ot n ecessarily be dism issed from th e ir jo b s . T h e y
co u ld ‘ serve th e ca u se o f s o c ia lis m ’ o u tsid e th e p a rty .
T h e Y u g o s la v p a r ty w as a lw a y s in a sp ecia l situ a tio n . I t h ad
b e en stro n ge r b efo re th e w a r th an a n y e x c e p t th e B u lg a ria n a n d
C z e c h . M a n y o f its m ost e x p e rie n c e d m em b ers h a d b e e n k ille d in
b attle . T h e ir p laces h ad b een tak e n , a n d th e p a r t y ’s n u m b e rs
g re a tly e x p a n d e d , b y m em b ers o f th e p a rtisa n forces. T h e w a r o f
lib e ra tio n h ad n o d o u b t b e en in su fficien t as a sch o o l o f M a rx ist-
L e n in ist id e o lo g y , b u t it h ad b een a g o o d tra in in g -g r o u n d in
lo y a lty , c o u ra g e an d d iscip lin e . A t th e e n d o f th e w a r th e Y u g o ­
sla v p a r ty w as c e rta in ly su p e rio r in th e a v e ra g e q u a lit y o f its
m em b ers to a n y o f th e o th e r E ast E u ro p e a n C o m m u n is t P a rties.
A fte r lib e ra tio n m em b ers w e re re c ru ite d slo w ly . T h e le a d e rs w e re
n o t keen to d ilu te th eir élite. T h e m ass re c ru itin g w as d o n e b y th e
P e o p le ’ s F ro n t, th e co m m u n ist-c o n tro lle d ‘ m o n o lith ic ’ m o n o p o ly
p o litic a l o rg a n isa tio n . T h e p a r ty its e lf k ep t in th e b a c k g ro u n d .
 POLITICAL POWER 313
T h is w as in fa c t on e o f th e th in g s w ith w h ich th e C o m in fo rm
re p r o a c h e d th e Y u g o s la v le a d e rs in 1948.
T h e secon d d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e Y u g o s la v p a r ty a n d those o f
n e ig h b o u r in g co u n trie s la y in th e n a tu re o f its leaders. M o st o f
th em h a d b e en in th e U .S .S .R . o n ly for sh ort periods o r n ot at all.
T it o h im se lf h a d o f cou rse sp en t m a n y y e a rs th ere. H e h ad b een a
p ro fessio n a l C o m in te rn a g e n t, p e rfo rm in g m issions in several
E u ro p e a n co u n trie s. H is last a ssign m en t from th e C o m in te rn h ad
b e en to re tu rn to Y u g o s la v ia in 1937 an d re o rg an ise th e p a rty ,
w h ic h h a d b e en serio u sly in fected w ith ‘ T r o ts k y is m ’ an d ‘ sec­
t a r ia n is m ’ . H e fu lfille d this task e ffic ien tly , b rin g in g th e p u rg ed
u n d e rg ro u n d p a r ty in to lin e w ith M o s c o w ’ s w ishes. But th en c a m e
th e w a r . T i t o a n d his co lle a g u e s w e re cu t o f f from M o sco w . T h e y
h a d to m a k e d ecision s for th em selves, to w o rk o u t a m ilita r y and
p o litic a l stra te g y su ite d to th eir circu m stan ce s. T h e y w e re success­
fu l, a n d in th e process T i t o b e c a m e a g re a t n a tio n a l fig u re, a
sy m b o l o f Y u g o s la v p a trio tism . M o re o v e r he c a m e in to c o n ta c t
w ith B ritish officers. N o S o v ie t N .K .V .D . re p resen ta tive w as
p resen t a t his in te rv ie w s w ith B rig a d ie r F itz ro y M a c le a n . H o w
c o u ld M o s c o w k n o w w h a t sin ister effects this c o n ta m in a tio n b y
W e ste rn c a p ita lism m a y h a v e h ad on h im ? T h e r e c a n be little
d o u b t th a t M o s c o w ’s su spicio n o f th e Y u g o s la v lead ers d ates from
this tim e . A n d in a sense M o sc o w m a y h a v e b e en rig h t. It w as
d iffic u lt fo r a m a n w h o h a d b e c o m e a n a tio n a l h e ro to re v ert a fter
v ic to r y to his fo rm e r ro le o f h u m b le C o m in te rn a g e n t. It w as
d ifficu lt fo r m en w h o h ad jo in e d th e C o m m u n ist P a rty in w a r,
b e ca u se it h a d seem ed to th em to lead a ll th e forces w o rk in g for a
n e w , r e v o lu tio n a ry a n d g re a t Y u g o s la v ia , to a c c e p t su b o rd in a tio n
o f th e ir c o u n tr y to a n o th e r, e ve n i f th a t o th e r w as b o th ‘ b ro th e rly
R u s s ia ’ a n d ‘ th e la n d o f so c ia lism ’ .
T h e S o v ie t le a d e rs seem to h a v e b e lie v e d , w h en th e y used the
C o m in fo r m to la u n c h a n a th e m a a t T ito , th at th e g re a t lo v e o f th e
Y u g o s la v p e o p le fo r R u ssia a n d for the S o v ie t U n io n w o u ld su rge
u p a g a in st th e ‘ T i t o T ro tsk y ist-n a tio n a list c liq u e ’ , th a t the
‘ h e a lth y M a rx is t fo r c e s ’ w o u ld o v e r th r o w the g o v e rn m e n t. B u t
th e y w e re w ro n g . T i t o a n d his frien d s h ad b u ilt u p b y th eir o w n
efforts, in tim es o f g re a t su fferin g an d d a n g e r, a p o w e rfu l m a ch in e.
T h is m a c h in e n o w lo y a lly served th em .
T h e c re a tio n o f C o m in fo r m in th e la te su m m e r o f 1947 w as
M o s c o w ’ s re p ly to th e M a rsh a ll P la n . It m a rk e d th e fo rm a l en d o f
th e p o p u la r fro n t in h o m e a ffa irs a n d o f ‘ B ig F'our c o - o p e r a tio n ’
in fo reig n p o lic y . T h e tasks o f C o m in fo rm w e re to co n so lid a te
314 th e EA ST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
co m m u n ist p o w e r in E astern E u ro p e a n d to in te n sify c o m m u n ist
p o litic a l w a rfa re in W estern E u ro p e , th ro u g h th e tw o stron gest
w estern C o m m u n ist P a rtie s, th e F re n c h a n d th e I ta lia n , b o th o f
w h ich b e lo n g e d to C o m in fo r m . Besides this, it w a s in te n d e d to
g iv e an a p p e a r a n c e o f d e m o c ra tic e q u a lity a m o n g C o m m u n ist
P a rties, for th e A ll-U n io n C o m m u n ist P a r ty (B olsh evik ) w as o n ly
o n e a m o n g n in e. In fa c t th e sta te m e n t o f d e n u n c ia tio n o f T ito ,
a n d th e c o rresp o n d e n ce b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t a n d Y u g o s la v parties
p u b lish e d as a c o n se q u e n ce , sh o w e d c le a rly b o th th a t th e C o m in ­
form w as m o re th a n a n in fo rm a tio n b u re a u , a n d th a t th e d ire c ­
tives w h ic h it g a v e to m e m b e r p a rtie s c a m e to it fro m th e S o v ie t
p a rty .
C o n s o lid a tio n o f c o m m n u ist p o w e r in E a ste rn E u ro p e w as
in te rp re te d in p r a c tic e as in crea sed su b je c tio n o f th e p a rties
to M o sco w . In 1948 a n d 1949 p u rg es o f ‘ n a tio n a list d ev ia -
tio n ists’ took p la c e in m ost E ast E u ro p e a n co u n trie s. T h e s e p u rg es
c o rresp o n d e d to th e v ic to r y w ith in th e p a r ty le a d e rsh ip s o f th e
‘ M u s c o v ite s ’ o v e r th e w a r tim e resistan ce leaders.
A lr e a d y b e fo re th e T ito - C o m in fo r m b re a c h , th e p r o m in e n t
R u m a n ia n c o m m u n ist P ă tră ş c a n u h a d b e en d isg ra c e d fo r
n a tio n a lism . H is sp e cia l fa u lt w as in to le ra n c e to w a rd s th e H u n ­
g a ria n m in o rity in T r a n s y lv a n ia , b u t it w as also g e n e ra lly
b e lie v e d th a t he w a s in d isa g re e m e n t w ith th e ‘ M u s c o v it e ’
le a d e rsh ip o f th e p a rty . P ă tră ş c a n u w as a m id d le -c la ss in te lle c ­
tu a l, a d istin gu ish ed w rite r a n d social h isto ria n . H e h a d se v eral
tim es b e en in p rison , b u t h e h a d n ot liv e d in e x ile in th e U .S .S .R .
H e w as re lie v e d o f th e post o f M in iste r o f j u s t i c e in F e b r u a r y 1948
a n d w as la te r e x p e lle d from th e p a rty . H is ca se w as d e s c rib e d as
follow s b y th e p a r ty le a d e r G h e o r g h iu - D e j: ‘ S o m e u n d e r­
e stim a te th e e n e m y ’s forces a n d o v e r-e stim a te w o rk in g -c la ss
forces . . . b c c o m c e xp o n en ts o f b o u rg e o is id e o lo g y , a n d d e ta c h
th em selves from th e m asses a n d fro m th e id e o lo g y a n d p rin cip le s
o f th e w o rk in g class, as has h a p p e n e d w ith c o m ra d e P ă t r ă ş c a n u ’ .
T h e n ext ca se a fte r T it o o c c u rre d in P o la n d . H e re th e v ic tim
w as G o m u łk a (k n o w n b y his u n d e rg ro u n d p se u d o n y m o f ‘ W ie s­
ł a w ’ . A c c u se d o f ‘ in su fficien t a p p re c ia tio n o f th e ro le o f th e
U .S .S .R .’ , h e fo r m a lly re p e n te d a t a m e e tin g o f th e C e n tr a l
C o m m itte e o f th e p a rty in A u g u s t 1948. B u t a t th e ‘ u n ific a tio n ’
con gress in D e c e m b e r 1948 h e w as a cc u s e d o f ‘ ig n o rin g th e
s tru g g le a g a in st n a tio n a lis m ’ . ‘ C o m r a d e W ie s ła w ’— to q u o te th e
w o rd s o f th e con gress d e le g a te K lis z k o — ‘ h as re tu rn e d to his old
n a tio n a list position . . . a n d c a n c e lle d his o w n s e lf-c ritic a l state-
 POLITICAL POWER 315
m e n t ’ . G o m u łk a h a d a lr e a d y b een d e p riv e d o f th e ge n e ral sec­
re ta ry sh ip o f th e p a r ty , w h ic h w as ta k e n o v e r b y P residen t B ieru t.
H e n o w lost th e h u m b le r post o f M in iste r o f P u b lic A d m in is tr a ­
tio n , to w h ic h h e h a d b e en re le g a te d .
T h e ‘ u n m a s k in g ' a n d la te r e x e c u tio n o f th e A lb a n ia n c o m m u n ­
ist K o c i X o x c b e lo n g s g e n e r a lly to th e p u rg e a gain st th e 'n a t io n ­
alist d e v ia t io n ’ . B u t th e X o x e case w a s e sp e c ia lly c o n n e c te d w ith
A lb a n ia n - Y u g o s la v re la tio n s, a n d is d iscussed e lse w h e re .1
T h e n e x t im p o rta n t v ic tim w as th e B u lg a ria n V ic c -P r c m ie r an d
fo rm e r se c re ta ry o f th e u n d e rg ro u n d C e n tra l C o m m itte e o f the
B u lg a ria n C o m m u n ist P a rty , T r a ic h o K o s to v . H is fa u lt too la y in
in su fficien t a p p re c ia tio n o f th e ro le o f th e S o v iet U n io n an d
n a tio n a list d e m a g o g y . H e w as a lso a ccu sed o f ‘ le ft-w in g se c ta ria n ­
is m ’ . L a t e r it a p p e a r e d th a t h e h a d w ith h e ld in fo rm a tio n from
th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s on B u lg a r ia ’s tra d e relation s w ith o th er
co u n trie s, a n d h ad a p p lie d th e law s on sta te secrets to th e U .S .S .R .
as to o th e r co u n trie s. H e h a d fa ile d to u n d e rsta n d th a t th e S o v iet
U n io n is n o t as o th e r co u n trie s, is in c a p a b le o f im p e ria lism , an d
is a lw a y s b e n e v o le n t to B u lg a ria . In th e w ord s o f G e o rg e D im i­
t ro v , K o s to v w a s g u ilt y o f th e 'sh a m e fu l a s s u m p tio n ’ th a t S o v ie t
interests m ig h t e v e r b e o p p osed to B u lg a ria n in terests. K o s to v w as
first re m o v e d from his im p o rta n t po sitio n s a n d th en p la c e d on
tria l fo r treason . H e w as a ccu sed o f b e in g a B ritish a g e n t, a n d o f
h a v in g sa v e d his life w h e n u n d e r arre st in 1942 b y b e tr a y in g his
co m ra d e s. T o th e ra g e an d a sto n ish m e n t o f his ju d g e s , h e refused,
a t his tria l in D e c e m b e r 1949, to confess to these crim es. H e w as
c o n d e m n e d a n d e x e c u te d .
T h e n e x t ca se w as th a t o f R a jk , fo rm e r M in iste r o f th e In te rio r
in H u n g a r y . H e too w a s n o t a ‘ M u s c o v it e ’ , h a v in g n e v e r spen t a
p e rio d o f e x ile in th e U .S .S .R . H e h a d b e en th e le a d e r o f w h a t
little c o m m u n ist u n d e rg ro u n d a c tiv it y th ere h a d b e en in H u n ­
g a r y in 19 4 4 .2 H e h a d sh o w n e x e m p la ry d e v o tio n to th e p a r ty in
‘ u n m a s k in g ’ th e 1947 ‘ c o n s p ir a c y ’ , a n d p r o d u c in g th e a p p ro ­
p ria te con fessions a t th e rig h t m o m e n t. N o w su d d e n ly h e w as not
o n ly a ccu s e d o f th e ‘ n a tio n a list d e v ia t io n ’ , b u t w as ro u n d ly
d e n o u n c e d as a n ‘ a g e n t o f th e im p e ria lis ts ’ . In p r e p a ra tio n o f the
tr ia l, to b e c o n d u c te d a c c o rd in g to th e tru e ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c ra tic
j u s t ic e ’ , th e p a r ty o rg a n ise d a flo od o f ‘ s p o n ta n e o u s ’ te le gra m s
fro m th e ‘ t o ile r s ’ o f to w n an d c o u n try d e m a n d in g a ‘ ro p e for th e
tra ito r R a j k ’ . A t th e tria l, w h ic h to o k p la c e in S e p te m b e r 1949,
h e o b lig in g ly co n fessed to a ll th e ch a rg e s, o f w h ic h th e m ost
im p o rta n t w e re th a t h e h ad p lo tte d w ith M a rsh a l T i t o 011 b e h a lf
1 S e e a b o v e , p p . 2 2 8 -9 . 1 Scc » t» ve , P lo 4
3 16 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
o f th e A m e ric a n secret se rv ice , a n d th a t a lr e a d y b e fo re 1939 he
h a d b een an a g e n t o f H o r th y ’s p o litic a l p o lice . H is se rv ic e in th e
re p u b lic a n a rm y in S p a in h ad b e e n an a c t o f ‘ p r o v o c a t io n ’ ,
u n d e rta k e n at th e o rd ers o f th e p o lic e . R a jk w as d u ly c o n d em n e d
an d h a n g e d .
T h e la rgest an d m ost h e te ro ge n e o u s o f th e c o m m u n ist p a rtie s
w as the C z e c h o slo v a k . T h e p u rg e c a m e la te r h ere th a n in n e ig h ­
b o u rin g cou n tries. A t th e en d o f 1949 th e e d ito r o f xhe p a r ty n ew s­
p a p e r Rude Pravo, N o v y , w as dism issed from his jo b . In F e b r u a r y
1950 he w as e x p e lle d from the p a rty . In M a y 1950, a t a con gress
o f th e S lo v a k C o m m u n ist P a rty , th e le a d in g c o m m u n ists C le m e n tis,
S m id k e , H u sak a n d N o v o m e sk y w e re a ccu sed o f n a tio n a list
d ev ia tio n ism . T h e w ick ed n ess o f C le m e n tis w a s e n h a n c e d b y the
re d isco v e ry o f th e fact-— h ith e rto c o n v e n ie n tly ig n o re d — th a t in
S e p te m b e r 1939 he h ad d isa p p ro v e d o f the G e rm a n -S o v ie t P a ct.
A s V ic e -P r e m ie r S iro k y told the con gress, C le m e n tis h ad fo rgo tten
th a t ‘ for a C o m m u n ist th ere is a ru le w h ic h m ust b e o b se rv e d at
a ll tim es an d e sp e c ia lly in d ifficu lt circ u m sta n c e s— u n re se rv ed c o n ­
fid en ce in the S o v ie t U n io n an d th e g re a t S t a lin ’ , w h o ‘ . . . a t all
tim es an d in a ll p la ce s c o n d u c t a p o lic y d esig n e d to o n e en d a lo n e —
th e go o d o f the in te rn a tio n a l w o rk in g class m o v e m e n t a n d the
fig h t a g a in st im p e ria lis m ’ . In F e b r u a r y 1951 it w as a n n o u n ce d
th at C le m e n tis h ad b een arrested as a n im p e ria list sp y , to g e th e r
w ith th e p a r ty se c re ta ry for the M o r a v ia n c a p ita l B rn o , O t t o S lin g ,
a n d a p ro m in e n t w o m a n c o m m u n ist, M a d a m e S v e r m o v a . In
S e p te m b e r th e G e n e ra l S e c re ta r y o f th e p a r ty , R u d o lf S la n sk y ,
w as re m o ve d from his post, a n d in N o v e m b e r h e w a s a rre ste d for
treason . T h is w as th e m ost sen sa tio n a l d isg ra c e o f a c o m m u n ist
sin ce th e fa ll o f R o sto v . I t w as th e m o re su rp risin g in th a t S la n s k y ,
fa r from b e in g a ‘ n a tio n a lis t’ , w as u s u a lly c o n sid e re d th e m ost
d o c ile ‘ M u s c o v ite ’ in his p a rty .
T h e e ffe ct o f ‘ T i t o is m ’ in E aste rn E u ro p e is p r o b a b ly g r e a te r
th an at first sigh t a p p e a rs. It is tru e th at th ere is little im m e d ia te
p ro sp e ct o f a ‘ T i t o i s t ’ re v o lt else w h ere . T h e fa c to r m a in ly res­
p o n sib le b o th fo r th e o rig in o f th e C o m in fo r m - T ito b re a c h a n d
fo r th e su b seq u en t s u rv iv a l o f T i t o is a b se n t in th e o th e r c o u n trie s.
T h is fa c to r is th e e x isten ce o f a m ilita r y a n d c iv il sta te m a c h in e
n ot im m e d ia te ly d e p e n d e n t o n M o sc o w . T i t o c re a te d his o w n
m a ch in e d u r in g th e w'ar o f lib e ra tio n . T h e m a c h in e s o f th e o th e r
E ast E u ro p e a n regim es w e re c re a te d b y , o r u n d e r th e close su p e r­
v isio n of, S o v ie t officers a n d ‘ p o litic a l e x p e r t s ’ . In th e im p r o b a b le
e v e n t th a t G o ttw a ld , B ie ru t, P a u k e r o r C h c r v e n k o v sh o u ld w ish
 POLITICAL POWER 317
Io re v o lt a g a in st M o sc o w , th e y w o u ld not b e a b le to re ly on
so ld ie rs o r b u re a u c ra ts w h ose lo y a lty w as to them ra th e r th an to
S ta lin . N e v e rth e le ss th e e x a m p le o f T ito , a n d the ru th less c o u n te r­
m easu res tak e n on M o s c o w 's o rd ers, w ill h a v e m ad e an im pression
o n th e m em b e rs o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n c o m m u n ist p a rties. It m ust
n o w b e d e a r to m a n y o f th em th a t th e first re q u ire m e n t o f a c o m ­
m u n ist is u n c o n d itio n a l su b se rv ie n c e to S o v ie t im p e ria lism . T e r r o r
a n d b la c k m a il, n o t lo y a lt y o r id e alism , a rc th e m eans b y w h ic h
M o s c o w m a in ta in s its h o ld o v e r th e c o m m u n ist p a rties, and
th ro u g h th e m o v e r th e p eo p les, o f E aste rn E u ro p e . Y e t a tim e m ay
c o m e w h e n M o sc o w w ill n eed lo y a lty an d id e alism . T h e n it m a y
h a v e so m e u n p le a s a n t surprises.
In th e S o v ie t U n io n , p u rg es o f o n e ‘ d e v ia t io n ’ h a v e o fte n b een
fo llo w e d b y p u rg es o f its o p p o site . It is u n lik e ly th at ‘ n a tio n a lis m ’
w ill b e th e o n ly h eresy r e q u irin g tre a tm e n t in th e E ast E u ro p e a n
c o m m u n ist p a rtie s. C o m in fo r m p r o p a g a n d a has fo r som e tim e
stressed th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n tw o sins w h ich at first sigh t
a p p e a r h a r d ly c o m p a tib le , n a tio n a lism a n d co sm o p o lita n ism .
B o th a re in stru m e n ts o f th e w e ste rn im p e ria lists for the d e m o ra lisa ­
tio n o f th e S o v ie t a n d th e p o p u la r d e m o c ra tic w o rld . T h e first
con sists o f e x a g g e r a tin g th e im p o rta n c e o f o n e ’s o w n c o u n try at
th e e xp e n se o f th e g re a t S o v ie t U n io n : the seco n d is the b e lie f in
a n y su p ra n a tio n a l c u ltu r e , tra n s c e n d in g th e c u ltu re o f a n y sin gle
n a tio n , e v e n th a t o f th e g r e a t S o v ie t n a tio n . B o lh heresies arise
fro m a p e tty -b o u rg e o is m e n ta lity , a n d b o th ‘ o b je c tiv e ly p la y the
g a m e o f th e im p e r ia lis ts ’ . T h e p u rg e o f c o sm o p o lita n s has been
v e r y th o ro u g h in th e S o v ie t U n io n in re ce n t m on th s, an d its v ic ­
tim s h a v e con sisted to a strik in g e x te n t o f J e w s — a c o m m u n ity
w h o se w h o le h isto ry o f co u rse in clin es th em to w ard s this heresy.
T h e le a d e rsh ip o f th e C o m m u n is t P a rtie s o f P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y
is v e r y la r g e ly o f J e w ish o rig in , a n d in flu e n tia l J e w ish com m u n ists
in o th e r co u n trie s in c lu d e A n n a P a u k e r a n d C h işin e v sc h i in
R u m a n ia . T h e d isg ra c e o f S la n s k y — th e o n ly J e w to h o ld an
e m in e n t p la c e in th e C z e c h o s lo v a k C o m m u n ist P a rty — a n d the
d is a p p e a r a n c e o f G c m in d e r , a J e w w h o rep resen ted th e C z e c h o ­
s lo v a k C o m m u n is t P a r t y in its re la tio n s w ith the C o m in fo r m — are
p e rh a p s o f som e s ig n ific a n c e in this co n te x t.
 CHAPTER TW ELVE

T H E G R E E K E X C E P T IO N
PO L IT IC A L D E V E L O PM E N T

N O c to b e r 1944, w h en B ritish troop s e n tered G r e e c e , the

I g re a te r p a rt o f th e c o u n try w as in th e h an d s o f E .L .A .S . H ad
th e com m u n ists w ish ed to seize p o w e r in A th e n s a t this tim e
th e y co u ld e asily h a v e d o n e so. T h e y ch ose o th erw ise . T h e y jo in e d
in th e w e lco m e g iv e n to th e B ritish forces b y th e p o p u la tio n o f
A th e n s. But less th an tw o m o n th s la te r th e B ritish forces an d
E .L .A .S . w e re at w a r.
T h e e x p la n a tio n seem s to b e th a t in O c t o b e r th e G r e e k c o m ­
m un ists h o p e d to o b ta in p o w e r b y p e a c e fu l in filtra tio n . T h e y n o
d o u b t u n d e re stim ate d th e d e te rm in a tio n o f th e n o n - E .A .M .
m em b ers o f th e g o v e rn m e n t to p re v e n t th is, a n d o v e re stim a te d
th e in flu e n ce o f left o p in io n in B rita in , a n d o f th e S o v ie t g o v e r n ­
m en t, on B ritish p o lic y . I t is a lso lik e ly th a t, as C o lo n e l W o o d -
house, h e ad o f th e B ritish M issio n in G r e e c e in 1 9 4 3 -4 , s u g g e sts,1
th e y b e lie v e d th em selves to e n jo y g re a te r sy m p a th y a m o n g th e
B ritish m ilita r y au th o ritie s th a n w as in fa ct th e case. H o w e v e r this
m a y b e, b y th e en d o f N o v e m b e r th e y fo u n d th em selv es fa c e d w ith
th e a lte rn a tiv e s o f p e a c e fu lly a b a n d o n in g th e ir m ean s o f p o w e r, o r
fig h tin g fo r th em . T h e y ch o se th e la tte r, an d b e g a n to m a k e
p rep a ra tio n s, o f w h ich th e m ost im p o rta n t w a s to b rin g in
E .L .A .S . fo rm a tio n s from th e p ro vin ce s to A th e n s.
T h e issue on w h ic h fig h tin g b ro k e o u t w as th e p ro p o se d d is­
a rm a m e n t o f th e g u e rrilla forces. T h e s e w e re to b e re p la c e d b y a
N a tio n a l G u a r d , to be fo rm ed b y c a llin g u p o n e cla ss o f th e
p r e -w a r a rm y reserve. T h e se le ctio n o f officers for this G u a r d w as
o n e o f th e poin ts o f c o n flic t b e tw e e n E .A .M . a n d n o n - E .A .M .
m inisters. A n o th e r w as th e fu tu re o f th e tw o re g u la r G re e k
m ilita ry fo rm a tio n s, th e 3 rd (R im in i) B rig a d e a n d th e S a c r e d
S q u a d ro n . T h e co m m u n ists a rg u e d th a t i f a ll p o litic a l a rm e d
forces w e re d isb a n d e d , th en these tw o fo rm a tio n s sh o u ld a lso be
d isb a n d e d . T h e ir o p p o n e n ts, w ith th e su p p o rt o f th e B ritish
C o m m a n d , re p lied th a t as r e g u la r a rm y u n its th e y m ust be
1 W o o d ho u se, Apple o f Discord, p p . 2 10 3.
318
 TH E GR E E K E X CE PT IO N 3I9
p reserv e d . A c o m p ro m ise w a s su ggested , th a t th e tw o re g u la r
u n its sh o u ld b e re ta in e d , b u t th a t E .L .A .S . sh o u ld b e a llo w e d to
k e e p a n u cle u s o f a n u m e ric a l stre n g th e q u a l to th e tw o , a n d th at
Z e rv a s sh o u ld also k e e p a fo rce p o r p o rtio n a tc to his n u m b ers.
T h is m e a n t th a t E .L .A .S . w o u ld b e o u tn u m b e r e d , a n d th e m o d e m
e q u ip m e n t o f th e r e g u la r u n its m a d e its e ffe c tiv e in fe rio rity eve n
g re a te r. T h e E .A .M . m inisters, h o w e v e r, a c c e p te d th e co m p ro m ise
o n 27 N o v e m b e r , o n ly to re je c t it tw o d a y s la te r, a n d re p e a t th eir
d e m a n d fo r th e d isb a n d m e n t o f th e b rig a d e a n d th e sq u a d ro n .
A t th is p o in t G e n e r a l S c o b ie , th e B ritish c o m m a n d e r, w h o m b o th
th e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t an d E .L .A .S . h a d re co g n ise d as C o m m a n -
d e r - in - C h ie f o f a ll G r e e k forces b y th e C a s e rta a g re e m e n t,
o rd e re d b o th E .L .A .S . a n d Z e rv a s to d isarm b y 10 D e c e m b e r.
Z e r v a s a c c e p te d , b u t th e E .L .A .S . co m m a n d e r S arafis refused, on
th e g ro u n d t h a t su ch a n o rd e r m ust c o m e th ro u g h th e G re e k
g o v e rn m e n t, a n d th a t th e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h in c lu d e d
E .A .M . m in isters, h a d n o t issued a n o rd e r. O n 2 D e c e m b e r th e
E .A .M . m in isters resig n ed . T h e y o b ta in e d p erm ission fro m th e
g o v e rn m e n t to h o ld a d em o n stra tio n in A th e n s th e n e x t d a y ,
m o b ilise d th e E .L .A .S . reserve o f A th e n s an d P iera eu s, a n d
o rd e re d a g e n e ra l strik e fo r 4 D e c e m b e r . A t th e last m o m en t th e
p e rm issio n fo r th e d em o n stra tio n w as c a n c e lle d , too la te fo r
in stru ctio n s to re a c h a ll th e gro u p s ta k in g p a rt. O n th e m o rn in g
o f 3 D e c e m b e r th e d em o n stra tio n s too k p la c e , th e cro w d s b rok e
th ro u g h th e p o lic e c o rd o n a n d re a c h e d th e c e n tre o f A th e n s,
C o n s titu tio n S q u a re , w h e re p o lic e in a p a n ic o p e n e d fire.
T h is w as E .L . A .S .’ s o p p o rtu n ity . T h e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t an d
p o lic e w e re m assacrers o f th e in n o c e n t. T h e E .L .A .S . m ilita ry
c o m m itte e in th e A th e n s a re a o rd e re d a tta c k s on a ll p o lice
sta tio n s. C a p t u r e d p o lic e m e n w e re sh ot. S o m e p o lic e sta tion s w e re
re lie v e d la te r in th e d a y b y B ritish troop s, on w h o m E .L .A .S . d id
n o t fire. A b a ttle too k p la c e b e tw e e n E .L .A .S . a n d th e rig h t-w in g
e xtrem ists k n o w n as ‘ X ’ , in th e n e ig h b o u r h o o d o f th e T h c s c u m .
O n 4 D e c e m b e r P a p a n d re o u w a n te d to resign. T h e lib e ra l le a d e r
S o p h o u lis wras p r e p a re d to fo rm a g o v e rn m e n t, a n d E .A .M . e x ­
pressed its w illin g n e ss to se rv e u n d e r h im . B u t th e B ritish g o v e rn ­
m e n t c o n sid e re d th a t this w o u ld b e c a p itu la tio n to v io le n c e , an d
M r . C h u r c h ill u rg e d P a p a n d re o u to re m a in a t his p o st. S c o b ie
o rd e re d E .L .A .S . to w ith d r a w fro m A th e n s a n d P e ira e u s w ith in
se v e n ty -tw o h ou rs. O n 6 D e c e m b e r B ritish a irc ra ft a tta c k e d
E .L .A .S . p ositio n s, a n d in th e fo llo w in g d a y s B ritish troop s b e ­
c a m e e n g a g e d w ith E .L .A .S . forces on la n d .
320 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
I t w as soon d e a r th a t th e B ritish h ad u n d e re stim a te d E .L .A .S .
stren gth . M o re th an tw o B ritish d ivision s h ad to b e w ith d ra w n
from I t a ly a n d sent to re in fo rce th e b e le a g u e re d B ritish forces.
B y th e en d o f th e m o n th E .L .A .S . w a s lo sin g . O n C h ris tm a s D a y
C h u r c h ill a n d E d e n flew to A th e n s , a n d sta rte d discu ssion s
b e tw e e n G re e k p o litic a l lea d ers. K in g G e o rg e I I o f G r e e c e w as
p e rsu a d e d in L o n d o n to a g re e to th e a p p o in tm e n t as R e g e n t o f
A rc h b ish o p D a m a sk in o s o f A th e n s , w h o se h o n o u r a b le re co rd
d u r in g th e o c c u p a tio n h ad w o n u n iv e rsa l resp ect. O n 3 J a n u a r y
a n e w g o v e rn m e n t w as fo rm e d u n d e r G e n e ra l P la stira s. B y 5
J a n u a r y E .L .A .S . b e g a n to w ith d ra w fro m A th e n s , on th e n t h
th e ir d ele g ate s re a c h e d a g re e m e n t for a n a rm is tic e w ith S c o b ie , a n d
on 15 J a n u a r y fig h tin g ce ased . A m o n th la ter, on 12 F e b r u a r y , a
p o litic a l a g re e m e n t w as sign ed a t V a r k iz a b e tw e e n th e g o v e r n ­
m en t a n d th e co m m u n ists. E .L .A .S . w as to d isa rm , th ere w as
to be an a m n e sty fo r p o litic a l o ffen d ers b u t n o t fo r c rim in a l
offen ces, a n d a p u rg e o f th e c iv il se rv ice to re m o v e c o lla b o ra to rs
w ith th e G e rm a n s. A n e w a r m y w as to b e c re a te d b y th e m o b ilisa ­
tion o f a g e -g ro u p s, b u t th e R im in i B rig a d e a n d S a c r e d S q u a d ro n
w e re to b e re tain e d u n d e r a rm s. F in a lly , a p le b isc ite w as to b e held
as soon as possible to d e c id e w h e th e r G r e e c e sh o u ld b e a m o n a rc h y
o r a re p u b lic , a n d this w as to b e fo llo w e d b y e le ctio n s to a
C o n s titu e n t A ssem b ly .
It w a s a tra g e d y th a t B ritish tro op s sh o u ld h a v e fo u g h t a gain st
G ree k s, e sp e c ia lly a g a in st th ose w h o h a d m ost a c tiv e ly resisted
th e Ita lia n s a n d G e rm a n s d u r in g th e o c c u p a tio n . It w as a ll th e
m o re h o rrib le as th e w a r a g a in st th e c o m m o n e n e m y w a s fa r from
fin ish ed . T h e in d ig n a tio n exp ressed in th e H o u se o f C o m m o n s a n d
a la rg e p a rt o f th e B ritish press re flecte d th e g e n u in e d is m a y o f
B ritish o p in io n . I t c a n n o t be dism issed as th e w o rk o f ‘ fe llo w -
tr a v e lle r s ’ an d ‘ se n tim e n ta lists’ .
E ve n ts in th e rest o f E astern E u ro p e sin cc 1944 h a v e sh ow n
w h a t k in d o f re g im e G r e e c e w o u ld h a v e h a d i f E .L .A .S . a n d th e
C o m m u n ist P a rty h a d h a d a free h a n d . F o r tw o reason s at least
th ere sh ou ld b e sa tisfa ctio n in B rita in th a t th e y d id n ot. O n e is
th a t a to ta lita ria n re g im e w o u ld h a v e b e e n im p o se d o n th e
G r e e k p e o p le, w h ic h o f a ll p eo p les in E u ro p e is p e rh a p s th e m ost
o p p o se d to d ic ta to rs h ip , e s p e c ia lly in th e in te lle c tu a l a n d c u ltu r a l
field s. S o m e in d ic a tio n o f h o w c o m m u n ist ru le w o u ld h a v e b e g u n
w as g iv e n b y th e m assacres o f h ostag es w h ic h E .L .A .S . c o m m itte d
d u r in g its d a y s o f p o w e r in A th e n s . T h e corp ses, in m a n y cases
m u tila te d , o f m u rd e re d m en a n d w o m e n , in c lu d in g b esid es som e
 TH E GREEK E X C E P T IO N 321
‘ c o lla b o r a t o r s ’ a la rg e n u m b e r o f in n o c e n t a n d h arm less persons,
w e re fo u n d a fte r th e E .L .A .S . w ith d r a w a l. T h e secon d reason is
th a t th e triu m p h o f E .L .A .S . w o u ld h a v e e x te n d ed th e S o v iet
b lo c fa r in to th e E astern M e d ite rra n e a n , in c lu d in g C r e te and
th e D o d e ca n e se , a n d th re a te n e d th e M id d le E ast. I t is in d eed
p r o b a b le th a t this w as th e m ain co n sid e ra tio n a ffe c tin g M r.
C h u r c h ill’ s p o lic y . A S o v ie t th re a t to B ritish interests d id n ot at
th a t tim e serio u sly a la rm m ost B ritish p e o p le , w h o th o u g h t o f
th e U .S .S .R . as a g a lla n t a lly . B u t th e e ve n ts o f th e last fiv e years
h a v e sh ow n it in a d iffe re n t ligh t.
B ritish troop s p re v e n te d th e G r e e k co m m u n ists from seizin g
p o w e r. W ith o u t B ritish in te rv e n tio n th e a n ti-c o m m u n ist forces
w o u ld h a v e b een as h elpless as w e re th e a n ti-co m m u n ist forces
in Y u g o s la v ia a n d A lb a n ia . L o o k in g b a c k in 1950 on e m ust
b e th a n k fu l th a t B ritish in te rv e n tio n took p la ce . B u t th ere is
a n o th e r q u estio n less easy to a n sw er. C o u ld a w iser British p o lic y
to w a r d s G r e e c e d u r in g th e p e rio d o f o c c u p a tio n a n d resistan ce
h a v e p re v e n te d th e tra g ic situ a tio n o f 1944 from e v e r a risin g?
I t is o f co u rse n a iv e to su ggest th a t th e B ritish , b y b e in g m ore
frie n d ly to E .A .M .- E .L .A . S ., c o u ld h a v e tak e n c o n tro l o f th a t
m o v e m e n t o u t o f c o m m u n ist h an d s. T h e m o v e m e n t w as in fact
led a n d o rg a n ise d b y co m m u n ists fro m th e v e r y b e g in n in g . A
m o re seriou s a rg u m e n t is th a t th e d ev o tio n o f B ritish p o lic y to
K in g G e o rg e I I , w h o w as w ith o u t d o u b t u n p o p u la r in G r e e c e
a fte r th e A x is co n q u e st, fo rced in to th e ran ks o f E .A .M .- E .L .A .S .
m a n y d e m o c ra tic G ree k s w h o w o u ld h a v e fo llo w e d a n o n ­
c o m m u n ist d e m o c ra tic resista n ce m o v e m e n t i f su ch h ad existed .
S u p p o rte rs o f this v ie w w o u ld n o t re g a rd th e m o vem en ts o f Z e rv a s
a n d P saros as seriou s m o ve m e n ts. T h a t B ritish su p p o rt o f th e
m o n a rc h y d id to so m e e x te n t h a v e this resu lt it is im p o ssib le to
d e n y . I f th e B ritish a u th o ritie s c o n c e rn e d w ith th e G re e k resis­
ta n c e h a d b e en su p e rm e n , gen iu ses o f o rg a n isa tio n a n d p o litica l
u n d e rs ta n d in g , th e y m ig h t h a v e o rg a n ise d a n a lte r n a tiv e resis­
ta n c e m o v e m e n t. B u t th e re a l a n sw e r is su re ly th a t le a d e rsh ip m ust
c o m e fro m th e G ree k s th em selves. T h e G re e k n o n -co m m u n ist
d e m o cra ts p ro v e d u n w illin g a n d u n a b le to b u ild u p a g re a t
m o v e m e n t. O n ly th e co m m u n ists h a d th e fa n a tic ism an d ruthless
c o u ra g e e n a b lin g th em , regard less o f s u ffe rin g to th em selves an d
th e c iv il p o p u la tio n , to b u ild u p an in stru m e n t fo r th e u ltim a te
se iz u re o f p o w e r. I f G r e e k n o n -co m m u n ists c o u ld n ot d o this, it is
u n re a so n a b le to e x p e c t th at th e B ritish sh o u ld h a v e d o n e it fo r
th em .
322 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
G r c e c e w as sa ve d from c o m m u n ist d ic ta to rs h ip , b u t sh e d id n o t
th e re b y a tta in d e m o c ra tic free d o m . I n e v ita b ly th e su p p ression o f
th e e xtrem ists o f th e left e n c o u ra g e d th e extrem ists o f th e rig h t.
T h e m o d e ra te d em o c ra ts, it w as n o w a rg u e d , c o u ld n o t p r o te c t
th e p eo p le a g a in st th e co m m u n ist d a n g e r : o n ly a stro n g m o n a rc h y
c o u ld d o this. T h e royalists c la im e d th a t G r e e c e c o u ld o n ly ch o o se
b e tw e e n G e o rg e I I a n d c o m m u n ism : a ll a tte m p ts a t a m id d le w a y
w o u ld w e a k e n th e c o u n try . T h e e x tre m e rig h t in fa c t to o k o v e r a
la rg e p a rt o f th e c o u n try , a n d b e c a m e th e d o m in a n t fo rc e in a rm y ,
n a tio n a l g u a r d a n d p o lic e . W a r tim e m em b e rsh ip o f E .L .A .S . w as
re g a rd e d as a c rim e , a n y resistan ce re c o rd w a s su sp e ct, c o lla b o r a ­
tio n w ith th e G e rm a n s w as c o n d o n e d a n d se rv ice in th e se c u rity
b a tta lio n s a m erit. P erso n a l spite a n d re v e n g e o fte n su fficed fo r a
p o litic a l p ro g ra m m e . T h e g o v e rn m e n ts in A th e n s , c o m p o se d for
th e m ost p a rt o f g e n u in e d em o cra ts, w e re n o t m asters o f th e
co u n try . P lastiras trie d to re m e d y th e ro y a list p r e d o m in a n c e in
th e a rm y b y a p p o in tin g his r e p u b lic a n frien d s to le a d in g positions.
H e re h e c a m e u p a g a in st th e o p p o sitio n o f th e B ritish M ilit a r y
M ission , w h ic h w as re o rg a n isin g th e G r e e k a rm y , a n d w ish e d to
k eep it c le a r o f p olitics. T h is p rin c ip le , th e o r e tic a lly a d m ir a b le ,
m ea n t in p ra c tic e th a t th e p o litic a l fa c tio n w h ic h h a d th e g re a te st
in flu e n c e re ta in e d it : a n o n -p o litic a l G r e e k o ffice r is a v e r y ra re
species.
In A p r il 1945 P la stira s resig n ed . H e w as su cce e d e d b y a ‘ se rv ice
m in is tr y ’ u n d e r A d m ir a l V o u lg a r is , a frien d o f th e b ig g e st A th e n s
in d u strialist, B odossakis A th a n a ssia d e s. T h e n e w c a b in e t c a rrie d
o u t a so -calle d ‘ d ec o n g estio n o f th e p riso n s’ , re le a sin g n u m b e rs o f
co m m u n ist sym p ath isers w h o h ad b e en a rrested w ith o u t a seriou s
c h a rg e a g a in st th em . R e le a se w a s n o t a lw a y s a b lessin g. O n
re tu rn in g to th e ir v illa g e , th e y w e re lia b le to fin d th e lo c a l rig h t-
w in g to u gh s o u t fo r th e ir b lo o d . I f th e y e sca p e d th is ille g a l
v e n g e a n c e , th e y w e n t o n c e m o re in to h id in g . I n th e P e lo p o n n e se
se v eral rig h t-w in g b a n d s terrorised th e c o u n try sid e . T h e lo c a l
a d m in istra tio n to o k n o a c tio n a g a in st th em , b o th b e c a u se th e y
w e re a fra id a n d b e c a u se th e y sy m p a th ise d w ith th e ir a v o w e d a im
o f e x tir p a tin g co m m u n ists. T h e N a tio n a l G u a r d w a s a v e r y m ix e d
lo t, in c lu d in g besides o rd in a r y d e c e n t citize n s a fa ir sp r in k lin g o f
r ig h t-w in g extrem ists a n d o f th e n a tu ra l B a lk a n to u g h s a n d b u llie s.
A B ritish p o lic e m ission h e a d e d b y S ir C h a r le s W ic k h a m w as
m e a n w h ile fa c in g th e h e rc u le a n task o f tr a in in g a p ro fessio n a l,
n o n -p o litic a l g e n d a rm e rie , w 'hich w as to tak e o v e r fro m th e
N a tio n a l G u a r d in th e a u tu m n .
 TH E GREEK E X C E P T IO N 32 3

In S e p te m b e r 1945 th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f B rita in , F ra n c e and

th e U n ite d S ta te s issued a sta te m e n t a d v isin g th a t, c o n tra ry to
th e V a r k iz a d ecisio n s, p a rlia m e n ta r y electio n s sh o u ld p rece d e th e
p le b iscite o n th e m o n a rc h y . T h e reason for this w as th e b e lie f
th a t th e ra p id g ro w th o f m o n a rch ism in the last m onth s w as o n ly
a te m p o r a r y re a ctio n a g a in st c o m m u n ism , a n d th a t tim e sh ou ld
b e a llo w e d fo r passions to co o l, so th a t so m e w h a t la te r th e G re e k
p e o p le c o u ld d e c id e , in a m o re p e a c e fu l a tm o sp h e re , w h e th e r th ey
w o u ld p refer a m o n a rc h y o r a re p u b lic . M e a n w h ile th e so on er
th e y h a d a d e m o c r a tic a lly e le cte d p a rlia m e n t th e b e tte r. This
in te rv e n tio n o f th e W e ste rn P o w ers th us d e fin ite ly fa vo u re d the
re p u b lic a n s, a n d w as resen ted b y th e royalists.
In O c t o b e r V o u lg a r is resign ed . A fte r sev eral w eeks o f p a rty
n e g o tia tio n s, a g o v e rn m e n t w as fo rm ed on 2 N o v e m b e r b y
K a n c llo p o u lo s , b u t o n ly lasted th re e w eeks. O n 20 N o v e m b e r
M r . M a c N e il, B ritish U n d e r -S e c r e ta r y fo r F o re ig n A ffa irs, ca lled
a m e e tin g in A th e n s o f fo rm e r P rem iers an d lead ers o f p a rties th at
h a d tak e n p a rt in g o v e rn m e n ts, e x c lu d in g o n ly th e co m m u n ists.
T h e m e e tin g w as to co n sid e r th e fo rm a tio n o f a b ro a d co a litio n
a n d th e p r e p a ra tio n o f e le ctio n s fo r M a r c h 1946. T h e p leb iscite
w as to b e h e ld n o t la te r th an M a r c h 1948. A g r e e m e n t a m o n g the
p a r ty le a d e rs on th e basis o f this p r o g ra m m e c o u ld n ot be a c h ie v e d .
T h e R e g e n t re sig n e d , b u t w a s p r e v a ile d on b y M r. M a c N e ill to
re m a in , a n d to a p p o in t a g o v e rn m e n t u n d e r th e lib e ra l le a d e r
S o p h o u lis, w h ic h in c lu d e d som e lead ers o f th e n o n -co m m u n ist
resista n ce, P eltek is a n d K a rta lis . F o re ig n A ffa ir s w as h eld b y
S o p h ia n o p o u lo s, w h o fa v o u re d re co n c ilia tio n w ith th e c o m ­
m u n ists a n d clo ser rela tio n s w ith th e S o v iet U n io n .
T h e S o p h o u lis c a b in e t w as on e o f th e best G r e e c e h ad e v e r
h a d , i f ju d g e d b y th e p erson alities, reco rd s an d p o lic y o f its
m em b e rs. U n fo r tu n a te ly , it w as n ot b ased on a n y e le cte d su p p o rt,
a n d it d id n o t c o n tro l th e country'. L aw lessn ess b y rig h t an d left
c o n tin u e d , a n d th e p r e p a ra tio n o f th e e le c to ra l registers w as
m a rk e d b y a bu ses. T h e g o v e rn m e n t co n sid ered th a t d e m o c ra tic
c o n d itio n s c o u ld o n ly be c re a te d b y th e a p p o in tm e n t o f m ore
re lia b le d e m o cra ts to c o m m a n d in g positions in a r m y a n d civ il
se rv ice . H e re , lik e th eir pred ecessors, th e y w e re o p p osed b y th eir
B ritish a d v isers, w h o h o p e d to c re a te a ‘ n o n -p o litic a l’ a rm y an d
a d m in istra tio n . In F e b ru a ry 1946 th e com m u n ists a n n o u n ce d
th a t th e y w o u ld a b sta in from v o tin g , a n d asked for a p o stp o n e­
m en t o f th e ele ctio n s u n til free v o tin g c o u ld b e en su red. S o p h o u lis
h im se lf w as in tw o m in d s a b o u t th e election s, a n d a d m itted th a t
324 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
co n d itio n s w e re u n sa tisfa cto ry . T h e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t’ s v ie w ,
h o w ev e r, w as th a t election s c o u ld n o lo n g e r b e p o stp o n ed , a n d
th at th e c o m m u n ist re q u est w as m o tiv a te d n o t b y c o n c e rn for
d e m o c ra c y b u t b y a d e s iie to a v o id th e re v e la tio n o f th eir o w n
u n p o p u la rity . T h e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t felt th e m o re stro n g ly
b ecau se a t th e F e b r u a r y session o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s S e c u r ity
C o u n c il th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h a d a ccu sed B rita in o f th re a te n in g
p e a ce b y th e m a in te n a n c e o f tro op s in G r e e c e . T h e so o n er th e
election s c o u ld b e go t o v er, it w as felt, th e so o n er B ritish troop s
co u ld be re m o v e d . A n A llie d M issio n w as sen t to su p e rv ise th e
election s. B ritish , A m e ric a n an d F re n c h ob se rv e rs to o k p a rt, b u t
th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t refu sed to send its o b serv ers. T h e ele ctio n s
w e re h e ld o n 31 M a r c h 1946. T h e M issio n exp ressed th e o p in io n
th a t th e y h ad b een free ly c o n d u c te d .
T h e election s w e re a g re a t v ic to ry fo r th e rig h t. T h e c h ie f
m o n a rch ist p a rty , th e P e o p le ’ s P a rty , o r P o p u lists, h a d 191 seats
o u t o f 3 1 7 . T h e N a tio n a l P o litica l U n io n , an a llia n c e o f the
g ro u p s led b y K a n e llo p o u lo s , P a p a n d re o u a n d S o p h o cle s V c n i-
7.elos, h a d 56 seats, an d th e lib e ra ls o f S o p h o u lis 42. T h e results
reflected th e re a l sw in g o f o p in io n to th e rig h t. T h e e le ctio n s
w e re free, in th e sense th a t th ere w a s n o v io le n c e a n d little d ire c t
in tim id a tio n o f vo ters. T h e y w e re , h o w e v e r, c e rta in ly n ot n o rm a l
electio n s, as u n d ersto o d in th e W est, fo r th e y to o k p la c e in an
atm o sp h e re o f fe a r a n d h y ste ria . O n ly 60 p e r c e n t o f th ose re gis­
tered h a d g o n e to th e p o ll. T h e c o m m u n ists c la im e d th e rest as
th eir su p p o rters, o b e y in g th e ir in stru ctio n s to a b sta in . T h e A llie d
M ission estim a ted th a t n ot m o re th a n 20 p e r ce n t, a n d p r o b a b ly
o n ly 15 p e r c e n t, o f those re giste red h a d a b sta in e d fo r p o litic a l
reasons.
T h e n e x t g o v e rn m e n t w as fo rm e d b y th e p o p u list le a d e r,
C o n s ta n tin e T s a ld a r is. T h e r e w e re n e w arrests a n d d e p o rta tio n s
o f co m m u n ists a n d sy m p ath ise rs to th e A e g e a n islan ds. A severe
S e c u rity L a w w as passed , w h ic h m a d e po ssib le arre st w ith o u t a
w a r ra n t. T h e c o n tro l o f th e R ig h t o v e r th e a r m y a n d c iv il serv ice
w as m a d e m ore c o m p le te . W h e n p a rlia m e n t m et, o n 13 M a y , th e
R e g e n t a n n o u n c e d th e g o v e rn m e n t’ s d ec isio n n o lo n g e r to p ost­
p on e th e p le b isc ite on th e m o n a rc h y . T h e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t
re lu c ta n tly co n se n ted to th e c h a n g e o f p la n in J u n e . T h e p le b iscite
took p la c e on 1 S e p te m b e r. T h e r e w a s n o o ffic ia l A llie d o b se rv a ­
tio n . In d iv id u a l m em b ers o f th e o rig in a l o b se rv e r m ission fo r th e
electio n s, w h o w e re still in G r e e c e , u n o ffic ia lly w a tc h e d th e v o tin g
in v ario u s areas a n d exp ressed th e v ie w th a t it h a d b e en h e ld in
 THE GREEK EXCEPTION 325
n o rm a l c o n d itio n s a n d ‘ fa ith fu lly re flecte d th e p e o p le ’s w i l l ’ . T h e
results w e re 69 p e r cen t fo r re sto ra tio n , 10 3 p e r ce n t fo r a
re p u b lic , a n d 20 5 p e r c e n t a g a in st K in g G e o rg e I I b u t not for a
r e p u b lic .1 T h e k in g re tu rn e d on 27 S e p te m b e r.
R o y a lis t re jo ic in g s w e re d im in ish e d b y th e re v iv a l o f c iv il w a r.
T h e co m m u n ist le a d e rs d e lib e r a te ly d e c id e d to sta rt a rm e d a c tio n
a g a in , a n d n o d o u b t h a d th e a p p r o v a l o f M o sc o w . It w as on e
resu lt o f th e d e te rio ra tio n th ro u g h o u t 1946 o f th e relation s
b e tw e e n th e U .S .S .R . a n d th e W e ste rn P ow ers. B u t it is also tru e
th a t th e c o m m u n ist a c tio n w o u ld n ot h a v e b een so successful h ad
n o t m a n y d isco n te n te d G re e k s b e en w illin g to resp on d to th eir
c a ll. R ig h t - w in g te rro r, w h ic h h a d b e en a c tiv e e v e r sin ce the
d e fe a t o f E .L .A .S . a n d h a d g ro w n w o rse u n d e r T s a ld a r is, h ad
d riv e n in to th e m o u n ta in s m a n y w h o w e re n o t fa n a tic a l c o m ­
m un ists a n d w o u ld h a v e b e en g la d to settle d o w n i f th e y c o u ld
h a v e e a rn e d a liv in g in p e a c e. F ro m S e p te m b e r 1946 o n w a rd s the
m ain a re a o f c o m m u n ist a c tiv ity w as M a c e d o n ia . T h e reb els used
stores o f a rm s w h ic h h a d b e en h id d e n in 1945.* B u t it soon
b e c a m e c le a r th a t th e y a lso re c e iv e d arm s a n d su p p lies from
Y u g o s la v ia a n d A lb a n ia , a n d th a t th e y w e re g ra n te d tra in in g
fa c ilitie s in b o th c o u n trie s, a n d also in B u lg a ria . R e b e ls p u rsu e d b y
G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t forces c o u ld e sca p e across th e fro n tie r, rest, be
re -e q u ip p e d , a n d r e a p p e a r in a n o th e r a r e a la te r. In a d d itio n to
id e o lo g ic a l so lid a rity , th e th re e n o rth e rn n e ig h b o u r g o v e rn m e n ts
h a d n a tio n a list m o tiv e s fo r su p p o rtin g th e G r e e k reb els. A lb a n ia
w a s th re a te n e d b y G r e e k n a tio n a lism , a n d also h ad d esign s on
G r e e k E p iru s. Y u g o s la v ia a im e d a t th e a n n e x a tio n o f G ree k
M a c e d o n ia . B u lg a ria m a in ta in e d h er d e m a n d fo r a n A e g e a n po rt.
T h e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t p resen te d a m e m o ra n d u m to th e
S e c r e ta r y -G e n e r a l o f th e U n ite d N a tio n s, re q u estin g an in v e stig a ­
tion in to th e situ a tio n on G r e e c e ’ s n o rth e rn fron tiers, on 4 D e c e m ­
b e r 194C. A n in q u ir y com m issio n , w ith re p resen ta tive s o f e le v e n
c o u n trie s, w as fo rm e d , a n d b e g a n its m ee tin g s in A th e n s a t th e
e n d o f J a n u a r y 19 4 7. L ia iso n officers fro m Y u g o s la v ia , A lb a n ia
a n d B u lg a r ia w e re a tta c h e d to it, a n d it visite d S o fia a n d B e lg ra d e.
In A p r il 194 7 its m a jo rity (th e P olish a n d S o v ie t m em b ers

1 V o te rs w e re su p p lie d w ith b la n k sheets, b y re tu rn in g w h ic h th ey c o u ld v o te

a g a in st G e o r g e II w ith o u t v o tin g fo r a r e p u b lic . T h e y c o u ld also w rite o n th e blank
sheets a n y o th e r so lu tio n w h ic h o c c u rre d to them .
* E .L .A .S . g a v e u p th e a m o u n t o f arm s re q u ire d b y th e ag re e m e n t, bu t still ha d a
g o o d d e a l lef». T h is w as p a rt ly b ec au se its su p p lies h a d bee n u n d rr-e stim a tc d b y its
o p p o n e n ts, a n d p a rtly b ec a u se o ld w e a p o n s, o f w h ic h th ere w e re p le n ty in M a c e d o n ia n
v illa g e s e v e r sin ce T u rk is h tim es, w e re su rre n d e re d w h ile m a n y m o d e rn a rrm wrre
hid d e n .
326 T H E EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

dissen tin g) re c o m m e n d e d to th e S e c u rity C o u n c il th e e sta b lish ­

m en t o f a su b -co m m ission based on S a lo n ic a to o b se rv e th e
fro n tie r. I t w as set u p d esp ite S o v ie t o p p o sitio n . T h e Y u g o s la v ,
A lb a n ia n a n d B u lg a ria n go v e rn m e n ts refu sed to a llo w its m em ­
bers to e n ter th e ir te rrito ry to in v e stig a te in c id e n ts. D u r in g th e
sessions o f th e S e c u rity C o u n c il in th e su m m e r o f 1947 th e S o v iet
v e to w as r e p e a te d ly used to b lo c k a c tio n . A t la st th e p le n a ry
session o f th e G e n e ra l A ss e m b ly on O c t o b e r 21 a d o p te d an
A m e r ic a n resolu tion th a t a p e rm a n e n t B a lk a n s co m m ission be
set u p w ith h e a d q u a rte rs a t S a lo n ic a . T h e co m m issio n re a ch e d
G r e e c e a t th e e n d o f N o v e m b e r 1947.
D u r in g 1947 th ere w e re tw o c h a n g e s o f g o v e rn m e n t in A th e n s .
In J a n u a r y T s a ld a r is resign ed . T h e n e w g o v e rn m e n t, h e a d e d b y
th e e ld e rly p o p u list M a x im o s , w as b ase d o n a c o a litio n o f a ll
p a rlia m e n ta r y p a rtie s e x c e p t th e lib e ra ls. T s a ld a r is w as V ic c -
P re m ie r a n d M in iste r o f F o re ig n A ffa ir s, V e n iz e lo s V ic e -P r e m ie r
a n d M in iste r fo r C o -o r d in a tio n o f D e fe n c e . T h e I n te rio r w a s g iv e n
to P a p a n d re o u a n d th e N a v y to K a n e llo p o u lo s , w h ile P u b lic
S e c u rity w as h e ld b y Z e rv a s . T h e fo llo w in g m o n th s sa w n o
im p ro v e m e n t in th e fig h t a g a in st th e reb els, w h ile th e e c o n o m ic
situ a tio n g re w w orse. In M a r c h c a m e P resid e n t T r u m a n ’ s
d ecision to g iv e a id to G r e e c e . T h e A m e r ic a n a d v ise rs w e re e a g e r
to h a v e a m o re re p re se n ta tiv e g o v e rn m e n t in A th e n s . T h e n o n ­
p o p u list m em b ers o f th e c a b in e t also w ish e d th a t it sh o u ld be
re o rg a n ise d , in th e b e lie f th a t this w o u ld le a d to a m o re e fficien t
c o n d u c t o f o p e ra tio n s a g a in st th e reb els. In A u g u s t 1947 M a x im o s
resig n ed . A fte r p r o tr a c te d n e g o tia tio n s a n d stro n g A m e r ic a n
p ressure, a n e w c a b in e t w a s fo rm ed u n d e r S o p h o u lis. It w as a
co a litio n o f p o p u lists a n d lib e ra ls, th e c e n tre g ro u p s r e m a in in g
o u tsid e. T s a ld a r is re m a in e d V ic e -P r e m ie r a n d M in is te r o f F o re ig n
A ffa ir s, a n d th e lib e ra l R e n d is b e c a m e M in is te r o f P u b lic
O rd e r .
D u r in g th e fo llo w in g y e a r th ere w as n o im p o rta n t c h a n g e in th e
situ a tio n . In th e su m m e r o f 1948 th e a r m y u n d e rto o k a m a jo r
o ffen sive a g a in st th e re b e l stro n g h o ld in th e G r a m m o s m o u n ta in
m assif. A t g re a t cost th e re b els w e re d islo d g e d , b u t th e y m erely
e sca p e d across th e fro n tie r in to A lb a n ia , a n d la te r re a p p e a r e d in
th e V its i m a ssif fu rth e r east. O b se rv e rs o f th e B a lk a n s C o m m issio n
re p o rte d th e m a n y cases o f a id to th e re b els fro m across th e
fro n tie r— in c lu d in g fo r in sta n ce th e p la c in g o f a r tille r y a fe w feet
in sid e th e fro n tie r, so t h a t G r e e k gu n s c o u ld n o t sh ell it w ith o u t
som e o f th e ir fire fa llin g in A lb a n ia n te rrito r y . B u t re p o rts w ith o u t
 THE CREEK EXCEPTION 327
a c tio n w e re o f little v a lu e to G r e e c e , a n d U n ite d N a tio n s a ctio n
w a s p r e v e n te d b y th e S o v ie t v eto .
In D e c e m b e r 194 7 th e re b els a n n o u n c e d th ro u g h th e ir ra d io
sta tio n , lo c a te d p r o b a b ly in A lb a n ia , t h a t a 'D e m o c r a tic G ree k
g o v e r n m e n t ’ h a d b e en fo rm e d in th e ‘ free m o u n ta in s o f G r e e c e ’ .
Its P r e m ie r a n d M in is te r o f W a r w as M a rk o s V a fia d e s , w h o d u r in g
th e w a r h a d b e e n th e c h ie f p o litic a l co m m issa r o f E .L .A .S . in
M a c e d o n ia . I n g o v e rn m e n t te rrito ry th e C o m m u n ist P a rty c o u ld
still fu n c tio n to so m e e x te n t u p to th e a u tu m n o f 194 7. In p ra c tic e ,
in th e p ro v in c e s co m m u n ists w e re lia b le to arrest o r assau lt b y
rig h t- w in g to u gh s, a n d c o m m u n ist-p rin te d m a te ria l to c o n ­
fisca tio n o r d e s tru c tio n . In A th e n s , h o w e v e r, th e c o m m u n ist
n e w sp a p e rs, Rizospastis a n d Elefiheri Ellada, a p p e a r e d u n til
O c t o b e r 19 4 7, w h e n th e y w e re su sp e n d e d fo r in cite m e n t to
re b e llio n . In J u ly th ere h a d b een a w a v e o f arrests, in c lu d in g th e
le a d in g co m m u n ist a n d fo rm e r g e n c ra l-s c c re ta ry o f E .A .M .,
P a rtsa lid es, w h o h o w e v e r su cce e d e d in e sc a p in g fro m th e islan d
o f I k a ria in D e c e m b e r . A n o th e r le a d in g co m m u n ist, a n d m in ister
in th e 1944 g o v e rn m e n t, Z e v g o s , w a s less fo r tu n a te : h e w as shot
d e a d in th e street in S a lo n ic a in M a r c h 194 7. C e r ta in ly th e
C o m m u n is t P a r ty sin ce 1944 h ad n o t e n jo y e d th e lib erties cu s­
to m a r y in th e d e m o c r a tic W e st. C o n s id e rin g its re c o rd a n d aim s
th a t is h a r d ly su rp risin g . T h e fa ct th a t a n y c o m m u n ist a c tiv ity
w as p e rm itte d as la te as a y e a r a fter th e p a r ty h ad resorted to
a rm e d re b e llio n a g a in st th e le g a l g o v e rn m e n t is p r o o f o f tru ly
re m a r k a b le to le ra n c e o n th e p a rt o f th e G re e k g o v e rn m e n t an d
its a d v ise rs, th e ‘ b lo o d th ir sty A m e r ic a n im p e ria lists’ .
T h e S o p h o u lis c a b in e t w a s resh u ffled in N o v e m b e r 1948. A
m o re seriou s crisis c a m e in J a n u a r y 1949. Its re a l ca u se w as th e
w id e s p re a d fe e lin g th a t b e tte r le a d e rsh ip w as n e ed e d . O n e
su gge stio n w a s th a t g re a te r p o w e r sh o u ld be g iv e n to th e a rm y ,
a n d th a t it sh o u ld b e p u t u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f G e n e ra l P a p a g o s,
th e c o m m a n d e r - in -c h ie f o f th e v ic to rio u s c a m p a ig n in A lb a n ia
in 1 9 4 0 -1 . B e h in d P a p a g o s w as b e lie v e d to sta n d a y o u n g
p o litic ia n ca lle d M a rk e z in is , w h o led a sp lin te r fa ctio n fro m th e
P o p u list ra n k s w h ic h h e c a lle d th e N e w P a rty . H e w a s a m b itio u s,
b e lie v e d to b e e ffic ien t, a n d a cc u sed b y his en em ies o f a sp irin g to
d ic ta to rs h ip . In th e J a n u a r y resh u ffle h e b e c a m e a m em b e r o f th e
c a b in e t. A t th e sa m e tim e A le x a n d e r D io m e d es, a lib e ra l b a n k e r,
w as m a d e V ic e -P r e m ie r in c h a rg e o f e c o n o m ic a ffa irs. P a p a g o s
a c c e p te d th e post o f c o m m a n d e r-in -c h ie f a n d w as g iv e n w id e r
p o w e rs. A n e w W a r C o u n c il o f sen ior m in isters w as form ed w h ich
328 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
seem ed to b e a sort o f in n e r c a b in e t. C h a n g e s w e re m a d e in th e
h igh est m ilita r y co m m a n d s. T h e n e w c a b in e t w a s a tta c k e d . A
p o p u list d e p u ty a c c u sed M a rk e z in is o f c o m p lic ity in a c u rre n c y -
sm u g g lin g sc a n d a l. T h o u g h h e insisted th a t h e w as in n o c e n t, th e
c a b in e t resign ed , a n d a fte r som e d a y s o f crisis w a s re-fo rm ed
w ith o u t h im . T h is e p iso d e w a s in te rp re te d b y som e as th e d efe a t
o f an h on est y o u n g p a trio t b y th e o ld g a n g o f p o litic ia n s, e sp e c ia lly
b y T s a ld a r is, w h o w as k n o w n to be je a lo u s o f M a rk e z in is . T h e
o p p o site sch o ol o f th o u g h t m a in ta in e d th a t a d a n g e ro u s fascist
h ad b een m ad e h arm less b y th e d e m o c ra tic forces. O n 3 J u n e th e
C o u r t o f A p p e a l c o m p le te ly e x o n e ra te d M a rk e z in is fro m th e
ch arg e s, b u t h e d id n o t re -e n te r th e c a b in e t. O n 24 J u n e S o p h o u lis
d ie d , a t th e a g e o f e ig h ty -e ig h t. A fte r fu rth e r lo n g n e g o tia tio n s th e
p rem ie rsh ip w as g iv e n to D io m e d es. T h e g o v e rn m e n t c o n tin u e d
to b e a co a litio n .
T h e co m m u n ists too h ad th e ir in te rn a l d ifficu ltie s. T h e T ito -
C o m in fo rm b re a c h h a d its e ffects on th em . M a rk o s d e c la re d fo r
th e C o m in fo rm . B u t in F e b r u a r y 1949 it w a s a n n o u n c e d th a t he
h a d b een re lie v e d o f his p re m ie rsh ip an d c o m m a n d , a n d su cc e e d e d
b y Io an n id es. I t seem s th a t th e o ffe n c e o f M a rk o s w as th e ‘ n a tio n ­
a list d e v ia t io n ’ fo r w h ic h oth ers o f his c o -re lig io n ists w e re b e in g
p u n ish ed in n e ig h b o u r in g c o u n trie s. In p a r tic u la r it seem s lik e ly
th a t h e w as o p p o se d to th e n e w o u tb u rst o f a g ita tio n fo r a M a c e ­
d o n ia n s t a te .1
In th e su m m e r o f 1949 th e g o v e rn m e n t forces a t last a tta in e d
real success. T h e d ec isive e v e n t seem s to h a v e b e en T i t o ’ s clo su re
o f th e fro n tie r in J u l y . 1 I t is possible also th a t th e re b els w e re
fin d in g d iffic u lty in re c ru itin g re a l v o lu n te e rs to th e ir fo rces. T h e
G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t forces w e re a lso b e tte r e q u ip p e d a n d b e tte r led
th a n th e y h a d y e t b een . T h e ir su m m e r o ffen sive c a p tu r e d th e
m ain reb el stro n gh o ld s. T h e re b e l le a d e rs th e n a n n o u n c e d th a t
th e y h a d la id d o w n a rm s, a n d th e A lb a n ia n a n d B u lg a ria n
g o v e rn m e n ts d e c la re d th a t re b e l refu gees on th e ir te rrito r y w e re
b e in g in te rn e d . T h is w as a g re a t r e lie f fo r G r e e c e , b u t it w o u ld be
w ro n g to be o v e r-o p tim istic. T h e r e a re c e r ta in ly so m e th o u san d s
o f G r e e k reb els in ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a t ic ’ te rrito r y , a n d th e
m u n itio n s w ork s a n d arsen als o f th e ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c ie s ’ co u ld
p u t a G r e e k a r m y in th e field a g a in i f th e K r e m lin sh o u ld o n ce
m ore o rd e r it.
O n 5 M a r c h 1950 p a rlia m e n ta r y ele ctio n s w e re h e ld . T h e y w e re
a v ic to ry for th e m o d era tes a n d a d e fe a t fo r th e e x tre m e rig h t. T h e
1 S e e b elo w , p p . 3 5 5 -9 .
 THE GREEK EXCEPTION 32g
P op u lists, w h o h a d w o n 191 seats in 1946, n o w h e ld o n ly 6 1. T o
th e ir r ig h t w e re th e gro u p s led b y M a v ro m ih a lis (1 6 scats),
Z e rv a s (7) a n d K a n e llo p o u lo s (7 ). O n th e e x trem e left, th e
D e m o c ra tic F ro n t, led b y th e so cia list S vo lo s, w o n 22 seats. T h e
C o m m u n is t P a rty w as still o u tla w e d . S lig h tly m o re th an h a lf th e
seats fell to th e th re e c e n tre g ro u p s o f S o p h o c le s V e n iz e lo s (53 ),
P a p a n d re o u (35) a n d P la stira s (45). A fte r an u n successful a tte m p t
a t o n e -p a rty g o v e rn m e n t b y V e n iz e lo s , a c o a litio n c a b in e t o f the
th re e g ro u p s w a s fo rm e d , w ith P la stira s as P rem ie r, on 15 A p r il.

ECO N O M IC D E V E L O P M E N T

G r e e c e ’ s w a r losses w e re v e r y h e a v y . T h e U .N .R .R . A . M ission
estim a te d th a t o n e -th ird o f th e v illa g e s in th e c o u n try w ere
d e s tro y e d . T h e C o r in th c a n a l w as b lo c k e d , th e h a rb o u rs o f
P eira eu s a n d S a lo n ic a w re c k e d . A ll th e m ain b rid ge s on the
A th e n s -S a lo n ic a lin e w e re d o w n , 80 p e r ce n t o f ro llin g sto ck and
90 p e r c e n t o f lo co m o tiv e s lost, la rg e stretch es o f tra ck w re c k e d and
m a n y sta tio n s a n d r e p a ir sh ops d e s tro y e d . L iv e sto c k losses
a m o u n te d to o n e -h a lf th e d r a u g h t a n im a ls, o n e -th ird o f th e c a ttlc ,
an d 80 p e r ce n t o f th e p ig s. T w o m illio n o liv e trees, th re e m illio n
fru it trees, a n d 60,000 a cres o f v in e y a rd s— essen tial resou rces o f
th e G r e e k e c o n o m y — w e re d e s tr o y e d .1 G e rm a n e c o n o m ic e x p lo ita ­
tion w as to som e e x te n t re flecte d in th e fro ze n c r c d it— o f co u rse
q u ite ir r e c o v e r a b le a f t e r v ic t o r y — o f m a n y m illio n s o f R e ich sm ark s,
d u e fo r go o d s a lr e a d y d e liv e re d b y G r e e c e a n d co n su m ed b y
G erm an y.
W h e n th e G e rm a n s left G r e e c e , th e c u rre n c y w as w ild ly
in fla te d . O n e o f th e first acts o f th e n e w g o v e rn m e n t w as to
in tro d u c e a n e w c u rre n c y . B u t th e e c o n o m ic situ a tio n w a s too
m u ch fo r g o v e rn m e n t fin a n c e. T h e g o v e rn m e n t h a d to p a y a
sw o lle n c iv il se rv ic e , g iv e su b sid ies to m u n icip a litie s in d ire n eed ,
a n d fa c e th e e x p e n s iv e tasks o f re sto rin g c o m m u n ic a tio n s and
re o rg a n is in g th e a rm e d forces. W h ile e x p e n d itu re w a s fa r g re a te r
th a n in n o rm a l tim es, re v e n u e d w in d le d to a lm o st n o th in g . T h e
n e w c u r r e n c y b e g a n to co lla p se , i n N o v e m b e r 1944 th e U .S .
d o lla r w as w o rth 150 n e w d r a c h m a e , 500 in J u n e 1945, an d 5,000
in J a n u a r y 1946.
T h e first seriou s a tte m p t a t a p la n o f r e c o v e ry w as m a d e b y the
d istin g u ish ed G r e e k b a n k e r V a rv a re sso s, w h o b e c a m c V ic e -
P re m ie r in th e V o u lg a r is g o v e rn m e n t in J u n e 1945. H e a tte m p te d
to re d u c e p rices a n d to c u t d o w n th e exp en ses o f th e b u r e a u c r a c y ,
1 U . N .R .R .A . o p e ra tio n a l an a ly sis p a p ers 14, 20 a n d 25.
330 T H E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
refused to raise th e p a y o f th e a rm e d forces, a n d im p o se d a n
E x tr a o r d in a ry C o n tr ib u tio n o n in d u strialists a n d m erch a n ts.
F o r a b r ie f p e rio d these m easu res w e re su ccessfu l. In J u ly re v en u e
rose a n d th e in fla tio n w as h a lte d . B u t V a rv a re sso s w as e xp o se d to
pressure from tw o sides, fro m th e business m en a n d fro m th e
tra d e u n ion s. C iv il se rv an ts p re v e n te d a re d u c tio n in th e ir p a y .
In m id -A u g u st m ilita r y p a y w as in cre a se d b y a b o u t 50 p e r ce n t.
T h e tra d e u n ion s, u n d e r co m m u n ist in flu e n c e , o rg a n ise d a series
o f strikes d e m a n d in g a n in cre a se in w a g es o f 100 p e r c e n t a n d th e
in clu sio n o f E .A .M . in th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e m erc h a n ts o rg a n ise d
a sort o f b lo c k a d e o f A th e n s , p r e v e n tin g fo o d fro m re a c h in g th e
m ark e t. T h e le g a c y o f h a tre d from th e c iv il w a r a n d th e refu sal o f
th e rich to m a k e sacrifices w e re to o stro n g fo r V a rv a re sso s. H e
resign ed on 2 S e p te m b e r 1945.
In 1946 th ere w as som e im p ro v e m e n t, fo r tw o m a in reason s.
T h e first w as th e im p o rt o f la rg e q u a n titie s o f g o ld so v e re ig n s,
w h ich th e B a n k o f G r e e c e u n d e rto o k to sell to th e p u b lic a t a
fix e d p rice. T h is m easu re, in tro d u c e d in F e b r u a r y 1946, restored
c o n fid e n c e in th e d ra c h m a fo r a tim e . T h e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t also
m a d e a lo a n o f £ \ o m illio n , c a n c e lle d th e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t’ s
d e b t to B rita in o f £ 4 6 m illio n , a n d m a d e a n o n -r e c o v e ra b le g ra n t
o f £ 3 1 5 m illio n o f m ilita r y e q u ip m e n t a n d w a r su rp lu s s to re s.1
T h e secon d reason fo r re c o v e ry w a s th e h e lp g iv e n b y U . N .R .R .A .
T h e to tal v a lu e o f U .N .R . R .A . su p p lies to G r e e c e w a s U .S .
d o lla rs 358 m illio n . P ro ceed s from th e sale o f U . N .R .R . A . go o d s
w ere th e la rgest item o f e x tr a o r d in a r y re v en u e , a n d 40 p e r c e n t o f
to ta l re v en u e , in th e G r e e k b u d g e t fo r 1 9 4 6 -7 . B u t th e p ro cee d s
w e re v e r y m u c h sm a lle r th a n w as e x p e c te d , fo r tw o reason s. O n e
w as th e v e r y h ig h cost o f d istrib u tio n co n sistin g p a r tly o f d ifficu lt
tra n sp o rta tio n a n d p a r tly o f re ta il com m ission s a v e r a g in g 20 p e r
ce n t o f th e fin a l p rice. T h e h ig h com m ission s a re d u e to v e r y h ig h
in terest rates, w h ic h a re in tu rn a resu lt o f th e sm a ll fu n d s a t th e
d isposal o f b an k s, o w in g to w id e sp re a d h o a r d in g . T h e o th e r reason
fo r th e sm a ll a m o u n ts re c e iv e d fro m U .N .R .R . A . sales w a s th e
fa ilu re o f th e a u th o ritie s e ffe c tiv e ly to d istin gu ish b e tw e e n th e
in d ig e n t, g e n u in e ly n e e d in g relief, a n d th ose w h o m e re ly c la m ­
o u re d lo u d ly o r h a d ‘ c o n n e c tio n s ’ .
U .N .R .R .A . g a v e v a lu a b le h e lp in th e r e h a b ilita tio n o f G re e k
in d u stry . O u tp u t w as a b o u t 30 p e r c e n t o f p r e -w a r in th e secon d
h a lf o f 1945, a n d h ad risen to 64 p e r c e n t b y S e p te m b e r 1946.

1 S ta te m e n t o f M r. Ernest B e v in in th e I lo u se o f C o m m o n s, 30 A p r il 19 4 7, in an sw er
to a questio n b y M a jo r L . W ilk es , M .P .
 THE GREEK EXCEPT ION' 33 I
I m p r o v e m e n t w as m u c h m o re ra p id in co n su m e rs’ go o d s th an in
b a sic in d u stries. F o r in sta n ce , o u tp u t o f ra y o n — o n e fa c to ry in
G r e e c e — in S e p te m b e r 1946 w a s 128 p e r ce n t o f 1939, w h ile
o u tp u t o f m in in g as a w h o le w as 13 p e r ce n t o f 1939. T h e m ain
reason w a s th a t in d u stria lists, h a v in g no c o n fid e n c e in th e
e c o n o m y , p referre d to k ee p th e ir c a p ita l as liq u id as possible.
In d ice s o f e m p lo y m e n t w e re n e a re r to th e 1939 le v el th a n in d ices
o f o u tp u t, sh o w in g th a t p r o d u c tiv ity o f la b o u r w as c o n sid e ra b ly
lo w e r. E m p lo y m e n t in g e n e ra l in S e p te m b e r 1946 w as 81 p e r
c e n t o f 1939, in m in in g 52 p e r c e n t, a n d in to b a c c o 95 p e r cen t.
O n e resu lt o f th e g e n e ra l la c k o f c o n fid e n c e w as th a t in d u stria l­
ists a n d m erch a n ts b o u g h t g o ld w ith d ra c h m a e a t th e o fficial
p rices, a n d th en h o a rd e d th e g o ld . T h u s resou rces w h ic h sh o u ld
h a v e b e e n used fo r b u y in g ra w m ate ria ls an d se ttin g in d u stry in
m o tio n la y id le . T h e e x te n t o f this h o a rd e d w e a lth c o u ld n ot be
e x a c tly e stim a te d , as m a n y c o m p a r a tiv e ly w e a lth y persons d id not
h a v e b a n k in g a c c o u n ts, o r d id n o t use th e m , w h ile th e system o f
a c c o u n tin g w as so p r im itiv e th a t it w a s n o t d ifficu lt to d e c e iv e
ta x o fficials.
T h u s th e r e la tiv e r e c o v e ry o f G r e e c e in 1946 w as n ot b ased on
h e a lth y fo u n d a tio n s. T h e co n clu sio n o f U .N .R .R . A . o p e n e d a
b le a k p ro sp e ct. T h e o n ly c o n so la tio n fo r th e g o v e rn m e n t w as th at
it w o u ld n o w b e a b le to le v y im p o rt d u ties, b u t im p o ve rish m e n t
a n d h o a r d in g m a d e it u n lik e ly th at im p o rts w o u ld be la rg e . T h e
g r o w th o f re b e llio n a t th e e n d o f th e y e a r b ro u g h t n e w m ate ria l
d a m a g e a n d fu rth e r re d u c ed c o n fid e n c e . T h e T r u m a n d ecision
sa v e d G r e e c e fro m co llap se .
D u r in g 1947 th e m ain ca u se o f e c o n o m ic tro u b le w as o f cou rse
th e c iv il w a r, an d this w as still th e case a t th e en d o f 1949. I t w as
a t first in te n d e d to d e v o te 50 p e r c e n t o f th e A m e ric a n e c o n o m ic
a id to m ilita r y p u rp o ses, 48 5 p e r c e n t to c iv il n eed s, a n d 1 5 per
c e n t to a d m in is tra tiv e exp en ses. T h is h a d to be revised to 57 per
c e n t fo r m ilita r y a n d 41 p e r c e n t fo r c iv il n eed s. A la rg e p a rt o f
th e c iv il e x p e n d itu re w as re q u ire d fo r th e su p p o rt o f th e refugees
fro m g u e rrilla a re as. T h e r e w e re 50,000 in th e sp rin g o f 1947,
100.000 in J u n e , 300,000 in S e p te m b e r, a n d 400,000 in N o v e m ­
b e r. D u r in g 1948 th e n u m b e rs c o n tin u e d to rise. In J a n u a r y 1949
th ere w e re 660,000. D u r in g 1947 th e e c o n o m ic situ a tio n g re w
s te a d ily w orse. In J a n u a r y th e n o te circ u la tio n w as 500 m illia rd
d r a c h m a e , in D e c e m b e r it w as 963 m illia rd . T h e p rice o f gold
d u r in g 1946 a n d u p to J u n e 1947 v a rie d b e tw e e n 130,000 and
140.000 d r a c h m a e : in M a r c h 1948 it w as 230,000. A n in d e x ot
332 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
tw e n ty k ey c o m m o d ity p rices in A th e n s rose b e tw e e n M a r c h 1947
a n d M a r c h 1948 b y 47 p e r c e n t .1
T h e a d v ic e o f th e A m e r ic a n M ission fo llo w e d o rth o d o x fin a n c ia l
p rin cip le s. R e v e n u e sh o u ld b e in crea sed b y m o re efficien t
ta x a tio n , g o v e rn m e n t e x p e n d itu re sh ou ld b e re d u c e d b y dism issin g
su p erflu ou s b u re a u c ra ts, w ag es sh o u ld re m a in w h e r e th e y w e re ,
a n d a n e ffo rt sh o u ld b e m ad e to re d u ce p rices. In p r a c tic e this
p o lic y hit th e p o o r fa r m o re h e a v ily th a n th e rich .
T a x receipts d id su b sta n tia lly rise, b u t th ro u g h in d ire ct
ta x a tio n . In a n y p rim itiv e e c o n o m y ta x a tio n is b o u n d to b e la rg e ly
in d ire ct. B u t th e la c k o f e ffe c tiv e d ire c t tax es is b itte r ly resen ted
w h e n a m in o rity fla u n t th eir w e a lth a n d e sca p e th e ta x c o lle c to r .
In co m e ta x h as n e v e r b een e ffe c tiv e in G r e e c e . T h e m a c h in e r y
fo r co lle c tin g it d oes n ot exist. It is n ot u n c o m m o n fo r businesses
to k eep tw o se p a ra te sets o f books. I f n ecessary ta x c o lle c to rs ca n
b e b rib e d . S o m e form s o f p r o p e rty a re in fa c t h e a v ily ta x e d . A
m o ra to riu m on rents h as h ad th e e ffe c t o f im p o v e r ish in g house
ow n ers. D rive rs o f m o to r ca rs h a v e to p a y tolls o n e n te r in g o r
le a v in g ce n tra l A th e n s. H ou ses an d cars a re v isib le . T h o s e w h o
possess h o ard s o f g o ld o r goo d s e sca p e . F ro m 1947 o n w a rd s th e
te n d e n c y w as in fa ct to h o a rd go o d s ra th e r th a n g o ld . B y w ith ­
h o ld in g goo d s from th e m a rk e t th e m erch a n ts c o u ld k e e p prices
h igh .
A s lo n g as im p o rts a re m a n a g e d b y th e b ig m e rch a n ts this situ a ­
tion co n tin u e s. T h e A m e ric a n s set u p a F o re ig n T r a d e A d m in is tr a ­
tio n , on w h ic h th e y w e re re p resen te d , w h ic h h a d p o w e rs to
p la n th e n a tu re o f im p orts an d to g ra n t o r w ith h o ld lice n ce s to
im p o rte rs. B u t th e g o v e rn m e n t n e ith e r h a d n o r e x e rcise d p o w e r to
p re v e n t th e im p o rta n t m erc h a n ts from e x p lo itin g th e c o n su m e r.
T h e lib e ra l M in iste r o f E c o n o m y V a r v o u t is in 1948 trie d to b re a k
th e m e rc h a n ts’ p o w e r b y im p o rtin g ric e th ro u g h g o v e rn m e n t
ch a n n e ls to sell a t c h e a p prices. A c a m p a ig n o f d e fa m a tio n w a s let
loose a g a in st h im in press a n d p a rlia m e n t, his c a b in e t c o lle a g u e s
d id not su p p o rt h im , a n d h e h a d to resign.
T h e in a b ility o f th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d its A m e r ic a n a d visers
e ith e r to m ak e th e ric h p a y o r to re d u c e p rices n a tu r a lly in crea sed
the w o rk ers’ b ittern ess a t th e fre e z in g o f w ag es. G r e e k tra d e
u n io n s h a v e h a d sin ce 1944 a sto rm y a n d tra g ic h is to r y .2 In 1944

1 S e c o n d , th ird a n d fo u rth rep o rts o f th e A m e ric a n m ission to th e U n ite d S ta te s

C o n g ress, c o v e rin g th e p erio d i O c to b e r 1947 to 30 J u n e 1948. P u b lis h e d b y U n ite d
S tates D e p a rtm e n t o f S ta te .
* T h e fo llo w in g a c c o u n t is based p a rt ly o n YV'oodhouse, o p. c it., p p . 2 39 -4 0 , 256
269, p a rtly o n co n v ersatio n s d u rin g m y o w n b rie f v isit to G re e c e in 1948-
 THE G R E E K E X CE PT IO N 333
a n a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n socialists a n d co m m u n ists, b o th re p re ­
se n te d in E .A .M ., to sh a re th e le a d e rsh ip o f th e n e w u n ion s w as
b ro k e n b y th e co m m u n ists, w h o seized c o n tro l. A riv a l to b o th
a p p e a r e d in th e form o f a r ig h t-w in g tra d e u n io n g ro u p led b y
H a d jid im itr io u a n d M a k ris. A fte r th e d e fe a t o f E .L .A .S . th e
P la stira s g o v e rn m e n t e n tru sted to th e rig h t-w in g g ro u p th e
re co n stru ctio n o f th e G r e e k C o n fe d e ra tio n o f L a b o u r . F o r a tim e
th e co m m u n ists, th ro u g h th e a n ti-fa scist u n ion s E .R .G .A .S .
w h ic h th e y co n tro lle d , w e re su p re m e in th e n o rth o f G r e e c e ,
w h ile th e r ig h t-w in g g ro u p h eld p o w e r in A th e n s. It is, h o w e v e r,
p r o b a b le th a t th e m a jo rity o f w o rk e rs th ro u g h o u t G r e e c e a t this
tim e re a lly p referre d c o m m u n ist le a d e rsh ip . T h e M in iste r o f
L a b o u r in th e V o u lg a r is c a b in e t, Z a k k a s , m a d e se v eral a tte m p ts
to set u p p ro v isio n a l d ire c to ra te s, re p re s e n tin g a ll gro u p s, u n til
u n io n e le ctio n s c o u ld be h e ld . In D e c e m b e r 1945 L o u is S a illa n t
o f th e W o rld F e d e ra tio n o f T r a d e U n io n s visite d A th e n s, a n d
o b ta in e d th e con sen t o f th e S o p h o u lis g o v e rn m e n t to th e h o ld in g
o f e le ctio n s. T h e y to o k p la c e in M a r c h 1946. A n e w d ire c to ra te
w as fo rm e d , w ith th e so cialist P a p a rh ig a s as g e n e ra l se c re ta ry .
I n A u g u s t, h o w e v e r, th e T s a ld a r is g o v e rn m e n t d issolved th e
d ire c to ra te , on th e gro u n d s th a t th e electio n s w e re not v a lid
b e ca u se th e S u p re m e C o u r t h ad d e c la re d in v a lid the a p p o in t­
m en ts o f p ro v isio n a l d ire cto ra te s b y Z a k k a s a y e a r before.
T s a ld a r is set u p a n e w b o d y c o n tro lle d b y M a k ris. D u r in g 1947,
as th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c iv il w a r in e v ita b ly in creased repression
o f co m m u n ists, p a tr io tic m o tive s c o u ld be a d d e d to p erson a l
a m b itio n as a ju stific a tio n fo r a c tio n b y M a k ris an d his frien ds
a g a in st tra d e u n io n ists su sp ected o f s y m p a th y w ith c o m m u n ism .
I n D e c e m b e r 1947 th e S o p h o u lis g o v e rn m e n t, w ith o u t p rev io u sly
c o n su ltin g th e A m e r ic a n m ission , passed a la w fo r b id d in g strikes
a n d lo ck -o u ts a n d p re s c rib in g severe p e n alties— in c e rta in cases
d e a t h — fo r th e o rg a n isa tio n o f c ith e r ‘ in tim e o f c iv il s tr ife ’ . In
fa ct th e la w w a s n o t a p p lie d , a n d it w as re p e a le d in M a y 194B.
I t h a d se rv e d o n ly to h e lp c o m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a a g a in st the
‘ m o n a rch o -fa s c ist r e g im e ’ in sid e a n d o u tsid e G r e e c e .
In th e sp r in g o f 1948 a n e w tra d e u n io n con gress w as h eld at
P e ira e u s, a tte n d e d b y 1,500 d e le g a te s. T h e s e seem to h a v e been
fr e e ly e le cte d b y th ose w o rk e rs w h o v o te d , b u t la rg e n u m b e rs o f
w o rk e rs w e re a b le n e ith e r to v o te n or to p ro p o se c a n d id a te s. T h e
c o n g re ss iLself w as a p itifu l fu n c tio n . V a r io u s rig h t-w in g u n io n
le a d e rs a tta c k e d e a c h o th e r w ith th e w ild e st d e m a g o g y . I f th e
sp e a k e rs c o u ld be b e lie v e d , e v e r y m an in th e con gress h a ll w as a
334 THE EAST EUROPEAN R E V O L U T IO N

cro o k . D e sp ite th e e x u b e ra n c e o f rh e to ric , a n a tio n a l e x e c u tiv e

an d s e cre ta ria t w e re e le c te d . T h e s e w e re c e r ta in ly fa r from
re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e G r e e k w ork ers, a n d in th e fa ce o f th e p o lic y
o f fre e z in g w a g e s th ere w as n o t m u c h th e y c o u ld d o e x c e p t d r a w
th eir salaries. L iv in g c o n d itio n s g r e w m o re ra th e r th a n less
d ifficu lt.
In A p r il 1949 th ere w as a strik e o f c iv il se rv an ts in A th e n s a n d
so u th ern G r e e c e . It w as d e fin ite ly n o t in a n y w a y th e w o rk o f
co m m u n ists. Its lead ers fie rc e ly d e n o u n c e d th e reb els. Its ca u se
w as e co n o m ic m isery o n ly . A fte r tw o w eeks a c o m p ro m ise w as
re a c h e d , b y w h ic h a d v a n c e s on fu tu re sa laries w e re g ra n te d an d
c e rta in q u a n titie s o f fo od a n d clo th w e re issued free. A t th e e n d o f
M a y th ere w as a fu rth e r strik e o f g o v e rn m e n t e m p lo y e e s. O n
27 M a y M a k ris resig n ed his post on th e g ro u n d th a t o fficia l w a g e
p o lic y w as ‘ a p r o v o c a tio n in v ie w o f th e tra g ic situ a tio n o f th e
w o rk in g c la s s ’ . 1 T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t th a t th e G r e e k w o rk ers
a re b itte r ly d isco n te n te d . I t is p r o b a b le th a t som e h a v e b e e n d is­
illu sio n ed w ith th e co m m u n ists, as a resu lt o f th e n a tio n a l
im p lica tio n s o f th e c iv il w a r a n d th e a tro c itie s c o m m itte d b y th e
reb els. B u t as lo n g as liv in g c o n d itio n s re m a in as th e y a re , an d
e v e ry w o rk e r c a n see th a t th e rich a re n ot m a k in g th e ir c o n ­
trib u tio n to th e sta te , c o m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a w ill c e r ta in ly h a v e
a su b sta n tia l fo llo w in g a m o n g th em .
G r e e c e ’ s fo reign tra d e position has b e en e x tr e m e ly b a d e v e r
sin ce lib e ra tio n . B efore th e w a r , h er b a la n c e o f p a y m e n ts d e p e n d e d
c o n sid e ra b ly on th re e ‘ in visib le e x p o r ts ' — s h ip p in g , to u rist tra d e
a n d re m itta n c e s from G r e e k e m ig ra n ts. G r e e k s h ip p in g su ffered
h e a v ily in th e w a r, b u t sh ip o w n ers re c e iv ed in su ra n c e m o n e y an d
h a v e a c q u ire d n e w ships. B u t m a n y G r e e k sh ips to -d a y fly u n d e r
fo reig n flags, a n d m ost o f th e w e a lth o f th e sh ip o w n e rs is o u tsid e
G r e e ce . T o u r is t tra d e w as o f co u rse w re c k e d b y th e c iv il w a r . O f
th e th re e item s, re m itta n c e s h a v e d im in ish e d th e le a st, b u t th e y
a rc still less th an th e y w e re b efore th e wra r. A s fo r v isib le e x p o rts,
G r e e c e h as su ffered fro m th e loss o f h e r p r e -w a r m a rk e ts in
C e n t r a l E u ro p e . T o b a c c o is h e r b ig g e st e x p o r ta b le p r o d u c t, a n d
h e r la rg e st c u sto m e r fo r to b a c c o w as G e r m a n y . N o w n o t o n ly
c a n she n ot tra d e w ith th e S o v ie t-d o m in a te d c o u n trie s for
p o litic a l reason s, b u t h e r to b a c c o is d r iv e n o u t o f th e W e st
G e r m a n m a rk e t b y A m e r ic a n . G r e e c e c a n n o t re p la c e to b a c c o b y
o th e r cro p s, for th ere a re n o o th e r cro p s s u ita b le to so la rg e a n

1 T h e ‘ tra g ic situ atio n * m a y be illu strated b y o n e fig u re . T h e p ric e o f o liv e oil at

th e b e g in n in g o f 1 <>48 w as 6,000 d ra c h m a e per o k e , in A p r il 1949, 27,000.
 TH E GREEK E X C E P T IO N 335
a r e a a n d y ie ld in g su ch a h ig h v a lu e p e r a c re . T h e d iffic u lty o f
fin d in g e x p o r t m ark e ts for to b a c c o is th e c h ie f tro u b le o f th e
G r e e k p e a sa n try in g u e rrilla -fre e areas. B o th th e U n ite d S tate s and
B rita in , i f th e y w ish to h e lp G r e e c e , m ust d o so m e th in g a b o u t this.
B u t eve n w ith c iv il w a r o v er, i f th e c u rre n c y w e re sta b le, and
fo re ig n tra d e n o rm a l, G r e e c e ’s e c o n o m ic d ifficu ltie s w o u ld n ot be
o v e r. B e fo re th e w a r G r e e c e w as p r o b a b ly m o re o v e r-p o p u la te d
th a n a n y E ast E u ro p e a n c o u n try . A ll th e fa cto rs d escrib e d e a r lie r ,1
w h ic h in cre a se d th e pressure on th e la n d in E astern E u ro p e ,
o p e ra te d in G r e e c e a lr e a d y in th e tw en ties. T h e n su d d e n ly she w as
fo rced to a b so rb m o re th a n a m illio n refu gees from A s ia M in o r,
a b o u t o n e -fifth o f h e r p rev io u s p o p u la tio n . T h is w as to o m u c h for
th e G r e e k e c o n o m y . T h e so cia l a n d p o litic a l tro u b le s o f G r e e c e
in th e th irtie s w e re a ll b a sic a lly d u e to this fa c t, T h u s to retu rn
to th e le v e l o f p r o d u c tio n a n d s ta n d a rd o f liv in g o f 1939— still a
re m o te p ro sp e c t— w o u ld n o t b e en o u g h .
G r e e c e m o re th a n a n y E ast E u ro p e a n c o u n tr y n eed s a p r o ­
g r a m m e o f p la n n e d in d u stria lisa tio n . Its fo u n d a tio n c a n o n ly be
th e m in e r a l resou rces a n d w a te r p o w e r o f th e c o u n try . In stea d o f
e x p o r tin g m in e ra ls, G r e e c e m ust w o rk th em in h e r o w n in d u stry
a n d e x p o r t th e m o re v a lu a b le sem i-fin ish ed p ro d u c ts. M eta llu rg y '
b ase d on e le c tric p o w e r is o n e o f G r e e c e ’ s h opes. M u c h c o u ld also
be d o n e w ith p ro cessin g o f fr u it a n d o th e r food stu ffs. W h e th e r th e
cr e a tio n o f a G r e e k te x tile in d u stry to c o v e r h o m e n eed s a n d to
e x p o rt to th e M id d le E ast, fa v o u re d in so m e c ircles in A th e n s , is a
so u n d p r o je c t re m a in s to b e seen. A ll G r e e k e xp o rts a re a t presen t
h a m p e re d b y v e r y h ig h p rices, d u e to a n a r tific ia l e x c h a n g e ra te.
T h e d e v a lu a tio n fo llo w in g th a t o f ste rlin g still le a v e s G ree k
p rice s fa r a b o v e a c o m p e titiv e level.
E v e n i f a ll th ese im p ro v e m e n ts w e re m a d e , G r e e c e w o u ld still
b e o v e r -p o p u la te d . G ree k s h a v e a lw a y s b e en e m ig ra n ts, p erh a p s
in 2,000 ye a rs o f h isto ry th e m ost e n te rp risin g o f a ll h u m a n
w a n d e re rs. T o w a n d e r w ill p r o b a b ly a lw a y s be th e fa te o f m a n y ,
a n d a fa te o ften c h e e r fu lly a c c e p te d . B u t e c o n o m ic p la n n in g is
essen tial. A n d G r e e c e h as first-class eco n o m ists a n d en gin eers, at
le a st as c a p a b le as th e p la n n ers in th e sovietised c o u n trie s, and
m o re h u m a n e , b e tte r q u a lifie d th erefo re to b e n efit th e G r e e k
e c o n o m y w ith o u t tre a tin g G r e e k w o rk ers a n d p ea san ts as c a ttle .
B u t b e fo re th e y ca n b e g in th e ir w o rk tw o co n d itio n s m ust be
fu lfille d . T h e fo re ig n d a n g e r m ust be w a r d e d o ff, a n d th e ty ra n n y
o f p o litic a l ra c k e te e rs a n d m e r c h a n t p ro fiteers m ust b e en d ed .
1 Sec above, pp. 15 -17 .
336 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

G R E E K PRO SPECTS
G r e c c c h a d from 1946 to 1949 th e p r e -w a r ty p e o f B a lk a n
re g im e w ith a c iv il w a r su p e rim p o se d on it. C o n tra sts in w e a lth ,
a n irresp o n sib le ru lin g class, d isc o n te n te d w o rk e rs a n d c o rru p t
b u r e a u c r a c y w e re a ll th ere b efore th e w a r . S o w a s th e b r u ta l p o lice
force, w ith its h o rro r o f ‘ R e d s ’ a n d its cru e l m eth o d s o f d e a lin g
w ith th em . S o w e re th e d e n u n cia tio n s as co m m u n ists o f p e rso n a l
e n em ies a n d riv als in business o r c a re e r. F e a r o f c o m m u n ism has
m u ch m o re ju stific a tio n n o w th a n th e n , a n d so m e o f th e p o litic a l
p o lice m e n h a v e le a rn e d a g o o d d ea l a b o u t w h a t c o m m u n ists a re
a n d w h a t th e y are n o t. T h e h ead s o f th e G r e e k p o lic e a re m en o f
in te llig e n c e , a n d som e o f th e re c ru its tra in ed b y th e B ritish p o lic e
m ission o f S ir C h a rle s W ic k h a m sh o w p rom ise. B u t th ere still
rem ain s a m ass o f ig n o ra n t, p re ju d ic e d a n d b r u ta l o fficials, w h o
w ill listen to m alicio u s a c c u sa tio n s a n d arrest p e o p le w ith o u t
m a k in g sure th a t th ere is a case a g a in st th em . S u sp e cts m a y be
k ep t for d a y s in sq u a lid c o n d itio n s, a n d a re o n ly re le a se d a fte r
s ig n in g h u m ilia tin g sta tem en ts. H a v in g o n c e b e en a rre ste d th e y
are m ark e d m en o r w o m e n . T h e r e is m u c h unnecessary' a n d
in e x c u sa b le v ic tim isa tio n a n d ty ra n n y . T h o u g h th e sc a le is
sm a ller th a n in th e sovietised c o u n trie s, it is b a d a n d w id e s p re a d .
T h e b ittern ess w h ic h it c re a te d su p p lie d fo r th re e y e a rs a stre a m
o f recru its to th e reb els.
A n o th e r e v il fe a tu re o f th e G r e e k re g im e is d efe a tism . A w a r e
th a t G r e e c e c a n b e sa v e d o n ly b y o u tsid e h e lp , o n ly to o m a n y
G ree k s sh ru g th e ir sh o u ld ers a n d d iscla im re sp o n sib ility . ‘ L e t th e
A m e ric a n s ru n th e c o u n try . I f a n y th in g goes w ro n g , it is th e ir
fa u lt, n ot ou rs. M e a n w h ile le t us g e t o u r w e a lth o u t to S w itz e r ­
la n d o r N e w Y o r k o r A le x a n d r ia . T h e n e x t w a r w ill d e s tro y
co m m u n ism . I f it d estro ys G r e e c e , too b a d . W e sh all b e in E g y p t
o r A rg e n tin e . W h e n it is a ll o v e r , w e sh all g o b a c k b e h in d th e
A m e ric a n a rm y , as in 1944 w e w e n t b a c k b e h in d th e B ritish a r m y
o r e m e rg e d fro m th e p ro te c tio n o f th e G e r m a n a r m y . T h e n th ere
w ill b e 110 o n e left to c h a lle n g e us. T h e G r e e k m asses w ill h a v e
le a rn t th e ir p la c e .’ A n u n fa ir c a r ic a tu r e ? P e rh a p s, b u t b a se d on
re a lity . T h e s e p e o p le exist, a n d o ften c o m b in e d efe a tism w ith a
fr a n tic n a tio n a lism . T h e y a re p r e p a re d to let fo reig n ers ru n th e ir
c o u n try fo r th em , b u t fa r fro m b e in g g ra te fu l th e y h a te th em . T h e
G r e e k r u lin g class k n o w s it d ep e n d s o n th e A m e ric a n s , b u t th e
a tte m p ts o f th e A m e ric a n s to p u t som e o r d e r in to th e G r e e k
ch ao s p ro v o k e tra n sp o rts o f x e n o p h o b ia
 TH E GREEK E X C E P T IO N 337
T h e tro u b le s o f G r e e c e h a v e b e en im m e n se ly w o rsen ed b y c iv il
w a r , b u t th e ir roots lie in th e p a st. It is a tra g ic p a r a d o x th a t the
c iv il w a r w as a re a c tio n a g a in st th ose evils o f th e p ast, y e t has
m a d e th em w o rse . N o t a ll th e reb els, n o t a ll th e co m m u n ists, w e re
sim p ly ‘ c o n sp ira to rs a g a in st G r e e c e ’ . In th e territo ries th ey c o n ­
tro lle d , th e re b els fo rced u n w illin g p e asan ts in to th eir a rm y , kept
th e m th ere b y te rro r, a n d in flic te d h o rrib le p u n ish m en ts on a n y
w h o trie d to d esert. B u t m a n y o f th e ir re cru its w e re not u n w illin g ,
a n d th ere w e re m a n y in g o v e rn m e n t-h e ld te rrito ry w h o risked
th e ir lives to h e lp th e re b e ls, c o lle c tin g m o n e y , o rg a n isin g
re cru its, sp r e a d in g p r o p a g a n d a a n d se n d in g in fo rm a tio n . In the
r e b e l ran ks m a n y fo u g h t n e ith e r fro m fe a r n o r fro m sordid
a m b itio n a n d y e t w e re n ot v e te ra n co m m u n ists. T h e s e w e re
w o rk e rs b o u n d b y lo y a lty to th eir c o m ra d e s, p ea san ts w h o h o p ed
to see th e ir v illa g e ru n b y th em selv es a n d n ot b y b u re a u c ra ts
a p p o in te d fro m d ista n t A th e n s , a n d in te lle ctu a ls w h o b e lie ve d
th e y w e re fig h tin g fo r freed o m a n d in d e p e n d e n c e . T h e r e w ere
m a n y te a ch e rs a n d stu d en ts a m o n g th e reb els. I t is easy to sn eer at
th e ‘ h a lf-b a k e d in te llig e n ts ia ’ , o r to d e n o u n c e th e trahison des
deres. B u t i f th e in te lle c tu a ls a re u p ro o te d a n d se rv e a n a lien fa ith ,
it is b e ca u se th e old so c ie ty n e ith e r let th em strik e roots n or
o ffe re d th e m a fa ith . It is a tr a g e d y o f m ost c iv il w ars th a t the
m ost d isin te re ste d p e o p le o n b o th sides a re n e a re r to e a c h o th er
th a n to th e le a d e rs o f th e ir o w n sid e. N e ith e r th e M o sc o w -tra in e d
p a r ty bosses n o r th e p ro fessio n al p a trio ts o f th e o ld re g im e h a v e
m u c h to o ffe r G r e e c e . B u t th e y a re a b le to sen d th e y o u th o f
G r e e c e to k ill e a c h oth er.
T h e r e c o u ld a n d c a n o f co u rse b e n o co m p ro m ise . T h e reb el
a r m y w a s fir m ly c o n tro lle d b y th e p a r ty bosses, a n d served S o v iet
im p e ria lism , w h o se v ic t o r y w o u ld d estro y G r e e c e . T h e rebels had
to b e b e a te n b y a rm s. P o litic a l m eth o d s a lo n e c o u ld n ot a p p e ase
th e c o u n tr y . A m n esties w e re o ffere d m o re th a n o n c e , w ith sm all
re su lts.1 T h e re b e l ra n k a n d file fe a re d v e n g e a n c e , a n d e x p e rie n c e
sh o w s th a t th e y h a d rea so n . T h o u g h th e g o v e rn m e n t m a y sin ce re ly
h a v e w ish e d to p a rd o n a ll w h o su rre n d e re d , y e t w h e n th e y got
b a c k to th e ir v illa g e o r to w n th e lo c a l p e o p le , w h o h a d su ffered
fro m th e w a r , w e re less to le ra n t.
1 A g o o d d e a l o f p u b lic ity h a s bee n g iv e n d u r in g 1949 to th e re -e d u ca tio n c a m p on
th e isla n d o f M a k ro n iso s, o f f th e co a st o f A t tic a , to w h ic h c a p tu re d co m m u n is t rebels
a re se n t, a n d fro m w h ic h co n s id e ra b le n u m b ers re - a p p c a r to figh t in th e g o ve rn m en t
forces a g a in st th e ir fo rm e r asso ciates. T he a c c o u n ts b y a d m ire rs a n d en em ies o f the
G re e k g o v e rn m e n t, b o th a p p a r e n tly b ased o n a w e a lth o f d e ta ile d k n o w le d g e alx>ut
c o n d itio n s w ith in this c a m p , d iffe r so w id e ly th a t I c a n express no o p in io n o n the
m eth o d s u sed o r results o b ta in e d a t M ak ro n iso *.
338 TH E E A ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e h op e th a t th e en d o f the c iv il w a r a n d th e e le c to ra l v ic to ry
o f th e m o d e ra te s w o u ld lea d to b e tte r an d free r g o v e rn m e n t and
to e co n o m ic im p ro v e m e n t w as n ot o n th e w h o le fu lfille d . T h e
m o d e ra te g ro u p s o f V e n iz e lo z an d P la stira s c o u ld n o t c o -o p e ra te .
T h e b a d fe a tu res o f th e G r e e k e c o n o m y re m a in e d . In O c t o b e r
1950 th e H e a d o f th e E G A M ission , M r . P a u l P o rte r, m en tio n e d
th e fa ilu re o f th e g o v e rn m e n t to in tro d u c e ju s te r ta x a tio n , to
a v o id w aste in a d m in istra tio n , o r to p r e v e n t th e s q u a n d e rin g on
in essen tial o b je c ts o f G r e e c e ’s fo reig n e x c h a n g e resou rces. T h e
g o v e rn m e n t d u ly p ro m ised to refo rm , a n d th e x e n o p h o b e s d u ly
cu rsed th e A m e ric a n s fo r th e ir efforts to h e lp G r e e c e . T h e r e w as
m o re talk o f m ilita r y d ic ta to rs h ip as a w a y o u t. O n 30th M a y
19 5 1 th e C o m m a n d e r -in -C h ie f, F ie ld -M a r s h a l P a p a g o s, re sig n e d
his c o m m a n d an d e n tered th e p o litic a l field . H e fo u n d e d a n e w
p a r ty , to be c a lle d th e G re e k R a lly , a n d e v id e n tly c o n c e iv e d on
lin es sim ila r to those o f G e n e ra l D e G a u lle ’s R P F in F ra n ce .
P a rlia m e n t w a s a g a in d isso lv ed in th e su m m e r o f 19 5 1 , a n d a
n e w g e n e ra l e le c tio n w as h e ld a t th e e n d o f S e p te m b e r. T h e
la rg e st sin gle n u m b e r o f seats w e n t to P a p a g o s ’ R a lly ( 1 1 2 ) ,
w h ile P la stira s h a d 74 a n d V e n iz e lo s 5 7 . T h e ‘ U n ite d D e m o ­
c ra tic P a r t y ’ , w h ic h re c e iv ed th e votes o f th e c o m m u n ists, w o n
10 seats. T h e o n c e p o w e rfu l Pop ulists w e re re d u c e d to tw o
m em b ers.
N a tio n a l u n ity , p o litic a l freed om a n d e c o n o m ic p ro gre ss still
seem ed fa r a w a y . N e v e rth e le ss the g re a te st d a n g e rs h a d b een
a v o id e d . G r e e c e ’s m a n y frien d s c o u ld h o p e th a t th e fu tu re w o u ld
be b rig h te r.
 C H A P T E R TH IR TE E N

IN T E R N A T IO N A L PR O B L E M S
N A TIO N A LISM

O M M U N I S T d o c trin e o n n a tio n a lism w a s fo rm u la te d b y

C th e R u ssia n B olsh eviks a lr e a d y b e fo re th e F irst W o rld W a r.

It w as in 19 13 th a t L e n in , th en liv in g in A u s tria n G a lic ia ,
co m m issio n ed th e y o u n g G e o rg ia n D ju g a s h v ili to w rite som e
a rticle s on th e su b je c t, m a k in g use o f A u s tria n sou rces, in c lu d in g
th e w o rk s o f th e A u s tria n so cia l d e m o c ra t O t t o B a u e r. T h e se
a rticle s h a v e b e c o m e fa m ou s as Marxism and the National (Mestton
b y J o s e p h S ta lin . T h o u g h w ritte n b y S ta lin , th e y w e re in sp ired
b y L e n in . O n th em is b ased th e n a tio n a lity p o lic y o f th e U .S .S .R .,
e m b o d ie d in th e 1936 C o n s titu tio n , th e m o d e l fo r th e n a tio n a lity
d o lic y o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c ie s ’ .
C o m m u n ism is e q u a lly o p p o se d in p r in c ip le to th e n atio n a lism
o f o p p re ssin g an d o p p ressed n a tio n a litie s. S o v ie t p o lic y d e n o u n c e d ,
fo r in sta n ce , b o th G r e a t R u ssia n a n d U k ra in ia n n a tio n a lism . It is
th e d u t y o f th e p r o le ta r ia t o f th e d o m in a n t n a tio n a lity , in a n y state
o f se v e ra l n a tio n a litie s, to d e n o u n c e o p p ressio n o f a m in o r
n a tio n a lity , to insist o n e q u a l rig h ts for all n a tio n a litie s. It is the
d u t y o f th e p r o le ta ria t o f th e opp ressed n a tio n a lity to d e n o u n c e the
‘ p e t t y -b o u r g e o is ’ c h a u v in is m o f its n atio n a lists, to insist on u n ity
w ith th e p r o le ta ria t o f o th e r n a tio n a litie s. In fa ct th e d u ty o f c o m ­
m u n ists is a lw a y s to o p p o se ‘ th e ir o w n ’ n atio n a lism s a n d im p e ria l­
ism s.
T h e p o lic y a d o p te d in sid e th e U .S .S .R . is re g io n a l c u ltu ra l
a u to n o m y . T h is m ea n s t h a t o fficia l business sh all b e co n d u c te d in
th e lo c a l la n g u a g e , th a t th e lo c a l la n g u a g e sh all be used in schools,
la w co u rts, n e w sp a p e rs a n d o th e r p u b lic a tio n s, a n d as fa r as
p o ssib le lo c a l jo b s sh all b e g iv e n to lo c a l p e o p le. D is c rim in a tio n
a g a in st in d iv id u a ls o n g ro u n d s o f th e ir n a tio n a lity is n ot to be
to le r a te d , a n d ‘ c o lo n is a t io n ’ b y persons o f th e d o m in a n t n a tio n ­
a lity , m o n o p o lisin g th e best jo b s in a re as in h a b ite d b y a n o th e r
n a tio n a lity , is to b e p r e v e n te d . B u t this p r a c tic a l d e v o lu tio n goes
w ith th e m ost rig id p o litic a l ce n tra lisa tio n . Y a k u ts o r O se tin s
m a y h a v e n e w s p a p e rs in th e ir o w n la n g u a g e , b u t th ey w ill b e a
339
340 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
fa ith fu l c c h o o f Pravda o r Izvestia. T h e c h a ir m a n o f a v illa g e soviet
in B a sh k iria m a y b e a B a sh k ir, b u t his d ire c tiv e s w ill re a c h h im
from a b o v e th ro u g h th e d o u b le h ie ra r c h y o f sta te a n d p a rty
b u re a u c ra c y . The U .S .S .R . is n o t a fe d e ra tio n . T h e go v e rn m e n ts
o f th e six teen co n stitu e n t S o v ie t re p u b lic s a rc in a ll m atters
su b o rd in a te to, n ot c o -o rd in a te w ith , th e g o v e rn m e n t o f the
U n io n .
T h e E ast E u ro p e a n c o u n tr y w h ic h has m ost clo se ly fo llo w e d th e
S o v ie t m od el is Y u g o s la v ia . T h e r e are six ‘ p o p u la r r e p u b lic s ’ —
S e rb ia , C r o a tia , S lo v e n ia , B o sn ia -H e rc e g o v in a , M o n te n e g r o an d
M a c e d o n ia . W ith in th e S e rb ia n re p u b lic th ere a re an ‘ a u to ­
n om ou s r e g io n ’ (V o iv o d in a ) a n d an ‘ a u to n o m o u s p r o v in c e ’
(K o s o v o - M e to h ia ) , th e first w ith a stro n g H u n g a ria n m in o rity ,
th e secon d w ith an A lb a n ia n m a jo rity . T h e o rg a n s o f g o v e rn m e n t
in th ese region s an d re p u b lics a re c o m p o se d o f lo c a l p e o p le ,
in c lu d in g re p resen ta tive s o f m in o rities w h ere th e p o p u la tio n is
m ix e d . T h e seco n d c h a m b e r o f th e ce n tra l p a rlia m e n t o f Y u g o ­
sla v ia , th e C o u n c il o f P eo p les, is d esig n e d , like th e C o u n c il o f
N a tio n a litie s in th e S o v ie t U n io n ,1 to rep resen t n a tio n a l v a r ia ­
tions. B u t as in th e U .S .S .R ., a ll p o lic y d ire c tiv e s co m e from
a b o v e , p a ssin g from th e c e n tra l le a d e rsh ip o f th e C o m m u n is t
P a rty a n d th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t d o w n th ro u g h th e r e p u b lic a n
go v e rn m e n ts an d th e re g io n a l a n d p r o v in c ia l a u th o ritie s to th e
lo c a l co m m itte e s. L o w e r a u th o ritie s a re s u b o rd in a te to h ig h e r,
n ot c o -o rd in a te w ith th em . Y u g o s la v ia is n o m ore a fe d e ra tio n
th a n is th e S o v ie t U n io n .
In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th ere is a re g io n a l g o v e rn m e n t fo r S lo v a k ia ,
co n sistin g o f a le g is la tiv e S lo v a k N a tio n a l C o u n c il a n d an
e x e c u tiv e B o ard o f C o m m issio n e rs. T h e B o a rd is a p p o in te d b y th e
c e n tra l C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t in P r a g u e in c o n su lta tio n w ith
th e S lo v a k N a tio n a l C o u n c il. In p r a c tic e th e w ill o f th e c e n tra l
g o v e rn m e n t p rev ails. T h e B o a rd ’ s task is in fa c t to a p p ly to
S lo v a k ia th e p o lic y d ire c tiv e s o f th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t in su ch
a w a y as n o t to a lie n a te S lo v a k n a tio n a l fe e lin g . I t is e n tire ly
su b o rd in a te . C z e c h o s lo v a k ia d oes n ot e v e n c la im to b e a fe d e ra ­
tion . I t is a c e n tra list sta te w ith a m ea su re o f d e v o lu tio n .
T h e r e m a in in g E ast E u ro p e a n sta te w h ic h h as a la rg e n a tio n a l
m in o rity is R u m a n ia . T h e H u n g a ria n s o f T r a n s y lv a n ia n u m b e r
p e rh a p s on e an d a h a lf m illio n . In th e so u th -e a st c o rn e r, th e so-
c a lle d S z é k e ly co u n ties, th e y form a c o m p a c t m a jo rity in to w n
a n d v illa g e . E lse w h e re in th e p r o v in c e th ere a re H u n g a r ia n
1 S e e C o n stitu tio n o f th e U .S .S .R ., A rtic le s 3 3 -6 .
 INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS 341
v illa g e s sca tte re d a m o n g R u m a n ia n , a n d m a n y v illa g e s o f m ixed
p o p u la tio n . In m ost o f th e T r a n s y lv a n ia n cities H u n g a ria n s form
e ith e r a m a jo r ity o r a su b sta n tia l m in o rity . R u m a n ia is a c e n tr a l­
ised sta te , an d th ere is n o sp e cia l H u n g a ria n re g io n a l g o v e rn m e n t,
c o m p a r a b le to th a t in S lo v a k ia . T h e id e a o f a u to n o m y fo r T r a n ­
s y lv a n ia as a w h o le , w h ic h has a t tim es re c e iv ed su p p o rt from
g ro u p s o f b o th left a n d rig h t a m o n g b o th R u m a n ia n s and
H u n g a ria n s , w as also re je cte d . In stea d it h as b een d ecid e d to
c o m b in e c e n tra lism w ith lo c a l rep resen ta tio n o f b o th n atio n a litie s
a n d e q u a l sta tu s fo r b o th la n g u a g e s in p u b lic business and e d u c a ­
tio n . L o c a l g o v e rn m e n t b o d ies (P e o p le ’ s C o u n c ils ) in H u n g a ria n
d istricts a re c o m p o se d o f H u n g a ria n s, a n d in m ix e d districLs
in c lu d e H u n g a r ia n re p resen ta tive s. T h e n u m b e r o f H u n g a ria n
sch ools co rresp o n d s re a so n a b ly w e ll to th e n u m b e r o f H u n g a ria n s.
F o r th e first tim e in th e h isto ry o f T r a n s y lv a n ia its c a p ita l C lu j
( K o lo z s v á r ) h as tw o u n iversities, on e R u m a n ia n a n d on e H u n ­
g a r ia n . T h is lib e ra l n a tio n a lity p o lic y w as n ot c a rrie d th ro u gh
w ith o u t s tro n g o p p o sitio n , n ot o n ly fro m th e R u m a n ia n n a tio n ­
alist fo llo w e rs o f M a n iu b u t also from a p a rt o f th e R u m a n ia n
C o m m u n is t P a rty itself, led b y th e fo rm e r M in iste r o f J u stic e
L u c r e ( iu P ă tră ş c a n u . T h e re m o v a l o f P ă tră şc a n u from his office
a n d his d isg ra c e w ith in th e p a r ty w e re c e rta in ly to som e e xte n t
d u e to his ‘ in c o r r e c t ’ a ttitu d e o n th e n a tio n a l q u estion .
T h e lesser m in o ritie s in R u m a n ia (B u lg a ria n s, T u rk s , T a ta r s ,
e tc.) a re in p r in c ip le assu red e q u a l rights fo r th eir la n g u a g e s. T h e
S e rb ia n m in o r ity in R u m a n ia a p p e a r e d to b e w ell treated u n til
th e T ito - C o m in fo r m q u a rr e l. In th e p o lem ics w h ic h h a v e fo llo w e d
th e b re a c h , Y u g o s la v o ffic ia l p r o p a g a n d a has c la im e d th a t these
S e rb s a rc b e in g p e rs e c u te d unless th e y con sen t to d e n o u n ce T i t o ’ s
p o lic y .
F in a lly th e R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t’s a ttitu d e to th e G e rm a n
m in o r ity h as b e en m o d ifie d . A t first it w as d e c id e d to e x p e l the
G e rm a n s. M a n y w e re in fa c t d ep o rte d to th e S o v ie t U n io n for
fo rce d la b o u r . A c o n sid e ra b le n u m b e r re tu rn e d , g iv in g w id e ly
v a r y in g a cco u n ts o f th e w a y in w h ic h th e y w e re tre a te d . T h e
n u m b e r o f G e rm a n s n o w liv in g in R u m a n ia is u n c e rta in . B efore
th e w a r th ere w e re a b o u t 700,000, d iv id e d a lm ost e q u a lly
b e tw e e n T r a n s y lv a n ia (S ax o n s) a n d th e B a n a t (S w a b ia n s). It
seem s lik e ly th a t w e ll o v e r h a lf a re still in R u m a n ia . T h e R u m a n ­
ia n g o v e rn m e n t in 1948 c h a n g e d its p o lic y . D e n u n c ia tio n o f the
G e r m a n m in o r ity as a w h o le w as re p la c e d b y e n c o u ra g e m e n t o f
th e class stru g g le w ith in its ran ks. A n ‘ a n ti-fa scist G e rm a n
342 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
c o m m itte e ’ w as set u p . In th e w o rd s o f a C o m m u n is t P a rty
resolu tion , ‘ T h e stru g g le a g a in st th e ir o w n b o u rg e o isie . . . w ill
o p e n a n e w p e rsp e ctive to th e G e r m a n w o rk in g p o p u la tio n o f
R u m a n ia , w o rk in g a lo n g sid e th e R u m a n ia n p e o p le a n d o th e r
n a tio n a litie s.’ 1
T h e e ffe ct o f this n e w p o lic y is d iffic u lt to e stim a te . T h e r e c a n
b e n o d o u b t th a t th e co m m u n ists sin ce re ly w ish to e lim in a te the
o ld n atio n a lism . W h e th e r th e b u re a u c ra c y is y e t c a r r y in g o u t th e
n e w p o lic y , w h e th e r R u m a n ia n p o lic e m e n a n d ta x co llec to rs are
y e t cu re d o f th e h a b it o f re g a rd in g H u n g a ria n s w ith su sp icion ,
o r C r o a tia n in te lle c tu a ls h a v e ceased to th in k o f S e rb s as ‘ o rie n ta l
b a r b a r ia n s ’ , m a y still be d o u b te d . T h e r e is n o d o u b t o f the
tre n d . T h e state m a c h in e a n d o fficia l p r o p a g a n d a a re b e in g used
to p u t an en d to n a tio n a list p e rsecu tio n . B u t o f co u rse o th e r form s
o f p ersecu tio n a re n ot d im in ish in g . Id e o lo g ic a l d ic ta tio n a n d
p o litica l repression m a y b reed n a tio n a lism . E v e n i f H u n g a ria n
p easan ts a re n o lo n g e r to b e p e rsecu te d for b e in g H u n g a ria n s,
th e y a rc lia b le to be p e rsecu te d fo r b e in g k u lak s, o r fo r b e in g
C a th o lic s, o r fo r b e in g ‘ r e a c t io n a r y ’ . W ill th e a v e r a g e m a n d is­
tin gu ish th e m o tives for w h ic h h e is m a ltre a te d , o r p refer o n e form
to a n o th e r? W h e n he is b e ate n b y th e p o lice , th e C r o a tia n p ea san t
is lik e ly , as in th e p ast, to b la m e ‘ th e d a m n e d S e r b s ’ , o r th e
H u n g a ria n ‘ th e a ccu rse d R u m a n ia n s ’ . E v e n a fte r tw e n ty y e a rs o f
S o v iet ru le an d c o m m u n ist e d u c a tio n , th ere w as p le n ty o f U k r a in ­
ia n n atio n a lism left w h en th e G e rm a n s in v a d e d . T h e n atio n a lism s
o f E astern E u ro p e are stron ger, an d h a v e d e e p e r h isto rica l roots,
e ve n th an th at o f th e U k ra in e , n o t to m en tio n th e m in o r n a tio n ­
alities o f th e U .S .S .R .
T h e n e w n a tio n a lity p o lic y w as in te n d e d to re m o v e fric tio n n ot
o n ly w ith in th e states b u t also in th e rela tio n s b e tw e e n states o f
th e regio n . T h e se re la tio n s w e re o f co u rse d e te rm in e d b y th e
d o m in a n t S o v ie t U n io n . S o v ie t p o lic y h as in fa c t sh o w n som e
v a ria tio n . O n th e w h o le it h as te n d e d to w a rd s re c o n c ilia tio n an d
close co -o p e ra tio n o f its co m m u n ist-c o n tro lle d v a ssa ls.2 B u t it h as

1 R e so lu tio n o f th e P o litb u ro o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f th e R u m a n ia n W o r k e r s ’

P a rty , 12 D e c e m b e r 1948.
1 T h e fo llo w in g tre aties h a v e bee n sign ed in E a ste rn E u ro p e since th e w a r:*
S o v ie t -C z e c h o »lovak ( D e ce m b e r 19 4 3 ); S o v ie t-P o lis h ( A p ril 19 4 5 ); S o v ie t-Y u g o s la v
( A p ril 19 45 1; S o v ie t-H u n g a ria n ( F e b ru a ry 1 9 4 8 '; S o v ie t-R u m a m a n (F e b r u a r y
1948) ; P o lish -C ze ch o slo v a k (M a r c h 1947) ; P o lish -H u n g a ria n (J u n e 1948) ; Polish-
Y u g o s la v (M a r c h 19 4 6 ); P olish R u m a n ia n (J a n u a r y 19 4 9 ]; P olish B u lg a ria n ( M a y
1 9 4 8 ); C z e c h o s lo v a k H u n g a ria n (A p ril 19 4 9 ); C z e c h o s lo v a k -Y u g o s la v ( M a y 19 4 6 t;
C z e ch o s lo v a k R u m a n ia n ( J u ly 1948.1; C z e c h o s lo v a k B u lg a ria n ( A p r il 19 4 8 );
H u n g a ria n -Y u g o s la v (D e c e m b e r »947); H u n g a ria n R u m a n ia n ( J a n u a r y 19 4 8 );
H u n g a ria n B u lg a ria n (J u ly 19 4 8 ); Y u g o s la v -R u m a n ia n ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 7 ) ; Y u g o s la \ -
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 343
a t tim es e x p lo ite d n a tio n a l an d te rrito r ia l q u a rre ls b e tw e e n th em ,
as d id th e G r e a t P o w ers in th e p a st, in c lu d in g Im p e r ia l R u ssia.
T h is is n o t in co n sisten t w ith c o m m u n ist d o c trin e . S ta lin h im se lf
h as sta ted th a t th e c o m m u n ist a ttitu d e to a n y g iv e n n atio n a list
m o v e m e n t o r n a tio n a l p r o b le m m ust d e p e n d on its e ffe ct on the
g e n e ra l ca u se o f th e p r o le ta ria t, th a t is to sa y, th e interests o f th e
S o v ie t U n io n . T h e a p p lic a tio n o f this p r in c ip le c a n be seen in the
d isp u tes b e tw e e n C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d P o la n d , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia an d
H u n g a r y , a n d H u n g a r y a n d R u m a n ia . A n o th e r e x a m p le o f
co m m u n ist o p p o rtu n ism w ith re g a rd to n atio n a lism is the
a ttitu d e o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n regim es to Z io n ism . T h e m ost
strik in g e x a m p le o f a ll is to be fou n d in th e relatio n s b etw een
Y u g o s la v ia an d h er ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a t ic ’ n eigh b o u rs.
T h e C z e c h o s lo v a k -P o lis h d isp u te co n c e rn e d th e T e sch e n a re a ,
seized b y P o la n d in 1938 w h e n she su p p o rte d H itle r in th e M u n ic h
crisis. O n 19 J u n e 1945 P olish troop s o c c u p ie d th e w h o le a re a .
T h e n e x t d a y th e P olish a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n ts w e re
su m m o n e d to send re p resen ta tiv e s to M o sco w . T h e S o v ie t leaders
u sed th e o p p o r tu n ity to fo rce th e C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t fo r­
m a lly to ce d e R u th e n ia to th e U .S .S .R . In retu rn for this, th eir
c la im to th e p o rtio n o f th e T e s c h e n a re a w 'hich th e y h ad held
b e fo re M u n ic h w as u p h e ld . R e la tio n s b e tw e e n C z e c h o slo v a k ia
a n d P o la n d co n tin u e d for so m e tim e to be tense. W h e n a C z e c h o ­
slo v a k -P o lis h tr e a ty o f a llia n c e w as sign ed in M a r c h 194 7, it w as
sta ted th a t te rrito r ia l issues w o u ld b e settled b y a g re e m e n t w ith in
tw o y e a rs. M in o ritie s in e a c h c o u n tr y w e re prom ised e q u a l
tre a tm e n t. T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t a v o id e d c o m m ittin g itse lf to
e ith e r sid e. I t h a d a firm e r g r ip on P o la n d th a n on C z e c h o slo v a k ia ,
w h o se p o litic a l system still c o n ta in e d la m e n ta b le ‘ elem en ts o f
b o u rg e o is d e m o c r a c y ’ . O n th e o th e r h a n d th e P oles w e re less
re lia b le frien d s o f R u ssia th an th e C z e c h s. C ze c h o slo v a k -P o lish
re la tio n s w e re m a d e clo se r b y th e tra d e tre a ty o f J u ly 194 7, w h ich
in c lu d e d p la n s fo r jo in t d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e in d u strial a rea th ro u gh
w h ic h th e ir fro n tie r runs. A fte r p o litic a l o p p o sitio n in P o la n d h ad
b e en fin a lly cru sh e d w ith th e fligh t o f M ik o ła jc z y k in O c to b e r
19 4 7, a n d ‘ b o u rg e o is d e m o c r a c y ’ in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia h ad been
liq u id a te d b y G o t t w a ld ’s p o lic e re v o lu tio n , m u tu a l frien d sh ip

B u lg a ria n ( J u ly 1 9 4 7 ) ; Y u g o s la v A lb a n ia n ( J u ly 19 4 6 ); R u m a n ia n B u lg a ria n
( J a n u a r y 19 4 8 ); B u lg a r ia n -A lb a n ia n (D e c e m b e r 19 4 7). I n S ep trm lx*r 1949 the
‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c ie s ’ d e n o u n c e d th e ir tre aties w ith Y u g o s la v ia , ju s tify in g this a c tio n
b y th e ‘ re v e la tio n s ’ o f th e R a jk trial. A ll th e treaties, as o rig in a lly sign ed , w ere m u tu a l
a ssistan ce p a cts, fo r th e e v e n t o f aggressio n b y G e r m a n y o r a n y p o w e r asso cia ted w ith
h e r in ag g re ssio n . In p ra c tic e th e y w ere o f co u rse a llia n c es ag a in st th e W estern P ow ers.
344 THE EAST eu r o p e a n r e v o lu tio n

w as stro n g ly e n c o u ra g e d b y M o sc o w . T w o su ch r e lia b le vassals

c o u ld b e tru sted to b e frien d s.
T h is is e v e n m o re strik in g ly sh o w n in th e C z e c h o s lo v a k -
H u n g a r ia n d isp u te. W h e re a s th e R u m a n ia n a n d Y u g o s la v
go v e rn m e n ts p ro m ised fu ll rights to th e H u n g a r ia n m in o rity
w ith in th eir fro n tiers, th e C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t, a n d esp e ­
c ia lly th e S lo v a k p a rties, w e re u tte r ly h ostile. It b e c a m e a d o g m a
th a t C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ’ s d estru c tio n in 1938 w as d u e to h e r too
gen ero u s tre a tm e n t o f m in orities. T h e H u n g a ria n s h a d sh o w n
th em selves b a sic a lly d islo y a l. T h e y m u st e ith e r g o o r c e a se to be
H u n g a ria n s. T h e y w e re d iv id e d in to th re e c a te g o rie s. F irstly
th ere m ust be an e x c h a n g e o f p o p u la tio n . I h e S lo v a k m in o r ity
in H u n g a r y w o u ld be re p a tria te d to C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d an e q u a l
n u m b e r o f H u n g a ria n s in S lo v a k ia w o u ld be sent to H u n g a r y .
S e c o n d ly , H u n g a ria n su b je cts o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w h o se fa m ilies
w e re o f S lo v a k o r ig in 1 c o u ld be ‘ re slo v a k is c d ’ , th a t is to sa y c o u ld
re g a rd th em selves as S lo v a k s, h e n ce fo rth sp e a k th e S lo v a k
la n g u a g e , a n d a b a n d o n a ll sense o f H u n g a r ia n n a tio n a lity .
T h ir d ly , th ose H u n g a ria n s n ot fa llin g in to e ith e r c a te g o r y w o u ld
be e x p e lle d to H u n g a ry . A co n v e n tio n w as sig n e d o n e x c h a n g e
o f p o p u la tio n s in F e b r u a r y 1946, a n d th e p e a c e tr e a ty la id d o w n
(A rtic le 5) th a t d ire c t n e g o tia tio n s sh o u ld b e o p e n e d o n th e fate
o f th e rest o f th e H u n g a ria n m in o rity . In fa c t th e in te rp re ta tio n b y
th e tw o g o v e rn m e n ts o f th e e x c h a n g e o f p o p u la tio n d iffe re d so
w id e ly as to m a k e a g re e m e n t im p ossib le. T h e n u m b e r o f S lo v a k s
in H u n g a r y w a s m ost u n c e r ta in . In th e tw e n tie s it h a d b e en
a b o u t 150,000, b u t it h a d c e rta in ly d ec re a se d . F a n ta s tic figu res
w e re cu rre n t in S lo v a k ia . T h e S lo v a k co m m u n ists sh o w e d th e m ­
selves w ild e r ch a u v in ists th a n th e S lo v a k n atio n a lists, e v e n th a n
th e fascists o f T is o . H u sa k , th e co m m u n ist c h a ir m a n o f th e B o a rd
o f C o m m issio n e rs, c la im e d th a t th ere w e re 400,000 S lo v a k s in
H u n g a r y , a n d th a t 400,000 H u n g a ria n s c o u ld th erefo re be
e x p e lle d .2 T h e H u n g a ria n s p o in te d o u t th a t sm all a n d im p o v e r ­
ished H u n g a r y w as q u ite u n a b le to su p p o rt h u n d re d s o f th o u san d s
o f penniless refu gees. N a tio n a list p o le m ic s r a g e d , m o re h y ste rica l
on th e S lo v a k sid e a n d m o re d ig n ifie d on th e H u n g a r ia n , b u t no
a g re e m e n t w as in sigh t. M e a n w h ile H u n g a r ia n c h ild re n in
S lo v a k ia h ad n o sch ools to g o to, a n d H u n g a r ia n p e a san ts w e re
ro b b e d o f m ost o f th e ir possessions.
1 M a n y H u n g a ria n s b o th in th<* te rrito ry in q u e stio n a n d in H u n g a r y p ro p e r a re o f
S lo v a k o rig in . A n em in en t e x a m p le is th e fo rm e r P rim a te o f th e H u n g a ria n C a th o lic
C h u r c h , C a r d in a l S eré d i.
2 I p erso n a lly h e ard these fa n ta stic fig u res fro m th e m o u th o f H u sa k , in A p r il 1947.
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 345
T h e co n tra st in th e b e h a v io u r o f th e S lo v a k an d R u m a n ia n
co m m u n ists is n ot h a rd to e x p la in . B oth C z e c h o s lo v a k ia and
H u n g a r y still h a d 'e le m e n ts o f b o u rg e o is d e m o c r a c y ’ . In b o th the
u rb a n m id d le class w a s n u m e ro u s a n d in flu e n tia l. In b o th th ere
w as c o n sid e ra b le p o litic a l free d o m . B oth h ad tra d itio n a l and
s tro n g e c o n o m ic a n d c u ltu r a l c o n n e ctio n s w ith th e W e st. It w as
th erefo re u n d e sira b le th a t tw o states so c o n ta m in a te d b y th e
b o u rg e o is sp irit sh o u ld h a v e frie n d ly re la tio n s. T h e re fo r e M o s­
c o w ’s in stru ctio n s w e re to in te n sify ch a u v in ism . T h e even ts o f
sp r in g 1947 in H u n g a r y a n d F e b r u a r y 1948 in P ra g u e c h a n g e d
e v e ry th in g . O n c e b o th co u n trie s h a d b e c o m e re lia b le com m u n ist-
c o n tro lle d ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c ie s ’ th e y c o u ld b e a llo w e d to be
frien d s. T h e ton e ra p id ly c h a n g e d . In th e a u tu m n o f 1948 an
a g re e m e n t w as re a ch e d on th e statu s o f th e m in o rity in S lo v a k ia ,
a n d in A p r il 1949 a C z e c h o s lo v a k -H u n g a ria n tre a ty o f a llia n c e
w as sign ed .
In 1 9 4 5 -6 H u n g a r y h ad h ad h opes th a t she m ig h t k eep at least
a p a rt o f th e te rrito ry a c q u ire d in 1940 fro m R u m a n ia . A fte r a ll,
R u m a n ia h a d b e en a vassal o f H itle r, an d in fa c t h ad m a d e a
m u c h b ig g e r co n trib u tio n th an H u n g a r y to th e G e rm a n w a r
e ffo rt in th e E ast. T h e A llie s h a d pro m ised to R u m a n ia , w h en
she c h a n g e d sides in 1944, ‘ a ll o r th e g re a te r p a r t ’ o f
T r a n s y lv a n ia . B u t th ere w e re territo ries on th e 1920 b o rd e r w h ich
w e re n o t stric tly p a rt o f T r a n s y lv a n ia a t a ll, an d w h e re H u n g a ria n s
fo rm e d a m a jo rity , e s p e c ia lly th e re g io n o f S a tu M a r e (S z a tm á r
N é m e ti) . In th e sp rin g o f 1946 a d e le g a tio n , in c lu d in g P rem ie r
F e re n c N a g y , V ic e -P r e m ie r R á k o si a n d V ic e -P r e m ie r S zak asits,
visite d M o sc o w , W a s h in g to n a n d L o n d o n to a rg u e th e H u n ­
g a ria n case. T h e S o v ie t le a d e rs w e re v a g u e , b u t th e y a llo w e d the
d e le g a tio n to le a v e w ith th e h o p e th a t it w o u ld re c e iv e su p p o rt
fo r a t least a p a rt o f its d em a n d s. B u t w h e n th e p e a ce c o n fe re n ce
m et, th e S o v ie t re p re s e n ta tiv e insisted on th e e x a c t re sto ra tio n o f
th e 1920 fro n tie r. O n ly th e A m e r ic a n re p re s e n ta tiv e p u t in a w o rd
fo r th e H u n g a ria n s. T h e S o v ie t v ie w p r e v a ile d , a n d th e 1920
fro n tie r w a s resto red . T h is e n a b le d th e R u m a n ia n co m m u n ists to
c la im th a t th e U .S .S .R . h a d sh ow n h e rse lf a frien d o f R u m a n ia ,
a n d th e H u n g a r ia n co m m u n ists to cla im th at h ad H u n g a ry been
as fa r ‘ d e m o c r a tis e d ’ (i.e . c o m m u n ist-c o n tro lle d ) as R u m a n ia ,
th e v e r d ic t w o u ld h a v e b een m o re fa v o u ra b le to H u n g a r y .
C o m m u n ists h a v e a lw a y s c la im e d to be b itte r en em ies o f a n ti­
sem itism . T h e y r ig h tly p o in te d o u t th a t it w as n ot o n ly in its e lf a
re a c tio n a r y d o c trin e , b u t w a s a useful in stru m e n t o f a n y re a c tio n ­
346 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
a r y so cia l p o lic y . A n ti-se m itism , th e ‘ so cia lism o f th e im b e c ile ’ ,
w a s used to d iv e rt a tte n tio n from so cia l p ro b lem s a n d to d ir e c t th e
h a tre d o f w o rk ers an d p easan ts a w a y from c a p ita lists a n d la n d ­
ow n ers o f th eir o w n n a tio n a lity a g a in st th ose o f J e w is h ra ce .
A m o n g th e J e w s o f E astern E u ro p e , c o m m u n ism m a d e a c o n ­
sid e ra b le a p p e a l. It m igh t be th o u g h t th at a c o m m u n ity so c lo se ly
a ssociated w ith b o th sm all- a n d la rg e -sc a le c a p ita lis m as th e J e w s
m ig h t be o p p o sed to social re v o lu tio n . B u t in th e th irties th e E ast
E u ro p e a n J e w s, e ve n w h e re th e y w e re free fro m th e im m e d ia te
fe a r o f p h y sic a l v io le n c e , w e re fa c e d w ith le g a lise d e co n o m ic
d iscrim in a tio n w h ic h p rom ised ru in in th e n e a r fu tu re . T o th e
y o u n g J e w s a w a re o f this p ro sp e c t, c o m m u n ist re v o lu tio n o ffered
sa lv a tio n . It is th us n o t su rp risin g th a t m a n y o f th e le a d e rs o f
E ast E u ro p e a n co m m u n ism w e re J e w s.
B u t th o u g h a g a in st a n ti-sem itism , c o m m u n ism is a lso b itte r ly
o p p osed to Z io n ism , th e o th e r h o p e o f E ast E u ro p e a n J e w r y ,
w h ose a p p e a l w as la rg e r th a n th a t o f c o m m u n ism . N e ve rth e le ss
in th e first y e a rs a fte r th e w a r th e E ast E u ro p e a n co m m u n ists
e n co u ra g e d Z io n ism in th e ir c o u n trie s, a n d h e lp e d e m ig ra tio n to
P alestin e. T h is is o n e m o re e x a m p le o f c o m m u n ist o p p o rtu n is m
a b o u t n atio n a lism . T h e Z io n ists w e re m o rta l en em ies o f B rita in ,
a n d B rita in w as th e a rc h -im p e ria list v illa in a n d ta r g e t o f S o v ie t
p o litica l w a rfa re . S in ce th e B ritish h a v e left P a le stin e , th e Isra el
sta te has b e en set u p , a n d th e co m m u n ists in Isra el h a v e b een
p ro v e d to be w e a k , th e p o lic y has c h a n g e d o n c e m o re . Z io n ism , no
lo n g e r a useful w e a p o n a g a in st B rita in , is o n c e m o re a tta c k e d .
T h e r e a re still d iffe re n ce s w ith in E a ste rn E u ro p e . P o la n d , C z e c h o ­
slo v a k ia an d B u lg a ria p e rm it e m ig ra tio n o f J e w s to P a le stin e . B u t
R u m a n ia a n d H u n g a r y , w h o se J e w ish c o m m u n itie s a re la r g e r , a re
p r e v e n tin g i t .1 In b o th these c o u n trie s, as also in P o la n d , th e
p ro m in e n c e o f J e w s a m o n g c o m m u n ist le a d e rs h as c a u se d a m o n g
th e a n ti-c o m m u n ist m asses, in flu e n ce d b y y e a rs o f a n ti-sc m itic
p r o p a g a n d a b e fo re an d d u r in g th e w a r , a n e w w a v e o f a n ti-J e w ish
fe e lin g . In o rd e r to d im in ish th e ir u n p o p u la rity , th e C o m m u n ist
P arties m a y be e x p e c te d to lim it th e in flu e n c e o f j e w s w ith in th e ir
ran ks. F ro m lim ita tio n to o fficia l an ti-se m itism is n ot a la rg e step,

1 T h e resolu tio n o f the P o litb u ro o f th e R u m a n ia n W o rk e rs’ P a r ty o f 12 D e c e m b e r

1948 o n the n a tio n a l q u estio n d e c la r e d : ‘ Z io n ism o f a n y c o lo u r is a p o litic a l n a tio n ­
alist a n d re a c tio n a ry m o v em en t o f the J e w ish b o u rg e o isie , w h ic h tries to isolate the
Jewish w o rk in g p eo p le fro m th e o th e r p eo p les a n d to h in d er th em in th e ir s tru g g le
ag a in st ca p ita lism in th e ranks o f th e an ti-im p e ria list c a m p .’ T h e resolu tio n c a lle d for
a ‘ re c o n stru c tio n ’ o f th e g o ve rn m en t-sp o n so red a n d co m m u n is t-c o n tro lle d ‘ D e m o ­
c ra tic J e w ish C o m m itt e e ’ , so as to rem o v e persons g u ilty o f tenderness to w a rd s
Z io n ism .
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 347
a n d it is o n e th at h as b e en ta k e n b efore in E astern E u ro p e . T h e
lia b ility o f J e w s to su sp icio n o f the h eresy o f ‘ c o sm o p o lita n ism ’ ,
n o w so fie rce ly d e n o u n c e d in M o sc o w , h as a lre a d y been p o in ted
o u t. F o u r y e a rs a fte r th e d e fe a t o f th e m ass-m urderers o f Jew ry,
th e o u tlo o k o f E ast E u ro p e a n J e w s is som b re. T h e o n ly th in g th at
c a n be c e r ta in ly p r e d ic te d is th a t, w h a te v e r p o lic y th e n e w regim es
a d o p t to w a rd s th e J e w s, it w ill be d e te rm in e d b y th e state
in terests o f th e U .S .S .R .

BALKAN PRO BLEM S

T h e m ost strik in g e x a m p le s o f c o m m u n ist o p p o rtu n ism in

n a tio n a l q u estio n s a re, h o w e v e r, to be fou n d in the relation s
b e tw e e n th e states o f th e B a lk a n p e n in su la. T h e s e re la tio n s h a v e
b e en c o m p lic a te d b y th e fa c t th a t th e so u th ern b o u n d a ry b etw een
th e S o v ie t a n d W e ste rn sph eres in E u ro p e cu ts th ro u g h th e p e n in ­
su la . T h e T ito - C o m in fo r m d isp u te in crea sed th e con fu sion .
T h e m o u n ta in b a rrie rs o f th e B a lk a n s form a n a tu ra l o b stacle
w h ic h se p a ra te s R u ssia an d n o rth -e a ste rn E u ro p e from the
M e d ite r r a n e a n . E x istin g co m m u n ic a tio n s p ro v id e o n ly three
im p o rta n t g a p s in th e b a rrie r— th e n o rth -ea st c o rn e r o f th e
A d r ia t ic a t T r ie s te a n d F iu m e , th e V a r d a r v a lle y le a d in g d o w n to
S a lo n ic a , a n d th e B la ck S e a S tra its p assin g C o n s ta n tin o p le . It is
n o a c c id e n t th a t T r ie ste , th e S tra its a n d M a c e d o n ia a re th e th ree
d a n g e r-sp o ts o f sou th -ea st E u ro p e . A ll th ree are c o n tro lled
d ir e c tly o r in d ire c tly b y th e W est.
T r ie s te w a s o n c e th e p r in c ip a l p o rt o f th e A u stro -H u n g a r ia n
e m p ire . Its p o p u la tio n w as m a in ly Ita lia n , w h ile in th e su rro u n d ­
in g v illa g e s S lo v e n e s p r e d o m in a te d . F iu m e , a sm a lle r p ort
s e p a ra te d fro m T rie ste b y th e p e n in su la o f Istria, w as also Ita lia n
in p o p u la tio n a n d w as s u rro u n d e d b y C r o a tia n v illa ge s. It w as the
p o r t o f H u n g a r y , w h ic h possessed a sh ort c o a sta l strip b e tw e e n
A u s tria n Istria a n d A u stria n D a lm a tia . I ta ly , w h ic h h ad desired
T r ie s te e v e r sin ce 1870, c a m e in to th e F irst W o rld W a r to o b ta in
it, p a id a h e a v y p ric e o f 600,000 d e a d , a n d re c e iv ed it in 1918 .
Istria a n d F iu m e w e re th e su b jc c t o f y ears o f c o n tro v e rsy b e tw e e n
I t a ly a n d Y u g o s la v i a .1 In th e en d I t a ly w o n , an d a S la v p o p u la tio n
n u m b e rin g b e tw e e n 350,000 (Ita lia n figures) o r 600,000 ( Y u g o ­
s la v e stim a te ) c a m e u n d e r I ta lia n ru le. A fte r I t a ly ’s su rre n d e r in
1943, th ese S lo v e n e s a n d C r o a ts fo u g h t in la rg e n u m b e rs an d
w ith g re a t c o u ra g e in T i t o ’ s forces. T h e P a rtisa n s’ p ro visio n a l

1 F o r fu rth e r d e ta ils see M a c a r tn e y a n d C r e m o n a , The Foreign and Colonial Policy

o f Italy.
348 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
p a rlia m e n t A . V . N . O J . at its J a jc e session in N o v e m b e r 1943
so le m n ly d e c la re d th e d isp u te d p r o v in c e s ' a n d T r ie s te itse lf
a n n e x e d to Y u g o s la v ia . In A p r il 1945 th e Y u g o s la v a r m y a fte r
h e a v y fig h tin g a g a in st th e G e rm a n s fo rced its w a y in to T r ie s te ,
w h ere it m et New' Z e a la n d troop s a d v a n c in g from th e Po.
In th e v a rio u s w a r tim e discussions b e tw e e n T it o a n d th e
p o litic a l and m ilita r y lead ers o f th e W e ste rn A llie s, th e fu tu re
o f T rie ste h ad n e v e r b e en d e c id e d . It seem s th a t th e A llie d
C o m m a n d b e lie ve d A llie d troo p s w o u ld re a c h th e c it y b efore
T i t o ’ s ra w gu e rrilla s, a n d th a t u ltim a te so lu tio n c o u ld b e sa fely
p o stp on ed to th e fu tu re p e a c e co n fe re n ce . I f so, th e y u n d e r­
e stim a ted th e Y u g o s la v a rm y . In M a y 1945 a n u g ly situ a tio n
e xisted . T h e Y u g o s la v s c o n sid e re d th e J a jc e ‘ a n n e x a t io n ’ in te r­
n a tio n a lly b in d in g , a n d th e A llie d forces m ere in tru d e rs. T h e
Y u g o s la v C h ie f o f S ta ff, a b oo rish M o n te n e g rin , G e n e r a l A rs o
J o v a n o v ic , w e n t o u t o f his w a y to b e o ffen sive to th e A llie s. A ll
ran ks o f th e A llie d forces, fin d in g th e Y u g o s la v s a r ro g a n t and
u n frie n d ly , in e v ita b ly felt m o re sy m p a th y for th e I ta lia n s , w h o
used a ll th eir arts to in g ra tia te th em selves. T h e Y u g o s la v s in tu rn
a ccu sed th e A llie s o f p ro te c tin g Ita lia n fascists. A s th e B ritish
a n d A m e ric a n g o v e rn m e n ts stood firm , a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n
g a v e n o o p e n b a c k in g to Y u g o s la v ia , T i t o h a d to a c c e p t a p r o ­
v isio n al a g re e m e n t, sign ed 9 J u n e , on th e b o u n d a rie s b e tw e e n th e
tw o arm ies. T h e b o u n d a ry , th e ‘ M o r g a n lin e ’ ,2 left th e g re a te r
p a rt o f V e n e z ia G iu lia to Y u g o s la v ia , b u t T r ie s te itself, th e
Istria n p o rt o f P o la , a n d an a re a o f S lo v e n e p o p u la tio n stre tc h in g
from T r ie ste u p to G o r iz ia , w e re left in A llie d o c c u p a tio n . R e la ­
tions re m a in e d e x tr e m e ly b ad . T h ere w e re fro n tie r in c id e n ts from
tim e to tim e a lo n g th e M o rg a n lin e, a n d in T r ie s te th e c o m m u n ists,
both Ita lia n a n d S lo v e n e , o rg a n ise d p o litic a l strikes a n d d e m o n ­
stra tio n s w h ic h som etim es led to b lo o d sh ed . T h e n o n -c o m m u n ist
Ita lia n s w e re so lid ly o p p o se d to Y u g o s la v ia , an d w ish ed T r ie s te to
be e ith e r in c o rp o ra te d in I t a ly o r a u to n o m o u s . T h e c o m m u n ists
w e re to rn b e tw e e n th e d esire to b e lo n g to a c o m m u n ist sta te and
th e d esire to be in I ta ly . T h e T r ie ste q u estio n g a v e m u c h tro u b le
to th e C o m m u n ist P a rty in sid e Ita ly . A ll th e in g e n u ity o f T o g lia tt i
w as n eed ed to a v o id a c o m p ro m isin g p o sitio n . It w a s n o t u n til th e
T ito - C o m in fo r m b re a c h o f J u n e 1948 th a t th e I ta lia n c o m m u n ists
w e re re lie v e d o f e m b a rra ssm en t. T h e n a sp lit c a m e b e tw e e n

1 T h e Ita lia n n am e for th e w h o le a re a w as V e n e z ia G iu lia . T h e Y u g o s la v s ca lle d

it the S lo v e n e s e a b o a rd (P rim ő rje ).
2 N a m e d a fte r G e n e ra l M o rg a n , C .G .S ., o f th e A llie d M e d ite rra n e a n forces.
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 34g
Ita lia n a n d S lo v e n e co m m u n ists in T r ie ste . B u t b o th co m m u n ist
g ro u p s re m a in e d h o stile to th e ‘ W e ste rn im p e ria lists’ . T o m a in ta in
an im p a r tia l a d m in istra tio n b y d e m o c ra tic riiethods in th e fa ce o f
th e co n sta n t in su lts, in cid e n ts a n d p r o v o c a tio n s o f th e co m m u n ists
w a s a th an k less task for th e A n g lo -A m e r ic a n a u th o ritie s.
T r ie ste p r o v id e d a su b je ct fo r a lo n g series o f in te r-A lIic d
discu ssion s. T h e Y u g o s la v case d eserved serious co n sid e ratio n .
T h e Y u g o s la v s a d m itte d th a t th e p o p u la tio n o f T r ie ste w as m a in ly
I ta lia n . T h e y p o in te d o u t, h o w e v e r, th a t it w as th e o u tle t o f th e
w h o le D a n u b e b asin . Ita lia n tra d e d id n ot n eed T r ie s te , as I ta ly
h a d m a n y ports. B e tw ee n th e w ars T r ie ste h a d d e c lin e d in c o m ­
p a riso n w ith A u s tria n tim es. Y u g o s la v ia , clo se ly lin k ed to th e
o th e r D a n u b ia n c o u n trie s n o w u n d e r S o v ie t d o m in a tio n , w as a
m o re re lia b le tru ste e o f th e in terests o f th e D a n u b e b asin th an
Ita ly , w h o se e c o n o m ic in terests la y elsew h ere, an d w h ich w as
u n d e r th e in flu e n ce o f th e W e ste rn riv als o f th e S o v ie t U n io n .
T h e Y u g o s la v s also b ased th e ir case on th e p rin c ip le o f re p a ra tio n s.
I t a ly h a d d o n e im m en se h a rm to Y u g o s la v ia , b u t h ad th en h e rse lf
su ffered so m u ch from m ilita r)' o p e ra tio n s a n d G e rm a n e x p lo ita ­
tion th a t she w as n o t in a position to p a y re p a ra tio n s. T h e cession
o f T r ie s te a n d its su rro u n d in g s, w ith v a lu a b le fa ctories a n d sh ip ­
b u ild in g y a r d s , w o u ld g iv e Y u g o s la v ia c o n sid e ra b le re p a ra tio n
w ith o u t ru in in g th e rest o f Ita ly . B ut th o u g h th e S o v ie t g o v e rn ­
m en t su p p o rte d Y u g o s la v ia , th e F re n ch a n d A n g lo -S a x o n s w e re
a g a in st. U n w illin g n e ss to p la c e a v a lu a b le p o rt in th e h an d s o f a
S o v ie t sa tellite c o m b in e d w ith resen tm en t a t th e b e h a v io u r o f the
Y u g o s la v s o n th e spot.
T h e p e a c e tre a ty w ith I ta ly , sign ed on 10 F e b r u a r y 1947, laid
d o w n th e fro n tie r b e tw e e n I t a ly an d Y u g o s la v ia , a n d c re a te d a
F re e T e r rito ry ' o f T r ie s te , w h ose sta tu te w a s a tta c h e d to th e
tre a ty . T h e g re a te r p a rt o f V e n e z ia G iu lia w e n t to Y u g o s la v ia ,
b u t th e s h ip b u ild in g c e n tre M o n fa lc o n e a n d th e ra ilw a y th ro u gh
G o r iz ia , in c lu d in g th e la tte r c ity , w e n t to Ita ly . T h e F re e T e r r i­
to ry in c lu d e d a p ie c e o f coast b e tw e e n th e tw o to w n s o f D u in o
a n d C itt a n u o v a . It w as d iv id e d in to an A n g lo -A m e r ic a n o c c u p a ­
tio n zo n e a n d a Y u g o s la v o c c u p a tio n zo n e.
T h e U .N . S e c u r ity C o u n c il to ok o v e r fo rm a l re sp o n sib ility for
th e F re e T e r r it o r y o n 10 J a n u a r y 194 7. D u rin g th e y e a r re p e a ted
a tte m p ts b y th e S e c u r ity C o u n c il to e le ct a g o v e rn o r o f th e F ree
T e rrito ry ' fa ile d , th e c a n d id a te s o f th e W e ste rn P ow ers b e in g
v eto e d b y th e S o v ie t b lo c a n d v ice -v e rsa . M e a n w h ile th e Y u g o s la v
a u th o ritie s tre a te d th e ir z o n e as i f it w e re in c o rp o ra te d in Y u g o ­
350 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

sla v ia . In T r ie ste its e lf th e n o n -co m m u n ist Ita lia n s sh o w e d c le a r ly

th at th e y w ish ed th e c it y a n n e x e d d ire c tly to Ita ly . T h e Ita lia n
g o v e rn m e n t w ish ed th e sa m e, b u t re je cte d a p ro p o sa l m a d e b y
T it o to th e Ita lia n co m m u n ist le a d e r T o g lia tt i, th a t T r ie s te b e
e x c h a n g e d for G o r iz ia . In M a r c h 1948 th e W e ste rn P o w ers p r o ­
posed to th e S o v ie t an d th e I ta lia n go v e rn m e n ts th a t, as th e
Y u g o s la v zon e o f th e te rrito ry w as in e ffe ct a p a rt o f Y u g o s la v ia ,
as a ll efforts to a g re e o n a g o v e rn o r h ad fa ile d , a n d as th ere
w as n o real desire in T r ie ste fo r in d e p e n d e n c e , th e F re e T e r r it o r y
sh ou ld be h a n d e d o v e r to Ita ly . T h e p ro p o sa l w as w e ll tim e d to
cre a te p ro -W e ste rn fe e lin g in I ta ly o n th e e v e o f th e e le c tio n . I t
ca u sed in d ig n a tio n in Y u g o s la v ia , an d w as re je cte d b y th e S o v ie t
g o v e rn m e n t. A n g lo -A m e ric a n forces th erefo re re m a in in T r ie s te
o n b e h a lf o f th e U .N . S e c u rity C o u n c il. E le ctio n s w e re h eld in th e
F r e e T e r r it o r y in J u n e 1949. T h e pa rties fa v o u rin g u n io n w ith I ta ly
w o n 65 p e r c e n t o f th e votes (C h ristia n d em o c ra ts 40 p e r c e n t ) ; th e
C o m in fo rm co m m u n ists, w h o in a c c o rd a n c e w ith S o v ie t p o lic y
o p p osed u n io n , p o lle d 20 p e r c e n t ; T i t o su p p o rters h a d less th a n
2 p e r cen t.
O n e effect o f th e d isp u te has o f co u rse b e en th a t th e tra d e o f
T r ie s te has sufTered, a n d th a t th ere h as b e en u n e m p lo y m e n t in
th e c ity . U p till 1948 it lo o k ed as i f Y u g o s la v ia w o u ld seek to
d iv e r t th e tra d e o f th e D a n u b ia n sa tellites to F iu m e , w h ic h h as
b een Y u g o s la v sin ce 1945 a n d is re a so n a b ly w e ll se rv e d b y ra il.
F iu m e in fa c t m ig h t e x p e c t to b e m a d e a r iv a l to T r ie s te , b y m u ch
n e w h a rb o u r co n stru c tio n , in th e sam e w a y as G d y n ia w as m a d e
b y p o s t-19 18 P o lan d in to a r iv a l to th e o ld e r p o rt o f D a n z ig . B u t
th e sto p p a g e o f Y u g o s la v ia ’s tra d e w ith th e D a n u b ia n co u n trie s
sin ce th e T ito -C o m in fo r m d isp u te h as m ad e this im p r a c tic a b le
fo r th e p resen t. T h e rest o f Y u g o s la v ia ’s c o a st co n ta in s se v eral
h a rb o u rs c a p a b le o f d e v e lo p m e n t, e sp e c ia lly S p lit, D u b r o v n ik a n d
K o to r , b u t th e ir h in te rla n d is so m o u n ta in o u s a n d c o m m u n ic a ­
tions so b a d th a t m a n y y e a rs m u st pass b efo re th e y c a n b e o f m u ch
use to D a n u b ia n -M e d ite r r a n e a n tra d e . T h e sa m e o b je ctio n s a p p ly
to th e A lb a n ia n ports o f D u r a z z o a n d V a lo n a , n o w th e o n ly secu re
S o v ie t ou tposts o n th e A d r ia tic .

T h e B la c k S e a S tra its h a v e o f co u rse b e en fo r g e n e ra tio n s a

c a u sc o f d isp u te b e tw e e n R u ssia a n d T u r k e y a n d b e tw e e n R u ssia
an d th e E u ro p e a n P o w ers. T h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t w as d is­
c o n te n te d w ith th e p o lic y o f T u r k e y d u r in g th e S e c o n d W o rld
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 351

W a r . I t o b je c te d to th e G e rm a n -T u rk is h tre a ty o f J u n e 19 4 1,
w h ic h h a d fa c ilita te d G e r m a n y ’s in va sio n o f R u ssia ; to the
a g ita tio n o f th e p r o -G e r m a n ‘ p a n - T u r k ’ g ro u p in T u r k e y w h o
h o p e d th a t th e U .S .S .R . w o u ld d isin te g ra te and th at region s
in th e C a u c a su s a n d C e n tra l A sia w ith T u rk ish p o p u la tio n
w o u ld b e co m e in d e p e n d e n t o r b e jo in e d to T u r k e y ; a n d to the
a lle g e d to le ra tio n b y th e T u rk s o f th e passage th ro u g h th e S tra its
o f G e r m a n w arsh ip s. O n 19 M a r c h 1945 th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t
d e n o u n c e d th e 1925 tre a ty o f frien d sh ip w ith T u r k e y . O n 22 J u n e
th e S o v ie t a m b a s sa d o r in A n k a r a , V in o g r a d o v , sta ted th at the
U .S .S .R . w a s p rep a re d fo r a n e w tre a ty w ith T u r k e y p ro vid e d
th a t th e e astern fro n tie r p ro v in c e s o f K a r s , A r tv in a n d A rd a h a n
w e re g iv e n to th e U .S .S .R .; a S o v ie t b ase w e re set u p in sid e th e
S tra its ; a n d th e M o n tr e u x c o n v e n tio n o f 1936 revised. T h e se
d em a n d s w e re c le a r ly u n a c c e p ta b le to T u r k e y . O n 11 J u ly th e
T u rk is h F o re ig n M in ister, H assan S a k a , th en in L o n d o n , stated
th a t T u r k e y w as p r e p a re d to co n sid e r a revision o f th e M o n tr e u x
c o n v e n tio n , b u t o n ly p r o v id e d th a t it w e re u n d e rta k e n b y th e
P ow ers th a t h a d sign ed in 1 9 3 6 .1
T h e S tra its q u estio n w as d iscussed a t th e P o tsd a m c o n feren ce
in A u g u s t, w h e n it w as a g re e d th a t e a ch o f th e B ig T h r e e sh ou ld
s e p a ra te ly co n fe r w ith th e T u rk is h g o v e rn m e n t in o rd e r to p rep a re
fo r n e g o tia tio n s to re p la c e th e M o n tr e u x c o n v e n tio n b y an
a rra n g e m e n t m o re su ited to p o st-w a r needs in g e n e ra l a n d S o v ie t
w ishes in p a rtic u la r. A n A m e r ic a n n o te o f 2 N o v e m b e r 1945
p ro p o se d th a t at a ll tim es th e S tra its sh o u ld b e o p e n to m erch a n t
vessels o f a ll n atio n s a n d to w arsh ip s o f B la c k S e a Pow ers, b ut
th a t w arsh ip s o f n o n -B la c k S e a Pow ers sh ou ld b e a d m itte d o n ly
b y th e con sen t o f th e B la c k S e a P o w ers o r in p u rsu a n c e o f d uties
u n d e rta k e n u n d e r U n ite d N a tio n s a u th o rity . O n 21 N o v e m b e r
th e B ritish g o v e rn m e n t a sso ciated its e lf w ith th e A m e r ic a n n ote.
B o th P o w ers h ad th u s d e c la re d th em selves w illin g to p a rtic ip a te
in a revision o f th e M o n tr e u x co n v e n tio n .
M e a n w h ile v io le n t press c a m p a ig n s d e v e lo p e d in b o th T u r k e y
a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n . O n 4 D e c e m b e r a m o b o f stu den ts a n d
to u g h s b ro k e u p th e prem ises o f a S o v ie t b o o k sh o p an d a T u rk ish
n e w s p a p e r o f m ild ly p r o -S o v ie t ten d e n cie s in Ista n b u l. A s S o v iet
p r o p e rty w as in v o lv e d an e x c h a n g e o f o fficia l notes too k p la c e ,
th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t p o in tin g o u t th a t d u r in g these acts o f

1 W ith tw o im p o rta n t m o d ificatio n s. T h e U n ite d S tates w as not a sig n a to ry o f

M o n tre u x . J a p a n w as. T u r k e y n o w w ish ed th e U n ite d S tates to sign th e fu tu re
trr a ty , b u t w as not in terested in J a p a n e s e p a rtic ip a tio n .
352 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
v io le n ce th e p o lice h ad m ad e n o a tte m p t to resto re o rd e r. O n
14 D e c e m b e r tw o S o v iet G e o rg ia n professors p u b lish e d an a rticle ,
w h ic h re c e iv ed w id e p u b lic ity in th e U .S .S .R ., d e m a n d in g th e
a n n e x a tio n o f som e 170 m iles o f T u r k e y ’ s B la ck S e a c o a stlin e on
th e g ro u n d th a t the a re a w as h isto ric a lly o r e th n ic a lly G e o r g ia n .
S im ila r d em a n d s w e re m a d e from S o v ie t A r m e n ia , w ith som e
su p p o rt from A rm e n ia n o rg a n isa tio n s in th e M id d le E ast.
In A u g u st 1946 th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t o ffic ia lly p ro p o se d to
the T u rk is h g o v e rn m e n t th a t a n e w re g im e fo r th e S tra its be
p rep a re d b y th e B la ck S e a P o w ers o n ly , a n d th a t T u r k e y a n d th e
U .S .S .R . ‘ as th e P ow ers m ost in terested in , a n d c a p a b le o f
en su rin g, freed om o f m e rch a n t sh ip p in g a n d se c u rity in th e
S tra its, sh o u ld jo in t ly o rg a n ise th e d efe n c e o f th e S tra its to p rev e n t
th eir use b y o th e r states fo r p u rp oses h o stile to th e B la c k S e a
P o w ers’ .
W ith th e e x a m p le o f th e B a ltic states in th e ir m in d s, th e T u r k s
n a tu r a lly d islik ed th e id e a o fjo in t S o v ie t-T u rk ish bases o n T u rk is h
te rrito ry . T h e T u rk is h g o v e rn m e n t re je c te d th e S o v ie t p ro p o sa l on
22 A u g u st. A t th e sam e tim e it re p e a te d its w illin gn ess to ta k e p a rt
in a co n fe re n ce for th e re v isio n o f th e M o n tr e u x c o n v e n tio n , p r o ­
v id e d th a t this c o n fe re n c e w as a tte n d e d b y th e 1936 sign a tories
a n d b y th e U n ite d S tates. T h e A m e r ic a n p o in t o f v ie w h a d b e en
m a d e c le a r in a n o te d e liv e re d to th e S o v ie t c h a rg e d ’ a ffa ire s in
W a s h in g to n on 19 A u g u st. T h e A m e r ic a n n o te m a in ta in e d th a t
th e d efe n ce o f th e S tra its w as best e n tru sted to th e T u rk is h
g o v e rn m e n t a lo n e, a n d th a t sh o u ld a th re a t to th e S o v ie t positions
in th e B la c k S e a e v e r d e v e lo p fro m n o n -B la c k S e a P o w ers w ish in g
to m ak e use o f th e S tra its fo r this p u rp o se, th e m a tte r c o u ld be
best d e a lt w ith b y th e U n ite d N atio n s. T h e n o te o n c e m o re
re p e a ted th e A m e ric a n g o v e rn m e n t’ s w illin g n e ss to tak e p a rt in a
n e w in te rn a tio n a l c o n fe re n c e o n th e S tra its.
M a tte rs h ad th us re a c h e d a d e a d lo c k . T h e S o v ie t U n io n
insisted on a b ila te r a l a rra n g e m e n t w h ic h w o u ld in fa c t g iv e th e
U .S .S .R . c o n tro l o f th e S tra its. T u r k e y in sisted o n h e r so v e re ig n
rig h ts. T h e W e ste rn P o w ers insisted o n a n in te rn a tio n a l so lu tio n .
T u r k e y felt o b lig e d to k eep a la rg e p a rt o f h e r p o p u la tio n m o b il­
ised , a n d th e e c o n o m ic stra in b e ca m e in to le ra b le . I t w a s to re lie v e
this strain th a t in M a r c h 1947 P resid e n t T r u m a n d e c id e d to ask
th e U n ite d S tate s C o n g re ss to a p p ro v e a n e x p e n d itu re o f
400,000,000 d o lla rs on a id to G r e e c e a n d T u r k e y . T h e g re a te r
p a rt o f this sum h as g o n e to G r e e c e , b u t T u r k e y h as re c e iv e d
v a lu a b le c iv ilia n an d m ilita r y e q u ip m e n t, a n d A m e r ic a n in stru c-
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 353
tors h a v e b e en sen t to a d v ise th e T u rk is h a rm e d forces and
in d u stry . T h e ‘ T r u m a n d o c t r in e ' re m o ve d im m e d ia te d a n g e r to
I u rk e y , b u t th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t has n ot a b a n d o n e d its aim s.

T h e th ird o u tle t, S a lo n ic a , in vo lve s th e m ost c o m p lic a te d

p ro b le m s o f a ll. S a lo n ic a not o n ly stan d s a t th e m o u th o f the
V a r d a r riv e r, th e n a tu ra l ro u te fro m C e n tr a l E u ro p e to the
A e g e a n , b u t is also th e n a tu ra l c a p ita l o f M a c e d o n ia , the te rrito ry
lo n g d isp u te d b e tw e e n G r e e c c , B u lg a ria an d S e rb ia . M o re o v e r,
som e fifty m iles n o rth o f S a lo n ic a passes th e lo n g n o rth ern fro n tier
o f G r e e c e , w h ic h is a t presen t th e sou th ern sector o f th e lan d
b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n th e W estern a n d S o v ie t zon es o f E u ro p e . T h is
so u th ern b o u n d a r y is a b o u t as lo n g as th e m o re im p o rta n t w estern
b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n L ü b e c k a n d T r ie ste , m u ch m o re exp osed an d
less stro n g ly d efe n d e d .
M a c e d o n ia w as T u rk is h u n til th e B a lk a n W a rs o f 1912 13. A s
a resu lt o f those w a rs, a n d o f th e c h a n g e s o f fro n tiers d u r in g an d
a fte r th e F irst W o rld W a r , it w as d iv id e d b e tw e e n S e rb ia (late r
Y u g o s la v ia ) , G r e e c e a n d B u lg a ria . The th ree d ivision s are often
k n o w n as V a r d a r M a c e d o n ia — th e Y u g o s la v p o rtio n , m u ch the
la rg e st— A e g e a n M a c e d o n ia — th e G r e e k p o rtio n , in c lu d in g the
c o a st from M o u n t O ly m p u s ro u n d to th e m o u th o f th e M esta
riv e r— a n d P irin M a c e d o n ia — th e B u lg a ria n p o rtio n , ca lle d
a fte r th e h igh m o u n ta in ra n g e b e tw e e n th e S tru m a a n d M es ta
riv e rs, a n d th e sm allest o f th e th re e p ortions.
T h e m ost n u m e ro u s e th n ic a l e le m e n t in V a r d a r an d P irin
M a c e d o n ia a re th e M a c e d o n ia n S la vs. T h e y speak v a rio u s
d ia le cts, n e a re r to B u lg a ria n th an to S e rb ia n , b u t d istin ct from
e ith e r. M o re th a n o n e an d a h a lf m illio n o f these M a c e d o n ia n
S la v s liv e in Y u g o s la v ia , a n d p e rh a p s so m e 200,000 m o re in B u l­
g a r ia . B u lg a ria n statistics d o n ot d istin gu ish b e tw e e n Pirin
M a c e d o n ia n s a n d B u lg a ria n s, a n d in fa c t th e tw o m erge im p e r­
c e p tib ly in to e a c h o th er. In a d d itio n to th e n a tiv e s o f Pirin
M a c e d o n ia , th ere w e re in B u lg a ria c o n sid e ra b le n u m b ers o f
M a c e d o n ia n refu gees fro m Y u g o s la v a n d G r e e k te rrito ry .
T h e n u m b e r o f S la v s in A e g e a n M a c e d o n ia is h a rd to d e te r­
m in e . I t is c e r ta in ly m u c h sm a ller th an it w as in 1 9 12 , fo r m a n y
S la v s left G r e e c e a n d in th eir p la c e w e re settled som e 700,000
G ree k s e x p e lle d b y th e T u r k s from A s ia M in o r. T h e S la vs,
o ffic ia lly d escrib e d in G r e e c e as ‘ S la v o p h o n c H e lle n e s ’ , are
estim a te d a t 70,000 b y G r e e k statistics. T h is m a y be to o lo w a
354 TnE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
fig u re, b u t th e n u m b e rs g iv e n b y M a c e d o n ia n S la v n atio n a lists,
m o u n tin g to sev eral h u n d re d th o u san d s, a re c e r ta in ly gro ssly
e x a g g e ra te d .
E v e r since th e n in eties th ere h as b e en a m o v e m e n t a m o n g th e
M a c e d o n ia n S la v s fo r a n in d e p e n d e n t M a c e d o n ia n s t a te .1
O r ig in a lly this M a c e d o n ia n m o v e m e n t a im e d a t e q u a l statu s
for a ll n a tio n a l gro u p s w ith in M a c e d o n ia , in c lu d in g T u r k s ,
A lb a n ia n s , G ree k s an d V la c h s ,* as w e ll as S la vs. B u t soon it
b e c a m c a m o re o r less e x c lu s iv e ly S la v m o v e m e n t a n d th en
c a m e u n d e r B u lg a ria n in flu en ce. T h is w as p a r tly b e c a u se th e
M a c e d o n ia n S la v s g e n u in e ly h a d m o re in c o m m o n w ith th e
B u lg a ria n s th an w ith th e S erb s, a n d p a r tly b e c a u se th e v icto rie s
o f S erb s a n d G re e k s in 19 13 , co n firm e d b y th e v ic to r y o f th e
W estern A llie s in 1918 , left B u lg a ria n s a n d M a c e d o n ia n s e q u a lly
o p p osed to th e statu s q u o . B u t it sh ou ld b e stressed th a t th o u g h
M a c e d o n ia n a n d B u lg a ria n n atio n a lists w e re allies a g a in st Y u g o ­
sla v ia a n d G r e e c e , th e ir a im s w e re d iffe re n t. T h e fo rm e r m a in ­
ta in e d th a t M a c e d o n ia n s a re a se p a ra te n a tio n , w ith a se p a ra te
la n g u a g e , a n d sh o u ld h a v e a sta te o f th e ir o w n , w ith its c a p ita l
a t S a lo n ic a a n d in c lu d in g th e p ro vin ce s h e ld b y a ll th re e B a lk a n
states. T h e la tte r w ish e d sim p ly to e x te n d th e te rrito r y o f B u lg a r ia
to th e w est a n d sou th . D u r in g th e tw en ties th e In te rn a l M a c e ­
d o n ia n R e v o lu tio n a r y O rg a n is a tio n ( I . M . R .O .) , c re a te d in 1896
b y th e M a c e d o n ia n n atio n a lists, b e c a m e a n in stru m e n t o f
B u lg a ria n p o lic y , an d re c e iv e d su p p o rt first fro m I t a ly a n d th en
fro m G e rm a n y . B u t in sid e M a c e d o n ia , p a r tic u la r ly in th e Y u g o ­
sla v p o rtio n , th e id e a o f M a c e d o n ia n sta te h o o d , o r a t least v e r y
w id e a u to n o m y , w as still p o p u la r. I t w as a lso su p p o rte d b y th e
b ittere st id e o lo g ica l o p p o n e n ts o f th e n o w fascist I .M . R . O . , th e
co m m u n ists. T h e co m m u n ists c o n tro lle d a b r e a k a w a y fa c tio n
k n o w n as th e U n ite d I . M . R . O . o r O . I . M . R . O . , le d b y D im ita r
V la h o v , w h o b e c a m e fa ir ly p ro m in e n t in th e C o m in te rn , a n d
re m a in e d in M o s c o w u n til th e la te r stages o f th e S e c o n d W o r ld
W a r .’
U n d e r B u lg a ria n o c c u p a tio n in 19 4 1, th e M a c e d o n ia n c o m ­
m u n ists w e re d iv id e d b e tw e e n th ose w h o w ish e d sim p ly to jo in

1 F o r the e a rlie r h isto ry o f th e M a c e d o n ia n m o v e m e n t, see S w ire , Bulgarian Con­

spiracy. F o r M a c e d o n ia b e tw e e n th e w o rld w ars, a n d sin ce 1945, see K lisab eth B a rk e r,
Macedonia ( R .I .I .A ., 1950 ).
* A g ro u p w h o sp eak a la n g u a g e clo se to R u m a n ia n . T h e y a re sc a tte re d a b o u t
M a c c d o n ia , b u t form a m o re c o m p a c t c o m m u n ity in th e P in d u s m o u n ta in s o f n o rth
c e n tr a l G re e c e .
* F o r a lu c id a c c o u n t o f th e to rtu o u s co u rse o f co m m u n is t p o lic y to w a rd s M a c e d o n ia
b e tw e e n th e w ars, see B a rk e r, o p . c il.
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 355
th e stru g g le o f th e B u lg a ria n C o m m u n ist P a rty a gain st the
B u lg a ria n d icta to rs h ip , an d those w h o w ish ed to tre at the B u l­
g a ria n s as fo reig n in va d ers, an d jo in w ith th e Y u g o s la v c o m ­
m un ists in a stru g g le fo r a n e w c o m m u n ist fe d e ratio n , based
p r im a r ily o n th e te rrito ry o f th e old Y u g o s la v ia , b u t to be e x te n d ed
u ltim a te ly to in c lu d e also B u lg a ria . T h e le a d in g M a c e d o n ia n
c o m m u n ist, S h a rlo S h a t a r o v ,1 fa vo u re d th e B u lg a ria n o rie n ta tio n ,
b u t e v e n tu a lly th e C o m in te rn ca m c d o w n in fa v o u r o f the
Y u g o s la v . In 1944 V a r d a r M a c e d o n ia b e c a m e th e M a c e d o n ia n
P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic , o n e o f th e six co n stitu e n t re p u b lics o f T i t o ’s
Y u g o s la v ia . T h e M a c e d o n ia n s w e re o ffic ia lly p ro c la im e d a
se p a ra te n a tio n , an d n ew sp ap ers w e re p u b lish e d in a M a c e d o n ia n
la n g u a g e so m e w h a t d iffe rin g from lite ra ry B u lg a ria n . V la h o v
b e c a m e a V ic e -P r e m ie r o f Y u g o s la v ia . In S k o p lje , th e r e p u b lic ’ s
c a p ita l, d em a n d s b e g a n to b e h e a rd fo r th e u n ific a tio n o f M a c e ­
d o n ia an d th e lib e ra tio n o f th e p e o p le o f b oth P irin an d A e g e a n
M a c e d o n ia .
P irin M a c e d o n ia w as d iscussed b y th e C o m m u n ist P arties an d
th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f Y u g o s la v ia an d B u lg a ria . B oth sides stressed
th e im p o rta n c e o f re c o n c ilia tio n b e tw e e n Y u g o s la v ia a n d B u l­
g a ria . T h e r e is n o d o u b t th a t th e m a jo rity o f S erb s a n d B u lga ria n s
d esired su ch re c o n c ilia tio n , a n d th a t th e w a r e ffo rt o f the B u l­
g a r ia n a r m y o n th e A llie d side in th e seven m onth s fo llo w in g
S e p te m b e r 1944 h a d d o n e m u c h to fu rth e r it. But b o th sides also
a g re e d th at re c o n c ilia tio n m ust n ot co m e a t th e exp en se o f th e
M a c e d o n ia n s. T h e y a g re e d th a t th e u ltim a te a im m ust be a
fe d e ra tio n o f all th e S o u th S la v s. W h e n this fe d e ra tio n w as
a c h ie v e d , u n ited M a c e d o n ia w o u ld b e o n e o f its con stitu en t
re p u b lics. M e a n w h ile , th e B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld g ra n t
th e P irin M a c e d o n ia n s c u ltu r a l fa cilities e q u a l to those e n jo y e d b y
th e M a c e d o n ia n s w ith in Y u g o s la v ia . T h e y w o u ld be a llo w e d to
c o n sid e r th em selv es a se p a ra te n atio n . M a c e d o n ia n teach ers from
Y u g o s la v M a c e d o n ia w o u ld b e a llo w e d to o p en sch o ols a n d b o o k ­
sh ops in P irin M a c e d o n ia , a n d th e M a c e d o n ia n press p u b lish e d in
Y u g o s la v ia w o u ld b e free ly sold th ere.
T h e fu tu re o f A e g e a n M a c e d o n ia w as a d iffic u lt p ro b lem in the
rela tio n s o f th e Y u g o s la v a n d B u lg a ria n co m m u n ists w ith the
G r e e k co m m u n ists. T h e G r e e k C o m m u n ist P a rty w as p a rtic u la rly
sen sitive to a tta c k s from th e G re e k rig h t o f tre a c h e ry to G ree k

1 T h e p a rty n am e ‘ S h a r lo ’ a p p e a rs to be a C y r illic tra n slitera tio n o f ‘ C h a r io t ’ ,

o r C h a r lie C h a p lin , a ch a ra c te r d e se rv e d ly a n d u n iv ersa lly p o p u la r in left-w in g
B a lk a n circles in the thirties.
356 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
n a tio n a l interests. I t co u ld n o t possib ly c o m m it its e lf to th e cession
o f G re e k M a c e d o n ia to a S o u th S la v fe d e ra tio n . Its h opes o f success
in G r e e c e d ep e n d e d o n its b e in g a b le to pose as th e c h a m p io n
o f a ll G re e k n a tio n a l cla im s, in c lu d in g o f c o u rse e astern T h r a c e an d
C y p ru s, h eld b y th e r e a c tio n a ry T u r k s an d th e im p e ria list B ritish .
E v e n a u to m o n y fo r M a c e d o n ia w ith in G r e e c e w as irk so m e to
it. O n th e o th e r h a n d , M a c e d o n ia h ad b e en a stro n g h o ld o f
E .L .A .S . d u r in g th e w a r, a n d b e ca m e th e m ain stro n g h o ld o f
th e reb els o f M a rk o s V a fia d e s in 194 7. T h e G r e e k co m m u n ists
d id not w ish to lose th e su p p o rt o f th e M a c e d o n ia n S la v s in n o rth ­
w est G r e e ce .
D u rin g th e w a r th e S la v s h a d o n th e w h o le su p p o rte d th e A x is .
T h o u g h th e G e rm a n s h ad n o t a llo w e d B u lg a ria n tro op s to o c c u p y
this re g io n , th e y h a d a llo w e d B u lg a ria n n a tio n a list p r o p a g a n d a ,
a n d b an d s o f M a c e d o n ia n S la v ‘ k o m ita d jis ’ h a d se rv e d as
irr e g u la r allies o f th e A x is a n d en em ies o f th e G r e e k resistan ce.
W h e n , h o w ev e r, th e A x is w as b e a te n , a n d th e c h o ic e re m a in e d
b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t U n io n a n d th e W e ste rn P ow ers, b e tw e e n th e
S la v satellites o f M o sc o w a n d th e A th e n ia n n a tio n a list satellites
o f th e A n g lo -A m e ric a n s , m a n y p referre d th e first.
Y u g o s la v su p p o rt to th e G r e e k re b els te n d e d to fa v o u r th e S la v
elem en ts. T h is ca u sed in e v ita b le fric tio n b e tw e e n T i t o a n d
M a rk o s. T it o h a d to tak e in to a c c o u n t n a tio n a list fe e lin g a m o n g
his o w n M a c e d o n ia n s, w h ic h w as g iv in g som e tro u b le to his
p o lice a u th o ritie s. S e v e ra l a lle g e d c o n sp iracie s o f fo llo w e rs o f th e
old I .M .R . O . ?n d its fascist le a d e r V a n c h o M ih a ilo v w e re d is­
co v e re d . O n e o f th e M a c e d o n ia n p a rtisa n le a d e rs d u r in g th e w a r,
A n to n o v -C h e n to , w as c o n d e m n e d in 194 7. In v ie w o f th e stro n g
desire o f Y u g o s la v M a c e d o n ia n s to ‘ lib e r a t e ’ G r e e k M a c e d o n ia ,
T it o c o u ld n ot sh ow h im se lf to o a c c o m m o d a tin g to th e G ree k s.
F o r M o sc o w to o th e c h o ic e w as d iffic u lt. S h o u ld th e U .S .S .R .
su p p o rt th e M a c e d o n ia n S la v s, in o rd e r th ro u g h a S la v b lo c to
o b ta in access to th e A e g e a n ? O r sh o u ld sh e b a c k th e G re e k
co m m u n ists, o n th e g ro u n d th a t it w as w o rth w a itin g a n d m a k in g
con cession s for th e sake o f a g re a te r p r iz e — th e c o m m u n isa tio n o f
th e w h o le o f G r e e c e , w h ic h w o u ld b r in g S o v ie t in flu e n ce to C r e te ,
to th e v e r y g a te o f th e M id d le E a ste rn fortress o f th e A n g lo -
A m e r ic a n im p e ria lists?
T h e sam e c h o ice co n fro n te d M o sc o w w ith re g a rd to w estern
T h r a c e . A cce ss to th e A e g e a n h ad b e en a co n sta n t d e m a n d o f a ll
B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n ts sin ce 19 1 8 , w h e n th e p ie c e o f c o a st left to
B u lg a ria a fter th e S e co n d B a lk a n W a r ( 1 9 1 3 ) h a d b e e n a n n e x ed
 IN TERN ATION AL PROBLEMS 357
b y G r e e c e . In 19 4 0 -1 th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h a d o ffered to su p ­
p o rt B u lg a ria n cla im s in this d ire c tio n , b u t in 1944, a fter G r e e c e
h a d b e e n a n a lly a n d B u lg a ria a n e n e m y , a n d in v ie w o f th e stron g
fe e lin gs o f th e W e ste rn P ow ers, M o sc o w h ad su p p o rted the
d e m a n d fo r th e e v a c u a tio n o f a ll G re e k te rrito ry o c c u p ie d by
B u lg a ria n troop s. A t th e P aris co n fe re n ce for th e settlem en t o f the
sa te llite p e a c e tre atie s, h o w e v e r, in th e su m m e r o f 1946, the
B u lg a ria n d e le g a tio n h ad asked fo r a n o u tle t in T h r a c e . A fte r the
c o n fe re n ce h a d d e c id e d in fa v o u r o f G r e e c e , D im itro v h ad stated
th a t B u lg a ria h a d n o t a b a n d o n e d h e r ‘ju st d e m a n d ’ . S u ch
la n g u a g e from so e m in e n t a C o m in te rn p e rso n a lity sh o w ed that
S o v ie t p o lic y w as still u n ce rta in . A s in th e case o f M a c e d o n ia ,
th e c h o ic e w a s b e tw e e n w a itin g in th e h o p e th a t G r e e c e w o u ld
b e co m e co m m u n ist, o r g iv in g su p p o rt to B u lg a ria n cla im s in
o rd e r to e x te n d S o v ie t in flu e n ce to th e A e g e a n coast.
T h e T ito - C o m in fo r m d isp u te tra n sfo rm ed th e B a lk a n situ atio n .
O n c e T it o w as d a m n e d as a h e re tic , th e w h o le o f his re g im e h ad to
b e d e n o u n c e d , in c lu d in g th e a rra n g em e n ts fo r th e a u to n o m y o f
th e M a c e d o n ia n P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic . F ro m a c o n stru c tiv e states­
m a n a n d a p io n e e r o f S o u th S la v frien d sh ip , h e tu rn ed o v ern ig h t
in to a n a tio n a listic m e g a lo m a n ia c . T h e M a c e d o n ia n re p u b lic a n
g o v e rn m e n t w as p a n -S e rb ism in a n e w form . T h e Y u g o s la v
h e re tic a l n atio n a lists w e re sim p ly try in g , u n d e r c o v e r o f phrases
a b o u t S o u th S la v fe d e ra tio n , to a n n e x P irin M a c e d o n ia to Y u g o ­
sla v ia . T h e Y u g o s la v sch oo l te ach e rs a n d booksellers estab lished
in P irin M a c e d o n ia w e re o n ly a gen ts o f th e T i t o c liq u e o f B e lgra d e
im p e ria lists. F o r th e ir p a rt th e Y u g o s la v co m m u n ists in d ig n a n tly
d e n ie d th ese ch a rg e s, insisted th a t th ey h ad lo y a lly c a rrie d out
t h e ir o b lig a tio n s u n d e r th e 1947 a g re e m e n t, an d in tu rn a ccused
th e B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n t o f n a tio n a list p e rsecu tio n o f the Pirin
M a c e d o n ia n s . R e la tio n s ra p id ly d e te rio ra te d , u n til th e a tm o ­
sp h e re on b o th sides o f th e fro n tie r w as as hostile as in th e d ays
o f K in g s B oris a n d A le x a n d e r.
T h e n e w C o m in fo r m lin e, e sp e c ia lly as exp ressed in M o sco w
a n d S o fia , n o w re p resen te d T i t o as th e e n e m y o f a tru e S o u th S la v
fe d e ra tio n a n d b ro th e rh o o d a n d D im itro v as its g rea test c h a m ­
p io n .' A s la te as J a n u a r y 1948 D im itro v h ad b e en re p rim a n d e d
b y Pravda fo r a d v o c a tin g a fe d e ra tio n o f a ll E astern E u ro p e . N o w
h e w as e n c o u ra g e d to a d v o c a te a fe d e ra tio n o f th e S o u th S la v s.
1 T h e rea l v ie w s o f D im itr o v in th e last y e a r o f his life a r c w ra p p e d in m y s te ry .
T h e Y u g o s la v co m m u n is ts c la im th a t h e w as th eir frien d , a n d hin t at sinister c ir c u m ­
stan ces b eh in d his d e a th in th e S o v ie t U n io n . C o m in fo rm ists rep resen t him as an
im p la c a b le o p p o n e n t o f th e B e lg ra d e c liq u e o f n atio n a list deviatio n ists.
358 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
It w as c le a r from th e to n e o f this n e w p r o p a g a n d a th a t, w h e th e r
th e p ro jecte d S o u th S la v fe d e ra tio n w e re to be fo rm ed b y a u n io n
o f th e e xistin g Y u g o s la v and B u lg a ria n states, o r b y m a k in g B u l­
g a ria th e seven th re p u b lic o f Y u g o s la v ia , th e aim w as a B u lg a ria n
h e g e m o n y in th e w h o le a re a stre tch in g from th e A lp s to th e B la ck
S e a . I f th e first ty p e o f fe d e ra tio n w e re a d o p te d , B u lg a ria w o u ld
h a v e a w e ig h t e q u a l to th a t o f a ll six Y u g o s la v re p u b lic s. I f th e
secon d ty p e p re v a ile d , th en B u lg a ria w ith 7,000,000 in h a b ita n ts
w o u ld a ttr a c t to h e rse lf th e M a c e d o n ia n re p u b lic w ith 2,000,000,
a n d w o u ld p la y o ff th e n o rth e rn re p u b lics o f S lo v e n ia a n d C r o a t ia
a gain st S e rb ia . In e ith e r case B u lg a ria , b e in g g e o g r a p h ic a lly
n earest to R u ssia , an d b e in g led b y th e m ost e m in e n t a n d re lia b le
C o m in te rn p e rso n a lity a n d a d m ire r o f S ta lin , G e o rg e D im itr o v ,
w o u ld h a v e th e stron gest in flu e n ce . In e ith e r case th e Y u g o s la v
sta te, th e g e o g r a p h ic c o m p le x cre a te d in 1918 , d estro y e d in 1941
an d re cre a ted in 1945, w o u ld cease to exist. R u ssia n p o lic y , as in
1876 an d 19 19 , h a d a g a in v ee re d from su p p o rt o f S e rb ia to
su p p o rt o f B u lg a ria .
W h e n in th e past S e rb ia o r Y u g o s la v ia h ad b een th re a te n e d b y
B u lg a ria , she h ad a lw a y s tu rn e d for frien d sh ip to G r e e c e . S u c h a
c h a n g e w as p sy c h o lo g ic a lly d iffic u lt fo r T i t o in 1948. T h e
A th e n s g o v e rn m e n t seem ed to sta n d fo r a ll th e th in g s th a t T i t o
h ad fo u g h t a ll his life. I t seem ed to possess in e x a g g e ra te d d e g re e
a ll th e fau lts o f th e p rc -19 4 1 c o rru p t se m i-d icta to rsh ip s, b ased
on a re a c tio n a ry p lu to c ra c y b a c k e d b y th e W e ste rn im p e ria lists
a n d ca p ita lists. A g a in st this h a te d re g im e w e re fig h tin g th e G r e e k
co m m u n ist reb els w h o m Y u g o s la v ia h a d su p p o rte d w ith a rm s an d
su p p lies fo r tw o years. B u t o fficia l Y u g o s la v s y m p a th y for th e
G r e e k rebels w as re d u ced in F e b ru a ry ’ 1949, w h e n M a rk o s w as
re m o ve d from co m m a n d , an d th e M a c e d o n ia n S la v s o f th e G r e e k
co m m u n ist-h e ld a re a w e re a llo w e d to h o ld a co n gress, a t w h ich
th e y d e m a n d e d th e u n ific a tio n o f M a c e d o n ia w ith in a S o u th S la v
fe d e ra tio n , a n d m ad e c le a r b y th eir p raise fo r D im itr o v a n d
d e n u n cia tio n o f T it o th a t th e fe d e ra tio n th e y w a n te d w as th e
B u lg a ria n -sp o n so re d ty p e . D u r in g 1949 T i t o re d u c e d his h e lp to
th e G re e k reb els. In J u ly he d e c la re d th e G r e e k -Y u g o s la v fro n tie r
closed . H e too k c a re to rep resen t this a c tio n as d ire c te d e q u a lly
a g a in st G r e e k C o m in fo rm ists a n d G r e e k ‘ m o n a rc h o -fa s c ists’ , b u t
in fa ct it w as o f a d v a n ta g e to th e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t. C o -o p e r a tio n
b e tw e e n B e lg ra d e an d A th e n s w as still fa r o ff. Y e t in th e lo n g
te rm in terest is a p o w e rfu l r iv a l to id e o lo g y . A v ic t o r y fo r th e
C o m in fo rm ist G r e e k c o m m u n ists w o u ld n ot b e to T i t o ’s a d v a n -
 INTERNATION AL PROBL EMS 359
ta g e . O n th e o th e r h a n d G r e e c e w o u ld o b v io u s ly not a d o p t T i t o ’s
p a r tic u la r b ra n d o f c o m m u n ism . T h e c h o ic e in p r a c tic e w as
b e tw e e n th e c o n tin u a n c e o f th e G re e k c iv il w a r, d ra in in g the
b lo o d a n d w e a lth o f G r e e c e a n d m a k in g a ll p o litic a l freed o m and
so cia l progress im p o ssib le , a n d v ic to r y o f th e G re e k g o v e rn m e n t,
w h ic h W'ith e c o n o m ic h e lp a n d p o litic a l a d v ic e from th e W estern
P o w ers m ig h t m a k e possib le a m o re d e m o c ra tic re g im e . N o su ch
re g im e w o u ld satisfy T i t o ’s id e a l, b u t it w o u ld n o t th re a te n
h im . T h e fo rm a tio n o f th e P la stira s g o v e rn m e n t in A th e n s in
A p r il 1950 w as on th e w h o le w e ll re ce iv ed in B e lg ra d e.
A lb a n ia also represen ts a c o m m o n d a n g e r to b oth Y u g o s la v ia
a n d G r e e c e . A lb a n ia has no frien d a m o n g h e r n e igh b o u rs. E n v e r
H o x h a ’s re g im e lost a n y s y m p a th y re m a in in g to it in B rita in from
its w a r tim e a c h ie v e m e n ts b y th e C o rfu in c id e n t o f O c to b e r 1946.
O f his d ire c t n e ig h b o u rs, H o x h a d e n o u n c e d th e Ita lia n g o v e rn ­
m en t, in a c c o r d a n c e w ith u su al C o m in fo rm d o c trin e , as a base
c r e a tu r e o f th e W e ste rn im p e ria lists; c o n tin u e d su p p lies to the
G r e e k re b e ls; a n d p o u re d insults an d in ju ries on th e ‘ T i t o c liq u e
o f T r o ts k y is ts ’ . A lb a n ia is e x tr e m e ly v u ln e ra b le . T h e m o u n ta in e e rs
o f th e in te rio r h a v e n e v e r b e en lo y a l to th e H o x h a regim e,
p a r tic u la r ly th ose o f th e n o rth . A lb a n ia d ep e n d s for su p p lies on th e
C o m in fo r m ist c o u n trie s. O c c a s io n a l S o v ie t an d R u m a n ia n ships
c o m e th ro u g h th e S tra its a n d rou n d G r e e c e , and o c c a sio n a l Polish
sh ips th ro u g h G ib r a lt a r , to u n lo a d e q u ip m e n t fo r A lb a n ia ’ s n ew
fa cto rie s a n d co a sta l fo rtifica tio n s an d arm s fo r h e r troops an d th e
G r e e k reb els.
A lb a n ia h as b e c o m e th e S o v ie t U n io n ’s o n ly A d r ia tic c o lo n y , an
o u tp o st fo r p la n n in g o p e ra tio n s a g a in st Y u g o s la v ia a n d G r e e c e ,
a n d p o ssib ly a lso fo r e sp io n a g e o r su b versio n in so u th ern Ita ly .
T h e S o v ie t le a d e rs a re in terested in th e co n stru c tio n o f a r a ilw a y
fro m D u r a z z o to th e Y u g o s la v fro n tie r. W h e n this lin e is c o m ­
p le te d — w h ic h w ill n ot b e fo r se v eral y e a rs— M o sc o w w ill h a v e a
fu rth e r u rg e n t m o tiv e for d e ta c h in g M a c e d o n ia from Y u g o s la v ia
— to lin k h e r A d r ia t ic ports th ro u g h B u lg a ria w ith th e B la ck
S e a.
U n fo r tu n a te ly a co m m o n p o lic y o f G r e e c e a n d Y u g o s la v ia
to w a rd s A lb a n ia is h a r d ly c o n c e iv a b le . T h e presen t leaders
o f G r e e c e re g a rd a ll A lb a n ia n s w ith u n d isc rim in a tin g n atio n a list
h a tre d . G r e e k n atio n a lists w ish to a n n e x S o u th e rn A lb a n ia —
w h ic h th e y ca ll N o rth e r n E p iru s— regard less o f th e u n d o u b te d
fa c t th a t th e o v e r w h e lm in g m a jo rity o f th e p o p u la tio n is A lb a n ia n
n o t G r e e k . T h is b e in g th e ir a im , th e y a rc n ot in terested in
36 0 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
su p p o rtin g a n ti-co m m u n ist A lb a n ia n s . T h e A lb a n ia n refu gees
in G r e e c e , w h o in c lu d e such p ro m in e n t p ersons as M u h a r r e m
B a ira k ta r, re c e iv c no h elp from A th e n s . In Y u g o s la v ia th e g a lla n t
resistan ce le a d e r an d frien d o f th e Y u g o s la v s , G a n i K r y e z iu , is
still in prison . T h e o n ly k in d o f A lb a n ia th a t T i t o w a n ts is a
T ito is t co m m u n ist c o u n try d e p e n d e n t o n Y u g o s la v ia . T h e
a ccu satio n s o f E n v e r H o x h a ’s p r o p a g a n d a th a t th e Y u g o s la v s
w ish ed to tu rn A lb a n ia in to a c o lo n y h a d a c e rta in basis o f fa ct.
A lb a n ia , th o u g h a sm all c o u n try , is a p o te n tia l k e y to g re a t
p rob lem s. H e re is a task fo r W e ste rn d ip lo m a c y . N o e ffo rt sh o u ld
be sp a red to p e rsu a d e G r e e c e , a n d , sh o u ld re la tio n s w ith T i t o
im p ro v e , Y u g o s la v ia also, to a d o p t to w a rd s A lb a n ia a p o lic y b o th
rea listic an d gen erou s.

T H E G ERM AN PRO BLEM

H a tre d an d fe a r o f G e r m a n y a re p o w e rfu l e m o tio n s th ro u g h

m ost o f E astern E u ro p e to -d a y . T h e tw o g re a t h isto rica l G e r m a n
states h a v e left a lo n g m e m o ry o f a gg re ssio n an d d o m in a tio n in
the lan ds o n th eir e astern b o rd ers. T h e P russian s e a rn e d th e h a tre d
o f th e Poles, th e A u stria n s o f th e C z e c h s, H u n g a ria n s a n d S o u th
S la vs. Past m em o ries w e re in ten sified b y th e h orrors o f th e S e co n d
W o rld W a r . O n ly tw o co u n trie s esca p e d lig h tly fro m G e r m a n
h an d s, an d these are also th e tw o w h ic h h isto ric a lly h a v e h a d
little to su ffer from G e rm a n s o f a n y k in d — R u m a n ia a n d B u lg a ria .
I f th e e m p ire o f W illia m II w as a m e n a c e to E a ste rn E u ro p e , th a t
o f H itle r w as o f cou rse in c o m p a r a b ly w orse. I t is u n d e rs ta n d a b le
th at th e E ast E u ro p e a n n e ig h b o u rs o f th e G e rm a n s d o n o t w ish to
see a n y re sto ra tio n o f G e r m a n p o w e r.
T h e P oles an d C z e c h s h a v e a sp e c ia l re a so n . T h e y h a v e e a ch
e x p e lle d m illio n s o f G e rm a n s, an d fille d w ith th e ir p e o p le la n d s
w h ose p o p u la tio n has fo r ce n tu rie s b e e n G e r m a n . A b o u t e igh t
m illio n G e rm a n s h a v e b e en d riv e n fro m E ast P ru ssia, P o m e ra n ia
an d S ilesia , an d a b o u t th re e m illio n fro m th e B o h e m ia n a n d
M o r a v ia n b o rd e rla n d s. T h e y a re n o w refu gees in ru m p G e r m a n y ,
m ost o f th em in th e W e ste rn zon es. T h e ir p resen ce is a n e c o n o m ic
b u rd e n to th e lo c a l in h a b ita n ts. T h e y a re a re m in d e r o f th e
g riev a n ce s o f th e G e r m a n n a tio n , a n d a c e n tre o f a n ti-R u s s ia n a n d
a n ti-S la v fe elin g. T h is w as n o d o u b t fo reseen b y th e S o v ie t
lead ers w h e n th e y p u t fo r w a rd th eir p la n s fo r G e r m a n y , a n d
p e rsu a d e d th e A m e r ic a n an d B ritish le a d e rs to a c c e p t th e m . B y
g iv in g th e W e ste rn territo ries to P o la n d , th e y n o t o n ly c o m p e n ­
sa ted th e Poles for th e loss o f th e te rrito r y a n n e x e d b y th e S o v ie t
 IN TERN ATION AL PROBL EMS 361
U n io n in th e E ast, b u t m a d e re c o n c ilia tio n o f P oles a n d G e rm a n s
a lm o st in c o n c e iv a b le , a n d so m ad e P o la n d a p rison er o f R u ssian
fo re ig n p o lic y . T h e e x p u lsio n o f the S u d c ta n G e rm a n s from
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia w a s e m o tio n a lly d efe n sib le b y th e h arm th a t this
m in o r ity h a d d o n e to th e o ld C z e c h o s lo v a k ia : it h ad also the m erit
fro m th e S o v ie t p o in t o f v ie w o f p la c in g C z e c h o slo v a k ia in c o m ­
p le te d e p e n d e n c e o n th e U .S .S .R . for d efe n ce o f h er frontiers.
T h is w a s sh o w n in F e b ru a ry 1948, w h e n th e h esitatio n o f Presiden t
B en eś, a n d o f th ou san d s o f ty p ic a l C z e c h s w h o h ated th e c o m ­
m un ists, c a n o n ly b e e x p la in e d b y th eir u n w illin gn ess to tak e
a c tio n w h ic h c o u ld h a v e e m b a rra sse d th e o n ly P o w e r w h ic h co u ld
d e fe n d th em a g a in st a n u ltim a te re su rg en ce o f G e rm a n y . S o
p r o fo u n d ly d id th e C z e c h s fe a r th e fu tu re th re a t to th eir in d ep en ­
d e n c e fro m a P o w e r w h ic h d id n ot e v e n exist, th a t th e y w ere
p r e p a re d in th e m e a n tim e to h a n d o v e r this v e r y in d e p e n d e n c e
to th e p u p p e ts o f a n o th e r P o w er.
B u t fo r th e S o v ie t le a d e rs it c o u ld n ot be e n o u g h to use th e b a it
o f G e r m a n territory' a n d th e b o g y o f G e r m a n re su rg en ce to tie
th e P oles a n d C z e c h s to th e m : th e y m ust h a v e a G e rm a n p o lic y
o f th e ir o w n . E v e r sin ce v ic to r y , th e S o v ie t aim has b e en S o v iet
d o m in a tio n o f G e r m a n y , w h ic h w o u ld m ea n S o v ie t d o m in a tio n
o f a ll E u ro p e . T h e first essen tial step to w ard s this a im w as th e
th o ro u g h so v ie tisa tio n o f th e ir o w n zo n e.
T h e S o v ie t z o n e h a d in 1946 a p o p u la tio n o f 17 m illio n s, a b o u t
o n e -q u a r te r o f G e r m a n y ’s to ta l p o p u la tio n , w ith in h er present
fro n tiers, o f 66 m illio n s.1
T h e p o litic a l so v ie tisa tio n o f th e S o v ie t zo n e b e g a n w h en e ach
o f its fiv e co n stitu e n t regio n s, o r L ä n d e r ,2 w as a u th o rise d , b y
d e c re e o f th e S o v ie t m ilita r y a u th o ritie s in J u ly 1945, to h a v e a
re g io n a l g o v e rn m e n t. T w o m o n th s la te r a n u m b e r o f C e n tra l
A d m in is tr a tio n s w e re set u p in B e rlin . T h e se co rresp o n d e d to the
d e p a rtm e n ts o f g o v e rn m e n ts, an d w e re d ire c te d b y G e rm a n s u n d e r
S o v ie t m ilita r y c o m m a n d . G r a d u a lly th e C e n tr a l A d m in istra tio n s
a c q u ir e d m o re a u th o r ity , a n d fo rm u la te d p o lic y , su b je ct to th e
1 T h e p o p u la tio n o f th e o th e r zo nes w as as fo llo w s: British zo n e, 22 8 m illio n ;
U n ite d S la te s zo n e , 16*7 m illio n ; F re n c h zo n e, 5-9 m illio n ; B erlin 3-2 m illio n . L a rg e
n u m b e rs o f p riso n ers-o f-w ar w ere still in A llie d ha n d s. D u rin g the n ex t th ree years
those in th e W e st w e re r e p a tria te d , b u t o n ly a sm all n u m b e r c a m e b ac k from R u ssia.
I f th e estim a te s b y th e S o v iet H ig h C o m m a n d a n d b y th e G e r m a n o rg an isatio n s c o n ­
ce rn ed — w h ic h d id not w id e ly d iffe r fro m e a c h o th e r— o f th e n u m b e r o f G e rm a n s
c a p tu r e d b y th e R e d A r m y w e re c o rre ct, th en o v er 1,500,0 00 rem a in u n a cc o u n ted
fo r. E ith e r th e y a r c d e a d o r th e y a re still so m e w h e re in the S o v ie t U n io n .
* S a x o n y , T h u r in g ia , S a x o n y - A n h a lt, M e c k le n b u rg -S c h w e rin a n d B ra n d e n b u rg .
T h e n a m e o f P russia, w ith its h isto rical asso cia tio n s b o th g o o d a n d b a d , w as d e cla re d
a b o lish e d b y a d e cis io n o f th e fo u r P o w ers. F o rm e rly Prussian te rrito ry ly in g w est o f
th e O d e r- N c is s e fro n tie r w ith P o la n d w as d iv id e d b etw een th e five L a n d e r.
362 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
a p p ro v a l o f th e S o v iet m ilita r y a u th o ritie s. T h e y b e c a m e in fa ct
th e ch a n n e l th ro u g h w h ich th e S o v ie t le a d e rs tra n sm itte d th eir
d ire ctive s to th e L a n d e r g o v e rn m e n t. T h e y b e g a n to fo rm a n
e ffe ctiv e zo n al g o v e rn m e n t.
T h e g ro w th o f th e p o w e r o f th e C e n tr a l A d m in is tra tio n s m ig h t
h a v e b een e x p e c te d to p ro v o k e resistan ce o n th e p a rt o f th e
L ä n d e r go v e rn m e n ts. T h is w as, h o w e v e r, o f little im p o rta n c e
b ecau se b o th c e n tra l a n d re g io n a l a u th o ritie s w e re in c re a sin g ly
c o n tro lled b y th e G e rm a n co m m u n ists. In A p r il 1946 th e S o c ia l
D e m o c ra tic P a rty ( S .P .D .) a n d th e C o m m u n is t P a r ty ( K .P .D .)
w ere fused, a n d form ed th e S o c ia list U n it y P a rty o f G e r m a n y
(S .E .D .) . T h is w as a c h ie v e d b y pressure a n d in tim id a tio n o f th e
so cia l d e m o c ra t leaders, to g e th e r w ith th e fa m ilia r p r o p a g a n d a
ca m p a ig n in fa v o u r o f w o rk e rs’ u n ity . T h e n e w p a r t y — lik e th e
‘ u n it e d ’ p a rtie s fo rm ed tw o y e a rs la te r in th e E ast E u ro p e a n
cou n tries— w as th e C o m m u n ist P a rty u n d e r a d iffe re n t n am e .
P o lic y , p ro g ra m m e a n d o rg a n isa tio n w e re c o m m u n ist, an d th e k e y
positions w e re h e ld b y fo rm e r m em b ers o f K .P .D . In S e p te m b e r
1946, election s w e re h e ld for m u n ic ip a l an d p a rish co u n cils
th ro u g h o u t G e rm a n y , b y a g re e m e n t o f th e F o u r P o w e rs. I n th e
S o v ie t zo n e, th e m ain pa rties c o m p e tin g w e re S .E .D ., C h ris tia n
D e m o cra ts an d L ib e r a l D e m o c ra ts. In a ll fiv e L a n d e r th e S .E .D .
v o te w as th e largest, ra n g in g fro m 48 p e r ce n t in S a x o n y , to 69
p e r ce n t in M e c k le n b u r g . In B e rlin , h o w e v e r, u n d e r F o u r-P o w e r
co n tro l, th e so cia l d em o cra ts, w h o h ad refu sed fu sio n w ith th e
co m m u n ists, w o n 48 7 p e r c e n t o f a ll vo tes, a n d S .E .D . o n ly 19 8
p e r ce n t. T h e m ost p r o b a b le e x p la n a tio n o f th e co n tra st b e tw e e n
th e results is th a t in th e zo n e th ere w as pressure o n th e e le cto rs
w h ile in B e rlin v o tin g w as free. T h e riv als o f S .E .D . in th e z o n e
in fa ct c o m p la in e d th a t th ey h ad h a d g re a t d iffic u lty in p resen tin g
ca n d id a te s in ru ra l a re as, w h ere th e a d m in is tra tio n fa v o u re d th e
S .E .D .
T h e social a n d e co n o m ic p o lic y p u rsu e d b y th e G e r m a n
a u th o ritie s in th e S o v ie t z o n e d e v e lo p e d o n th e sam e lin es as in
th e E ast E u ro p e a n ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c ie s ’ . In S e p te m b e r 1945
la n d reform d ecrees w e re issued b y th e L a n d e r g o v e rn m e n ts.
T h e reform w as in fa c t p r e p a re d b y th e C e n tr a l A d m in is tr a tio n
for A g r ic u ltu r e an d F o re stry , h e a d e d b y th e c o m m u n ist H o e rn le .
B y th e su m m e r o f 1948, 3 ,147,0 0 0 h e cta re s h a d b e e n d istrib u te d
10 5 ' 4 >73 ° p e rs o n s .1 A F a r m e rs’ M u t u a l H e lp w as set u p ( V d g B ) .

1 F ro m statem en t b y the co m m u n is t le a d e r W a lte r U lb r ic h t in Der druttcht ţiv e i-

j ihrespion, p u b lish ed b v S .F ..D . lead ersh ip , »948.
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 363
It w as c o n tro lle d b y S .E .D ., a n d resem b led sim ila r org an isa tio n s
in E astern E u ro p e . S .E .D . fir m ly co n tro lle d th e tra d e unions
( F .D .G .B .) , w h ic h b e c a m e , as in th e U .S .S .R . a n d E astern
E u ro p e , th e p r in c ip a l in stru m e n t o f g o v e rn m e n t d ire c tio n o f
la b o u r . N a tio n a lis a tio n o f in d u stry w as ca rrie d o u t in th e form o f
c o n fisc a tio n o f ‘ fascist p r o p e r t y ’ . T h is in d ire ct m eth o d w as
p referre d in o rd e r to m in im ise m id d le-class fears a n d to a v o id a n y
o b lig a tio n to c o m p e n sa te fo rm e r o w n ers. B y th e su m m e r o f 1948
99 p e r ce n t o f th e o u tp u t o f m ines, 54 p e r ce n t in m e ta llu rg y , 41
p e r c c n t in th e m eta l in d u stry , 35 p e r ce n t in ch e m ica ls a n d 32
p e r ce n t in textiles h a d b e e n n a tio n a lis e d .1 A t th e sam e tim e
re p a ra tio n s g a v e th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s a p o w e rfu l h o ld o n th e
z o n a l e c o n o m y . A p a r t fro m th e re m o v a l o f p la n t w h ich to ok p la c e
in th e e a r ly p e rio d , a n d th e d eliv e ries fro m c u rre n t p ro d u c tio n
w h ic h re m a in e d a c o n sta n t d ra in on resou rces, th ere w e re im p o r­
ta n t en terp rises w o rk in g o n G e rm a n te rrito ry so le ly fo r th e
U .S .S .R . T h e s e w e re th e so -ca lle d S o v ie t C o m p a n ie s ( S .A .G .) .
L a b o u r , b o th sk ille d a n d u n sk ille d , w a s also recru ite d for e m p lo y ­
m e n t in th e U .S .S .R .
C e n tr a lis a tio n o f g o v e rn m e n t in th e S o v ie t zo n e, a n d g ro w in g
so v ie tisa tio n o f p o litic a l e c o n o m ic a n d c u ltu ra l life, w e re a ffe cte d
b y d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e W e ste rn zon es. T h e S o v ie t a ttitu d e in
F o u r-P o w e r d iscussion s o f G e r m a n y w as in p ra c tic e , strip p e d o f
its v e r b ia g e , th a t th e S o v ie t zo n e sh ou ld be ru n e n tire ly as M o sco w
w ish e d b u t th a t th e S o v ie t U n io n sh o u ld h a v e a say in th e affairs
o f th e W e ste rn zon es in g e n e ra l a n d o f th e R u h r in p a rtic u la r.
S o v ie t d e m a n d s fo r re p a ra tio n s fro m w e ste rn G e r m a n y w e re m et
b y th e c o m p la in t o f th e W e ste rn P o w ers th a t th e y w ere b e in g
o b lig e d to s u p p o rt th e w e ste rn G e r m a n p o p u la ţio n in o rd e r th at
it sh o u ld w o rk fo r th e U .S .S .R ., in fa ct th at re p a ra tio n s to the
U .S .S .R . w e re b e in g p a id n o t b y th e G e rm a n s b u t b y th e W estern
v icto rs. T h e first co n fe re n c e o f th e C o u n c il o f F o re ig n M in isters
o n G e r m a n y , h e ld fro m 10 M a r c h to 24 A p r il 1947 in M o sc o w ,
se ttle d n o th in g . W h ile th e n e x t co n fe re n ce , h eld from 25 N o v e m ­
b e r to 15 D e c e m b e r 1947 in L o n d o n , w as sittin g, a n a lle g e d ly
r e p re s e n ta tiv e b o d y c a lle d th e G e r m a n P e o p le ’s C o n g ress w as
c re a te d in th e S o v ie t z o n e , w h ic h u n su ccessfu lly asked to be
a llo w e d to sen d a d e le g a tio n to th e c o n feren ce.
A ft e r th e fa ilu re o f th e secon d co n fe re n ce , th e d ivisio n o f
G e r m a n y , w h ic h h a d b e e n a r e a lity sin ce 1945, b e c a m e fo rm a lly
m o re d efin ite. In F e b r u a r y 1948 th e E c o n o m ic C o u n c il and
1 Der deutsch* £ weijahrespUm.
364 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
C o u n c il o f th e L a n d e r w e re set u p in F ra n k fu rt b y th e W e ste rn
P ow ers. T h e S o v ie t re p ly w as to h a n d o v e r n e w p o w e rs to a
‘ G e rm a n E c o n o m ic C o m m is s io n ’ fo r th e S o v ie t z o n e , h e a d e d b y
th e co m m u n ist R a u , assisted b y th e c o m m u n ists S e lb m a n n an d
L e u sch n e r a n d on e re p re se n ta tiv e e ach o f th e C h ris tia n D e m o c ra t
a n d L ib e ra l D e m o c ra t p arties. In M a r c h 1948 th e P e o p le ’s C o n ­
gress h e ld a secon d m ee tin g , a n d set u p a P e o p le ’s C o u n c il
(V o lk sra t) o f 400 m em b ers, o f w h o m 100 a lle g e d ly re p resen te d
W e ste rn G e rm a n y .
T h e n e x t sta ge w as th e L o n d o n co n fe re n c e o f th e th re e W e ste rn
o c c u p y in g P ow ers w ith B e lg iu m , N e th e rla n d s a n d L u x e m b u r g ,
o p e n e d in F e b ru a ry 1948 a n d c o n tin u e d in A p r il a n d M a y , w h ich
resu lted in th e a g re e m e n t to c re a te a se p a ra te c o n stitu tio n fo r
W e ste rn G e r m a n y a n d a n in te rn a tio n a l a u th o r ity for th e R u h r .
W h ile th e co n fe re n ce w as sittin g , th e P e o p le ’s C o n g re ss o rg a n ise d
a ‘ p e o p le ’s p e tit io n ’ (V o lk sb e g e h re n ) fo r G e rm a n n a tio n a l u n ity .
In J u n e c a m e th e se p a ra te c u rre n c y refo rm s in W e ste rn an d
E astern G e r m a n y a n d th e b e g in n in g o f th e B e rlin b lo c k a d e .
D u r in g th e secon d h a lf o f 1948 fu rth e r m easu res o f c e n tra lisa tio n
a n d so v ie tisa tio n in th e S o v iet z o n e in c lu d e d th e fo r m u la tio n o f a
T w o - Y e a r P la n fo r 19 4 8 -5 0 , a n n o u n c e d b y th e c o m m u n ist le a d e r
U lb r ic h t to th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e o f S .E .D . a t th e e n d o f j u n e ;
a n in v e stig a tio n an d p u rg e o f S .E .D . m em b e rsh ip — on E ast
E u ro p e a n lin es— a n n o u n ce d e a r ly in A u g u s t ; an d th e c re a tio n o f
a n e w C e n tr a l A d m in is tra tio n for P u b lic E n lig h te n m e n t ( V o lk s ­
e rk lä ru n g ) a n d P r o p a g a n d a , a n n o u n c e d a t th e e n d o f J u ly .
T h e P e o p le ’ s C o n g ress c o n tin u e d its p r o p a g a n d a fo r G e r m a n
u n ity , b y w h ic h w as o f cou rse m e a n t th e so v ie tisa tio n o f a ll
G e r m a n y . W h e n in A p r il th e R u h r a u th o r ity a n d th e W e st
G e rm a n o c c u p a tio n sta tu te w e re sign ed , a n d th e B o n n c o n stitu tio n
w as w ell on its w a y , th e P e o p le ’ s C o n g re ss o rg a n ise d e le ctio n s in
th e S o v ie t zo n e an d th e S o v ie t sccto r o f B e rlin . A sin g le list o f
ca n d id a te s w as p resen te d . It w as d o m in a te d b y S .E .D ., a n d a lso
in clu d ed re p resen ta tive s o f a n e w ly fo rm e d p a r ty ca lle d th e
N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic P a rty , c o m p o se d o f fo rm e r ‘ m in o r N a z is ’ .
V o te r s c o u ld o n ly g iv e an a ffirm a tiv e o r n e g a tiv e a n sw e r as to
w h e th e r th e y w e re fo r ‘ G e rm a n u n ity a n d a ju s t p c a c e ’ . A n
a ffirm a tiv e a n sw e r co u n te d as a v o te for th e list. T h e o fficia l
results w e re 66 p e r c e n t fo r th e list, a n d 34 p e r c e n t a g a in st. T h e
P e o p le ’s C o n g re ss o f 1,5 2 5 m em b ers th e n m et in th e S o v ie t se cto r
o f B e rlin , a n d a p p ro v e d a ‘ c o n s titu tio n ’ fo r th e w h o le o f G e r ­
m a n y . T h is p ro v id e d fo r a b ic a m e ra l le g is la tu re , c o n sistin g o f a
 INTERNATION AL PR OB LE MS 365
P e o p le ’s C h a m b e r a n d a C o u n c il o f L ä n d e r . It co n ta in e d the
g u a r a n te e s o f rig h ts a n d lib e rtie s c u sto m a ry in ‘ p o p u la r d e m o ­
c r a t i c ’ co n stitu tio n s.
T h e c u lm in a tin g sta g e w a s re a c h e d o n 7 O c t o b e r 1949, w h en
th e P e o p le ’s C o u n c il, fo rm ed from th e le g isla tu re , p ro n o u n ce d
its e lf th e g o v e rn m e n t o f th e ‘ G e rm a n D e m o c ra tic R e p u b lic ’ .
W ilh e lm P ie c k w as P resid e n t o f th e n e w re p u b lic , O t t o G ro te w o h l
w as P re m ie r, a n d W a lte r U lb r ic h t w as first V ic e -P r e m ie r . T h e
co m m u n ist e c o n o m ic exp e rts R a u a n d S e lb m a n n w e re a m o n g the
m in isters. T h e n e w g o v e rn m e n t c la im e d a u th o rity o v e r th e w h o le
o f G e r m a n y , a n d sp o n so red th e a c tiv itie s in W e ste rn G e r m a n y o f
a ‘ N a tio n a l F r o n t ’ , a g ita tin g fo r an u n ited G e rm a n y , th a t is, the
su b je c tio n o f a ll G e r m a n y to th e S o v ie t U n io n .
T h is b r ie f su rv e y sh o u ld h a v e sh o w n th a t S o v ie t p o lic y in
G e r m a n y sin ce 1945 h as h a d tw o m a in featu res, th e c re a tio n
o f a ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a t ic ' re g im e w ith in th e S o v ie t zo n e, a n d a
c a m p a ig n fo r G e r m a n u n ity , d esign e d to u n ite a ll G e rm a n y
u n d e r a re g im e o f th e S o v ie t ty p e , su b se rv ie n t to M o sco w .
F irst th e p o rtio n o f G e r m a n y o c c u p ie d b y S o v ie t troop s m ust be
so v ie tise d , th e n a S o v ie t o r ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a t ic ’ re g im e m ust be
e x te n d e d to a ll G e r m a n y . T h u s th e d o m in a tio n o f th e U .S .S .R .
o v e r G e r m a n y , an d so o v e r a ll E u ro p e , w ill be se cu re d . In the
first o b je c t th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h as b e en su ccessful, in the
se co n d it h as so fa r fa ile d .
T h e c r e a tio n o f a c e n tra lise d sta te o f 17 m illio n G e rm a n s, a n d
th e in te n s ific a tio n o f co m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a for G e rm a n u n ity ,
a re c le a r ly n ot c o m p a tib le w ith a p o lic y o f a n ti-G e rm a n n a tio n a l
h a tre d in E a ste rn E u ro p e . In d e fe re n ce to M o s c o w ’s n e w n eeds,
th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f E a ste rn E u ro p e , a n d p a r tic u la r ly those w h ic h
w e re m ost v io le n t in th e ir a n ti-G e rm a n p o lic y — P o lan d and
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia — h a v e m o d ifie d th e ir a ttitu d e to th e G e rm a n
p ro b le m .
A c o n fe re n ce o f th e F o re ig n M in isters o f th e U .S .S .R . an d all
se v en E ast E u ro p e a n ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c ie s ’ w as h e ld in W a r sa w
a t th e e n d o f J u n e 1948. T h e co n fe re n c e issued a sta te m e n t w h ich
a c c u s e d th e W e ste rn P o w ers o f re v iv in g G e r m a n y ’ s m ilita r y
p o te n tia l to se rv e th e ir im p e ria list aim s, o f to le ra tin g G e rm a n
re v isio n ism w ith re g a rd to G e r m a n y ’ s e a ste rn fro n tie r, a n d o f
e x p lo itin g th e G e r m a n p e o p le in th e in terest o f th e ir c a p ita list
m o n o p o lie s. T h e c o n fe re n c e d e m a n d e d th a t th e R u h r be c o n ­
tro lle d b y th e fo u r G r e a t P o w ers jo in t ly , th a t th e fo u r Pow ers
sh o u ld e stab lish a ‘ p ro v isio n a l d e m o c ra tic p e a c e -lo v in g g o v e rn -
366T H F. EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
m en t for th e w h o le o f G e r m a n y ’ from re p resen ta tiv e s o f ‘ d e m o ­
c r a tic pa rties an d o rg a n is a tio n s ’ , an d th a t a p e a c e tre a ty be
sign ed an d o c c u p a tio n tro op s w ith d r a w n w ith in o n e y e a r . T h u s
th e E ast E u ro p e a n go v e rn m e n ts w e re n ot o n ly d e m a n d in g resp ect
for th eir o w n in terests, w h ic h m ig h t be th re a te n e d sh o u ld w estern
G e r m a n y b e co m e a p o w e rfu l revisio n ist state, b u t w e re a lso p o sin g
as th e p ro tecto rs o f th e G e r m a n p e o p le. T h e d e m a n d for th e
e v a c u a tio n o f G e r m a n y b y a ll o c c u p a tio n troop s a t first su rprises.
B u t b e h in d it is th e assu m p tio n th a t, i f th e field w e re left c le a r , th e
su p e rio r o rg a n isa tio n o f th e p o lice force in th e S o v ie t zo n e w o u ld
soon a llo w th e co m m u n ists to o b ta in c o n tro l o f all G e r m a n y , a n d
so serve th e ca u se o f th e U .S .S .R . an d th e E ast E u ro p e a n regim es.
A t the ‘ u n ific a tio n c o n g re ss’ o f th e P o lish U n ite d W o rk e rs ’
P a rty in D e c e m b e r 1948, th e G e r m a n c o m m u n ist D a h le m re p re ­
sented S .E .D . D u rin g th e con gress th e P olish P re m ie r C y r a n ­
k ie w ic z p a id trib u te to S .E .D ., w h ic h h a d b e e n ‘ tra n sfo rm e d in to
a p a r ty o f a n ew t y p e ’ . T h e test o f G e r m a n y ’ s d e m o c ra tisa tio n ,
C y r a n k ie w ic z sa id , m ust b e its a ttitu d e to G e r m a n y ’ s eastern
frontiers. ‘ T h e S .E .D . le a d e rsh ip re c e n tly p u t this q u estio n v e r y
c le a rly b efore its m em b ers. A c a m p a ig n has b e e n sta rte d to h a v e
this fa c t re co gn ise d , a n d to p o p u la rise a m o n g th e m asses th e
a ch ie v e m e n ts a n d successes o f th e Polish p e o p le .’ D a h le m
d e c la re d : 'T h e stro n g e r P o la n d gro w s, th e m o re ra p id w ill be th e
b u ild in g o f th e n e w system in e astern G e r m a n y , an d th e soon er
w ill th e w o rk in g class in w e ste rn G e r m a n y b e a b le to p ro fit b y
th e e x a m p le o f S .E .D . ’ R e la tio n s b e tw e e n P o la n d a n d th e S o v ie t
zo n e o f G e r m a n y w e re also im p ro v e d b y th e c o n c lu sio n o f a tra d e
a g re e m e n t in M a r c h 1949. T h e v o lu m e o f tra d e b e tw e e n th e tw o
co u n trie s w as to in crea se from U .S . d o lla rs 65 m illio n in 1948 to
152 m illio n in 1949. P o lan d w o u ld b e c o m e th e p r in c ip a l tra d e
p a rtn e r o f th e zon e.
T h e con gress o f S .E .D . a t th e en d o f J a n u a ry 1949 w a s a tte n d e d
o n b e h a lf o f th e C z e c h o s lo v a k C o m m u n ist P a rty b y F ie rlin g e r. O n
his retu rn to P ra g u e h e g a v e a n in te rv ie w to th e o ffic ia l n ew s
a g e n c y C . T . K . , in w h ic h h e sa id : ‘ It is h ig h tim e th a t w e C z e c h o ­
slovaks g a v e p r a c tic a l co n sid e ra tio n to th e q u e s tio n o f G e r m a n y ,
a n d th a t n o t from a n arrow ' n a tio n a list v ie w p o in t.’ T h e p o lic y
p ro cla im e d a t th e J u n e 1948 W a r s a w co n fe re n c e w o u ld , F ie r ­
lin g e r b e lie v e d , ‘ a llo w us to fin d th e c o rr e c t a ttitu d e to w a rd s th e
n e w G e rm a n y , a n d d e fin ite ly liq u id a te th e a g e -o ld e n m it y ’
b e tw e e n C z e c h s a n d G e rm a n s. T h e best g u a r a n te e o f C z e c h o ­
slo v a k se c u rity a n d o f E u ro p e a n p e a c e w o u ld b e ‘ th e co m p le te
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 3G7
v ic to r y o f p o p u la r d e m o c r a c y in G e r m a n y ’ . F ie rlin g e r p a id
trib u te to th e le a d e rs o f S .E .D ., w h o w e re ‘ p r o u d ly professin g the
o ld a n d u n a d u lte r a te d in te rn a tio n a lis m ’ . A t th e n in th con gress o f
th e C z e c h o s lo v a k C o m m u n ist P a rty , in M a y 1949, K o p e c k y
sta ted th a t e ve n ts fa ce d C z e c h o s lo v a k co m m u n ists w ith ‘ a test
o f tru e p r o le ta ria n in te rn a tio n a lism in o u r relatio n s w ith (he
d e m o c r a tic a n d p ro gressiv e e lem en ts o f eastern G e r m a n y , w hose
s p o k e sm a n is S .E .D .’
In O c t o b e r 1949 th e ‘ P ic c k r e p u b lic ’ w as p ro m p tly recogn ised
b y P o la n d , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , H u n g a r y , R u m a n ia an d B u lg a ria .
T h u s th e G e r m a n p ro b le m is y e t a n o th e r e x a m p le o f S o v ie t and
c o m m u n ist o p p o rtu n is m . T h e co m m u n ists h ad b een th e m ost
v io le n t a postles o f h a tre d a g a in st G e r m a n y w h en th eir task w as
to r a lly su p p o rt to th e C o m m u n ist P a rty in its stru g g le for p o w e r,
a n d 100 p e r ccn t n a tio n a lism w as go o d d e m a g o g y . O n c c the
b a ttle o f h o m e p o litic s w as w o n , h o w e v e r, an d o n c c the S o v iet
le a d e rs, h a v in g m a d e su re o f th e ir g rip o n E astern E u ro p e , w ere
se e k in g triu m p h s fa rth e r a fie ld , th e p a rty lin e h ad to ch a n g e . T h e
co m m u n ists o f P o la n d , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia an d eastern G e rm a n y
m u st a ll sh ow tru e p r o le ta ria n in te rn a tio n a lism , th a t is, su b ­
o r d in a te th eir n a tio n a lism to th a t o f th e o n ly P o w e r w h o se p o licy
is in te rn a tio n a list b y d efin itio n , th e U .S .S .R .
I t h as som etim es b e en su g g e ste d in th e W e st th at th e S o v iet
g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h n e ed n o lo n g e r c a re a b o u t E ast E u ro p e a n
o p in io n , b u t w ish es to w in su p p o rters in G e rm a n y , m a y d e c id e to
g iv e b a c k to G e r m a n y th e territo ries a n n e x e d b y Poles and
C z e c h s. T h is d o e s n o t seem lik e ly . M illio n s w o u ld be on th e m o ve
a g a in , a n d th e in d u stria l a n d a g ric u ltu ra l p la n s o f P o lan d and
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , w h o se fu lfilm e n t is o f im p o rta n c e to th e U .S .S .R .,
w o u ld b e w re c k e d . It is also d o u b tfu l w h e th e r m a n y o f th e G e rm a n
re fu gees in th e W e st w o u ld w ish to re tu rn u n d e r S o v ie t ru le.
G e r m a n h a tre d o f R u ssia is b ase d n ot o n ly o n th e loss o f te rri­
to ry b u t also o n th e p a st a n d p resen t su fferin g s o f th e G e rm a n s
liv in g u n d e r S o v ie t a n d S .E .D . ru le , w h ic h a re w ell k n o w n in the
W e ste rn zon es, a n d o n th e fa te o f th e h u n d re d s o f th ou san d s o f
p riso n e rs-o f-w a r w h o h a v e d isa p p e a re d in th e d ep th s o f R u ssia.
I t w ill b e d iffic u lt fo r th e S o v ie t le a d e rs to w in th e lo v e of the
G e r m a n p e o p le .
T h is d oes n o t m e a n th a t S o v ie t a n d c o m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a
in G e r m a n y is n o t d a n g e ro u s. T h e slo g a n o f u n ity has grea t
p o w e r. S o h as th e slo g a n o f S o v ie t in v in c ib ility . S o v ie t p o lic y can
m a k e u se o f tw o ty p e s o f G e r m a n . T h e first is th e u tte rly re lia b le
368 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
to o l, th e sovietised stooge w h o is G e r m a n o n ly in la n g u a g e , an d
w ill d e v o te d ly serve th e S o v ie t sta te. W ilh e lm P ie c k a n d his
frien ds w h o h a v e su rv ive d th e v a rio u s p u rg es th a t ra v a g e d
R u ssia d u rin g th eir p e rio d o f e x ile , a re su ch tools. P e rh a p s m ore
d an g e ro u s a rc th e secon d ty p e , those G e rm a n s w h o b e lie v e th at
b y a c c e p tin g th e S o v iet regim e a n d e sta b lish in g it th ro u g h o u t
G e rm a n y , th e y w ill m ak e G e r m a n y in th e co u rse o f tim e th e
greatest S o v ie t state, th e sen io r p a rtn e r in a B e rlin -M o s c o w A x is.
T h e y b e lie v e th at on e G e rm a n is w o rth m a n y R u ssia n s, th a t
G e rm a n b ra in s a n d skill w ill in filtra te , a n d first se cre tly th en
o p e n ly d o m in a te , th e g re a t S o v ie t e m p ire . T h u s c o m m u n ist
E u ro p e w ill b e co m e a G e rm a n E u ro p e .
T h e S o v ie t lead ers a re o f co u rse a w a re o f this m e n ta lity . S till
m ore a w a re , an d n a tu ra lly a p p re h e n siv e , a re th e C z e c h a n d Polish
leaders. M ost a w a re a n d m ost a p p re h e n siv e o f a ll a re th e C z e c h
a n d Polish peop les, w h o d islik e co m m u n ism a n d d islik e G e rm a n s,
bu t a b o v e all d islik e th e c o m b in a tio n o f th e tw o .
T o p re v e n t th e so v ietisatio n o f a ll G e r m a n y is th e first p r io rity
o f a ll for B ritish a n d F re n ch p o lic y , a n d for th e E u ro p e a n p o lic y o f
th e U n ite d S tates. S o v ie t p r o p a g a n d a , w ith its a p p e a l to G e r m a n
u n ity , its a tta ck s o n A n g lo -S a x o n business in terests, a n d its
e x p lo ita tio n o f e co n o m ic d isco n te n t in th e W e ste rn zo n es, is
d a n g e ro u s. B u t it c a n b e co u n tere d b y no less p o w e rfu l a rg u m e n ts.
W e ste rn statesm en m ust sh ow th e G e rm a n p e o p le th a t th e c h o ice
is not b e tw e e n d ivisio n a n d u n ity b u t b e tw e e n a d e m o c ra tic
system , n o w in stalled in tw o -th ird s o f G e r m a n y a n d on e d a y to be
in stalle d in th e rest, an d a S o v ie t d ic ta to rs h ip , n o w in sta lle d in
o n e -th ird o f G e r m a n y a n d a im in g a t th e co n q u e st o f th e rest.
W e ste rn statesm en m u st sh o w th e F re n c h p e o p le th a t th e c h o ic e
is not b e tw e e n a w e a k G e r m a n y th a t w ill be a v a c u u m in th e
h eart o f E u ro p e a n d a stro n g G e r m a n y th a t w ill b e a m e n a ce to
p e a ce , b u t b e tw e e n a p e a c e fu l a n d in d u strio u s G e r m a n y in ­
te g ra te d in to W e ste rn E u ro p e a n d a n aggre ssiv e to ta lita ria n
m ilita rist G e r m a n y as a sp e a rh e a d o f S o v ie t d riv e to w o rld
con q u est.
A few w ord s a re n eed ed in co n clu sio n o n th e sm a lle r o f th e
G e rm a n states, A u stria . U n lik e G e r m a n y , A u s tr ia h as h a d sin ce
1945 a g o v e rn m e n t recogn ised b y a ll fo u r P ow ers. T h o u g h th e
c o u n try is d iv id e d in to fo u r o c c u p a tio n zon es, a n d V ie n n a in to
fo u r o c c u p a tio n sectors, th e a u th o r ity o f th e A u s tr ia n g o v e rn m e n t
is re co gn ise d th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try . T h e S o v ie t zo n e o f A u s tria
h as n ot b e en so vietised lik e th e S o v ie t zo n e o f G e r m a n y . T h e
 INTERNATIONAL PROBL EMS 36 9
S o v ie t a u th o ritie s som etim es in te rfe re w ith the w o rk o f A u stria n
o fficials, a n d th ere h a v e b e e n v a rio u s irreg u la ritie s, in c lu d in g k id ­
n a p p in g . B u t th ere h as b e e n n o a tte m p t to set u p a S o v iet p o litica l
system . T h e e c o n o m ic p o sition o f th e U .S .S .R ., h o w e v e r, is very
stro n g . T h e S o v ie t c la im to th e D a n u b e S h ip p in g C o m p a n y a n d to
60 p e r c e n t o f the. o u tp u t o f th e Z is te rs d o r f oilfields w as recogn ised
b y th e W e ste rn P ow ers a t th e Paris co n fe re n ce o f M a y 1949.
T h e S o v ie t U n io n w as also to re c e iv e a sum o f U .S . d o lla rs 150
m illio n fro m A u s tr ia , to b e p a id in free ly co n v e r tib le c u rre n c y
o v e r a p e rio d o f six y e a rs, in re tu rn fo r som e 280 fa ctories w h ich
h a d b e e n a d m in iste re d b y th e S o v ie t a u th o ritie s sin ce 1945 on
th e g ro u n d th a t th e y w e re G e r m a n p ro p e rty . T h e c o n d itio n in
w h ich th ese fa cto rie s w e re to be re tu rn e d , a n d th e d efin itio n o f
60 p e r ce n t o f o il o u tp u t, w e re lik e ly to ca u se fu rth e r d ispu tes in
fu tu re .
A p a r t from h er e c o n o m ic aim s, th e S o v ie t U n io n ’s m ain
in te re st in A u s tr ia w as fo r so m e tim e th e fa c t th at th e presen ce o f
h e r o c c u p a tio n tro op s th ere e n title d h er to keep troop s o n the
lin es o f c o m m u n ic a tio n in H u n g a r y a n d R u m a n ia , an d so
e x e rcise in d ire c t pressu re o n b o th th ose co u n tries. S in ce th e su m ­
m e r o f 1948, h o w e v e r, th e s o v ie tis a tio n o fb o th co u n tries h ad go n e
so fa r th a t S o v ie t tro op s w e re n o lo n g e r n eed ed to en fo rce it.
T h u s A u s tria is o f m in o r im p o rta n c e to S o v ie t p o lic y . S h e is
ra th e r a b a r g a in in g c o u n te r to o b ta in con cession s from th e
W e ste rn P o w ers in o th e r a n d m o re im p o rta n t regio n s th an an
o b je c t o f p o lic y in herself. T h is d oes n ot o f co u rse m ea n th at th e
S o v ie t le a d e rs h a v e re n o u n c ed th e so v ietisatio n o f A u stria , o n ly
th a t it is lo w o n th e list o f p rio ritie s. S o v ie t p r o p a g a n d a w ill o f
co u rse co n tin u e its su b v e rs iv e efforts. In p a r tic u la r it w ill seek to
u n d e rm in e th e A u s tr ia n S o c ia list P a rty , to c re a te w ith in it a p r o ­
co m m u n ist fa ctio n . It w ill a lso m ak e th e best o f th e a rg u m e n t th at
A u s t r ia ’s tra d e m ark e ts lie ra th e r in th e D a n u b e v a lle y th a n in the
W e st, a n d th a t she sh o u ld th erefo re d r a w clo ser to th e 'p o p u la r
d e m o c r a c ie s ’ a n d re ly less o n th e A n g lo -S a x o n im perialists.
T h e E ast E u ro p e a n c o u n try m ost in terested in th e fate o f
A u s tr ia sin ce 1945 h as b e en Y u g o s la v ia . In A u stria n C a r in th ia
th ere is a su b sta n tia l S lo v e n e m in o rity , a n d in th e p ro v in c e o f
B u rg e n la n d th ere a rc som e th ousan d s o f C ro a ts. Y u g o s la v ia
d e m a n d e d th at the territory’ in h a b ite d b y S lo v e n e s be c e d ed to
Y u g o s la v ia . H e r in te rp re ta tio n o f th e lim its o f this te rrito ry has o f
co u rse b e e n v e r y lib e ra l. T h e s e S la v p o p u la tio n s a fter th e First
W o r ld W a r v o te d b y p le b isc ite to re m a in in A u stria . T h e Y u g o ­
370 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
sla v g o v e rn m e n t, h o w e v e r, a rg u e d th a t th e e x p e rie n c e o f th e d ic ­
tatorsh ip s first o f D ollfu ss an d S c h u s c h n ig g , an d th e n o f H itle r, has
d estro ye d th e c o n fid e n ce o f these m in o rities in A u s tr ia , a n d h as
m ad e th em w ish to jo in th eir b ro th ers across th e fro n tie r. T h e issue
has b een c o m p lic a te d b y id e o lo g ic a l co n flic ts. M a n y S lo v e n e s w h o
m ig h t on n a tio n a l gro u n d s w ish to jo in Y u g o s la v ia a re d e te rr e d as
C a th o lic s b y th e k n o w le d g e th a t Y u g o s la v ia h as a c o m m u n ist d ic ­
tato rsh ip . B u t th e re a l reason fo r th e o p p o sitio n o f th e W e ste rn
P ow ers to th e Y u g o s la v c la im is p r o b a b ly th e ir re a c tio n a g a in st th e
c a m p a ig n o f h a t ; an d in su lts so lo n g c o n d u c te d b y th e Y u g o s la v
go v e rn m e n t a g a in st th e W e ste rn P o w ers, a n d b y th e lo n g
series o f p ro vo ca tio n s, in cid en ts, sh o otin gs a n d e sp io n a g e c o m ­
m itted b y Y u g o s la v sold iers a n d a ge n ts a lo n g th e b o rd e r b e tw e e n
Y u g o s la v ia an d th e B ritish zo n e o f A u stria . T h e m a n y cases o f
arrests, a b d u ctio n s, m a ltre a tm e n t a n d lo n g d e te n tio n in Y u g o s la v
gaols o f B ritish so ld iers se rv in g a lo n g th e fro n tie r h a v e ca u se d
sp ecia l ra ge . In v ie w o f this fe e lin g , it w o u ld h a v e b e e n im p o ssib le
for th e British re p resen ta tive s in V ie n n a to su p p o rt th e Y u g o s la v
case. T h e o p p o sitio n o f B ritish a n d A m e ric a n s o f c o u rse o n ly
co n v in c e d th e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t o f th e sin ister an d r e a c tio n a ry
aim s o f th e A n g lo -A m e r ic a n c a p ita lists, m on o p o lists a n d im p e r ­
ialists. W h e n , h o w e v e r, th e g re a t S o v ie t U n io n also a b a n d o n e d
th em , th e y felt e v e n g re a te r bittern ess.
A m ore d e ta c h e d v ie w o f th e p r o b le m m ak es o n e sy m p a th ise
to a co n sid e ra b le d eg re e w ith th e Y u g o s la v s , a n d re g re t th a t th e y
h a v e p la y e d th eir h a n d w ith su ch b o o rish in c o m p e te n c e . T h e
B ritish th in k o f A u s tria in term s o f p le a sa n t A lp in e h o lid a y s an d
e ve n in gs at th e V ie n n a o p e ra . T h e y h a v e fo u n d A u stria n s c h a r m ­
in g co m p an io n s. T h e y h a v e n o t e x p e rie n c e d o c c u p a tio n b y
A u stria n troops. T h e y d o n o t k n o w o f th e cru e ltie s c o m m itte d b y
A u s tria n troop s in S e rb ia in th e F irst W o rld W a r . T h e y fo rge t
th a t H itle r w as a n A u stria n , a n d th a t m a n y o f his a b lest a d m in i­
strators an d also m a n y o f th e m ost h id e o u s m onsters o f N a z i
c ru e lty w e re A u stria n s. A m o n g th e first m a y b e m e n tio n e d
N c u b a c h c r , H itle r’ s itin e ra n t m in ister in th e B a lk a n s, a m o n g th e
secon d K a lte n b r u n n e r , th e c h ie f u n d e r H im m le r o f th e w h o le
R e ic h se cu rity p o lice m a c h in e , a n d G lo b o ts c h n ig g , o n e o f th e
m a in o rg an isers o f m ass m u rd e r in P o la n d . I t w o u ld o f co u rse b e
u n fa ir to tre a t these m en as ty p ic a l A u stria n s, a n d to ig n o re
th e n o b le c u ltu ra l tra d itio n le ft b y im p e ria l A u s tria , o r th e n o b le
d e m o c ra tic tra d itio n o f V ie n n a ’ s so cia list w o r k in g class. B u t it is
ju s t as u n fa ir to forget th e lo n g tra d itio n o f A u s tr ia n a ggre ssio n
 INTERNATIONAL PR OB LE MS 371
a n d im p e ria lism , to fo rg e t th a t A u s tria has a lw a y s b e en th e sou th ­
e aste rn b ra n c h o f G e r m a n e x p a n sio n . T h e Y u g o sla v s , o u r allies in
tw o w o rld w ars, h a v e b e e n th e v ic tim s o f th at e xp an sio n . I f w e are
u n a b le to g iv e th em sa tisfa ctio n in th e A u stria n p e a ce tre a ty , at
least w e sh o u ld re frain fro m m o ra lisin g a b o u t th eir a ttitu d e to
A u stria .
 C H A P T E R FO U R TE E N

S IN C E S T A L IN

N the P o p u la r D c m o c ra c ics, th e real d istrib u tio n o f p o litic a l

I p o w e r, an d the re a l a im s o f so c ia l p o lic y , as fir m ly e stab lish e d

b y th e end o f 19 5 1 , w e re n ot su b sta n tia lly m o d ifie d in the
fo llo w in g th ree a n d a h a lf y e a rs. T h e r e w e re , h o w e v e r, som e
c h a n g e s in the stru ctu re o f g o v e rn m e n t, in th e p rio ritie s o f
e co n o m ic p o lic y , an d in the to p p erson n el. T h e se w e re fo r th e m ost
p a rt co n n e cte d w ith even ts in the S o v ie t U n io n . In Y u g o s la v ia
th ere w e re im p o rta n t c h a n g e s in social a n d e c o n o m ic p o lic y , an d
serious d isag reem en ts on the role o f the C o m m u n ist P a rty in p u b lic
life. In G r e e c e the rise o f a n e w p o litic a l p a r ty to p o w e r a ro u se d
h opes o f fa r-re a c h in g reform s. In fo reig n p o lic y , th ere w e re fu rth e r
d ev e lo p m e n ts in b o th the m a in sectors a ffe c tin g E aste rn E u ro p e
— th e B a lk a n a n d the G e rm a n . T h e se su b jects w ill b e b rie fly
discussed in turn .

T H E P O P U L A R DEM O CRACIES

P o la n d a n d R u m a n ia re ce iv ed n e w C o n s titu tio n s in 1 9 5 2 .' T h e

Polish d o c u m e n t a b o lish ed the o ffice o f P resid e n t o f th e R e p u b lic ,
a n d re p la c e d it b y the c o lle c tiv e p resid e n c y o f th e S ta te C o u n c il.
T h is b o d y w as n ow to consist o f a p resid e n t, tw o v ice -p re sid e n ts,
a se cre ta ry an d ele ve n m em b ers. Its co m p o sitio n a n d fu n ctio n s
w e re th us b ro u g h t still clo se r to those o f th e P resid iu m o f the
S u p re m e S o v iet o f the U .S .S .R . a n d to th e p resid ia o f th e n a tio n a l
p a rlia m e n ts o f the o th e r P o p u la r D e m o cra c ie s. In th e R u m a n ia n
d o cu m e n t the m a in in n o v a tio n w a s th e c re a tio n o f a n H u n g a r ia n
A u to n o m o u s R e g io n , w ith its c e n tre a t M a ro s v á sá r h e ly ( T â r g u
M u reş) an d co m p risin g the S z é k e ly d istricts o f sou th -ea st T r a n ­
sy lv a n ia , w h o se p o p u la tio n is a lm o st e x c lu s iv e ly H u n g a r ia n . T h is
fo r m a lly reflects the a c c e p ta n c e o f S o v ie t n a tio n a lity p o lic y
to w a rd s th e n a tio n a l m in o rities in R u m a n ia , w h ic h h a d in fa ct
b een in force e v e r since 194 5. A p a r t fro m this b o th C o n s titu tio n s
exp ressed , in m o re e m p h a tic term s th an h ith e rto , the su b je ctio n
o f th eir co u n trie s to the U .S .S .R . T h e P o lish d o c u m e n t’s P re a m b le
1 V o te d b y th e P olish p a rlia m e n t o n 22 J u ly , b y th e R u m a n ia n o n 24 S e p te m b e r.

372
 SINCE ST AL IN 373
ta te d : ‘ T h e h isto ric v ic to ry o f th e U .S .S .R . o v e r fascism lib e ra te d
Polish soil, e n a b le d th e Polish w o rk in g p e o p le to g a in p o w e r, a n d
m a d e p ossib le th e re b irth o f P o la n d w ith in n e w ju st fro n tie rs .’
T h e R u m a n ia n P re a m b le asserted th a t ‘frien d sh ip an d a llia n c e
w ith th e g re a t S o v ie t U n io n , its su p p o rt a n d its disin terested
a n d fr a te rn a l a id , assure th e in d e p e n d e n c e , so v e re ig n ty , d e v e lo p ­
m en t a n d p rogress o f th e R u m a n ia n P e o p le ’s R e p u b lic ’ . N e ith e r
C o n s titu tio n b ro u g h t a n y c h a n g e in th e d istrib u tio n o f real
p o w e r.
T h e m ost im p o rta n t ca su a ltie s a m o n g c o m m u n ist lead ers w ere
in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia an d R u m a n ia .
S la n s k y , C le m e n tis a n d tw e lv e oth ers w e re p u b lic ly tried at the
en d o f N o v e m b e r 1952 fo r treason , s a b o ta g e a n d e sp io n a ge on
b e h a lf o f th e W est. E le v e n o f th e fo u rte e n a ccu sed w ere J e w s, and
th e w h o le afTair h ad an u n m is ta k a b ly a n ti-S e m itic fla v o u r. Both
th e p r in c ip a l d e fe n d a n ts an d n in e o th ers w e re h a n g e d . T h e p r e ­
sen ce o f C le m e n tis in this g r o u p w as d iffic u lt to u n d e rsta n d . H is
re a l o ffe n ce w as S lo v a k n a tio n a lism , n o t co sm o p o lita n ism , a n d he
w a s n o t a J e w . H is tw o close associates, H u sa k a n d N o v o m e sk y ,
re a p p e a r e d in p u b lic o n ly in A p r il 1954, w h e n th e y w e re sen ten ced
to p rison , re sp e c tiv e ly fo r life an d fo r ten years, on ch a rg e s o f
S lo v a k se p a ra tism .
In R u m a n ia th e v ic tim s w'ere A n a P a u k e r, V a s ile L u c a
(M in is te r o f F in a n c e ) a n d T e o h a r i G e o rg escu (M in iste r o f
I n te rio r). A ll th re e w e re re m o v e d fro m a ll im p o rta n t posts in
th e g o v e rn m e n t o r th e p a r ty h ie ra r c h y . L u c a w as, h o w e v e r,
tre a te d m u ch m o re se v e r e ly th an th e oth ers. I t w a s a lle g e d
th a t he h a d su rro u n d e d h im se lf w ith e n em ies o f th e p e o p le,
d e lib e r a te ly p r o te cte d k u lak s, a n d sa b o ta g e d in d u stria l d e v e lo p ­
m en t. H e w as a rre ste d , a n d w as e v e n tu a lly trie d , c o n d em n e d
a n d e x e c u te d in O c t o b e r 1954. S u rp risin g ly , it w a s a n n o u n c e d
o n 14 A p r il 1954 th a t P ă tră ş c a n u (w h o h ad b een d isgra ce d
a lr e a d y in 1948 fo r n a tio n a lism ) h a d b een tried fo r treason and
e x e c u te d .
T h e se p a ra tio n o f th e su p re m e c o m m a n d in g o v e rn m e n t and
in th e C o m m u n is t P a rty , w h ic h to ok p la c e in th e S o v ie t U n io n
a fte r S t a lin ’s d e a th , w h e n these offices w e re d iv id e d b e tw e e n
M a le n k o v a n d H ru s h c h o v , w as im ita te d in E aste rn E u ro p e in
th e fo llo w in g m o n th s. It first o c c u rre d in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , for
e x c e p tio n a l reason s. G o ttw a ld w e n t to M o sc o w to a tte n d S t a lin ’s
fu n e ra l. O n his re tu rn to P ra g u e it w as a n n o u n c e d th a t he h ad
c a u g h t p n e u m o n ia , a n d o n 14 M a r c h 1953 th a t h e w as d ea d .
374 THF- EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
H e w as su cce e d e d as P resid en t b y Z á p o to c k y , w h o w a s re p la c e d
as P rem ie r b y S iro k y . G o t t w a ld ’s fo r m e r office o f C h a ir m a n o f
th e P a rty w as n o t fille d , b u t the office o f ist s e c re ta ry w a s g iv e n
to A n to n in N o v o tn y . U n d e r th e p resen t C o n s titu tio n o f C z e c h o ­
slo v a k ia th e o ffic c o f P resid e n t p r o b a b ly co n fers m o re re a l p o w e r
th an th a t o f P rem ie r. T h is h ad c e rta in ly b e en so in G o t t w a ld ’s
lifetim e , a n d th ere seem ed n o reason to b e lie v e th a t it h ad
c h a n g e d . It lo o k ed as i f the tw o m ost p o w e rfu l p erso n s in the
c o u n try w e re n o w Z á p o to c k y a n d N o v o tn y . O n 4 J u ly 1953 it w as
a n n o u n c e d in B u d a p e st th a t R á k o si h ad g iv e n u p th e P rem ie rsh ip
to Im re N a g y . T h e c h a n g e w as a c c o m p a n ie d b y the a n n o u n c e ­
m en t o f fa r-re a c h in g refo rm s in e c o n o m ic , so cia l a n d a d m in istra ­
tiv e a ffa irs, a n d fo r th e n e x t m o n th s R á k o s i re m a in e d v e r y m u ch
in th e b a c k g ro u n d , th o u g h h e k e p t th e o ffic c o f ist s e c re ta ry o f th e
P a r ty .
T h e d ivisio n o f offices in th e o th e r P o p u la r D e m o c ra c ie s took
p la c e o n ly in th e fo llo w in g y e a r . T h e p a tte r n w a s n o t u n ifo rm , fo r
in tw o co u n trie s th e p re -e m in e n t le a d e r k e p t his p a r ty post a n d
su rre n d e re d th e p rem ie rsh ip , w h ile in th e o th e r tw o he p referre d
th e p rem ie rsh ip to the ist se c re ta ry sh ip . A t th e C o n g re ss o f the
P olish U n ite d W o rk e rs’ P a rty , h eld from 10 to 17 M a r c h 1954,
B ie ru t g a v e u p th e p rem ie rsh ip to C y r a n k ie w ic z , w h o h a d h eld
this post fro m 1947 to 1952. O n 20 J u ly 1954 it w a s a n n o u n ce d
th at E n v e r H o x h a h ad g iv e n u p the A lb a n ia n p re m ie rsh ip to
M e h m e t S h e h u . In B u lg a ria , a t th e six th C o n g re ss o f th e P a rty ,
h e ld in F e b r u a r y 1954, C h e r v e n k o v g a v e u p th e ist s e c re ta ry sh ip
to T o d o r Z h ik o v , w h ile re m a in in g P re m ie r. In R u m a n ia it w as
a n n o u n c e d o n 20 A p r il 1954 th a t G h e o rg h iu -D e j h a d g iv e n u p
th e is t se c re ta ry sh ip to G h e o rg h e A p o sto l, w h ile re m a in in g
P rem ie r. T h e title o f G e n e ra l S e c r e ta r y o f th e P a r ty w a s a b o lish ed
th ro u g h o u t th e P o p u la r D e m o c ra c ie s.
T h e in flu e n ce o f e ve n ts in th e S o v ie t U n io n o n th e P o p u la r
D e m o cra c ie s c a n be seen o n ly in v e r y g e n e ra l term s. T h e stro n g ly
a n ti-se m itic fla v o u r o f th e S la n s k y tria l, an d th e r a th e r less p r o ­
n o u n c e d a n ti-se m itic e le m e n t in th e m ild e r d isg ra c e o f A n a
P a u k e r, in d ic a te som e c o n n c c tio n w ith th e a n ti-se m itic c a m p a ig n
in th e S o v ie t U n io n w h ic h c u lm in a te d in th e ‘ D o c to r s ’ P lo t ’ a ffa ir
o f e a r ly 1953. P r o b a b ly th e best h y p o th e sis is th a t th e S o v ie t
c a m p a ig n w a s d ire c te d a g a in st B e ria , a n d th a t it h a d a t least
stro n g su p p o rt fro m H ru sh c h o v as w e ll as th e a u th o r ity o f S ta lin .
It is lik e ly th a t B e r ia ’s r e c o v e ry a fte r S t a lin ’s d e a th , a n d th e d is­
o w n in g o f th e D o c to r s ’ P lo t, sa ve d A n a P a u k e r fro m S la n s k y ’s
 SINCE ST AL IN 375
fa te . T h e fa ll o f B eria fo u r m o n th s la te r w as n ot fo llo w e d b y a
r e v iv a l o f an ti-se m itism in th e S o v ie t U n io n : on the c o n tra ry ,
R y u m in , th e M .V . D . o ffic ia l a lle g e d to b e resp onsible fo r fa k in g
th e p lo t, w as h im se lf e x e c u te d m ore th an a y e a r la ter. T h o u g h
P a u k e r h as su rv iv e d , G h e o rg h iu -D c j felt h im se lf stro n g en o u g h ,
o r w a s a u th o rise d b y M o sc o w , to e x e cu te L u c a a n d to polish o f f
P â tră s c a n u a t th e sam e tim e. In P ra g u e th e S la n s k y w in g h ad
a lr e a d y b e en d e stro y e d , b u t Z á p o to c k y d ec id e d to g iv e fo rm a l
sa n ctio n to th e d es tru ctio n o f th e rig h t w in g o f S lo v a k n ation alists.
O n e co n se q u e n c e o f th e fa ll o f B e ria w as th e flig h t to the W est
o f a P olish p o lice o fficia l n a m e d Ś w ia tło , w h o m ad e a series o f
se n sa tio n a l re v e la tio n s o n th e le a d in g p erso n a lities in th e Polish
p a r ty , a n d o n th e p o w e rs a n d a c tio n o f th e p o lice. H is d efe ctio n
le d to th e release, re sp e c tiv e ly in W a r sa w a n d B u d a p e st, o f th e
A m e r ic a n b ro th e rs H e rm a n a n d N o e l F ie ld . T h e p u b lic adm ission
b y th e P olish a n d H u n g a r ia n g o v e rn m e n ts th a t th e F ie ld s h ad
b e en u n ju s tly a rre ste d , ca st d o u b ts, eve n fo r th e m ost o rth o d o x
c o m m u n ist m in d , on th e tria l o f R a jk in 1949, in w h ich N o e l
F ie ld h a d b e en n a m e d .
T h e fa ll o f M a le n k o v in F e b r u a r y 1955 w as fo llo w e d b y the
d isg ra c e o f th e H u n g a r ia n P rem ie r, Im re N a g y , w h o o f a ll the
E ast E u ro p e a n le a d e rs h ad b een m ost c le a r ly a ssociated w ith
th e p o licie s o f th e d e fe a te d S o v ie t le a d e r. O n 20 F e b r u a r y it w as
a n n o u n c e d th a t he w as serio u sly ill. O n 18 A p r il it w as a n n o u n c e d
th a t N a g y h a d b e en re m o v e d fro m the P rem ie rsh ip an d from
m e m b e rsh ip o f b o th th e P o litb u ro a n d th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e
o f th e P a r ty . T h e M in is te r o f D e fe n c e , M ih á ly F a rk a s, w as also
re m o v e d fro m his g o v e rn m e n t an d p a r ty posts.

T h e ‘ N e w C o u r s e ’ in tro d u c e d in S o v ie t p o lic y w as fo llo w e d in

th e P o p u la r D e m o c ra c ie s. N e w p ro g ra m m es w e re a n n o u n c e d in
sp eech es b y Im re N a g y on 1 J u ly 1953, b y G h e o rg h iu -D e j on
23 A u g u s t, b y C h e r v e n k o v on g S e p te m b e r, b y S iro k y on 14 S e p ­
te m b e r a n d b y B ie ru t o n 29 O c to b e r . C h e r v e n k o v ’s in n o va tio n s
w e re in fo reign p o lic y a n d in c h u r c h a ffa irs, b u t he h ad few
e c o n o m ic con cession s to o ffe r e ith e r to peasan ts o r to w ork ers.
T h e o th e r fo u r, h o w e v e r, p rom ised g re a tly in crea sed assistance to
a g r ic u ltu r e a n d m o re co n su m e rs’ good s.
M u c h th e m ost r a d ic a l p ro g ra m m e w as th a t pro m ised b y N a g y .
H e a d m itte d th a t th e revised P la n o f 1951 w a s p la c in g fa r too
h e a v y a b u rd e n on th e c o u n tr y ’s resou rces. T h e g o v e rn m e n t n o w
376 TH E E A ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

in te n d e d ‘ to c u t o u r c o a t a c c o rd in g to o u r c lo t h ’ , an d to d e v o te
fa r m ore a tte n tio n to lig h t in d u str y a n d c o n su m e rs’ go o d s. T h e
g o v e rn m e n t w o u ld g iv e g re a te r m a te ria l a id to a g r ic u ltu r e , n ot
o n ly to c o lle c tiv e a n d sta te farm s b u t a lso to in d iv id u a l p e a san t
o w n ers. N o n e w c o lle c tiv e farm s w o u ld be fo rm e d , a n d in d iv id u a l
p easan ts w o u ld be a llo w e d to le a v e c o llec tiv e s. W h e re a m a jo rity
o f c o lle c tiv e fa rm m em b e rs d esired it, a c o lle c tiv e fa rm m ig h t
d issolve itself. N a g y also pro m ised reform s in e d u c a tio n a n d b e tte r
tre a tm e n t o f th e in te llig e n tsia . In te rn m e n t c a m p s a n d sp e cia l
p o lice trib u n a ls w e re to be a b o lish ed . D u r in g th e su m m e r th ere
w as a ste a d y e x o d u s from th e co lle c tiv e farm s, resisted b y lo c a l
p a r ty officials, in som e cases o n ly b y fruitless e x h o rta tio n , in o th ers
b y force. A fte r fo u r m on th s w ith o u t a p u b lic a p p e a r a n c e , R á k o s i
o n 31 O c t o b e r add ressed a p le n a r y m ee tin g o f th e C e n t r a l C o m ­
m itte e o f th e P a rty . F ro m his sp eech it e m e rg e d th a t a b o u t 10
p e r ce n t o f th e c o lle c tiv e farm s h a d d isso lv ed th em selves, b u t also
th a t th e a tte m p ts o f p easan ts to le a v e c o lle c tiv e s w e re b e in g
o b stru cte d . T h o u g h R á k o s i’s g e n e ra l ton e sh o w e d m u c h less
e n th u sia sm fo r th e N e w C o u r se th a n N a g y h a d d isp la y e d , h e
insisted th a t th e n e w con cession s m u st b e fa ith fu lly c a rrie d o u t b y
P a rty m em b ers. T h e N e w C o u rse w a s c o n tin u e d d u r in g 1954 , a n d
visitors to H u n g a r y from th e W est re p o rted a m u c h free r a tm o ­
sp h e re , a n d a re m a rk a b le w illin gn ess o f th e a v e ra g e c itiz e n o p e n ly
to criticise th e g o v e rn m e n t. P o litic a l priso n ers w e re u n d o u b te d ly
released in la rge n u m b e rs, a n d eve n in c lu d e d su ch e m in e n t persons
as the so cialist le a d e r M iss A n n a K é t h ly . T h e fa ll o f N a g y in th e
sp rin g o f 1955, h o w ev e r, seem ed to h e ra ld a re v ersa l o f p o lic y .
T h e o ffic ia l sta te m e n t th a t a n n o u n c e d his d isg ra c e , a c c u s e d h im
o f o p p o sin g the d e v e lo p m e n t o f h e a v y in d u stry a n d th e fo rm a tio n
o f co lle c tiv e farm s, a n d o f u sin g th e g o v e rn m e n t m a c h in e as
a n ‘ in stru m e n t o f o p p ressio n a g a in st the P a r t y ’ . I t lo o k e d as i f
a n e w p e rio d o f in ve stm e n t in h e a v y in d u stry , c o lle c tiv is a tio n
a n d P a rty o rth o d o x y w as to b e g in , w ith R á k o s i a g a in in fu ll
co n tro l.
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia h ad su ffered fo r som e tim e fro m la b o u r sh o rta g e
an d from in su ffic ien t o u tp u t p e r w o rk e r. In 1952 th e m in in g a n d
m e ta llu rg ic a l in d u stry o f th e O s t r a v a B a sin p r o v e d e s p e c ia lly
u n sa tisfa cto ry . In the su m m e r th e g o v e rn m e n t sta g e d tw o sh ow
trials o f te ch n icia n s, tra d e u n io n o fficials a n d m a n a g e rs fro m this
re gio n on c h a rg e s o f s a b o ta g e . B u t n e ith e r rep risals n o r e x h o r ta ­
tions co u ld o v e rc o m e e c o n o m ic facts. H ig h w a g e s fo r e x c e p tio n a l
o u tp u t w e re a n in a d e q u a te in c e n tiv e , fo r th e sh o rta g e o f c o n su m e r
 SINCE STAI-IN 377
go o d s d e p riv e d m o n e y w a g e s o f m u c h o f th eir v a lu e . F a r from
w o rk in g h a rd e r, th e w o rk e rs w o rk e d less an d less. T h e go v e rn m e n t
d e c id e d to a p p ly the stick . O n 30 M a y 1953 it in tro d u c ed a
‘c u r r e n c y re fo r m ’ , w h ic h d e p riv e d p ea san ts a n d skilled w o rk ers o f
th e sa vin gs in u n sp e n t ca sh w h ic h th ey h ad a c c u m u la te d . T h e
w o rk e rs w o u ld n o w h a v e to w o rk h a rd e r for lo n g e r hou rs, and th ey
w o u ld h a v e to sen d th eir w iv e s a n d a d o le sce n t c h ild re n to w o rk .
T h is n e w in ju stice c o m b in e d w ith th e w id esp re ad fe e lin g th at since
S ta lin a n d G o ttw a ld w e re d e a d th e re g im e w as w e a k e r, to p ro d u c e
a p o p u la r e x p lo sio n . A t th e b e g in n in g o f J u n e 1953 th ere w as a
g r e a t w o rk e rs’ d e m o n stra tio n in P lze n . T h e c ro w d s o c c u p ie d the
T o w n F la il, d isp la y e d p h o to g ra p h s o f Presiden ts M a sa ry k an d
Bene?, a n d d e m a n d e d th e re m o v a l o f the g o v e rn m e n t. I n d iv id u a l
sold iers in u n ifo rm jo in e d th em . T h e le a d in g ro le o f th e w ork ers,
a n d the e m p h a sis on p o litic a l ra th e r th an e c o n o m ic slogan s, re c a ll
th e e ven ts w h ic h fo llo w e d in B erlin a n d th ro u g h o u t th e S o v ie t
zo n e o f G e r m a n y tw o w eeks la te r, b u t it d oes n ot seem th at th ere
w as a n y c o -o rd in a tio n b e tw e e n th em . T h e C z e c h w o rk ers la ck ed
a n y u n ifie d c o m m a n d , o r a n y c e n tra l a n d accessib le so u rce o f
in fo r m a tio n , su ch as th e G e rm a n w o rk ers la te r h ad in the R .I .A .S .
ra d io sta tio n in W est B e rlin . T h e g o v e rn m e n t b ro u g h t u p troop s
fro m P r a g u e a n d q u ic k ly cru sh ed the rising. U n c o n fir m e d reports
sp o ke o f sim ila r d iso rd ers in the O s t r a v a re g io n . B u t these sto rm y
e ve n ts p r o v id e d stro n g reason?, in a d d itio n to th e g e n e ra l d u t y to
fo llo w th e S o v ie t m o d e l, fo r th e a d o p tio n o f a N e w C o u rse in
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . In P o la n d co n d itio n s w e re b a sic a lly sim ila r, w h ile
in R u m a n ia th e p lig h t o f a g ric u ltu re w as p r o b a b ly even w orse
th a n in H u n g a r y . T h u s in a ll fo u r co u n trie s the N e w C o u rse h ad
b o th in te rn a l a n d e x te rn a l causes.
T h e a c tu a l resu lts a c h ie v e d , in a g ric u ltu re a n d in o u tp u t o f
co n su m e rs’ go o d s, b y tw o y e a rs o f th e N e w C o u rse , a rc h a rd to
ju d g e . In g e n e ra l the te n d e n c y seem s to h a v e b een to re d u ce the
to ta l p la n ta rg e ts r a th e r th an to c h a n g e th e d istrib u tio n o f
resou rces w ith in th e p la n s. B oth h e a v y a n d lig h t in d u stry w e re to
d e v e lo p so m e w h a t m o re slo w ly , b u t th e p ro p o rtio n s b e tw e e n th em
w e re n ot g r e a t ly m o d ifie d . In P o la n d th ere w as n o re d u ctio n in
th e m a in b ra n c h e s o f h e a v y in d u stria l p ro d u ctio n , b u t in on e o f
th em , c ru d e steel, th ere w as an in cre a se (from 4 m illio n tons in th e
1950 re v isio n to 4 6 m illio n in th e 1954 re v isio n ). A s fo r co n su m e r
g o o d s, th e n e w ta rg e ts fo r c o tto n fa b ric s a n d silk fa b rics w e re to
be lo w e r th a n u n d e r the o rig in a l p la n , w h ile those fo r w o o lle n
fa b rics a n d le a th e r shoes w e re to be h ig h e r. In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
378 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
th ere w a s to b e n o re d u ctio n in th e b asic h e a v y in d u strie s. In
H u n g a r y targets fo r b ro w n c o a l, e le c tric ity , p ig iron a n d c ru d e
ste e l w ere re d u c ed , w h ile in c o n su m e r go o d s co tto n fa b ric s w e re
to be red u ced b u t le a th e r shoes in cre a se d . In R u m a n ia th ere w as
an in crease in th e targets for o il, a n d a re d u c tio n fo r c ru d e steel,
c o tto n fa b rics, w o o lle n fa b ric s a n d le a th e r sh o e s.1
I t seem s lik e ly th at on e lim itin g fa c to r o n a v a ila b ility o f c o n ­
su m e rs’ go o d s to th e p u b lic in E astern E u ro p e is th e d e m a n d fo r
e x p o rts to th e S o v ie t U n io n . A m o n g th e go o d s im p o rte d fro m
R u m a n ia listed in a Pravda a rtic le o f 4 F e b r u a r y 195 4 w e re
m en tio n ed le a th e r shoes. T h e B u lg a ria n press in th e a u tu m n o f
■954 c o m p la in e d o f sh o rta ges o f fru it a n d v e g e ta b le s, b u t an
e a r lie r press sou rce h a d stated th a t B u lg a ria n p u lp e x p o rts to th e
S o v ie t U n io n h a d in crea sed sin ce 1949 b y 33 p e r c e n t .2
D u rin g 1954 th ere w e re a n n o u n c e m e n ts in E a ste rn E u ro p e th a t
as fro m 1956 the e co n o m ic p la n s o f these c o u n trie s w o u ld be
sy ste m a tica lly c o -o rd in a te d w ith th at o f the S o v ie t U n io n . T h e
P olish six -y e a r p la n an d th e E ast G e rm a n a n d R u m a n ia n first
fiv e -y e a r p la n s a ll e n d e d in 1955. T h e C z e c h o s lo v a k first fiv e -
y e a r p la n e n d e d in 1953, a n d th e H u n g a r ia n in 1954. T h e se
la tte r co u n trie s d id n o t th ereu p o n e m b a rk o n seco n d fiv e -y e a r
p la n s, b u t a d o p te d re sp e c tiv e ly tw o a n d o n e sin g le -y e a r pla n s
to b rin g th em to the en d o f 1955, a fte r w h ic h it is in te n d e d
t h a t a ll fiv e sh o u ld e n ter a n e w p e rio d o f p la n n in g c lo se ly co ­
o rd in a te d w ith th e S o v ie t e c o n o m y . C u r io u s ly e n o u g h , B u lg a ria ,
w h ic h b e gan its seco n d fiv e -y e a r p la n a lr e a d y in 1953 , a n d in
m id -1 9 5 5 w as still in te n d in g to c a r r y it on u n til 1958, d o e s n o t
fit this p a tte rn . W h y B u lg a ria sh ou ld d iffe r so m u c h fro m the
o th e r P o p u la r D e m o c ra c ie s— w ith a fa r m o re ra p id c o lle c tiv is a ­
tio n o f a g ric u ltu re , a n d w ith n o ‘ n e w c o u rse ’ in 19 5 3 — re m ain s
u n e x p la in e d .
T h e situ a tio n o f the m ain so cia l classes in E a ste rn E u ro p e h as
n o t su b sta n tia lly c h a n g e d sin ce 1952.
The p e rc e n ta g e s o f th e a ra b le la n d h eld re sp e c tiv e ly by

1 T h e o rig in a l targ ets a n d th e 19 5 3 -4 targ ets w ere re s p e c tiv e ly — Poland: co tto n

fa b ric s, 608 m illio n m etres a n d 558 m illio n ; silk fa b ric s, 104 m illio n a n d 82 m illio n ;
w o o lle n fab rics, 75 m illio n a n a 77-5 m illio n ; le a th e r shoes, 22 m illio n pairs a n d
25 m illio n . Hungary: b ro w n c o a l, 26 m illio n tons a n d 21 m illio n ; e le c tr ic ity , 6 m illia rd
k W h . a n d 5-1 m illia rd ; p ig iro n , 1-3 m illio n tons a n d 0 9 m illio n ; c ru d e steel, 2-2
m illio n tons a n d 17 m illio n ; c o tto n fa b ric s, 240 m illio n m etres a n d 220 m illio n ;
le a th e r shoes, 9 m illio n p a irs a n d 12*3 m illio n . Rumania: c ru d e o il, 10 m illio n tons a n d
u m illio n ; c ru d e steel, 1-2 m illio n tons a n d 1 m illio n ; c o tto n fa b ric s, 266-5 an d 250
m illio n m etres; w o o lle n fa b ric s, 39 4 a n d 32 5; le a th e r shoes, 20-7 m illio n p a irs a n d
10 m illio n pairs.
* Otediestvtn Glas, P lo v d iv , 18 M a r c h 1954.
 S IN C E S T A L IN 3 7g
c o lle c tiv e fa rm s, sta te fa rm s a n d p r iv a te p e a san t h o u seho ld s, in
1 9 5 3 -4 , w e re as fo llo w s :1

Collectives State farm s Private holdings

B u lg a r ia ... ... 605 22 373
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ... 33 10 57
H u n gary .................. 18 12-5 69-5
P o l a n d ................................. 74 128 798
R u m a n ia .................. 12 8 80

T h u s in B u lg a r ia c o lle c tiv isa tio n is la rg e ly a c c o m p lish e d , b u t else­

w h e re p r iv a te h o ld in g s p r e v a il. C o m m u n ist p la n s o f c o lle c tiv isa ­
tion w e re , h o w e v e r, o n ly p o stp o n ed , n ot a b a n d o n e d . S h o rtly a fte r
th e re tu rn o f R á k o st fro m c o n fe rr in g w ith B u lg a n in a n d H ru sh c h o v
in B u ca rest (a fte r th e la tte r h a d b een to B e lg ra d e ), th e C e n tr a l
C o m m itte e o f th e H u n g a r ia n p a r ty issued a reso lu tio n u rg in g a
ra p id fu rth e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o lle c tiv isa tio n . It th us seem s q u ite
possible th a t w ith in tw o o r th re e y e a rs H u n g a r y w ill h a v e g o n e
as fa r as B u lg a ria . A l l th a t c a n be sa fe ly p re d ic te d is th a t the
d ec isive fa c to r w ill b e th e w ish es o f th e S o v ie t lea d ers. A s lon g
as H ru s h c h o v is p o w e rfu l, a g ric u ltu re w ill re ce iv e a g re a t d e a l o f
a tte n tio n b o th in M o sc o w a n d a t th e p e rip h e ry o f the S o v ie t
E m p ire . T h e sp e c ia l in terest o f H ru sh c h o v in m a iz e is im p o rta n t,
fo r H u n g a r y , R u m a n ia a n d n o rth e rn B u lg a ria h a v e b e tte r c o n ­
d itio n s fo r m a iz e p r o d u c tio n th a n a n y p a rt o f the S o v ie t U n io n
e x c e p t th e U k r a in e .
T h e situ a tio n o f the E ast E u ro p e a n w o rk in g cla ss re m ain s
u n c h a n g e d . In c o m p a riso n w ith th e im m e d ia te a fte rm a th o f the
w a r , liv in g c o n d itio n s h a v e im p ro v e d . S o o f co u rse th e y h a v e
th ro u g h o u t th e ‘ c a p ita list w o r ld ’ . A s in d u stria l o u tp u t a n d the
g e n e ra l le v e l o f skill rise, so w ill p ro sp e rity . M u c h w ill, h o w e v e r,
d e p e n d o n th e a c tu a l a c h ie v e m e n ts in co n su m e rs’ go o d s p r o d u c ­
tio n . H e re th e o u tlo o k h as d a rk e n e d sin ce th e fa ll o f N a g y .
N e v e rth e le ss th e d e m a n d fo r c o n su m e rs’ go o d s as an in ce n tive
n o t o n ly to w o rk e rs b u t also to p ea san ts is b o u n d to g ro w , a n d
th e c o m m u n ist le a d e rs w ill h a v e to reck o n w ith it. W h e n the
co n d itio n s o f th e w o rk e rs d o im p ro v e , h o w e v e r, this is o n ly b y
fa v o u r o f th e a ll-p o w e rfu l boss-state, n o t as a resu lt o f th e w o rk e rs’
efforts. T r a d e u n io n s exist to g e t m o re o u tp u t o u t o f the w o rk e r
fo r th e sa m e p a y . T h e y d efe n d th e boss a g a in st th e w o rk e r, n ot
1 T h e s e fig u re s co m e fro m sp eech es a t th e Polish P a r ty C o n g ress o f M a rc h 1954,
th e H u n g a r ia n o f M a y 1954, a n d statem en ts b y N o v o tn y o n 11 J u n e 1954, b y
C h e r v e n k o v o n 9 S e p te m b e r 1953 a n d b y G h e o r g h iu -D e j o n 23 A u g u st 1934.
38 0 THF. EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
th e w o rk e r a g a in st th e boss. T h is it c a n be assu m ed th a t th e
w ork ers, a t least in th e m o re a d v a n c e d o f th e P o p u la r D e m o ­
cra cie s, u n d e rsta n d . T h e P lz e n w o rk e rs, like th e E ast G e r m a n
w ork ers, sh o w ed in J u n e 1953 th a t th e y u n d e rsto o d th a t p o litic a l
rig h ts w ere th e k e y to e c o n o m ic im p ro v e m e n t. T h e P olish w o rk e rs,
w ith six ty y e a r s ’ e x p e rie n c e o f a h e ro ic so cia list p a r t y b e h in d
th em , ca n h a r d ly be u n a w a re o f th e sam e facts.
I t is n o w possible to see so m e w h a t m o re c le a r ly th e n a tu re o f
th e ru lin g class in th e P o p u la r D e m o cra c ie s. I t is c lo se ly m o d e lle d
on w h a t in the S o v ie t U n io n is c a lle d th e ‘ to ilin g in te llig e n ts ia ’ .
In the S o v ie t U n io n this term in clu d es m a n a g ers, b u re a u c ra ts,
a r m y officers, p a r ty a n d tra d e u n io n officials, e n g in e ers, te a ch e rs,
scien tists a n d a w h o le h ost o f m in o r te c h n ic ia n s a n d clerk s. J u d g e d
b y its m a te ria l re w ard s, p o w e r, fu n ctio n s, tastes an d g e n e ra l eth os,
it is a b ou rge o isie , clo se ly re se m b lin g the in d u stria l b o u rg e o isie
cre a te d b y th e in d u stria l re v o lu tio n o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y in
B rita in , th e U n ite d S ta te s o r G e r m a n y . I t d oes n o t owrn th e
fa cto ries, a n d it w ork s n o t for p ro fit b u t fo r a sta te s a la r y . T h e
d r iv in g force b e h in d th e in d u stria l re v o lu tio n in W e ste rn E u ro p e
a n d N o rth A m e r ic a w as p r iv a te en terp rise , the d r iv in g force
b e h in d the in d u stria l re v o lu tio n in S t a lin ’s R u ssia w a s sta te
a c tio n .1 T h e d o m in a n t so cia l g ro u p th a t e m e rg e d fro m this
process in W estern E u ro p e an d N o rth A m e r ic a w a s a p r iv a te
b ou rge o isie , th e c o rre sp o n d in g g r o u p in S o v ie t R u ssia is a state
b ou rgeoisie.*
T h is n e w so cia l g ro u p aro se in th e S o v ie t U n io n d u r in g th e
1930 ’s an d 1940’s. T h e process w as e v e n in som e d e g re e fa c ilita te d
b y th e Y e z h o v p u rg e o f 1937 8, w h ic h d e c im a te d th e su rv iv in g
p r e - 1 9 1 7 e d u c a te d class. T h e n e w S o v ie t ru lin g g ro u p arose w ith ­
o u t b e in g p la n n e d b y a n y o n e , a n d it consists fo r th e m ost p a rt o f
c h ild re n o f fo rm e r w o rk e rs, p easan ts o r p e tty officials. B u t in
E astern E u ro p e even ts w e re d iffe re n t. L e n in ’s a n d S t a lin ’s re v o lu ­
tion s w ere b o th im p o sed , in p r e fa b ric a te d fo rm . T h ere w a s in
p r a c tic e m u c h m ore o f S ta lin ’s th a n o f L e n in ’s. E a ste rn E u ro p e
h a r d ly e x p e rie n c e d th e ic o n o c la stic , u to p ia n a n d e q u a lita r ia n
p h ase o f re v o lu tio n , th ro u g h w h ic h R u ssia w e n t fro m 19 1 7 u n til
a t least the m id -19 2 0 ’s. T h e a u th o r ity o f th e b u r e a u c r a t a n d th e
1 T h is is also tru e to a sm a ller b u t co n s id e ra b le d e g re e o f b o th Im p e ria l R u ssia a n d
Im p e ria l J a p a n , fro m th e i8 6 o ’s o n w ard s.
* T h e r e is a n in tere stin g discu ssion o f th is th em e in H . A c h m in o w , D ie M acht im
Hintergrund, U lm , 1950. I h a v e d e v e lo p e d it in fo u r a rtic le s in th e Manchester Guardian,
16, 17, 18 a n d 2 1 J a n u a r y 1954, a n d in T he Listener, 2 J u n e 19 5 5 , a n d in a sh o rt b o o k let,
T he Heiolutxon o f our Tim e, B e llm a n B ooks, L o n d o n , 19 55. T h e su b je c t, h o w e v e r,
d eserves m u ch m o re th o ro u g h stu d y.
 SINCE ST AL IN 381

m a n a g e r w e re n o t e ffe c tiv e ly an d d e fin ite ly asserted in R u ssia

u n til th e 1930’s: in E astern E u ro p e th e y w e re h a r d ly sh ak en . It
is tru e th a t th e le a d in g b u re a u c ra ts an d m a n a g ers o f the p re -w a r
re g im e w e re m o stly re m o ve d from th e ir posts, b u t those w h o took
th e ir p la c e w e re n o t less a u th o rita ria n . It is tru e th at fo r a tim e
g r e a t efforts w e re m ad e to tra in , fro m c h ild re n o f w o rk ers and
p e a san ts o n ly , a n e w ‘ p e o p le ’s in te llig e n tsia ’ , a n d th a t th e c h ild re n
o f th e fo rm e r profession al a n d business classes su ffered d isc rim in a ­
tion in sch ools, u n ive rsities an d a d m in istra tiv e posts. B u t this p h ase
d id n ot last lo n g , an d b y 1953 it h a d b een fa irly g e n e ra lly a b a n ­
d o n e d . C h ild r e n o f th e fo rm e r ru lin g class w e re a llo w e d to
c o m p e tc fre e ly , o n a basis o f m erit, w ith c h ild re n o f w ork ers an d
p e a san ts, a n d m o re th an h eld th eir ow n. T h u s , n ot o n ly is E astern
E u ro p e to -d a y ru le d b y a sta te b o u rg e o isie , b u t this is la rg e ly
co m p o se d o f p ersons w h ose p a re n ts b e lo n g e d to the p re -re v o lu ­
tio n a r y p r iv a te b o u rg e o isie . T h e r e w e re e ve n a m o n g the le a d ­
in g sta te b o u rg e o is o f 1955 persons w h o w e re successful p r iv a te
b o u rg e o is— n o t o n ly u n iv e rsity professors o r en gin e ers bu t also
in d u stria lists a n d b a n k e rs— b e fo re 1944.
O n e o f th e m ost o b v io u s fea tu res o f th e m e n ta lity o f rising
in d u s tr ia l b o u rgeo isies is n a tio n a lism . T h is w as tru e o f th e p riv a te
b o u rg e o isie o f W illia m 11 ’s G e rm a n y , an d it is tru e o f S t a lin ’s an d
B u lg a n in ’s R u ssia . T h e S o v ie t state b o u rge o is are ju s tifia b ly p ro u d
o f th e ir fa cto rie s, o f th e g re a t in d u stria l m a c h in e w h ich th ey h a v e
b u ilt, a n d o f th e in d u stria l p rogress o f th e ir co u n try . O f this
a b u n d a n t e v id e n c e c a n b e fo u n d b o th in p u b lic u ttera n c e s o f
S o v ie t sp eakers a n d in the p a ges o f S o v ie t jo u rn a ls a n d n ovels.
I t is in c o n c e iv a b le th a t th e sam e sh ou ld n o t be tru e o f the state
b o u rg e o is o f P o la n d , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia an d H u n g a r y . B u t w h erea s
th e S o v ie t sta te b o u rg e o is sees his c o u n try as o n e o f tw o G ia n t
P o w e rs in th e w o r ld , th e P olish o r C z e c h o r H u n g a ria n state
b o u rg e o is k n o w s th a t his c o u n t r y ’s in d u stry , its e c o n o m ic an d
m ilita r y p o w e r a re a t th e d isp o sa l o f a fo reig n c o n q u e ro r.
T h u s to th e tra d itio n a l d efen sive n a tio n a lism o f th e E ast
E u ro p e a n p e a san ts, ro o te d in th e m em ories o f past greatn ess, m ust
b e a d d e d th e m ilita n t e co n o m ic n a tio n a lism o f the state b o u rge o is,
ro o te d in th e a c h ie v e m e n ts o f th e p resen t. T h e first form o f
n a tio n a lism is u n lik e ly to d im in ish , a n d th e secon d is in creased
b y e v e r y n e w steel m ill o r e n g in e e rin g w ork s th a t goes in to
p ro d u c tio n .
T h e r e also re m a in s re lig io u s fa ith . A s e v e ry w h e re , it is stron ger
in th e v illa g e s th a n in th e tow'ns, b u t this d oes n ot m ean th a t it is
38 2 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
n o t in the tow n s. T w o e ve n ts in relig io u s p o lic y in th e last y e a rs
d eserve m en tio n . In S e p te m b e r 1953 th e P o lish g o v e rn m e n t
a rre ste d the H e a d o f th e C a th o lic C h u r c h o f P o la n d , C a r d in a l
W y szy ń sk i, a n d in crea sed its pressure o n th e c h u r c h th ro u g h o u t
th e c o u n try . In M a y 1953 th e B u lg a ria n g o v e rn m e n t to o k a step
in th e o p p o site d ire c tio n . It p e rm itte d th e p r o c la m a tio n as
P a tria rc h o f the B u lg a ria n O r t h o d o x C h u r c h o f K i r i l, M e tr o ­
p o lita n o f P lo v d iv . T h is w as the fin a l sta ge in the fo rm a l se p a ra tio n
o f th e B u lg a ria n c h u rc h fro m th e P a tria rc h a te o f C o n s ta n tin o p le ,
a n d th us to som e e x te n t a n ‘ a n ti-w e ste rn ’ m o v e . B u t it also
e n h a n c e d the a u th o rity o f th e c h u rc h in th e c o u n tr y . M e tr o p o lita n
K ir il is a d e v o u t p re la te , a n d n o c o m m u n ist sto o ge.
T h e fu n d a m e n ta l h o stility o f a ll c o m m u n ist p a rtie s to a ll re li­
g io n re m ain s a fa ct, u n a ffe c te d b y te m p o ra r y con cessio n s. T h e
re lig io u s fa ith o f m illio n s o f E ast E u ro p e a n s a lso re m a in s a fa c t.

Y U G O S L A V IA

D u rin g 1952 th ere w a s m u c h p u b lic d iscu ssion o f s tru c tu ra l

reform s d esign e d to g iv e e ffe c t to the p o lic y o f d e c e n tra lisa tio n
a n d m ore d ire ct p a rtic ip a tio n o f th e p e o p le in g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h
h a d b een d e c la re d to be th e aim s o f th e Y u g o s la v le a d e rs e v e r since
th e b re a c h w ith th e C o m in fo r m . T h e se refo rm s to o k sh a p e in the
n e w C o n s titu tio n , w h ic h w as fin a lly v o te d b y th e fe d e ra l p a r lia ­
m e n t on 13 J a n u a r y 1953. A ll M in istrie s w e re a b o lish e d . T h e
su p re m e o rg a n o f g o v e rn m e n t w as to be a F e d e r a l E x e c u tiv e
C o u n c il, o f 43 m em b e rs, w h ic h in c lu d e d th e b e st-k n o w n le a d e rs
o f th e fo rm e r c e n tra l a n d re p u b lic a n g o v e rn m e n ts. T h e c h a ir m a n
o f th e C o u n c il w as to b e the P resid en t o f Y u g o s la v ia , a n d this post
w a s a ssu m ed b y M a rs h a l T i t o h im self. T h e C o u n c il w as d iv id e d
in to C o m m issio n s fo r fo reig n afTairs, d efe n ce , in te rn a l a ffa irs,
e c o n o m y a n d the b u d g e t. S u b o rd in a te to th e C o m m issio n s w e re
to be five S ta te S e c re ta ria ts. T h e C o m m issio n s w e re to d e c id e
th e b ro a d lines o f p o lic y , an d th e S ta te S e c re ta rie s a n d th e ir
d ep a rtm e n ts w e re to c a r r y th em o u t. T h e d e c la re d a im o f this
re o rg a n isa tio n w as to se p a ra te p o lic y p la n n in g fro m ro u tin e
a d m in istra tio n , to lib e ra te th e su p re m e p o litic a l le a d e rs fro m th e
pressures o f b u re a u c ra c y .
T h e fe d e ral le g isla tu re w as also re o rg a n ise d . T h e first c h a m b e r ,
th e F e d e ra l C o u n c il, re m a in e d as b e fo re , e le c te d b y th e p o p u la tio n
as a w h o le in te rrito r ia l co n stitu e n cie s. T h e secon d c h a m b e r , th e
C o u n c il o f N a tio n a litie s, w a s a b o lish ed . T h e re p re s e n ta tio n o f th e
n a tio n a l g ro u p s as su ch w as, h o w e v e r, to b e e n su re d b y a p r o ­
 SINCE ST A L I N 38 3
visio n th a t w h e n a m a tte r a ffe c tin g th e rela tio n s b e tw e e n th e c o n ­
stitu e n t re p u b lic s a n d th e c e n tra l g o v e rn m e n t w a s u n d e r d is­
cu ssion , a sp e c ia l g r o u p o f d e p u tie s o f th e F e d e ra l C o u n c il sh o u ld
b e fo r m e d — 12 fro m e a c h re p u b lic , seven fro m V o jv o d in a an d
fo u r fro m K o s o v o - M e to h ija — a n d sh o u ld v o te se p a ra te ly fro m th e
tw o c h a m b e r s. T h e n e w secon d c h a m b e r w as to b e a C o u n c il o f
P ro d u ce rs, to b e e le c te d b y w o rk ers in th eir en terp rises a n d b y
a g r ic u ltu r a l asso cia tio n s. U n d e r th e n e w e le c to ra l la w , 135 o u t
o f th e 202 seats in th e se co n d c h a m b e r w e re reserved for in d u stry ,
co m m e rc e a n d h a n d ic ra fts, a n d o n ly 6 7 fo r a g ric u ltu re . I t w as
estim a te d th a t this w o u ld g iv e o n e sea t to e v e r y 30,000 u rb a n an d
e v e r y 150,000 ru ra l v o ters. T h e e le c to ra l la w p e rm itte d th e
c a n d id a tu r e o f a n y in d iv id u a l w h o m ig h t secu re n o t less th a n 200
sp o n so rin g sign a tu re s. N o p o litic a l o rg a n isa tio n s o th e r th an th e
C o m m u n is t P a r ty a n d its a ffilia te d g ro u p s existed , b u t n o n -p a rty
in d iv id u a ls m ig h t p resen t th em selves. In fa ct, h o w e v e r, a t th e
fe d e ra l e le c tio n , h e ld in N o v e m b e r 1953 , o n ly o fficia l ca n d id a te s
w e re r e tu r n e d .1
A sim ila r re o rg a n isa tio n o f e x e c u tiv e an d le g isla tu re to ok p la c e
in a ll th e re p u b lic s, a n d a lr e a d y in A p r il 1952 th e P e o p le ’ s
C o m m itte e s h a d b e en re o rg an ise d on a b ic a m e ra l basis, w ith a n
asse m b ly o f citiz e n s a n d a c o u n c il o f p ro d u cers.
T w o reform s o f p o te n tia l im p o rta n c e w e re th e tra n sfo rm atio n
o f th e s e c u rity p o lic e ( U .D .B .) fro m a m ilita r y in to a c iv ilia n
o rg a n isa tio n in J u n e 1952 , a n d th e a b o litio n o f p o litic a l c o m ­
m issars in th e a rm e d forces in J u n e 1953 . In a n n o u n c in g the first
o f th ese refo rm s, A le x a n d e r R a n k o v ic c la im e d th a t U .D .B ., in
c o n tra st to th e M .V .D . in th e S o v ie t U n io n , h ad n o t m ad e its e lf
in to a p o w e r a b o v e so c ie ty , a n d th a t it h ad ‘ a v o id e d the slip p e ry
p a th s o f b u r e a u c r a tis m ’ .
D u r in g 1952 a n d 1953 th ere w as m u ch o ffic ia l stress on th e evils
o f ‘ b u r e a u c r a tis m ’ . T h e c h ie f id e o lo g ist o f th e Y u g o s la v p a rty ,
M ilo v a n D jila s, a n a ly se d in d e ta il, fro m a M a rx ist b u t a n ti-
S ta lin is t p o in t o f v ie w , th e causes a n d n a tu re o f th e d e g e n e ra tio n
o f th e S o v ie t re g im e , w h ic h h a d b e en c re a te d b y a socialist
re v o lu tio n b u t h ad b e c o m e a re a c tio n a r y a n d b u re a u c ra tic fo rm
o f sta te c a p ita lis m . H e in sisted th at th e m istakes o f th e R u ssia n
B o lsh e v ik s c o u ld a n d w o u ld be a v o id e d b y th e Y u g o s la v
co m m u n ists.
T h e P a r ty h e ld its 6th C o n g re ss in Z a g r e b from 2 to 7 N o v e m b e r
1952 . I t took th e n e w n a m e L e a g u e o f C o m m u n ists o f Y u g o s la v ia .
1 A t th e r e p u b lic a n e lec tio n s, a few in d e p e n d e n ts w e re retu rn e d in M a c e d o n ia .
384 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
I t co n tin u e d to be o rg an ise d o n the strictest p rin c ip le s o f ‘d e m o ­
c ra tic c e n tra lism ’ . T h is o f cou rse c o n flic te d w ith , a n d lim ite d the
effectiven ess of, th e d e c e n tra lisa tio n th a t h ad b e en ca rrie d o u t in
lo c a l g o v e rn m e n t an d in the fa c to ry co u n cils. T h e o ffic ia l a n sw e r
to this w as th a t the L e a g u e ’s task w a s to in sp ire a n d p e rsu a d e the
ad m in istrato rs, n ot to d o th e a d m in iste rin g th em selves. A d m in is ­
tra tio n sh ou ld be left to tra in ed c iv il serv an ts. B u t to d istin gu ish
b e tw e e n p o litic a l le a d e rsh ip a n d c iv il a d m in istra tio n is less sim p le
th an the id eo lo gists seem ed to th in k . In th e S o v ie t U n io n e v e r
sin ce th e 8th C o n g re ss o f 19 19 it has b een o ffic ia l d o c trin e th a t the
P a r ty m ust ‘d ire c t b u t n ot re p la c e ’ th e o rg a n s o f g o v e rn m e n t.
B u t this has n ot p rev e n te d th e g ro w th o f b u r e a u c r a c y w h ic h is so
rig h tly d en o u n c e d b y th e Y u g o s la v lea d ers, a n d has e v e n b een
se v ere ly a n d fre q u e n tly c riticised in th e S o v ie t press fo r m o re th an
th irty years.
D jila s h im se lf w as n ot a fra id o f th e lo g ic a l co n clu sio n s to his
a rgu m e n ts. B y the a u tu m n o f 1953 his a rticle s w e re in d ir e c tly b u t
c le a rly su ggestin g th a t the p o litic a l m o n o p o ly o f the L e a g u e sh o u ld
b e b ro u g h t to a n e n d , a n d p o litic a l o p p o sitio n be a llo w e d . In
J a n u a r y 1954 he p u b lish e d in a m o n th ly re v ie w o f w h ic h he
w as e d ito r, Nova M u a o , a n a rticle en title d ‘ T h e A n a to m y o f a
M o r a le ’ . T h is w as a sa v a g e a tta c k on th e n e w r u lin g ca ste w h ic h ,
he m a in ta in e d , h ad tak e n c le a r sh ap e sin ce th e re v o lu tio n , a n d
w a s in fected w ith the sam e a rro g a n c e a n d sn o b b e ry as th e d is­
possessed fo rm e r b o u rg e o isie .1 T h is p ro v o k e d a n e x p lo sio n o f
w ra th from the h ig h e r a n d m e d iu m levels o f th e p a r ty h ie r­
a rc h y . A sp e cia l p le n a ry m e e tin g o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e w as
su m m o n e d on 16 a n d 17 J a n u a r y 1954. T it o a n d th e o th e r
lea d ers, w h o h ad to le ra ted D jila s ’s w ritin g s h ith e rto , n o w tu rn e d
a g a in st h im , a n d h e w as e x p e lle d fro m th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e .
H e g a v e u p his ed ito rsh ip s a n d his p o st as P resid e n t o f th e
p a rlia m e n t.
I t n o w loo k ed as i f a p e rio d o f tig h te r d ic ta to rs h ip w o u ld
fo llo w . A n o th e r p le n a ry m ee tin g o f th e C e n tr a l C o m m itte e w as
h e ld in B e lg ra d e a t th e en d o f M a r c h . It reasserted th e le a d in g
role o f the L e a g u e . T h e r e w as som e em p h a sis o n th e n eed to
in cre a se its c o n tro l o v e r e d u c a tio n a n d o v e r in te lle c tu a l life in
g e n e ra l. B u t little c h a n g e d in th e fo llo w in g m on th s. T h e r e w a s n o

1 It w as m a in ly c o n c e rn e d w ith th e sto ry o f a y o u n g actress w h o h a d m a rried a

g e n e ra l, a h ero o f the w a r o f lib e ra tio n , a n d ha d been p ersecu te d b y th e w iv es o f oth er
n o ta b le s, w h o re g a rd ed the m a rria g e as an u n p a rd o n a b le in tru sio n b y a n o u tsid er
in to th e clo sed c liq u e o f h igh re v o lu tio n a ry so ciety. T h e a rtic le co n ta in e d a re m a rk a b le
v a rie ty o f coarse ab u se.
 SINCE ST A L I N 38 5
a tte m p t to im p ose a £ hdanovshchina on Y u g o s la v in te lle ctu als.
L ite r a tu r e an d the arts w e re not re g im e n te d . T h e re g im e rem ain ed
d ic ta to r ia l b u t d id n o t b e c o m e to ta lita ria n . T h e r e w as no p o litic a l
o p p o sitio n o r c o n tro v e rsy , b u t in n o n -p o litic a l m atters th ere w as
a go o d d e a l o f fre e d o m . T h e re g im e tells its su b jects w h a t th ey
m a y n o t d o o r sa y : it d oes n ot, like the to ta lita ria n regim es o f the
S o v ie t U n io n a n d th e P o p u la r D e m o c ra c ie s, tell th em w h a t th ey
h a v e g o t to sa y a n d th in k . It c la im s o n ly th eir p u b lic a ctio n s, not
th e ir p r iv a te lives.
I n a g r ic u ltu r e th ere w ere b ig ch a n g e s in th e last th ree years.
In J u n e 1952 c o m p u ls o ry d elive ries o f ce re a ls to th e state w ere
a b o lish e d . In J u ly T i t o insisted th a t c o lle c tiv e farm s m ust be
d e v e lo p e d a c c o rd in g to lo c a l co n d itio n s, n ot treated as a m atte r
o f sa cre d d o g m a . W h e re c o lle c tiv e farm s w e re not ju stifie d b y
lo c a l co n d itio n s, th e y sh ou ld be d isb a n d e d . D u rin g th e n ext
m on th s m a n y w e re in fact d isb a n d e d . In M a rc h 1953 a d ec re e
p e rm itte d th e liq u id a tio n o f a n y c o lle c tiv e fa rm w h ere th e m a jo rity
d esired it. In th e n ext w eeks th ere w as a m ass ex o d u s o f p easan ts,
w h o w e re a llo w e d to tak e b a c k th e la n d w h ic h th ey h ad o r ig in a lly
b ro u g h t in to th e c o lle c tiv e . T h e resu lt w as in m a n y a re as to le a v e
th e o r ig in a lly lan d less o r v e r y p o o r p easan ts stra n d e d in co llectiv e s
w ith h a r d ly a n y lan d to c u ltiv a te . T o h e lp th em , th e g o v e rn m e n t
in tro d u c e d a n e w la n d re fo rm la w , passed b y th e A ss e m b ly on
22 M a y , w h ich e x p ro p r ia te d , a g a in st co m p e n sa tio n to be spread
o v e r 20 y e a rs, a ll p r iv a te la n d in excess o f 10 h e cta re s. U n d e r the
la n d refo rm o f 1945 th e m a x im u m la n d left in p r iv a te o w n e rsh ip
h a d b een 20 to 35 h e cta re s. T h e e x p ro p r ia te d la n d w as to form
a ‘ la n d fu n d ’ fro m w h ic h c o lle c tiv e farm s o f p o o re r p e asan ts w o u ld
be endow ed .
R e la tio n s b e tw e e n th e g o v e rn m e n t an d th e p easan ts w e re still
fa r fro m g o o d . T h e p easan ts d istru sted th e g o v e rn m e n t’s in te n ­
tion s, a n d g o v e rn m e n t o fficials for th e m ost p a rt still h ad the
p a tro n isin g a ttitu d e to th e p ea san ts c h a ra c te ristic o f M arx ists.
T h e r e w e re a m b itio u s p la n s fo r th e im p ro v e m e n t o f a g ric u ltu re ,
w h ose fu lfilm e n t w o u ld u n d o u b te d ly b e n e fit th e p easan ts. But
th ese w e re to be c a rrie d o u t from a b o v e a n d fro m o u tsid e. M u c h
w as to be d o n e fo r th e p easan ts, b u t little b y th em . T o re ly on
d ire c t in ce n tiv e s, on th e p e a sa n ts’ o w n in itia tiv e , w as c o n tr a r y to
p a r t y d o c trin e . N e v e rth e le ss th ere is n o d o u b t th at th e o fficia l
a ttitu d e w as less d o g m a tic , m ore fle x ib le a n d m o re rea listic th an
it h a d b e en in th e 194 0 ’s. In a g ric u ltu re as in a ll b ra n c h e s o f the
n a tio n a l e c o n o m y , th e Y u g o s la v le a d e rs w e re le a rn in g from
386 THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
e x p e rie n c e. W estern e c o n o m ic a d v ic e , th o u g h often rese n te d , h ad
b een often h e ed e d , a n d h ad p ro d u c e d som e p o sitive results.
M u c h w as also d u e to th e in te llig e n t a c tio n s o f in d iv id u a l exp e rts
a n d in d iv id u a l lo ca l o rg an isa tio n s.
T h e o ld a n ta go n ism s bctw 'een the n a tio n a litie s o f Y u g o s la v ia
h ad c e rta in ly n ot d isa p p e a re d , b u t th e y w e re m u c h less d a n g e ro u s
th an th ey h a d b een . T h e r e w e re m a n y c o m p la in ts a g a in st
ce n tra lism , b u t this w as felt to b e th e w o rk o f a c e n tra l g o v e rn ­
m en t, n ot, as b e tw e e n the w ars, o f a S e rb ia n h e g e m o n y . T h e
p e o p le o f the m o re a d v a n c e d region s c o m p la in e d th a t th e y w e re
fo rced to p a y for th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e m o re b a c k w a r d . T h is
w a s c e rta in ly tru e , b u t th e d istin ctio n c u t across e th n ic a l b arrie rs.
T h e S lo v e n e s, th e S la v o n ia n C r o a ts a n d th e S e rb s o f the D a n u b ia n
p la in la n d s h ad to p a y fo r th e C r o a ts o f D a lm a tia , th e S e rb s o f
B osn ia an d th e M a c e d o n ia n s. A n d h e a v y th o u g h th e co st m igh t
b e , it h ad to be b o rn e . T h e p eo p le o f th e b a c k w a r d a re as c o u ld
n o t co n tin u e to liv e in th eir o ld p o v e rty , a n d the c o u n tr y as a
w h o le n eed ed th e resou rces o f these region s w h ic h h a d so lo n g la in
u n d e v elo p e d .
T h e g o v e rn m e n t’s h o stility to re lig io n re m a in e d u n d im in ish e d .
In the su m m e r o f 1953 th ere w e re a n u m b e r o f o ffic ia lly spo n sored
m o b a tta c k s on b o th C a th o lic an d O r t h o d o x b ish op s. T h e
M oslem s w'ere m o re su b m issive to the re g im e , bu t th e y too w e re
d isco n te n te d . It c a n h a r d ly be said th at re lig io n is a c tiv e ly p e r­
secu ted in Y u g o s la v ia , b u t th e v a rio u s form s o f d isc rim in a tio n a n d
in su lt to w h ic h b o th priests a n d p r a c tisin g la y m e n w e re su b je cte d
a rc c e rta in ly a m a jo r ca u se o f d isco n te n t.

GREECE

T h e g o v e rn m e n t o f th e left c e n tre fo rm ed as a resu lt o f th e

e le ctio n o f S e p te m b e r 1951 h a d a v e r y p re c a rio u s m a jo rity in
p a rlia m e n t, w as v ig o ro u sly o p p o sed b y F ie ld -M a r s h a l P a p a g o s ’
G r e e k R a lly , an d w as d e p e n d e n t on th e su p p o rt o f a few in ­
d e p e n d e n t m em b ers. A fte r a y e a r o f w e a k g o v e rn m e n t it w as
d e c id e d to h o ld a n e w e le c tio n . B efore p a rlia m e n t w as d issolved ,
a n e w e le c to ra l la w w a s passed , w h ic h a b o lish ed p r o p o rtio n a l
rep resen ta tio n a n d su b stitu te d sim p le m a jo rity v o te in e a c h c o n ­
stitu e n cy . T h e e le ctio n w as h eld on 16 N o v e m b e r 1952 . T h e
G re e k R a lly w o n 49 6 p e r c e n t o f th e votes b u t this b ro u g h t it
239 o u t o f 300 seats. T h e c e n tre p a rtie s— V e n iz e lo s ’ L ib e ra ls a n d
P la stira s’ N a tio n a l P rogressive U n io n ( E .P .E .K .) — h a d 36 per
c e n t o f th e votes an d 61 seats, w h ile the U n ite d D e m o c ra tic F ro n t
 SINCE ST AL IN 387

( E .D .A .) , th e c o m m u n ist-lc d e x tre m e left, w on 10 p e r cen t o f the

v o tes b u t n o seats.
P a p a g o s fo rm e d a g o v e rn m e n t on 23 N o v e m b e r 1952. H is m ost
im p o rta n t c o lle a g u e w as S p ir o M a rk e zin is , w h o b e c a m e M in ister
o f C o -o r d in a tio n . T h e new' g o v e rn m e n t possessed an a d v a n ta g e
w h ic h n o G r e e k a d m in istra tio n h a d h a d sin ce the w a r, a sta b le
m a jo rity a n d th e p ro sp e ct o f se v eral y ears in o ffice. In th e p re c e d ­
in g p e rio d th e in se c u rity o f g o v e rn m e n t c o a litio n s, a n d th e c o n ­
se q u en t a b se n c e o f a n y firm p o litic a l le a d e rsh ip , h ad b een the
m ost seriou s o b sta c le to e c o n o m ic a n d so c ia l progress. A t last th ere
seem ed a h o p e th a t reso lu te a c tio n w o u ld be tak en . T h e F ie ld -
M a r s h a l e n jo y e d e n o rm o u s p restige th ro u g h o u t the c o u n try , a n d
e s p e c ia lly in th e p r o v in c ia l to w n s a n d v illa g e s. M a rk e zin is w as
g e n e r a lly re co g n ise d as a m an o f a b ility a n d e n e rg y . It w as not
so m u ch th a t h e h a d n e w id eas as th at he w as p re p a re d to take
re sp o n s ib ility a n d to g o a h e a d . In A p r il 1953 he d e v a lu e d the
d r a c h m a to a c o m p a r a tiv e ly rea listic e x c h a n g e ra te, a n d this
q u ic k ly b e n e fited G r e e k e x p o rts o f a g r ic u ltu r a l p ro d u c e an d co tto n
te xtiles, th o u g h it d a m a g e d o th e r b ra n ch e s o f in d u stry w h ic h h ad
e n jo y e d a r tific ia lly fa v o u ra b le c o n d itio n s. P rices b e g a n to rise,
b u t m u c h less r a p id ly th a n the pessim ists p red ic te d , an d b y the
e n d o f 19 5 4 a m a jo r in fla tio n h a d still been a v o id e d . M a rk e z in is ’
p o lic y im p ro v e d G r e e c e ’s e co n o m ic pro spects, th o u g h it im p osed
h a rd sh ip s on th e p o o re st sectio n s o f th e u rb a n p o p u la tio n .
M a rk e z in is h im s e lf q u a rr e lle d w ith the F ie ld -M a r s h a l, an d on
2 A p r il 1954 resig n ed fro m th e c a b in e t. O n 11 N o v e m b e r he
re sig n e d fro m the R a lly , a n d sat in p a rlia m e n t as an in d ep en d e n t
m e m b e r. P a p a g o s, h o w e v e r, p ro v e d a b le to g o v e rn w ith o u t
M a rk e z in is , c o n tin u in g m u c h the sam e e c o n o m ic p o licy .
T h e R a lly h as g iv e n G r e e c e c o m p a r a tiv e ly g o o d g o v e rn m e n t,
b u t it h as n o t p e rfo rm e d m iracles. In its first d a y s o f p o w e r it h ad
so m e th in g m o re th an a p a r ty p r o g ra m m e : it h ad a mystique. It w as
to re ju v e n a te a n d m o d ern ise G r e e k p o litics. It w as to p u t an en d
to th e a g e o f p e tty stru g g le s b e tw e e n p erso n a lities an d cliq u e s.
I t w a s to fig h t c o rr u p tio n a n d n ep o tism , to g iv e g re a te r freed o m
to lo c a l in itia tiv e , to c u r b the p o w e r o f A th e n s o v e r th e w h o le
c o u n t r y , to re d u c e th e n u m b e rs o f the v a st b u re a u c ra tic host. B u t
these th in g s p r o v e d e asier to p ro m ise th an to a c h ie v e . T h e in fla tio n
o f th e b u r e a u c r a tic m a c h in e w as a su b stitu te , in a n ‘ u n d e r­
d e v e lo p e d ’ c o u n tr y , fo r so c ia l services. T o dism iss re d u n d a n t
b u re a u c ra ts so u n d e d a d m ira b le : to th ro w d e c e n t G r e e k m en an d
w o m e n o n to th e streets w a s a n o th e r m a tte r. A t o n c e th ere w o u ld
388 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

b e a flood o f protests from th eir re la tiv e s, m ost o f w h o m w o u ld

tu rn o u t to be w o rth y p r o v in c ia l su p p o rte rs o f the R a lly . P rev io u s
go v e rn m e n ts h a d n ot d a re d to fa c e this in d ig n a tio n : th e R a lly d id
n o t d a re c ith e r. B y m id - 1955 the m ain asset o f th e R a lly w a s th e
p restige o f the M a rsh a l. In fa c t th e m o v e m e n t w h ic h h a d sta rte d
o u t to re p la ce p e rso n a litie s b y id eas, c liq u e s b y p o licies, h ad
tu rn e d in to o n e m ore p o litic a l g ro u p b u ilt a ro u n d a le a d e r.
O n e ra th e r a la rm in g fe a tu re o f the G r e e k scen e w as th e a p a th y
o f th e in te llig e n tsia , a n d e sp e c ia lly o f th e y o u n g . B e tw ee n th e
w o rld w ars u n iv e rsity stu d en ts a n d g ra d u a te s h a d b e e n p o litic a lly
m in d e d to excess. S u p e rfic ia lly it m ig h t seem a g o o d th in g th at
th e y sh ou ld sp en d less tim e ta lk in g a b o u t p o litics. I t is a ll to th e
go o d th a t th e y sh ou ld d e v o te th e ir e n ergies to th e ir d a ily w o rk .
B u t a p a th y is n o t a h e a lth y sta te o f m in d , le a st o f a ll to so liv e ly
a p e o p le as th e G ree k s. Y e a r s o f n a tiv e fascism , fo reig n o c c u p a tio n ,
c iv il w a r a n d e c o n o m ic fru stra tio n h a v e left m e n ta l fa tig u e . T h e
o ld b a ttle cries o f n a tio n a lism , d e m o c ra c y o r so cia lism h a v e lost
th e ir m a g ic . N o th in g has tak e n th eir p la c e . In a c o u n tr y w ith the
so cia l stru ctu re o f G r e e c e , the in te llig e n tsia is b o u n d to p la y a n
im p o rta n t p a rt, p ositive o r n e g a tiv e . T h is is a p r o b le m w h ic h
G re e k p o litic a l le a d e rs c a n n o t a ffo rd fo r m u ch lo n g e r to ig n o re .
A t th e en d o f 1954 it w as c le a r th a t th e R a l l y ’s p o p u la r ity w as
d e c lin in g a t least in th e to w n s. O n 21 N o v e m b e r m u n ic ip a l
election s b ro u g h t som e strik in g v icto rie s for th e left. K a r t a lis , a
fo rm e r F in a n c e M in ister, w as e le c te d m a y o r o f V o lo s . A n a b le
m an o f p ro gressive v iew s, h e w a s n o frien d o f c o m m u n ists, b u t
co m m u n ist vo tes h e lp e d to p u t h im in p o w e r. In S a lo n ic a on
28 N o v e m b e r the m u n ic ip a l e le ctio n s sh o w e d a d efin ite in cre a se in
co m m u n ist votes.
T h e r e is v e r y little p ro sp e c t th a t th e co m m u n ists w ill a g a in
b e co m e a m a jo r fo rce in G r e e c e , a t least as lo n g as th e y are
a ssocia ted w ith S o v ie t a n d B u lg a ria n p o licie s. B u t G r e e c e ’ s re a l
trou b les re m a in p o v e rty a n d w a s ta g e . H e r b asic m a te ria l resou rces
a re fe w , she h as su ffered m o re th an a lm o st a n y c o u n tr y fro m the
b a rrie rs to w o rld tra d e th a t h a v e g ro w n u p in th e last d ec a d e s,
a n d e v e r sin ce th e A s ia M in o r e xp u lsio n s she h as b e e n a c u te ly
o v e r p o p u la te d . F o r a lo n g tim e a h e a d G r e e c e w ill d e p e n d on
foreign e c o n o m ic a id . T h is m a y b e ir r ita tin g fo r A m e ric a n s an d
h u m ilia tin g fo r G ree k s, b u t it h as to b e re co g n ise d a n d e n d u re d
b y b o th . T h a t th e y a re reso lved to d o th e ir u tm o st to h e lp th e m ­
selves, the en gin e ers a n d sold iers a n d w o rk e rs a n d p e a sa n ts o f
G r e e c e h a v e a b u n d a n tly sh o w n .
 SINCE STALIN
389
BALKAN PROBLEMS

T h e m ost im p o rta n t sin gle sta te in th e a re a b e tw e e n the A lp s

a n d th e B la c k S e a S tra its, b y v irtu e b o th o f h e r m ilita r y resou rces
a n d o f h e r stra te g ic p o sitio n , is Y u g o s la v ia . T h e p la c e o f the
B a lk a n P e n in su la in w o rld p o litics a n d w o rld stra te g y is thus
la r g e ly d e te rm in e d b y Y u g o s la v ia 's p o lic y .
D u r in g 1952 a n d 1953 Y u g o s la v i a ’s rela tio n s w ith the W estern
P o w e rs, a n d w ith th e ir B a lk a n a llie s G r e e c e a n d T u r k e y , s te a d ily
im p ro v e d . O n 28 F e b r u a r y 1953 th e Y u g o s la v , G r e e k an d T u rk is h
fo re ig n m in isters sign e d in A n k a r a a tre a ty o f frien d sh ip a n d
c o -o p e ra tio n . In M a r c h 1953 P resid e n t T i t o p a id a n o ffic ia l visit
to B rita in . H e p a id sim ila r visits to T u r k e y in A p r il 1954 a n d to
G r e e c e in J u n e 1954. D u r in g th e sp rin g a n d su m m e r d ip lo m a tic
c o n su lta tio n s p r e p a re d th e stre n g th e n in g o f th e A n k a r a P a c t o f
1953 . In this th e in itia tiv e c a m e fro m Y u g o s la v ia , w ith som e
rese rv e o n th e G r e e k a n d T u rk is h sides, d u e in la rg e p a rt to th e
u n so lv ed a n ta g o n ism b e tw e e n Y u g o s la v ia a n d Ita ly . B oth G r e e c e
a n d T u r k e y w e re b o u n d to I t a ly b y c o m m o n m em b e rsh ip o f
N .A . T . O . , to w h ic h Y u g o s la v ia d id n ot, a n d a p p a r e n tly d id n ot
w ish to, b e lo n g . D iffic u ltie s w e re , h o w e v e r, o v e rc o m e , an d on
4 A u g u s t 19 5 4 th e th re e fo reign m inisters m et a t B le d , a n d sign ed
a tw e n ty - y e a r tr e a ty o f a llia n c e , p o litic a l c o -o p e ra tio n a n d m u tu a l
assista n ce. A ll th re e w e re c o m m itte d to m ilita r y su p p o rt o f a n y o f
th e ir n u m b e r w h ic h sh o u ld b e the v ic tim o f m ilita r y a tta ck .
T h is a llia n c e c o u ld o n ly be w e lc o m e d b y th e W estern P ow ers,
as it p o te n tia lly co n trib u te d to th e d efe n ce o f the w h o le E ast
M e d ite r r a n e a n a re a . A seriou s o b sta c le to this d efe n ce a p p e a r e d ,
h o w e v e r, in th e g ro w th o f serio u s ten sion b e tw e e n G r e e c e a n d
B rita in in c o n n e c tio n w ith C y p r u s . T h o u g h C y p ru s h ad n e ve r
b e lo n g e d to a G r e e k sta te, th ere is c e r ta in ly a stro n g case fo r its
u n ifica tio n w ith G r e e c e o n g e n e ra l e th n ic a l g ro u n d s. T h e r e c a n
b e n o d o u b t th a t so m e 80 p e r ce n t o f the C y p r io ts feel th em selves
to be G re e k s, a n d th at a la rg e p a rt o f these p o s itiv e ly d esire u n io n
(enosis). F o r th e ir p a rt th e p e o p le o f G r e e c e h a v e reason to feel,
b o th th a t th e y h a v e sh o w n th em selves so lo y a l a n a lly o f B rita in
th a t th e y a re e n title d to c o n sid e ra tio n o f th e ir c la im s, an d th at
th e G re e k s o f C y p r u s are n o t less c a p a b le o f m a k in g u p th eir ow n
m in d s th a n th e A fr ic a n s o f th e G o ld C o a s t, w h ose c la im s h a v e
b e en la rg e ly satisfied b y B ritish go v e rn m e n ts. I t is also true th a t
B ritish sp o k esm en , b o th in C y p r u s a n d in W e stm in ste r, h a v e been
g u ilt y a t tim es o f m o n u m e n ta l tactlessness. N e v e rth e le ss th e fau lts
390 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

a rc n o t a ll on o n e sid e. T h e G r e e k g o v e rn m e n t d id n o t ch o o se a
v e r y p ro p itio u s m o m e n t for its c la im s, w h e n a fte r m o n th s o f
u n p le a sa n t n e g o tia tio n s B rita in h ad a t last a c c e p te d a r a th e r u n ­
sa tisfa cto ry se ttle m e n t o f th e S u e z d isp u te w ith E g y p t, a n d w h e n
C y p r u s w as to be b u ilt u p as a N . A .T .O . b ase. N o r d id it sh o w
m u ch ta c t in its tre a tm e n t o f its T u rk is h a lly . C y p r u s w as T u rk is h
te rrito ry u n til 1878, it lies close to th e T u rk is h m a in la n d , a n d
a b o u t 20 p e r c e n t o f its p o p u la tio n a re T u r k s . B ritish sp o kesm en
h a v e m ad e m u ch o f th e rig h ts o f th e T u rk is h m in o r ity . T o G re e k
n atio n a lists this a p p e a r e d to b e a n in sin ce re m an o e u vre , yet
a n o th e r case o f B ritish im p e ria listic divide et impera ta c tic s , o f w h ic h
th e co n flicts b e tw e e n I n d ia an d P a k ista n , A r a b s a n d J e w s o r
Irish C a th o lic s a n d P ro testa n ts a re so w id e ly b e lie v e d to be
e x a m p le s. P e rh a p s it w as fo r this reason th a t the G r e e k g o v e r n ­
m en t d ocs not a p p e a r to h a v e tak en T u rk is h o b je c tio n s to enosis
seriou sly, o r to h a v e c o n su lte d th e T u rk is h g o v e rn m e n t th ro u g h
d ip lo m a tic c h a n n e ls b efore b rin g in g th e C y p r u s p r o b le m b e fo re
th e U n ite d N a tio n s. It fo u n d , h o w e v e r, th a t T u rk is h o b je c tio n s
w e re serious, a n d th a t T u r k e y o p p o se d th e G r e e k c a se . I n sh ort,
th e C y p ru s crisis h as se rio u sly w o rse n e d G r e e c e ’s re la tio n s w ith
b o th B rita in a n d T u r k e y , a n d to th a t e x te n t w e a k e n e d E ast
M e d ite rra n e a n d efen ce.
F ro m th e su m m e r o f 1953 o n w a rd s th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t h as
m a d e v a lia n t efforts to u n d e rm in e th e B a lk a n p o sitio n fro m the
o th e r e n d , b y w o o in g Y u g o s la v ia a w a y fro m th e W est. I t w a s o f
cou rse su p p o rte d b y th e D a n u b ia n P o p u la r D e m o c ra c ie s. A n e w
S o v ie t A m b a s s a d o r w as a p p o in te d to B e lg ra d e in J u n e 1953 .
H u n g a r y a n d B u lg a ria d id th e sa m e in A u g u s t a n d S e p te m b e r
re sp e c tiv e ly . C h e r v e n k o v in his sp eech o f 9 S e p te m b e r exp ressed
his d esire fo r b e tte r re la tio n s n o t o n ly w ith Y u g o s la v ia b u t also
w ith G r e e c e , T u r k e y an d th e U n it e d S ta te s. M in o r a g re e m e n ts on
fro n tie r in cid e n ts w e re in fa c t a c h ie v e d in th e fo llo w in g m o n th s
w ith B u lg a r ia ’s th ree B a lk a n n e ig h b o u rs. D u r in g 19 5 4 , h o w e v e r ,
it c o u ld h a r d ly be c la im e d th a t S o v ie t d ip lo m a c y h a d m a d e m u ch
progress in Y u g o s la v ia . P resid e n t T it o c o n tin u e d to stress his
fr ie n d ly re la tio n s w ith th e W e st a n d w ith his B a lk a n a llie s, b u t
also in sisted th a t Y u g o s la v ia w a s p u rsu in g a p o lic y o f c o m p le te
in d e p e n d e n c e , b o u n d to G r e e c e a n d T u r k e y w'here B a lk a n s e c u rity
w a s c o n c e rn e d b u t u n c o m m itte d to e ith e r o f th e P o w e r B lo ck s.
T h is w as re in fo rc ed b y th e in te re st ta k e n fo r so m e tim e b y th e
Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t in A s ia n a ffa irs. E s p e c ia lly c o r d ia l re la tio n s
h a d g ro w n u p w ith B u rm a . I d e o lo g ic a lly th e Y u g o s la v a n d
 SINCE ST A L I N 391

B u rm ese g o v e rn m e n ts c o n sid e re d th em selves v e r y n e a r to e a c h

o th e r . B o th w e re M a rx is t, n o n -S ta lin ist a n d a n ti-im p e ria list. B oth
b e lie v e d in a n u n c o m m itte d p o lic y . In D e c e m b e r 1954 P resid en t
T i t o p a id a sta te v isit to I n d ia , a n d p ro ce e d e d a t th e en d o f the
y e a r to B u rm a .
S o v ie t a d v a n c e s to Y u g o s la v ia re a c h e d a c lim a x w ith th e visit
to Y u g o s la v ia in J u n e 195 5 o f a S o v ie t d e le g a tio n h e a d e d b y
B u lg a n in a n d H ru s h c h o v . T h is a m o u n te d to a n a d m issio n th a t the
w h o le p re v io u s S o v ie t tre a tm e n t o f Y u g o s la v ia h a d b e en w ro n g ,
a n d th a t ‘ n a tio n a l c o m m u n is m ’ w as n o t n e ce ssarily m o rta l sin .
T h e im p lic a tio n s fo r th e P o p u la r D e m o c ra c ie s m ig h t b e far-
re a c h in g . A t th e sam e tim e , h o w e v e r, it m ig h t b e e x p e c te d to h a v e
p r o d u c e d a g o o d im p ressio n w ith in th e Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ist
P a r t y , to h a v e re v iv e d o ld e m o tio n a l a ttitu d es to w a rd s R u ssia
a n d to h a v e in cre a se d th e u n w illin g n e ss o f les plus purs to b e tied
to th e W est. I t is m ost im p ro b a b le th a t T i t o , w ith a ll his k n o w ­
le d g e a n d e x p e rie n c e o f S o v ie t a ffa irs, w o u ld be g r e a tly a ffe c te d
b y H r u s h c h o v ’s b la n d ish m e n ts, b u t th e im p a c t o n his su b o rd in a te s
c a n n o t e a s ily b e e stim a te d .
I t m u st th erefo re be a d m itte d th at th e B a lk a n d efe n ce system ,
on p a p e r ra th e r im p re ssiv e , w as w e a k a t se v era l po in ts. T h e on e
firm b ase re m a in e d T u r k e y , th e ce n tra l stra te g ic p o sitio n o f th e
W e ste rn A llia n c e in th e E aste rn M e d ite rra n e a n . T h e stre n g th o f
th e c e n tra l p o sitio n , h o w e v e r, la r g e ly d ep e n d s o n its tw o flan ks,
in th e B a lk a n s a n d to w a rd s th e P e rsia n G u lf. T h e easte rn fla n k
w a s less e xp o se d in 1955 th an in 1 9 5 1 , as a resu lt o f th e T u r k is h -
P a k ista n a n d T u r k is h - I r a q p a cts a n d o f th e m o re fa v o u ra b le
d e v e lo p m e n ts in P ersia sin ce th e o v e r th r o w o f M o s a d d e q . O n th e
w e ste rn fla n k , d esp ite th e C y p r u s a ffa ir a n d S o v ie t a p p ro a c h e s to
Y u g o s la v ia , th e situ a tio n w as fa ir ly g o o d . T h e e x isten ce o f th e
B a lk a n A llia n c e re m a in s a d e te rr e n t a t least to th e P o p u la r D e m o ­
cra c ie s. I t h as re m o v e d a n y te m p ta tio n th a t M o sc o w m a y o n ce
h a v e h a d to use H u n g a r ia n , R u m a n ia n o r B u lg a ria n forces in a
lim ite d a d v e n tu re , o f th e K o r e a n ty p e , in th e B a lk a n s. A n d th at
a t le a st rep resen ts a re a l g a in fo r T u r k e y .
A t th e n o rth -w e st c o r n e r o f th e B a lk a n P e n in su la rela tio n s
b e tw e e n Y u g o s la v ia a n d I t a ly re m a in e d fo r som e tim e a serious
n u isa n c e fo r W e ste rn p o lic y . W ith th e fo rm a tio n o f th e P e lla
g o v e r n m e n t in R o m e in th e la te su m m e r o f 1953 tension in cre a se d .
T h e r e w e re m o v e m e n ts o f troo p s a n d fie ry sp eech es o n b o th sides.
O n 8 O c t o b e r th e B ritish a n d U n ite d S tate s go v e rn m e n ts m ad e
a n ill-ju d g e d d e c la ra tio n o f th e ir in te n tio n to h a n d o v e r Z o n e ‘ A ’
392 TH E E A ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

o f th e T rie ste F re e T e r r it o r y to I t a ly . T h e Y u g o s la v g o v e rn m e n t
o rg a n ise d ‘d em o n stra tio n s’ to sm ash B ritish a n d A m e r ic a n offices
in B e lg ra d e a n d o th e r Y u g o s la v to w n s. W h e n th e W estern g o v e r n ­
m en ts d e c id e d , in v ie w o f Y u g o s la v re a ctio n s, to p o stp o n e e x e c u ­
tion o f th eir d ec isio n , I ta lia n ro w d ie s sm ash ed B ritish o ffices in
R o m e . A fte r som e m on th s tem p ers c o o le d a n d d ip lo m a c y to o k u p
th e task a g a in . T h e re p la c e m e n t o f P e lla b y S c e lb a as I ta lia n
P re m ie r m ad e th in g s easier. In O c t o b e r 1954 a n a g re e m e n t w as
a t last sign ed in L o n d o n b y I ta lia n , Y u g o s la v , A m e r ic a n an d
B ritish rep resen ta tives. I t a ly re d e d a sm a ll strip o f Z o n e ‘A ’ , w ith
a b o u t 4,000 in h a b ita n ts, m o stly S lo v e n e , a n d a n n e x e d th e rest.
Z o n e ‘ B ’ w as in c o rp o ra te d in Y u g o s la v ia to g e th e r w ith th e strip .
N a tio n a list o p in io n w as d issatisfied on b o th sides, a n d th ere w as
still a lo n g w a y to g o b efore I t a lo - Y u g o s la v re la tio n s c o u ld be
con sid e re d g o o d . M u tu a l d istru st w ith re g a rd to A lb a n ia , an d
m em ories o f Y u g o s la v c r u e lty to I ta lia n su b je cts in 1945 an d
o f m u ch g re a te r Ita lia n c r u e lty to Y u g o s la v s in 1 9 4 1 - 3 , re ­
m a in e d stro n g im p e d im e n ts. B u t th o u g h th e T r ie s te p r o b le m h ad
fo rm e d o n ly a p a rt o f th e w id e r I t a lo - Y u g o s la v a n ta g o n is m , it
h a d b e en its la rg e st sin gle ca u se . T h e a c c e p ta n c e o f a n e g o tia te d
s e ttle m e n t, e v e n i f it w a s n o t a v e r y g o o d se ttle m e n t, w as re a l
progress.
Y u g o s la v ia ’s re la tio n s w ith A u s tr ia e n o rm o u s ly im p ro v e d in the
1950 ’s. T h e r e w as n o m o re ta lk o n e ith e r sid e o f C a r in t h ia n b o rd e r
p ro b lem s. T h e c o n c lu sio n o f a S ta te T r e a t y fo r A u s tr ia in M a y
19 55 o p e n e d a n e w c h a p te r in A u s t r ia ’s h isto ry . T h e n e u tra lis a tio n
o f A u s tria w as w e lc o m e to th e Y u g o s la v s , fo r it fitte d w e ll w ith
P resid e n t T i t o ’s id eas o f a n u n c o m m itte d p o lic y .

T H E GERM AN PRO BLEM

G e r m a n y re m ain s th e m ost im p o rta n t in te rn a tio n a l p r o b le m

a ffe c tin g E u ro p e , w estern a n d e astern a lik e . T h e e c o n o m ic re­
c o v e r y , a n d p e a c e fu l p o litic a l d e v e lo p m e n t, o f W estern G e r m a n y
h a v e g iv e n a n e w u rg e n c y to th e d esire o f 70 m illio n G e r m a n s fo r
u n ity a n d in d e p e n d e n ce .
T h e a im s o f S o v ie t p o lic y to w a rd s G e r m a n y a re u n c h a n g e d .
T h e r e is a lo n g -te rm a im a n d a sh o rt-term a im . T h e first is to
in c o rp o ra te th e w h o le o f G e r m a n y in th e S o v ie t E m p ire , th e
secon d to c re a te m a x im u m h a tre d b e tw e e n W e ste rn G e r m a n y a n d
th e o th e r P o w e rs o f W estern E u ro p e a n d N o r th A m e r ic a .
T h e p ro sp ects fo r th e lo n g -te rm a im , w h ic h a m o u n ts to th e
e x te n sio n o f th e U lb r ic h t - P ie c k re g im e to th e w h o le o f G e r m a n y ,
 SINCE S T A L I N 393
h a v e b e en d isc o u ra g in g fo r som e tim e. T h e o r e t ic a lly this m igh t
b e a c h ie v e d b y o n e o f th re e m eth o d s.
T h e first is to c o n v in c e th e G e r m a n p e o p le , b y e x a m p le an d b y
p r o p a g a n d a , o f th e m erits o f th e p o p u la r d e m o c ra tic re g im e , as
p ra ctise d b y U lb r ic h t a n d P ie c k . I f th e S o v ie t le a d e rs h ad a n y
illu sio n s o n this p o in t, th e y w e re r u d e ly d isp e lle d b y th e n a tio n a l
risin g in th e S o v ie t zo n e in J u n e 1953. It is w o rth stressing th a t
it w a s th e in d u s tr ia l w o rk e rs, th e class in w h ic h th e co m m u n ists
b e lie v e d th em selv es to h a v e th e m ost su p p o rt, w h ic h led the
risin g , a n d th a t its d e m a n d s w e re n o t so m u c h e c o n o m ic as
p o litic a l. T h e E ast G e r m a n w o rk e rs’ first w ish w as th e o v e r th r o w
o f th e S .E .D . re g im e . I f th e m ass e m ig ra tio n fro m th e S o v ie t zon e
d u r in g th e w in te r o f 1952 3 h a d n o t a lr e a d y e n lig h te n e d W est
G e r m a n o p in io n as to th e n a tu re o f th e U lb r ic h t re g im e , the
eve n ts o f J u n e 1953 d id so. T h e S o v ie t le a d e rs c a n h a v e d e riv e d
little co m fo rt fro m th e g e n e ra l e le c tio n o f S e p te m b e r 1953, w h ic h
t r iu m p h a n tly c o n fir m e d C h a n c e llo r A d e n a u e r in p o w e r. T h e
se co n d G e r m a n p a rty , th e S o c ia l D e m o c ra ts , w e re k n o w n to be
n o less h o stile to c o m m u n ism a n d to th e U lb r ic h t re g im e th an
w e re A d e n a u e r ’s C h ris tia n D e m o c ra ts . D u r in g 1954 th e S o v ie t
a u th o ritie s g r e a tly re d u c e d restric tio n s o n tr a v e l b e tw e e n W estern
a n d E a ste rn G e r m a n y . T h o u s a n d s o f W est G e rm a n s w e re thus
e n a b le d to visit th e ir re la tiv e s a n d frien d s in th e e astern zo n e.
W h a t th e y sa w d id n o t in cre a se th e ir lik in g for p o p u la r d e m o c ra c y .
T h e tw o o th e r m eth o d s o f e x te n d in g th e U lb r ic h t re g im e to the
w h o le o f G e r m a n y a re w a r a n d d ip lo m a tic m an oeu vre. I f the
a g g re ssio n in K o r e a h a d s u c ce e d e d , M o sc o w m ig h t w e ll h a v e
re p e a te d it in G e r m a n y , u sin g w e ll-e q u ip p e d E ast G e rm a n an d
E ast E u ro p e a n tro o p s fo r th e p u rp o se . B u t th e lessons o f K o r e a
w e re d iffe re n t, a n d th ere is e v e r y in d ic a tio n th a t th e p resen t
S o v ie t le a d e rs d o n o t in te n d to risk a g e n e ra l w a r. T h e r e rem ain s
th e d ip lo m a tic m e th o d . E sse n tia lly this a m o u n ts to se c u rin g an
a g re e d se ttle m e n t, w ith W estern G e r m a n y a n d w ith th e W estern
P o w e rs, fo r re u n ific a tio n o f G e r m a n y in su ch c o n d itio n s as to
assu re th e G e r m a n co m m u n ists su fficien t k ey positions in th e state
m a c h in e to e n a b le th e m , a t a la te r sta g e , to seize sole p o w e r. T h e
a im , in fa c t, w o u ld be to cre a te a n u n ited G e r m a n g o v e rn m e n t
c o m p a r a b le to th e C z e c h o s lo v a k g o v e rn m e n t o f 194 5. T h e C z e c h
c o m m u n ists h a d e n o u g h re a l p o w e r to b e a b le th re e y e a rs la te r
to seize p o w e r w h en M o s c o w g a v e th e w o rd . T h e p ro c ed u re s
h ith e rto su g g e ste d b y th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t fo r th e p re p a ra tio n
o f G e r m a n u n ity h a v e in fa c t c le a r ly co n fo rm e d to this p a tte rn .
394 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

B u t th o u g h W estern o r W est G e rm a n sta tesm en m ig h t h a v e b e en

d e c e iv e d b y these m an oeu vres ten y e a rs a g o , th ere is sm a ll c h a n c e
th a t th e y w ill s u c c u m b to -d a y . T h e lessons o f K o ś ic e 1945 a n d
P r a g u e 1948 h a v e b een le a rn ed .
I f th en th e lo n g -te rm S o v ie t a im fo r G e r m a n y c a n n o t be
a tta in e d in th e p r e d ic ta b le fu tu re , M o sc o w m u st b e c o n te n t
w ith th e sh ort-term a im — m a x im u m h a tre d b e tw e e n G e r m a n y
a n d th e W est. H e re th e p ro sp ects a re less re m o te . S o v ie t p o lic y
h as in fa c t b e en c o n c e n tr a tin g o n this a im fo r a b o u t th re e y e a rs.
I t is w id e ly b e lie v e d th a t th e a d o p tio n o f a m o re fle x ib le p o lic y
in M o sc o w w a s th e resu lt o f S t a lin ’s d e a th , a n d th a t M a le n k o v
w as a ‘ m o d e ra te ’ . W h e th e r H ru sh c h o v w ill co n tin u e M a le n k o v ’s
‘ m o d e ra te ’ lin e o r re tu rn to S ta lin ’s ‘ e x tr e m ism ’ , is a fa v o u rite
th em e o f p o litic a l c o m m e n ta to rs . It w o u ld o f co u rse b e fo olish to
d e n y th e im p o rta n c e o f S t a lin ’s p e rs o n a lity , o r to ig n o re e v id e n c e
o f th e p e rso n a l in c lin a tio n s o f his successors. B u t th e tu rn in g -p o in t
in S o v ie t tactics p rec e d e d S t a lin ’s d e a th . T h e n e w p o lic y , o f
su b stitu tin g fo r a fr o n ta l a tta c k o n th e ‘ c a p ita list w o r ld ’ a sy ste m ­
a tic e x p lo ita tio n o f th e ‘c o n tra d ic tio n s o f c a p ita lis m ’ , w ith th e
a im o f p r o v o k in g a n e w w a r b e tw e e n ‘ ca p ita list sta te s’ , is c le a r ly
la id d o w n in S ta lin ’s last p u b lish e d w o rk , Economic Problems o f
Socialism, w h ic h a p p e a r e d in th e a u tu m n o f 1952.
A p p lie d to G e r m a n y , this p r in c ip le re q u ire s th e c re a tio n o f
a n in d e p e n d e n t u n ited G e r m a n y . T h e su b se q u e n t task o f S o v ie t
p o lic y w o u ld be to p ro m o te m a x im u m c o n flic t b e tw e e n th is u n ited
G e r m a n y an d th e W estern P o w e rs, o r p e rh a p s to w in h e r o v e r to
the S o v ie t c a m p .
T h is p o lic y w p u ld , h o w e v e r, in v o lv e u n p le a s a n t d ec isio n s an d
e n o rm o u s risks fo r th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e U lb r ic h t re g im e w o u ld
h a v e to b e sa c rific e d . T h is w o u ld be a b lo w to th e p restig e o f
co m m u n ism th ro u g h o u t th e w o rld , a n d to c o n v in c e d co m m u n ists
in the S o v ie t U n io n it w o u ld a p p e a r tre a c h e ry . M o r e o v e r it c o u ld
be b y n o m ean s c e rta in th a t a u n ite d G e r m a n y w o u ld n o t tak e
th e side o f th e W est a g a in st th e S o v ie t U n io n .
T h e u n c e rta in tie s o f this g a m b le h a v e c a u se d S o v ie t p o lic y in
th e G e r m a n q u estio n to v a c illa te . S ta lin w as h a r d ly th e m a n to
g iv e u p his h o ld on 18 m illio n p e o p le in e x c h a n g e fo r a m ere h o p e
o f fu tu re retu rn s. B u t a t least i f h e h a d d e c id e d to d o so, he h ad
th e a u th o r ity to put his p la n s in to p r a c tic e . T h e sa m e c o u ld not
b e sa id o f his successors. T h e risin g o f J u n e 1953 in c re a se d th e ir
d ifficu ltie s. T h e J u n e e ve n ts sh o w e d th e E ast G e r m a n s e c u rity
forces to b e in c o m p e te n t: o n ly th e S o v ie t A r m y sa v e d th e re g im e .
 SINCE ST A LI N 395

T h e fa ilu re o f th e p o lic e w a s a severe b lo w to th e p restige o f the

su p re m e S o v ie t p o lic e c h ie f B e ria , o n e o f th e c o m p e tito rs fo r the
su ccession to S ta lin . I t c a n h a r d ly be d o u b te d , th o u g h d ire c t
e v id e n c e is n ot a v a ila b le , th a t th e J u n e e ven ts p ro v id e d th e
o cca sio n fo r B e r ia ’s e n em ie s, a m o n g w h o m m ust c e r ta in ly be
re c k o n e d th e A r m y le a d e rs, to o v e r th r o w h im tw o w eeks la ter.
B u t w ith th e stru g g le fo r th e su ccession still in p rogress, a n d these
e ve n ts fresh in a ll m in d s, it w a s d iffic u lt to im a g in e th a t a n y o f
th e S o v ie t le a d e rs w o u ld e xp o se h im s e lf to th e c h a rg e o f b e tra y in g
th e s tra te g ic in terests o f th e S o v ie t U n io n a n d th e ca u se o f c o m ­
m u n ism , b y p r o p o sin g th a t th e U lb r ic h t re g im e be sa crific e d .
A n d in fa c t in th e fo llo w in g moiSths fu ll su p p o rt w as g iv e n to
U lb r ic h t . T h e a u th o r ity o f the S .E .D . w as re in fo rc ed , th ere w e re
con cession s in th e e c o n o m ic b u t n o t in th e p o litic a l field , a n d the
p u b lic sta te m e n ts o f S o v ie t sp o kesm en m a d e it c le a r th a t th ey
r e g a rd e d th e re g im e in the S o v ie t zo n e as th e m o d e l fo r th e ‘ tru ly
d e m o c r a t ic ’ o rd e r o f th e G e r m a n y o f the fu tu re.
T h e in fle x ib le S o v ie t a ttitu d e d o o m e d to fa ilu re th e B erlin
c o n fe re n c e o f th e P o w ers in J a n u a r y 1954. B u t d isa g re e m e n ts
b e tw e e n th e A m e r ic a n a n d W est E u ro p e a n g o v e rn m e n ts on A sia n
a ffa irs, b o th b e fo re a n d a fte r th e G e n e v a c o n fe re n c e , a n d the
re je ctio n b y F r a n c e o f th e E u ro p e a n D e fe n c e C o m m u n ity su g­
gested th a t a m o re su p p le p o lic y w o u ld be m o re su ccessfu l. T h e
sig n a tu re a n d r a tific a tio n o f the W est E u ro p e a n U n io n tre a ty in
1 9 5 4 -5 w e re a fu rth e r se t-b a c k to M o sc o w , b u t th e a b u n d a n t
e v id e n c e o f th e im p a tie n c e o f W est G e rm a n p u b lic o p in io n in
re g a rd to u n ific a tio n w as a n e n c o u ra g e m e n t.
In m id - 1955 S o v ie t p o lic y to w a rd s G e r m a n y re m a in e d u n ­
ce r ta in . T h e r e w e re in d ic a tio n s th a t M o sc o w still so u gh t a solu tion
on th e lin e s o f th e G o ttw a ld g o v e rn m e n t o f K o ś ic e . C o n t r a r y
in d ic a tio n s su g g e ste d th a t M o sc o w m ig h t be w illin g to sa crifice
U lb r ic h t a n d p e rm it a g e n u in e ly in d e p e n d e n t u n ited G e rm a n y ,
w ith a rm e d fo rces o f its o w n , p r o v id e d th a t G e r m a n y severed its
lin k s w ith th e W e st a n d c o m m itte d itse lf to so m e fo rm o f p e r­
m a n e n t n e u tr a lity . F o r this th e S ta te T r e a t y sign ed w ith A u stria
a p p e a r e d to p r o v id e a p r e c e d e n t. E ith e r o f these p olicies m ig h t
m a k e sense fro m a S o v ie t p o in t o f v ie w , b u t th e y w e re n ot
c o m p a tib le w ith e a c h o th er.
N e ith e r p o lic y c o u ld b e a c c e p ta b le to th e W estern P ow ers. A
‘ K o S ic e g o v e r n m e n t’ , d esig n e d in d u e co u rse to lea d to a n o th e r
‘F e b r u a r y 194 8 ’, w a s o f c o u rse c le a r ly o u t o f th e q u e s tio n . B u t
a ‘ n e u t r a lit y ’ so lu tio n w as e q u a lly in c o m p a tib le w ith W estern
396 T H E E A ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

interests, eve n i f c e rta in sectio n s o f B ritish a n d F re n c h p u b lic

o p in io n d id not u n d e rsta n d this. T h e r e a re tw o reason s w h y this
is so.
A n in d e p e n d e n t n e u tra l G e r m a n y in th e m id d le o f E u ro p e
m ig h t be a c c e p ta b le to a ll, p ro v id e d th a t th ere w e re in d e p e n d e n t
p e a ce fu l states to its w est an d cast. In d e e d som e su ch situ a tio n
as this w as p r o b a b ly in th e m ind s o f m ost th o u g h tfu l W est
E u ro p e a n s an d A m e ric a n s d u r in g th e last p a rt o f th e S e co n d
W o rld W a r. G e r m a n y w o u ld be d isa rm e d b u t u n ited , a n d w o u ld
b e su rro u n d e d b y in d e p e n d e n t F ra n c e , A u s tr ia , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
a n d P o la n d . B u t this p o ssib ility w as d estro y e d b y th e a c tio n o f th e
S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t. S ta lin d e c id e d to e n sla v e 100 m illio n E ast
E u ro p e a n s, th e r e b y d e s tro y in g n ot o n ly th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f the
P oles an d C z e c h s b u t also th e w h o le E u ro p e a n b a la n c e . O n c e this
w as d o n e , th e b a la n c e c o u ld n ot be restored in fa v o u r o f th e
W est w ith o u t in c lu d in g G e r m a n y . G e r m a n y c o u ld n o lo n g e r be
left a v a c u u m in th e m id d le o f th e c o n tin e n t: she w as n e ed e d fo r
th e self-d efen ce o f th e W est. E q u a lly th e W est w a s in d isp e n sa b le
fo r th e self-d efen ce o f G e r m a n y . W h e n S o v ie t o r c o m m u n ist o r
p ro -co m m u n ist c o m m e n ta to rs sp ea k o f a ‘ n e u tr a l b e lt ’ in E u ro p e ,
th e q u estion a t o n c e arises, ‘ n e u tr a l fro m w h o m ? ’ T h e S o v ie t a im
is th a t G e rm a n y , a n d in d u e co u rse also I t a ly o r o th e r W e ste rn
states, sh o u ld be d e ta c h e d from th e W estern A llia n c e , b u t th at
th e E ast E u ro p e a n states w h ic h h a v e b e en fo r c ib ly tied to th e
S o v ie t U n io n sh o u ld re m ain so tie d . B u t n e u tr a lity c a n o n ly be
m ad e a basis o f d iscu ssion i f it is n o t u n ila te ra l. A n e u tr a l u n ited
G e r m a n y c a n o n ly b e c o n sid e re d i f E astern E u ro p e is a lso to be
n e u tra l. A n d this m ea n s n o t o n ly th a t th e U lb r ic h t r e g im e be
a b a n d o n e d , b u t th a t th e p e o p le o f P o la n d , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d
th e D a n u b ia n states be e n a b le d fre e ly to ch o o se th e ir o w n ru lers
an d th eir o w n in te rn a tio n a l frien d sh ip s. I f these co n d itio n s w e re
fu lfille d , it m ig h t be po ssib le to o rg a n ise som e fo rm o f n e u tr a lis a ­
tio n , o r o f m u tu a l se cu rity , for th e w h o le re g io n b e tw e e n the
R h in e a n d th e R u ssia n fro n tie r, o r in d ee d fo r th e W'hole c o n tin e n t.
B u t w ith o u t free d o m fo r E astern E u ro p e , th e slo g a n o f G e rm a n
n e u tr a lity is n o m o re th an a d e v ic e to en su re S o v ie t m ilita ry
d o m in a tio n o f the O ld W o rld .
T h e secon d o b je c tio n to u n ila te ra l n e u tra lis a tio n o f G e r m a n y
arises o u t o f th e first. A u n ited G e r m a n y se p a ra te d fro m th e
W est w o u ld a t o n c e b e su b je c te d to te m p tin g te rrito r ia l offers
fro m th e S o v ie t sid e. I f u n ity h a d b een b o u g h t a t th e p r ic e o f
n e u tra lis a tio n , p a rt o r a ll o f th e O d e r-N e isse la n d s a n d the
 SINCE ST A L I N 397

S u d e te n p ro v in c e s c o u ld be sold for p o sitive a d h e re n c e b y

G e r m a n y to th e S o v ie t c a m p . It is u n lik e ly th a t th e presen t
p o litic a l le a d e rs o f W est G e r m a n y — w h o w o u ld p re s u m a b ly still
b e in p o w e r in u n ited G e r m a n y — w o u ld be resp on sive. N o t o n ly
A d e n a u e r , b u t also th e S o c ia l D e m o c ra t leaders, h a v e a h e a lth y
d istru st fo r S o v ie t m an oeu vres. B u t th ere a re c e rta in ly stro n g forces
in G e r m a n y to w h o m su ch a b a r g a in w o u ld a p p e a l. H a tr e d o f
th e A n g lo -S a x o n s , co n te m p t fo r P oles a n d C z e c h s, a n a rro g a n t
a ssu m p tio n th a t in a n y G e rm a n -R u ssia n p a rtn e rsh ip th e G e rm a n
is b o u n d to p r e v a il, fin a lly a b asic p referen ce fo r to ta lita ria n
g o v e rn m e n t o v e r d e m o c ra tic , a ll co m b in e to m o ve la rg e sections
o f th e G e r m a n p e o p le . T h e s e a re b a r e ly v isib le o n th e su rface
o f W est G e r m a n p o litics in 1955, b u t th e y exist n on e th e less.
E c o n o m ic d ifficu ltie s m ig h t g iv e th em th eir c h a n c e . It is a risk
th a t th e W est c a n n o t tak e.
T h e p r o b le m o f G e r m a n y ’s e astern fro n tie r rem ain s a re a l on e.
S o m e d a y th ere m ust be a se ttle m e n t b e tw e e n th e G e rm a n , Polish
a n d C z e c h p e o p les. In 1945 m illio n s o f in n o c e n t G e rm a n s su f­
fered cru e l h ard sh ip s. T h e s e fo llo w e d six y ears o f c ru e l G e rm a n
op p re ssio n in th e C z e c h la n d s, a n d o f m u ch m ore c ru e l G e rm a n
op p re ssio n in P o la n d . B oth sides h a v e a m p le g ro u n d s fo r b o th b itte r­
ness a n d sh am e . T h a t the G e rm a n s sh o u ld w ish to retu rn to the
situ a tio n o f 1937 is u n d e rs ta n d a b le , b u t n o t m o ra lly ju stifia b le .
I f this w e re d o n e , th e G e rm a n p e o p le w o u ld h a v e m ad e no a to n e ­
m en t to th e P oles fo r th e m on stro u s crim es o f H it le r ’s regim e .
T h is d o e s n ot, h o w e v e r, m ea n th a t th e O d e r-N e isse fro n tier
sh o u ld b e re g a rd e d as sa n c tifie d for a ll tim e. I f the S u d e te n
G e rm a n s w e re to re tu rn in a b o d y to the S u d e te n p ro vin ce s,
a n d resu m e possession o f th e ir lan d an d p ro p e rty , the G e rm a n
p e o p le w o u ld h a v e m ad e n o a to n e m e n t to th e C z e c h s fo r the
c ru e ltie s th a t H itle r in flicte d on th em . T h is d oes n ot, h o w ev e r,
m ea n th a t those S u d e te n G e rm a n s w h o sin c e re ly desire to liv e in
p e a ce a n d frien d sh ip w ith the C z e c h p e o p le a n d c a n sh o w th at
th e y h a d n o p a rt in th e crim e s o f H itle r an d H e n le in an d H e y d r ic h
sh o u ld fo r a ll tim e be b an ish e d from th eir hom es.
T h e s e m atte rs ca n o n ly be settled b y d ire ct n e g o tia tio n b etw een
G e rm a n s an d P oles a n d b e tw e e n G e rm a n s a n d C z e c h s. A t presen t
th e r e c a n be n o n e g o tia tio n s, b ecau se free G e r m a n y is c u t ofT
fro m P o la n d b y the S o v ie t zo n e , a n d b ecau se b oth P oles and
C z e c h s a re ru le d b y m en n o t ch o sen b y th em b u t im posed on
th em b y S o v ie t v io le n c e . W h e n th ere is a u n ited in d ep en d e n t
G e r m a n y , th e p r o b le m w ill b e c o m e m o re re a l. G e r m a n y w ill th en
398 THE EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
h a v e tw o possible cou rses o f a c tio n . O n e is to b a r g a in w ith the
S o v ie t U n io n at th e exp en se o f P oles a n d C z e c h s , to re tu rn to th e
M o lo to v - R ib b e n tr o p p a c t. T h is p a c t b r o u g h t G e r m a n y n o th in g
b u t disaster. M o re o v e r the re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n G e r m a n y and
R u ssia is now' fu n d a m e n ta lly a n d p e rm a n e n tly d iffe re n t fro m w h a t
it w a s in 1939. T h e r e c a n b e n o q u estio n o f a p a rtn e rsh ip b e tw e e n
e q u a ls, still less o f a G e rm a n p r e d o m in a n c e . T h e o n ly re la tio n sh ip
w ith R u ssia , in to w h ic h G e r m a n y c a n e n te r a lo n e , is o n e o f
v a ssa la g e . T h e a lte r n a tiv e is th a t G e r m a n y sh o u ld n e g o tia te
d ire c tly w ith P o les a n d C z e c h s. T h is is th e tru e in te re st o f G e r ­
m a n y , o f P o la n d a n d o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . It is a lso th e tru e in terest
o f E u ro p e . B u t it c a n n o t h a p p e n u n til P o la n d a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia
a re free.
T h e o n ly a lte r n a tiv e to G e r m a n y ’s a b so rp tio n in th e S o v ie t
E m p ire is th at G e r m a n y sh o u ld settle h e r re la tio n s w ith P o les a n d
C z e c h s b y d ire c t n e g o tia tio n . U n t il this is p o ssib le, G e r m a n y h as
n o a lte r n a tiv e to th e W estern A llia n c e . M e a n w h ile th e W estern
P o w e rs sh o u ld , a n d n o d o u b t w ill, m a k e e v e r y e ffo rt to o b ta in
th e u n ific a tio n o f G e r m a n y on a c c e p ta b le term s.
T h e o n ly a lte r n a tiv e for the P oles a n d C z e c h s to b e in g m ad e
th e o b je c t o f c y n ic a l b a r g a in s b y th e S o v ie t U n io n , is th a t th e y
sh o u ld th em selves o b ta in a d ire c t se ttle m e n t w ith G e r m a n y . T h is
w ill b e possible o n ly w h en th e y a re in d e p e n d e n t o f M o sc o w . T h is
sh o u ld b e a p p a re n t, n ot o n ly to Polish a n d C z e c h d e m o c ra ts, b u t
a lso to m a n y w h o are m em b ers o f th e co m m u n ist p a rtie s o f b oth
co u n trie s. It c a n n o t o f co u rse b e e x p e c te d th a t su ch p u p p e ts as
B ie ru t o r C c p ić k a w ill a d m it this eve n to th em selves.
T o G e rm a n o r P olish o r C z e c h n a tio n a lists these tru th s m a y
seem d isa g re e a b le , b u t th e y a re tru th s n on e th e less. W e ste rn
frien d s o f th e Poles o r G e rm a n s o r C z e c h s w ill d o th e m n o se rv ice
i f th e y e n c o u ra g e th em to th in k o th erw ise .
 CHAPTER FIFTEEN

EAST AND W EST

H E N th e w a r e n d e d , p u b lic o p in io n in th e W e st h o p ed

W a n d b e lie v e d th a t c o -o p e ra tio n b e tw e e n th e victo rio u s

G r e a t P o w ers w o u ld en su re E u ro p e a n a n d w o rld p e a ce.
T h e tw o h a lf-E u r o p e a n P o w e rs, B rita in a n d R u ssia , th e g rea test
W o rld P o w e r, th e U n ite d S tate s, a n d th e o ld est E u ro p e a n P o w e r,
F ra n c e , w o u ld to g e th e r k eep o rd e r a n d p ro te c t lib e rty . Y e t o n ly
a y e a r a fte r H it le r ’ s a rm ie s su rre n d e re d , M r . V y s h in s k y a n d M r.
B e v in w e r e e x c h a n g in g in sults a t fo rm a l sessions o f th e U n ite d
N a tio n s, a n d a y e a r a fte r th a t S o v ie t p r o p a g a n d a w as a c c u s in g th e
'A m e r ic a n im p e ria lists a n d th e ir B ritish la b o u r ite j a c k a ls ’ o f
fo llo w in g in th e steps o f H itle r. A n d th ere w as this m u c h tru th in
th e a ccu s a tio n , th a t e a c h sid e w as u sin g a g a in st th e o th e r the
v e r y a rg u m e n ts th a t fo r m a n y y e a rs G o e b b e ls h ad used. O n e m ay
im a g in e th e little d o c to r, in w h a te v e r n eth erm o st region o f
in fe rn o h e n o w in h a b its, his g h o stly fea tu res illu m in e d b y a
d ia b o lic sm ile . A t least th e e v il th a t h e d id seem s lik e ly to live
a fte r h im .
I t h as b e en su ggested th a t th e W e ste rn P ow ers b e g a n it b y
c o m p la in in g o f th e S o v ie t a c tio n in R u m a n ia in F e b ru a ry 1945,
th o u g h th e y h a d a g re e d th a t R u m a n ia w as to be th e S o v iet
sp h e re w h ile G r e e c e w a s th e B ritish , a n d th e S o v ie t leaders h ad
o b se rv e d th e ir p a rt o f th e b a r g a in b y sile n ce w h e n British troop s
d e s tro y e d E .L .A .S ! T h is is a go o d d e b a tin g -p o in t, b u t n o m ore.
T h e h o stility a n d c o n te m p t in w h ic h S o v ie t c itizen s h ad b een
ta u g h t to h o ld th e ir W e ste rn a llies w e re m u c h o ld e r th a n T e h r a n
o r Y a lt a . T h e y b e c a m e q u ic k ly o b v io u s to W estern ers w h o se d uties
p u t th em in c o n ta c t w ith th e R e d A r m y , a n d p e rh a p s n o w h e re so
q u ic k ly o r so c le a r ly as in th e d efe a te d sa tellite co u n trie s R u m a n ia
a n d B u lg a ria . S o v ie t officers so m etim es d e lib e r a te ly in su lted th eir
W e ste rn c o lle a g u e s o n th e A llie d C o n tr o l C o m m issio n s, b u t m ore
o fte n th e y u n in te n tio n a lly a n ta g o n ise d th em . A n d it w o u ld be
u n fa ir to d e n y th a t A m e r ic a n a n d B ritish re p resen ta tive s o ften
la c k e d ta c t o r u n d e r s ta n d in g .1 B u t th e d iffe re n c e w as th a t
1 F o r an in te llig e n t a n d s c ru p u lo u s ly fa ir a c c o u n t o f this rela tio n sh ip sec B arker
T iu ct in the Balkans, c h a p te r 5.
399
400 T H E EA ST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
w h erea s the A m e ric a n s a n d B ritish w e re a t tim es d isco u rte o u s or
stu p id , th e S o v ie t c o m m a n d e rs a ssu m ed from th e b e g in n in g th a t
th eir allies w e re th e ir m o rta l en em ies, a n d w o u ld a lw a y s a n d
e v e ry w h e re o p p o se th eir aim s a n d h e lp th e ir en em ies. T h e re fo r e ,
e v e ry R u m a n ia n w h o w as frie n d ly w ith A m e ric a n s rr.ust be an
e n e m y o f th e U .S .S .R ., a n d e v e ry B u lg a ria n w h o g e n u in e ly
w ish ed w e ll to th e U .S .S .R . m ust h a te th e B ritish . T h is b asic
a ttitu d e o f S o v ie t officers w a s n ot th e resu lt o f th e ir o w n e x p e rie n c e
a n d th o u g h t: it w as o rd e re d b y th e p o licy -m a k e rs in M o sc o w .
T o W e ste rn ers it still seem s in c re d ib le th a t th e S o v ie t U n io n ,
w h ich possessed in 1945 su ch a w e a lth o f a d m ira tio n a n d g o o d w ill
in th e W est, sh ou ld h a v e w a n to n ly th ro w n it a w a y . T o co m m u n ists
in th e S o v ie t U n io n a n d e lsew h ere this w a y o f p u ttin g th e p ro b le m
is a n e x a m p le o f n a iv e p e tty -b o u rg e o is id e alism . T h e g o o d w ill, as
th e y saw it, w as n ot a n asset w o rth h a v in g . T h e p a r lia m e n ta r y
p o liticia n s, jo u rn a lists a n d speakers in W e ste rn c o u n trie s w h o
in th e w a r y e a rs p o u re d fo rth p raise o f th e U .S .S .R . a re th e
h elpless p u p p ets o f th e g re a t ca p ita lists. T h e g re a t c a p ita lists,
w h o ru n th e W e ste rn d e m o c ra c ie s fro m b e h in d th e scen es, h a te
th e U .S .S .R ., a n d as soon as th e ir o p p o r tu n ity c a m e w o u ld
in e v ita b ly sw itch th e w h o le p u b lic ity m a ch in e o n to a n ti-S o v ie t
p r o p a g a n d a . T h e o n ly frien d s w o rth h a v in g in th e W e ste rn
co u n trie s a re those w h o a re p re p a re d d e v o te d ly to se rv e th e
U .S .S .R .— th a t is, th e co m m u n ists, th eir sy m p ath ise rs, a n d th e
sm all a rm y o f secret p a id a g e n ts o f th e S o v ie t sta te. A ll o th e r
frien d s are w orth less. T h e o n ly re a listic p o lic y fo r th e U .S .S .R .
w as th erefore to p u rsu e h e r o w n in d e p e n d e n t c o u rse , se izin g
e ve r)' ta n g ib le a d v a n ta g e th a t c irc u m sta n c e s o ffe re d , b u ild in g u p
h er o w n stre n g th , tru stin g to it a lo n e , a n d a w a itin g th e in e v ita b le
o p e n co n flic t o f in terest w ith th e W e ste rn c a p ita lists. I f h e r
re a listic a ctio n s e n a b le d th e servile p en -p u sh ers a n d o th e r la ck e y s
o f th e ca p ita lists to a ccu se th e U .S .S .R . o f o p p re ssin g sm a ll
n ation s, tra m p lin g o n lib erties, a n d so fo rth , th a t c o u ld n o t b e
h e lp e d . T h e re lia b le se rv an ts o f th e S o v ie t ca u se in partibus
infidelium w o u ld d o th e ir d u ty a n y h o w : th e o th ers w e re n ot
w o rth w in n in g . T h e h u m a n ra c e o u tsid e th e te rrito ries c o n tro lle d
b y th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t falls in to tw o c a te g o rie s— a g e n ts a n d
en em ies. In th e c o n tro lle d territo ries a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n itself,
th ere a re th re e c a te g o rie s— co m m u n ists, sla ve s a n d en em ies.
S o v ie t p o lic y is b ase d , as it h as b e en sin c e 1 9 1 7 , o n th e d o g m a
th a t c o n flic t b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t a n d c a p ita lis t w 'orlds is in e v it­
a b le . T h e S o v ie t U n io n m a y o f c o u rse c o n c lu d e te m p o ra r y
 EA ST AND WE ST 401
a llia n ce s w ith in d iv id u a l ca p ita list states o r g ro u p s o f c a p ita list
states. S o v ie t d ip lo m a c y sh o u ld a t a ll tim es e x p lo it to th e a d v a n ­
ta g e o f th e U .S .S .R . a ll ‘ c o n tr a d ic tio n s ’ w ith in th e c a p ita list
w o rld . B u t b a s ic a lly th e w h o le ca p ita list w o rld is h ostile to the
S o v ie t w o rld , a n d h as a p e rm a n e n t te n d e n c y to u n ite a g a in st it.
T h e S o v ie t U n io n w ill n ot b e secu re u n til c a p ita lism h as b een
o v e r th r o w n in th e m ost p o w e rfu l states o f th e w o rld . A n d b y the
S o v ie t d e fin itio n , a ll th e a d v a n c e d in d u stria l states o f E u ro p e an d
N o rth A m e r ic a a re c a p ita list states, th e U .S .S .R . is th e o n ly state
in w h ic h so cia lism h as triu m p h e d , a n d th e S o v ie t-d o m in a te d
states a re th e o n ly states in w h ic h so cialism is b e in g b u ilt. T h e
so cia l d e m o c ra t p a rtie s o f W e ste rn E u ro p e a re n o t so cialist
p a rtie s a t a ll, b u t in stru m e n ts o f th e c a p ita lists to d e c e iv e the
w o rk e rs, th e ir le a d e rs co n scio u s in stru m en ts a n d th e ir m asses
u n co n scio u s in stru m en ts.
I t is n o t tru e tn a t, b e c a u se S ta lin la u n c h e d th e slo g a n ‘ S o cia lism
in o n e c o u n t r y ’ a g a in st T r o ts k y , th erefo re S ta lin a b a n d o n e d the
a im o f w o rld re v o lu tio n . S ta lin b e lie v e d th a t th e S o v ie t U n io n
possessed th e in te rn a l c o n d itio n s n ecessary fo r socialism . S h e h ad
th e n a tu r a l resou rces a n d th e m a n -p o w e r : h e b e lie v e d th a t th e
m a n -p o w e r c o u ld b e tra in e d a n d c o e rc e d to cre a te from the
resou rces a m ig h ty in d u str y th a t w o u ld form th e fo u n d a tio n o f a
so cia list sta te . O n th ese p oin ts h e d isa g re e d w ith T r o ts k y , a n d
to -d a y h e a n d his su p p o rte rs m a in ta in th a t h isto ry has p ro v e d
h im rig h t a n d T r o ts k y w ro n g . B u t S ta lin a lw a y s h e ld th a t so c ia l­
ism in th e U .S .S .R . w o u ld b e in d a n g e r as lo n g as ‘ c a p ita list
e n c ir c le m e n t’ c o n tin u e d . T h e sp re a d o f re v o lu tio n w as th erefo re
essen tial to th e p e rm a n e n t success o f R u ssia n so cialism . M o re o v e r
it w as th e d u t y o f e v e ry S o v ie t co m m u n ist to p u rsu e w o rld
re v o lu tio n fo r its o w n sake. S ta lin h as sh ow n h im se lf ru th less and
u n scru p u lo u s in d e a lin g w ith p e rso n a l rivals. B u t this d oes n ot
p r o v e , as m a n y W estern ob servers a r b itr a r ily assu m e, th a t h e a n d
his clo se co lla b o ra to rs a re m ere c y n ics. T h e e v id e n c e is ra th e r
th a t th e y h a v e re m a in e d fa ith fu l to th e re v o lu tio n a ry cau se,
w a itin g o n ly for a fa v o u r a b le m o m e n t. T h is c a m e w h e n the
c o lla p se o f N a z i G e r m a n y o p e n e d to th e S o v ie t a rm ies th e B a ltic
a n d th e D a n u b e v a lle y .1
W h e th e r w h a t th e S o v ie t a rm ies a n d p o litic a l exp e rts h a v e
sp re a d to E a s te rn E u ro p e is so cia lism , a n d w h e th e r th e process b y

1 F o r a ca re fu l d iscu ssion o f th e po sitio n s o f T ro ts k y a n d S ta lin , a n d o f w h a t w as

m e a n t a n d w as not m ea n t b y ‘ so cialism in o n e c o u n t r y ’ , see D e u tsc h e r, Stalin, p p .
281-93.
402 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
w h ich th e y h a v e sp re ad it c a n b e c a lle d a re v o lu tio n , is a n o th e r
q u estio n . T r o ts k y a rg u e d d u r in g his e x ile th a t w h a t S ta lin h ad
c re a te d w as n o t socia lism b u t a b u r e a u c r a tic d esp o tism w h ich
m a rk e d th e d e g e n e ra tio n o f a g re a t re v o lu tio n . O n e d oes n ot n eed
to a c c e p t a ll T r o t s k y ’s assu m p tion s o r a rg u m e n ts in o rd e r to h old
th a t th e S o v ie t system is so m e th in g u tte r ly d iffe re n t from w h a t
socialism h as m ea n t to g e n e ra tio n s o f E u ro p e a n so cia list w o rk e rs
a n d th in k ers, o r th a t its re c e n t e xte n sio n to E aste rn E u ro p e has
b e en a c h ie v e d n ot b y r e v o lu tio n b u t b y fo reig n c o n q u e st. S o v ie t
p o lic y aim s a t w o rld re v o lu tio n in th e sense th a t its m ak ers
b e lie v e th a t to b e th e ir a im . Its e x e c u tio n , h o w e v e r, as seen b y
n o n -co m m u n ists o u tsid e th e U .S .S .R ., looks q u ite d iffe re n t.
P r o b a b ly th e best n e u tra l d e s c rip tio n is th a t a d o p te d b y a re ce n t
h isto ria n o f S o v ie t fo re ig n p o lic y — ‘ e x te n sio n o f th e a re a o f
s o v ie tis a tio n ’ . 1
W e ste rn co m m e n ta to rs o n S o v ie t a ffa irs o fte n raise th e q u estio n
‘ Is S o v ie t p o lic y a c o n tin u a tio n o f th e im p e ria lism o f th e T sa rs,
o r is it a n e w a n d re v o lu tio n a ry p o l ic y ? ’ T h is q u estio n is w r o n g ly
p u t. T h e r e is n o c o m p le te c o n tra d ic tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o . S o v ie t
p o lic y is rev o lu tio n a ry ' in th e sense in w h ic h w e h a v e d escrib e d
it a b o v e . It is also a c o n tin u a tio n o f T s a ris t p o lic y in so fa r as,
lik e th e fo reig n p o lic y ' o f a ll states, it is la r g e ly d e te rm in e d b y
g e o g r a p h y , a n d th e g e o g r a p h y o f th e U .S .S .R . is m u c h th e sa m e
as th e g e o g r a p h y o f I m p e r ia l R u ssia . T h e areas in w h ic h S o v ie t
p o lic y is in c o n ta c t w ith th e p o lic y o f th e ‘ e n c irc lin g c a p ita lis t
s ta te s ’ a re th e sa m e a re a s in w h ic h th e p o lic y o f I m p e r ia l R u ssia
m et th e p o lic y o f th e riv a l G r e a t P o w e rs— A u s tria , G e r m a n y a n d
B rita in . T h e s e a re as a rc S c a n d in a v ia , th e B a lk a n s, th e S tra its,
T u r k e y , P ersia a n d M a n c h u r ia . T h e c o lla p se o f G e r m a n y a n d
J a p a n , h o w e v e r, has e n a b le d th e S o v ie t U n io n to e x te n d h e r
in flu e n c e to th e E lb e an d th e Y a n g ts e . I n e v it a b ly , m a n y o f th e
co n tro v e rsie s b e tw e e n th e W e ste rn P o w ers a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n
c o n c e rn th e sam e areas as th e c o n tro v e rsie s b e tw e e n th e E u ro p e a n
Pow ers fifty o r a h u n d re d y e a rs a g o . T h e c o n te n t a n d a im s o f
S o v ie t p o lic y a re d iffe re n t fro m th ose o f I m p e r ia l R u ssia n p o lic y ,
b u t th e form s a re o ften sim ila r. A n d form s so m e tim e s e v e n a ffe ct
co n te n t.
T h e q u estio n w h e th e r S o v ie t p o lic y is im p e ria listic raises som e
in te re stin g p o in ts o f c o m m u n ist te rm in o lo g y . I f th e B ritish
g o v e rn m e n t o w n s sh ares in th e A n g lo - I r a n ia n O i l C o m p a n y , th a t
is im p e ria lism . I f A m e r ic a n a ir lin es possess v a lu a b le con cession s
1 Be Io ff, The Foreign Policy o f Soviet Russia, v o l. 2, p . 394.
 EA ST A ND W E S T 4O3
in S o u th A m e r ic a n re p u b lic s, th a t is im p e ria lism . B u t i f th e S o v ie t
g o v e rn m e n t o w n s a th ird o f R u m a n ia ’s o il, h a lf h er tim b e r, and
m o n o p o lie s o f a ir a n d riv e r tra n sp o rt in R u m a n ia an d H u n g a ry ,
th a t is n o t im p e ria lism . I f A m e ric a n s o r B ritish h a v e con cession s
in th e u ra n iu m o f th e B e lg ia n C o n g o , th a t is im p e ria lism an d w a r­
m o n g e r in g : if C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ’ s u ra n iu m m ines a rc e x p lo ite d b y
S o v ie t p e rso n n e l fo r th e b e n e fit o f th e U .S .S .R . th a t is socialist
co m ra d e sh ip . B u t th e S o v ie t U n io n n ot o n ly has th e rig h t o f
tra n sit fo r h e r tro op s th ro u g h E a ste rn E u ro p e , an d h e r o w n a rm y
officers a n d p o lic e o fficials in h igh a d v iso ry a n d e v e n e x e c u tiv e
posts in th e E ast E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s: she also has la rg e n u m b e rs
o f c iv ilia n officials in k e y positions. T h e S o v ie t sta te ban ks a n d
sta te trusts h a v e th e ir m en in th e ‘ lib e r a t e d ’ c o u n trie s. S o v ie t
b a n k e rs a n d m a n a g e rs sit in w e ll-c a r p e te d offices in B u carest an d
W a r s a w a n d B u d a p e st a n d P r a g u e a n d S o fia , n o t to m en tion
T i r a n a , th e A lm a - A t a o f th e B a lk a n s. T h e y d iffe r fro m the
A m e r ic a n m a n a g e r s in R io , o r th e B ritish m a n a g e rs in T e h r a n ,
o n ly in th e ir m u ch g re a te r p o w e r to in spire fe a r a n d c o m p e l
o b e d ie n c e .
N o on e c a n u n d e rs ta n d E a s te rn E u ro p e to -d a y w h o h as not
le a rn e d so m e th in g o f S o v ie t te rm in o lo g y . S ta te m e n ts w h ic h a t
first sig h t a p p e a r a b su rd b e c o m e o b v io u s w h e n th e sp e cia l use o f
la n g u a g e is u n d e rsto o d . F o r in sta n c e , ‘ p e a c e ’ m ean s th e ‘ a c h ie v e ­
m en t o f S o v ie t a im s ’ ; ‘ n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e ’ m ean s a sta te o f
su b je c tio n to M o sc o w , a n d o f p o litic a l w a r fa r e w ith th e W e s t;
th e ‘ b ro a d p o p u la r m asse s’ a re a ll w h o su p p o rt S o v ie t p o lic y .
T h u s , I n d ia is n o t in d e p e n d e n t b u t R u m a n ia is: I n d ia ’ s p o lic y is
m a d e in D e lh i, R u m a n ia ’ s in M o sc o w . S u c h sta te m e n ts as ‘ S o v ie t
p o lic y w h o le h e a r te d ly p u rsu es th e ca u se o f p e a c e ’ , o r ‘ T h e S o v iet
U n io n fa v o u rs th e n a tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e o f sm all n a tio n s ’ , o r
‘ T h e b ro a d p o p u la r m asses o f B rita in a b h o r th e p o lic y o f B e vin
a n d s u p p o rt th e B ritish C o m m u n is t P a r t y ’s stru g g le fo r p e a c e ’ ,
w h e n a c c u r a t e ly in te rp re te d , a rc fou n d to be ta u to lo g ic a l, a n d ,
lik e a ll ta u to lo g ie s, a re in d u b ita b ly tru e.
B u t, i f la n g u a g e is g iv e n to c o m m u n ist m a n to e n a b le h im to
c o n c e a l his th o u g h ts, a n d e sp e c ia lly to co n fu se his o p p o n e n t’s
th o u g h ts, it som etim es a ffects his o w n th o u g h ts. T h e r e is on e
p h ra se o f co m m u n ist sp e e ch w h ic h h as im p o rta n t con seq u en ces.
T h is is th e p h ra se a b o u t th e U .S .S .R . as th e ‘ fa th e rla n d o f th e
t o ile r s ’ . A ll toilers th e w o rld o v e r o w e a lle g ia n c e to th eir fa th e r­
la n d , w h e th e r th e y k n o w it o r n ot. A n d this o b lig a tio n seem s
so m e tim e s to e x te n d e v e n to persons w h o w o u ld not n o rm a lly be
404 THt: EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
co n sid ered as toilers. A n y a c tio n a g a in st th e U .S .S .R . is treaso n .
T o d e c la re w a r o n th e U .S .S .R . is n o t th e sam e th in g as to d e c la re
w a r on a n y o th e r c o u n try . T o in v a d e B e lg iu m o r G r e e c e m a y
b e re p reh e n sib le : to in v a d e th e U .S .S .R . is a c rim e a g a in st
h u m a n ity . T h is B á rd ossy, T is o a n d A n to n e sc u , n on e o f w h o m
w e re g u ilty o f a tro citie s, fo u n d to th e ir cost. N o r c a n th ese m en
b e said to h a v e ta k e n p a rt in H itle r ’ s c o n s p ir a c y o f a g gre ssio n .
O f th e th re e o n ly A n to n e sc u w as in itia te d in to th e p la n s b e fo re ­
h a n d , an d h e to ok p a rt in o rd e r to re c o v e r te rrito r y w h ic h th e
U .S .S .R . h ad a r b itr a r ily seized from his c o u n try . B u t in th e v ie w
o f th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t th e y h a d c o m m itte d treaso n , a n d th e
cou rts o f th e ir n a tiv e co u n trie s g a v e th e v e rd ic ts th a t S o v ie t
ju s tic e re q u ire d .
A n o th e r sig n ific a n t illu str a tio n o f th e sam e m e n ta lity a re th e
cou n tless S o v ie t w a r m em o ria ls e re c te d in b o th A llie d an d
e n e m y co u n trie s in E aste rn E u ro p e . In B u d a p e st a h u g e fig u re
tow ers o v e r th e D a n u b e fro m th e G e lle r t h ill, a n d in B e rlin a
colossal R e d A r m y so ld ie r h o ld s a rifle in o n e h a n d a n d a b a b y
in th e o th er. W e ste rn o b servers a t first g la n c e w o u ld assu m e
th a t these m em o ria ls a re sy m b o ls o f S o v ie t c o n q u e r in g m ig h t,
in te n d e d to o v e r a w e th e d efe a te d e n e m y . B u t this is n o t th e ca se.
T h e H u n g a ria n s a n d G e rm a n s, a n d a n y o th e r n a tio n th ro u g h
w h o se c o u n try th e R e d A r m y m a y pass, a re e x p e c te d to re g a rd
th e R e d A r m y as their a rm y , as th e ir ‘ lib e r a t o r ’ fro m th e ir fo rm e r
oppressors. W a r m em o ria ls to th e R e d A r m y a re th erefo re
exp ression s o f th e p e o p le ’s g ra titu d e , n o t o f a fo reig n c o n q u e r o r’ s
m ig h t. T h o s e w h o th in k o th e rw ise m ust b e re a c tio n a rie s o r
fascists.
A s lo n g as S o v ie t p o lic y is sh a p e d b y m en o f su ch an o u tlo o k ,
frien d sh ip a n d sin cere c o -o p e ra tio n (u sin g th ese w o rd s in th e
n orm il E u ro p e a n sense a n d n ot in th e sp e cia lise d S o v ie t sense,
w h ich m ean s su b je c tio n to S o v ie t w ishes) b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t
U n io n a n d th e W e st is im p o ssib le. B u t this d oes n o t m e a n th a t
a n id e o lo g ic a l w a r is in e v ita b le . I f n o t re a l p e a c e , a t least co ­
e x isten ce w ith o u t w a r is p e rfe c tly p o ssib le. T h e r e w ill b e d a n g e r
spots. In E u ro p e th e m ost sen sitive a t p resen t a re in th e B a lk a n s.
A s lo n g as th e G r e e k re b e llio n co n tin u e s w ith A lb a n ia n an d
B u lg a ria n su p p o rt, p e a c e w ill b e in d a n g e r. Y u g o s la v ia is p o ssib ly
e v e n m o re d a n g e ro u s. B e cau se h ith e rto th e S o v ie t U n io n h as not
a tte m p te d m ilita r y a c tio n a g a in st T i t o , e ith e r b y h e r o w n forces
o r b y those o f h e r satellites, it b y n o m ea n s fo llo w s th a t she w ill
n ot a tte m p t su ch a c tio n in th e n e a r fu tu re . T h e W e ste rn P o w ers
 EA ST A ND W E S T 405
sh o u ld co n sid e r b e fo re h a n d w h a t a c tio n th e y w o u ld tak e in this
e v e n t. T h e S tra its q u estio n h as n ot a ttr a c te d m u ch a tte n tio n since
1946, b u t th e S o v ie t a ttitu d e is n o less in tra n sig e n t th a n it w as. In
S c a n d in a v ia th ere is n o in d ic a tio n o f im m e d ia te tro u b le , b u t the
fu tu re o f F in la n d is still a n o p e n q u estio n , an d its effect on
S w e d is h -S o v ie t re la tio n s m ust n ot be fo rgo tten . But fa r th e m ost
im p o rta n t p r o b le m fo r re la tio n s b e tw e e n th e U .S .S .R . a n d the
W e st, an d fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n regim es, is
th e G e r m a n p ro b lem .
In a ll these d iffic u lt an d d a n g e ro u s p ro b lem s, th e o n ly w a y to
sa v e p e a c e is fo r th e W e st to im press th e S o v ie t ru lers w ith its
stre n g th , u n ity an d d e te rm in a tio n to d efen d its interests. A n d this
m ust b e d o n e n ot o n ly a t a few m om en ts o f crisis, b u t all th e tim e.
A n d this is n o t easy . A s lo n g as o n e -th ird o f th e F'rench and
Ita lia n n ation s v o te c o m m u n ist, as lo n g as F re n c h m e n fe a r the
re su rg en ce o f G e r m a n y , as lo n g as G e rm a n s re g a rd the W e ste rn
n atio n s as e n em ies a n d ex p lo ite rs, a n d as lo n g as m a n y A m e ric a n s
feel th a t E u ro p e is a lia b ility to b e w ritte n off, th e tasks o f W estern
sta tcsm e n sh ip w ill b e d iffic u lt.
B u t e v e n i f W e ste rn sta te sm an sh ip c a n p erfo rm th e tasks, if
p e a c e c a n b e sa v e d an d fu rth e r S o v ie t e x p a n sio n c h e c k e d , a
fu rth e r q u estio n m u st arise. I f E u ro p e is to b e d iv id e d in tw o ,
w h e re is th e lin e to b e d r a w n ? Is it to le a v e m o re th an to o
m illio n n o n -R u ssia n s, in c lu d in g G e r m a n P ro testan ts and D a n u b ­
ia n C a th o lic s w h ose c u ltu re b in d s th em to th e W e st, o n th e o th e r
sid e ? I f th e 100 m illio n a re th o ro u g h ly a b so rb ed in th e S o v ie ţ
e c o n o m y , in th e g re a t E u ra s ia n m ilitarise d Grossraumwirtschaß
stre tc h in g fro m th e E lb e to th e A m u r , i f to th e 200 m illio n fa c to ry
fo d d e r a n d c a n n o n fo d d e r o f th e U .S .S .R . p ro p e r a rc a d d e d roo
m illio n m o re sk illed fa c to ry fo d d e r a n d c a n n o n fo d d er from
E a s te rn E u ro p e , w ill n ot th e E u ra s ia n b lo c in tw e n ty y e a rs’ tim e
b e in v in c ib le : w ill it n o t b e re a d y fo r th e n ext sta ge o f the
tr iu m p h a l m a rc h t h a t is to sw e e p ‘ b o u rg e o is c iv ilis a tio n ’ from the
fa c e o f th e e a r th ?
T h e s e q u estio n s c a n n o t b e a n sw e re d . I n te lle c tu a l sp e c u la tio n
a b o u t p r e v e n tiv e w ars is w aste o f tim e , fo r p r e v e n tiv e w ars arc
n o t a m eth o d th a t d e m o c ra c ie s o f th e W e ste rn ty p e c a n a p p ly ,
still less th e C o n s titu tio n o f th e U n ite d S tates. A n d e v e n if th e
m e th o d w e re a p p lic a b le , to p lu n g e h u m a n ity in to a n ew w o rld
w a r to fo resta ll a fu tu re fe a r is n o t a co u rse w h ic h a W estern
d e m o c r a t c a n a d v o c a te . E v e r y y e a r o f p e a c e is a g a in for h u m a n ity
in th e sense th a t it is a y e a r sa ved fro m w a r. T h e g a in c a n be o f
4 o6 TH E EA ST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N

real v a lu e to th e W e st p ro v id e d th a t n o v ita l W e ste rn positions

a rc su rre n d e re d a n d th a t th e situ a tio n in E aste rn E u ro p e is c a r e ­
fu lly a n d c o n sta n tly w a tc h e d , in o rd e r th a t e v e ry w eak n ess, e v e ry
c ra c k in th e m o n o lith ic s tru c tu re , m a y b e e x p lo ite d to press b a c k
S o v ie t in flu en ce.

A fa v o u rite g e n e ra lisa tio n o f W e ste rn c o m m e n ta to rs on

E astern E u ro p e is th a t th e n e w regim es, th o u g h th e y d o n o t g ra n t
‘ p o litica l d e m o c r a c y ’ , an d h a v e in fa ct a b o lish ed su ch e lem en ts
o f it as e xisted in th e re g io n b efore th e w a r , h a v e g iv e n ‘ e c o n o m ic
d e m o c r a c y ’ in its p la c e . M a n y c o m m e n ta to rs a rg u e th a t this
ch a n g e is to th e a d v a n ta g e o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n p eo p les. T h e
m a in n eed o f these peo p les, th e y sa y, is an im p ro v e m e n t o f th e ir
m iserab le sta n d a rd o f liv in g . P o litic a l lib e rty is s o m e th in g th at
m ost o f th em h a v e n e v e r k n o w n a n d th erefo re d o n o t miss. T h e y
w a n t m o re b re a d a n d m o re w o rk . T h e y a re in c a p a b le o f a p p r e c ia ­
tin g lib e rty .
T h is th eo ry , a d v a n c e d so m etim es w ith s y m p a th y a n d so m e ­
tim es w ith c o n te m p t, is a m u d d le d m ix tu re o f tru th a n d fa lseh o o d .
It is tru e th a t th e p eo p les o f E a ste rn E u ro p e h a v e liv e d for
g e n e ra tio n s in p o v e rty , th a t in th e last th irty y e a rs th e p o v e rty
h as on th e w h o le in cre a se d , a n d th a t th e p e a san t a n d w o rk e r w a n t
b re a d a n d jo b s . It is also tru e th a t e x c e p t in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th ere
w as little p o litic a l lib e rty b e fo re th e w a r fo r a n y b u t th e u p p e r
class, an d th a t e v e n th e y lost m ost o f th e ir lib e rtie s in th e th irties.
Bu t it is n ot tru e th a t these p eo p les d o n ot u n d e rs ta n d w h a t
lib e rty m ean s a n d d o n ot p a ssio n a te ly d esire it. T h e ir c ru d e b u t
v iv id n otion s o f th eir n a tio n a l h isto ry a n d th e ir sim p le b u t
p o w e rfu l re lig io u s c o n v ictio n s a re th e best p r o o f o f th e c o n tra ry .
N o r does it fo llo w th a t e c o n o m ic im p ro v e m e n t c a n b e o b ta in e d
o n ly b y p o litic a l o p p ressio n . E c o n o m ic reform s h a v e lo n g fig u red
in th e pla n s o f d e m o c ra tic p a rtie s, e sp e cia lly p e a sa n t p a rtie s an d
social d em o cra ts. T h e c o m b in a tio n o f e c o n o m ic c h a n g e a n d te rro r
is n ot in e v ita b le . I t is a resu lt o f c o m m u n ist p o lic y .
In th e p resen t regim es o f E astern E u ro p e e c o n o m ic p o lic y a n d
p o litic a l o p p ressio n are in se p a ra b le for th re e reason s. T h e first
is th a t th eir p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m ic in stitu tio n s a re sla v ish ly
c o p ie d from those o f th e S o v ie t U n io n , w h ic h th e ir c o m m u n ist
ru lers a re o b lig e d to im ita te . T h e se co n d is t h a t th e ir fo reig n
p o lic y is in e x tr ic a b ly tied to th a t o f th e S o v ie t U n io n , w ith a ll th e
co n se q u e n ce s th a t m ust fo llo w th erefro m . T h e th ird is th a t su ch a
 EAST A N D W ES T 40 7

fr a n tic p a c e o f c o n stru c tio n h as b e en set th at re g im e n ta tio n and

e x p lo ita tio n o f la b o u r a rc u n a v o id a b le .
T h e s e th re e reasons a re o f co u rse d e p e n d e n t on e a c h o th er.
S o v ie t fo re ig n p o lic y assum es th a t th e c a p ita list w o rld is c o n ­
s p irin g to d e s tro y th e S o v ie t U n io n . T h e re fo r e w a r in d u stry an d
th e m in in g a n d m e ta llu rg y w h ic h s u p p ly it m ust h a v e p rio rity
o v e r a ll oth ers. F o re ig n c a p ita l m ust b e rig o ro u sly e x c lu d e d , in
o r d e r th a t th ere sh o u ld b e n o c o n ta m in a tio n b y b ou rgeo is
in flu e n ce s. T h is is n o t a lw a y s g iv e n as th e reason fo r e x c lu d in g
fo re ig n c a p ita l. M u c h is m a d e o f past abu ses o f p o w e r b y fo reign
ca p ita lists. B u t in p resen t c o n d itio n s it w o u ld b e possible to o b ta in
fo re ig n c a p ita l o n m u ch m o re fa v o u ra b le term s th a n in th e past.
F o re ig n bu sin ess m en re a lise , o r c a n b e m ad e to rea lise, th a t th ey
c a n n o t tre a t E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s as co lo n ies. I f th ey w e re assured
s e c u rity fro m e x p ro p r ia tio n a n d a v e r y m o d e ra te p ro fit th e y co u ld
b e in d u c e d to in ve st. B u t th e S o v ie t lea d ers, a n d th eir E ast
E u ro p e a n co m m u n ist su p p o rte rs, d o n ot w a n t W e ste rn ca p ita l
o n a n y term s. In th e ir v ie w , e v e r y W e ste rn e r w h o is n ot a c o m ­
m u n ist o r a p p ro v e d fe llo w -tra v e lle r is a sp y , a s a b o te u r o r a
c u lt u r a l c o r r u p te r : h e is n ot w a n te d . T h u s fo reign skill c a n n o t be
u sed in sig n ific a n t q u a n titie s, an d fo reig n m a c h in e r y c a n o n ly be
im p o rte d to th e e x te n t th a t e x p o rts a llo w . M e a n w h ile co n stru c­
tio n m ust b e p u sh e d a h e a d b y e x tr a c tin g th e last o u n c e o f la b o u r
fro m th e fe w sk ille d w o rk ers a n d b y d ra g o o n in g th e a rm ies o f th e
u n sk ille d . A n d this is o n ly p ossib le b y co m p u lsio n , th a t is b y
p o litic a l te rro r. T h u s th e n e w regim es m ea n p o litic a l opp ression
fo r a ll n o n -co m m u n ists, a n d e c o n o m ic m isery fo r g re a t n u m b ers
o f w o rk e rs a n d p e a san ts, fo r th e sa ke o f a p rom ised e co n o m ic
p r o s p e rity in a m o re o r less d ista n t fu tu re.
M a r x a n d his d iscip le s a n a ly se d th e so cia l classes in b o u rgeois
so cie ty , a n d e x p la in e d th e ir a ttitu d e s b y th e ir e c o n o m ic interests.
S o m e fu tu re so cio lo g ist sh o u ld a n a ly se th e interests o f p o litic a l
classes in to ta lita r ia n so c ie ty . S u c h a task is fa r b e y o n d the
sco p e o f this b o o k . B u t a w o rd sh o u ld b e said o f o n e im p o rta n t
p o litic a l cla ss in th e ‘ p o p u la r d e m o c r a c ie s ’ , th e p o lice . Its
first in terest is th e m a in te n a n c e o f in te rn a l an d e x te rn a l in se cu rity .
E v e r y a m b itio u s lo c a l in fo rm e r h as an in terest in p e rsu a d in g
his su p erio rs th a t his d istric t is rid d le d w ith se d itio n : for e v e ry
fascist, r e a c tio n a r y o r d e v ia tio n is t ‘ u n m a s k e d ’ w ith ‘ B o lsh evik
v ig ila n c e ’ , th e in fo r m e r re ce iv es a g o o d m ark , a n d com es n earer
p r o m o tio n . E v e r y h ig h p o lic e o ffic ia l h as a n in terest in p e r­
s u a d in g th e g o v e r n m e n t a n d th e p a r ty c e n tra l co m m itte e th at
408 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
su b v e rsiv e co n sp iracies a re b e in g c o n sta n tly h a tc h e d , a n d th a t
o n ly his e x c e p tio n a l p e rs p ic a c ity a n d resou rcefu ln ess h a v e
saved th e lead ers o f sta te a n d p a r ty from a h o rrib le fa te . In v e s­
tig a tin g officials m ust p r o d u c e a re g u la r flo w o f sen sa tio n a l
con fessio ns: in fa c t th e e x tr a c tio n o f con fessio ns from a rre ste d
en em ies o f th e p e o p le, lik e t h e e x tr a c tio n o f c o a l fro m th e m ines,
is o rg an ise d on th e p rin c ip le s o f S ta h a n o v ism a n d so cia list
co m p e titio n . A b o v e a ll, e v e ry p o lic e m a n fro m th e h igh est
to th e low est ra n k h as a n in terest in th e m a in te n a n c e o f in te r­
n a tio n a l ten sion . A s lo n g as it is b e lie v e d th a t th e im p e ria list
P ow ers a re stra in in g e v e ry m u scle to in filtr a te spies, a g ita to rs a n d
sa b o teu rs in to th e ‘ co u n trie s o f S o v ie t o r p o p u la r d e m o c r a c y ’ , so
lo n g w ill th e m a in te n a n c e o f a h u g e h ost o f se cre t in fo rm ers,
u n ifo rm e d a n d p la in -c lo th e s p o lic e m e n , co n c e n tr a tio n -c a m p
g u a rd s, a n d sp ecia l élite fo rm a tio n s o f p o litic a l tro o p s b e ju s tifie d .
T h e interests o f th e p o lic e as a p o litic a l class re q u ire th a t th e
p e o p le o f th e S o v ie t U n io n an d th e p o p u la r d e m o c ra c ie s sh o u ld
liv e for e v e r in th e sh a d o w o f w a r.
T h e b ro a d lines o f p o lic y , a n d th e fra m e w o rk o f th e p o litic a l
a n d e co n o m ic m ach in es, a re c le a r e n o u g h : th e o n e im p o rta n t
fa c to r w h ic h th e ' iro n c u rta in ’ d oes e ffe c tiv e ly c o n c e a l fro m
W e ste rn o b se rv a tio n is p u b lic o p in io n . W e ste rn visito rs, e v e n those
w h o are g e n u in e ly o p e n -m in d e d a n d k n o w E a st E u ro p e a n
la n g u a g e s, c a n n o t e a sily p e n e tra te in to p e o p le ’s m in d s. E ast
E u ro p e a n p ea san ts h a v e a lw a y s d istru sted v isito rs fro m th e ir o w n
cities, let a lo n e fro m a b r o a d : th e y a re n o t m o re lik e ly to -d a y th a n
u n d e r th e p r e -w a r d icta to rsh ip s to sp e a k th e ir tru e th o u g h ts.
A cce ss to in d iv id u a l fa c to ry w o rk ers is p r o b a b ly e v e n m o re
d ifficu lt fo r foreign ers th a n access to p ea san ts. W e ste rn ers w h o
c a n v isit close p e rso n a l frien d s fro m b e fo re th e w a r h a v e a b e tte r
c h a n c e th a n oth ers, an d k n o w le d g e o f th e lo c a l la n g u a g e is o f
co u rse a lw a y s a h e lp . C a s u a l talk s in train s a n d sh ops a re o fte n
re v e a lin g . B u t a ll im pression s o f this so rt, th o u g h v a lu a b le , sh o u ld
n o t b e o v e r ra te d . T h e best w a y o f e stim a tin g p u b lic o p in io n —
an d c e rta in ly it is in a d e q u a te — is to stu d y th e a c tio n o f th e g o v e r n ­
m en ts an d th e p a st h isto ry o f th e peo p les.
C o m m u n ists a n d th e ir sy m p ath ise rs w ill o f co u rse in d ig n a n tly
d e n y a ll this. F o r th em th e issue is c le a r. A v isit to a p o p u la r
d e m o c r a c y sh o u ld a t o n c e m a k e c le a r to a n y W e ste rn tr a v e lle r o f
g o o d fa ith th a t th e p e o p les a re so lid ly b e h in d th e g o v e rn m e n ts,
th a t o n ly a h a n d fu l o f tra ito rs a n d im p e ria list spies a r e h ostile.
T h is is p ro v e d , th e y a rg u e , b y a n y v isit to a fa c to ry , w h e re th e
 E A S T AND WES T 409
w o r k in g élan, th e d r iv e fo r p r o d u c tio n , th e k n o w le d g e that
‘ in d u stry n o w b e lo n g s to th e p e o p le ’ , le a p to th e ey e. I f the
W e s te rn v isito r h a s a n y re m n a n ts o f d o u b t, let h im a tte n d a
p o litic a l m e e tin g . I f h e is n o t b lin d , th e sp o n ta n eo u s en th u siasm
o f th e w o r k in g m asses, th e lo n g procession s fro m o ffice and
fa c to ry , e a c h g ro u p h o ld in g p r o u d ly e re ct its b an n e rs a n d its
g ia n t p o rtra its o f S ta lin a n d o f th e lo c a l ‘ b e lo ve d le a d e r ', the
fie ry o r a to r y o f th e sp ea kers a n d th e sto rm y o v atio n s o f th e h a p p y
cro w d s, sh o u ld su re ly c o n v in c e h im , unless his ju d g m e n t is
ir r e v o c a b ly w a r p e d b y th e lies o f th e jo u rn a lis t la c k e y s o f c a p ita l­
ism , th a t h e re in th e p o p u la r d e m o c ra c ie s are freed o m a n d j o y
su ch as th e u n h a p p y n atio n s o f th e W est h a v e n e v e r k n o w n .
T h o s e n o t e x a lte d b y th e fa ith o f co m m u n ism m ust d e a l w ith
fa cto rs b o th m o re so rd id a n d m o re m e a su ra b le th a n w o rk in g elan
a n d sp o n ta n eo u s e n th u sia sm . O rg a n ise d p o litic a l o p p o sitio n b y
n o n -co m m u n ist p a rtie s h as b e e n b ro k e n . T h e p o litic a l id eas w h ich
th e p a rtie s o n c e p r e a c h e d su rv iv e in m e n ’s m ind s. I t w o u ld tak e
v e r y m u ch lo n g e r to o b lite ra te th em th a n d espots im a g in e : th e
r e v iv a l o f p a rtie s in I t a ly a fte r tw e n ty y e a rs o f fascism p ro v e d this.
A s w e h a v e seen, e a c h so cia l class, w o rk ers a n d p easan ts as w e ll as
in te lle c tu a ls, h as c o n c re te g ro u n d s fo r d isco n te n t. In e a ch class
th e r e a re c o n v in c e d C o m m u n ist P a r ty m em b ers, an d oth ers w h o ,
w ith o u t b e lo n g in g to th e p a r ty , a c c e p t its id eals. A ll these— and
it w o u ld b e a m istak e to u n d e rr a te th eir e n e r g y , th e ir d e v o tio n , o r
e v e n th e ir n u m b e rs— a rc w illin g to w o rk a t th e terrific p a ce
re q u ire d for th e b e n e fit n o t o f th em selves b u t o f g e n e ra tio n s to
co m e . B u t th e m a jo rity in e a c h class— a n d this also in clu d es
m a n y C o m m u n ist P a r ty m em b e rs— d o n o m o re th a n o b e y ord ers,
as th e ir fo rb e a rs o b e y e d o rd e rs o f kin gs a n d em p ero rs, tsars a n d
su ltan s.
T h e re m o v a l o f th e p o litic a l p a rtie s, w ith th eir d e ta ile d p ro ­
g ra m m e s a n d th e ir o rg a n isa tio n s, p r o v id in g a lte r n a tiv e policies
a n d a lte r n a tiv e le a d e rsh ip s, h as left E a ste rn E u ro p e w ith o n ly
tw o sim p le creed s as a lte r n a tiv e id e o lo g ie s to c o m m u n ism —
C h r is tia n ity a n d n a tio n a lism . O f th e C h ris tia n c h u rc h e s so m e th in g
h as a lr e a d y b e e n sa id . A few m o re w o rd s a re n eed ed o n n a tio n ­
a lism .
T h e o ld d isru p tiv e p e tty n a tio n a lism o f n e ig h b o u r n atio n
a g a in st n e ig h b o u r n a tio n w a s a cu rse in th e o ld E astern E u ro p e :
its d is a p p e a r a n c e c o u ld d o o n ly g o o d . O n e o f th e c o n stru c tiv e
fe a tu res o f co m m u n ist p o lic y h as b e e n th e a tte m p t to e lim in a te it.
I f R u m a n ia n s c a n be c u re d o f h a tin g H u n g a ria n s, o r S erb s
4 1 0 T H F. EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N

C r o a ts , o r Poles C z e c h s, this c a n o n ly b e w e lc o m e d . A s w e h a v e
seen, it is d o u b tfu l w h e th e r th e co m m u n ists h a v e in fa c t su c c e e d e d
in th eir a im . C o m m u n ist ty r a n n y , r e a c h in g e v e r y a sp e ct o f
p r iv a c a n d p u b lic life, m a y o n th e c o n tr a r y e x a c e r b a te p e tty
n atio n a lism .
B u t w h a te v e r m a y be th e tru th a b o u t this to -d a y , a n d h o w e v e r
th e o ld riv a lrie s a n d h a tre d s b e tw e e n E ast E u ro p e a n n atio n s m a y
d e v e lo p , th ere is a n o th e r kin d o f n a tio n a lism w h ic h c o m m u n ist
ru le has c e rta in ly in ten sified . T h is m a y b e c a lle d d efen sive
n atio n a lism . It is th e fe e lin g o f n atio n s w h o se n a tio n a l c u ltu re a n d
in d iv id u a lity is th re a te n e d w ith e x tin c tio n . T h e b est h isto rica l
p a ra lle l a re th e T u rk is h in vasio n s o f th e fifteen th a n d six te e n th
cen tu ries. T h e n a fo re ig n c o n q u e r o r o f im m e n se p o w e r a n d o f
o u tlo o k a n d c u ltu re te rrify in g ly d iffe re n t fro m th e ir o w n o v e r ­
w h e lm e d th e n atio n s o f th e B a lk a n s a n d th e D a n u b e v a lle r .
F o r fo u r h u n d re d y e a rs th e y w e re su b m e rg e d , a n d w h e n th e tie
reced ed th ey fo u n d th em selves in a E u ro p e u n re c o g n is a b ly
d iffe re n t from th a t to w h ic h th e y h ad o n c e b e lo n g e d . T h e c o n ­
trasts a n d d isto rtio n s ca u sed b y th e ir loss o f fo u r ce n tu rie s a c c o u n t
for m a n y o f th e ir tro u b le s o f th e last g e n e ra tio n s.
T h e S o v ie t in v a sio n h as b ro u g h t a c o n q u e r o r n o less d iffe re n t
in o u tlo o k an d c u ltu re th a n w e re th e T u rk is h c o n q u e ro rs.
W h e re a s th e T u r k s left th em th e ir re lig io n , a n d m a d e little
a tte m p t to fo rce th em in to th e Isla m ic c u ltu r a l fr a m e w o r k , th e
S o v ie t le a d e rs, u sin g d iscip les fro m th e ir m id st, a re reso lved to
d e s tro y th e ir re lig io n a n d to k n e a d th em in to th e S o v ie t m o u ld .
W h e n th e co m m u n ists d e c la re th a t n a tio n a lism is r e a c tio n a ry ,
a n d m u st be re p la c e d b y in te rn a tio n a lism , th ey m ea n so m e th in g
q u ite d iffe re n t fro m W e ste rn d e m o c ra ts w h o use th e sa m e w ord s.
In te rn a tio n a lis m in th e c o m m u n ist v o c a b u la r y m ea n s n a tio n a lism
o n b e h a lf o f th e S o v ie t U n io n . E m p e ro r F ra n c is o f A u s tr ia o n ce
re q u ire d th a t his su b jects sh o u ld b e ‘ p a trio ts fo r m e ’ : to - d a y in a
fa r m o re th o ro u g h sense E a st E u ro p e a n s a re re q u ire d to be
p a trio ts for S ta lin . W h e n c o m m u n ists d e c la r e th a t a ll n a tio n a litie s
w ith in th e ir co u n trie s w ill e n jo y e q u a l c u ltu r a l rig h ts, th e y d o not
m ea n w h a t th ese w o rd s m e a n in th e W e st. T h e y m e a n th a t th e
sp o ken a n d w ritte n w ord w ill be used in a ll la n g u a g e s o f th eir
c o u n try to sp re ad c o m m u n ist id eas a n d S o v ie t c u ltu re . N a tio n a l
h isto ry m ust be re w ritte n , a n d n a tio n a l lite ra tu r e re -e d ite d a n d re ­
cen so red , to fit th e P ro c ru ste a n fra m e w o rk o f th e A g itp r o p
d e p a r tm e n t in M o sc o w . I f th e p o lic y c a n b e m a in ta in e d fo r a few
g e n e ra tio n s, E astern E u ro p e w ill h a v e n o m o re P o les, C z e c h s o r
 EAST A ND WES T 4I I
H u n g a ria n s, b u t P olish-, C z e c h - o r H u n g a ria n -sp e a k in g homines
sovietici.
T h is th e E ast E u ro p e a n s k n o w . T h e in te lle c tu a ls w o u ld express
th eir fears m o re c le a rly , th e p e asan ts an d w o rk ers a rc less a rtic u ­
la te b u t feel n o less stro n g ly . T h e re a ctio n o f a ll a lik e is n atio n a lism .
S h o u ld th e presen t regim es be o v e r th o w n , th e y w o u ld b e follow ed
b y a fre n z y o f n a tio n a lism , w h ic h m ig h t be d ire c te d a gain st
n e ig h b o u r n atio n s, b u t w o u ld c e rta in ly be d ire c te d a gain st a ll
c o m m u n ists a n d a ll R u ssian s. It w o u ld be co m b in e d in m ost cases
w ith relig io u s fa n aticism . It w o u ld seek re v en g e. It w o u ld h a v e
o b v io u s p o in ts o f sim ila rity w ith th e fascist an d clerica l-fa scist
m o v e m e n ts o f th e p a st, su ch as th e R u m a n ia n Iro n G u a r d o r the
A u s tr ia n H c im w e h r.
V io le n c e a n d frau d b e g e t fra u d a n d v io le n c e . A fascist re v iv a l
as a se q u el to c o m m u n ist d ic ta to rs h ip is a grim p ro sp e ct. T h e W est
m ust use e v e r y o p p o rtu n ity to in flu e n c e e ven ts in a d iffe re n t sense.
B u t it is as w r o n g to refu se to resist co m m u n ism b e cau se fascism
m ig h t resu lt as to refu se to p r e p a re o n e ’s o w n d efen ces b ecau se
w a r is a h o rrib le th in g . A n d W e ste rn ers sh o u ld be c a re fu l in th eir
d e n u n c ia tio n o f E a st E u ro p e a n n a tio n a lism . T h e d re a r y rivalries
a n d te rrito r ia l s q u a b b le s o f sm a ll n ation s sh ou ld in d e e d b e c o n ­
d e m n e d as a n u isa n c e to p e a c e a n d a tra g ic w aste o f n atio n a l
en erg ie s. B u t d e fe n c e o f n a tio n a l in d iv id u a lity a g a in st a n a lien
to ta lita r ia n M o lo c h is n e ith e r ig n o b le n o r rid icu lo u s. W estern
n a tio n s h a v e n e v e r fa c e d su ch a th re a t. N o on e q u estion s th eir
n a tio n a lity , th e y d o n o t h a v e to d efe n d it. T h e E ast E u ro p e a n
n a tio n s h a v e th e ir b a c k s to th e w a ll. I f the W est c a n n o t h e lp th em ,
it n eed n ot in su lt th em .

E a ste rn E u r o p e in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y h as b een a storm

ce n tre . In it tw o w o rld w a r s h a v e sta rte d . T h e d e c lin in g H a b sb u rg
a n d O t to m a n e m p ire s c o u ld n ot satisfy th e ir su b jects. F ro m th eir
o v e r th r o w th e su b je cts h o p e d fo r g re a te r free d o m a n d b e tte r
m a te r ia l co n d itio n s. B u t in th e D a n u b ia n su ccession states,
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a lo n e e x c e p te d , th ere w as less lib e rty a n d g re a te r
p o v e r ty th a n u n d e r th e H a b sb u rg s . It m a y be d o u b te d e ve n
w h e th e r th e p e o p le o f M a c e d o n ia , T h r a c e an d A lb a n ia fared
b e tte r as citiz e n s o f in d e p e n d e n t B a lk a n states th a n as su b jects
o f th e P a d ish a h . S o c ia l a n d n a tio n a l co n flic ts m a d e th e in te r-w a r
re g im e in to le ra b le , a n d w h e n it to o c o lla p se d b e fo re a d o u b le
fo reig n in v a sio n , G e r m a n a n d R u ssia n , m illio n s h o p e d th a t their
412 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

lo t w o u ld im p ro v e . Y e t to -d a y m a n y o f those m illio n s feel th a t th e

ru le o f K in g L o g has b e en re p la c e d b y th a t o f K in g S to rk . T h e y
w o u ld sa y th a t th ere is n o w fa r less lib e rty th a n b e tw e e n th e w ars,
a n d th at m a te ria l im p ro v e m e n t, th o u g h p ro m ise d fo r th e fu tu re ,
is b a r e ly visib le in th e presen t.
R o m a n tic lo n g in g fo r th e past is o f co u rse a w aste o f tim e . T h e
H a b s b u rg em p ire w as n o t d ism e m b e re d b y w ic k e d W e ste rn
sta tesm en : it co llap se d from its o w n w eak n ess, a n d w o u ld h a v e
co lla p se d e a r lie r i f it h a d n o t b e e n b o lste re d u p b y its p o w e rfu l
a lly G e rm a n y . T h e in te r-w a r regim es c o lla p se d b e ca u se th e y w e re
sin g ly to o w e a k , a n d to o d iv id e d a g a in st e a c h o th e r, to w ith s ta n d
assau lt fro m w ith o u t. B o th th e H a b s b u r g e m p ire a n d th e in te r­
w a r regim es possessed go o d as w e ll as b a d fe a tu res, som e o f w h ic h
m a y b e re v iv e d in w h a te v e r re g im e takes fo rm in th e fu tu re . B u t
restored in th e ir o ld fo rm th e y w ill n o t b e , a n d it is useless to
la m e n t th e ir passin g.
B u t w h y h as E astern E u ro p e n ot a tta in e d sta b le g o v e rn m e n t
sin ce th e d e c lin e o f th e o ld e m p ires, a n d w h y h as E a s te rn E u r o p e ’ s
in sta b ility ca u se d so m u c h tro u b le to th e w h o le c o n tin e n t a n d
in d ee d to th e w h o le w o rld ? I f th e a n sw e r m ust b e su m m a rise d in a
sin gle p h ra se , it is th e d isto rtio n — e c o n o m ic , c u ltu r a l a n d p o litic a l
— a risin g fro m th e im p a c t o f th e W e st o n th e E ast, th e c o n flic t
b e tw e e n th e six te en th a n d tw e n tie th ce n tu rie s w h ic h e xist sid e b y
sid e in E a ste rn E u ro p e . T h is p h e n o m e n o n is b y n o m ea n s c o n ­
fin ed to E astern E u ro p e . It is fo u n d in d iffe re n t form s in A s ia , th e
M id d le E ast a n d S o u th A m e r ic a , a n d is b e g in n in g to a p p e a r in
A fr ic a .
T h e m ost im p o rta n t e c o n o m ic d isto rtio n is o v e r -p o p u la tio n .
T h e gro w th o f p o p u la tio n seem s to h a v e b e e n to a g r e a t e x te n t th e
resu lt o f W e ste rn in flu e n c e — o f m o re o r d e r ly g o v e rn m e n t, b e tte r
tra n sp o rt a n d m e d ic a l services, a n d d e m a n d fo r th e p r o d u c e o f th e
E a ste rn soil a n d su b soil. B u t th e g ro w th o f p o p u la tio n h as o u t­
strip p e d th e rise o f a g r ic u ltu r a l o u tp u t o r th e c re a tio n o f n e w jo b s
in in d u stry . R u r a l o v e r -p o p u la tio n w as th e g re a te st ca u se o f
p o v e rty in im p e ria l R u ssia a n d in in te r-w a r E a s te rn E u ro p e , a n d
is to -d a y th e sc o u rg e o f m ost o f A s ia a n d p a rt o f A fr ic a .
T h e c u ltu ra l a n d p o litic a l d isto rtio n s p r o d u c e d q u ic k e r v isib le
results. A s E a ste rn E u ro p e in th e se co n d h a lf o f th e n in e te e n th
c e n tu r y w as d r a w n in to th e w o rld c a p ita lis t e c o n o m y , in d iv id u a l
E ast E u ro p e a n s o f th e r u lin g a n d t r a d in g classes b e c a m e fa m ilia r
w ith th e W e ste rn w a y o f life, sent th e ir sons to stu d y in th e W e st,
a n d set u p in th e ir o w n c o u n trie s sch oo ls a n d co lle g e s o f th e
 EAST AND W EST 4.13
W e ste rn ty p e . S o grew th e E ast E u ro p e a n in te llig e n tsia . S o arose
a class o f p e o p le w h o h ad m o re in co m m o n w ith F re n ch la w y e rs o r
G e r m a n d o cto rs th a n w ith th eir o w n c o u n tr y ’ s p easan ts or
w o rk e rs. S o m e c h e e r fu lly a c c e p te d th e fa c t, an d tried to b eco m e
W e ste rn ers, to a ct as th e re p resen ta tive s o f th e W e st in th eir o w n
co u n trie s. T h e ir life w a s m o re a g re e a b le th an th a t o f th e w orkers
a n d p easan ts, b u t th e y w e re n o t n ecessarily c y n ic a l e xp loiters.
T h e y o ften sin c e re ly b e lie v e d th a t th e y w e re se rv in g th eir peoples
b y g iv in g th em a n e x a m p le . O th e rs , h o w e v e r, re v o lte d a gain st th eir
p o sitio n . T h e y w e re a p p a lle d b y th e co n tra st b e tw e e n th e d e m o ­
c r a tic id eas w h ic h th e y h a d le a rn e d in th e u n ive rsities o f Paris
a n d V ie n n a — o r B e lg ra d e a n d W a r s a w — a n d th e r e a lity a ro u n d
th em . T h e y sa w th a t W e ste rn ers liv in g in th eir c o u n try often d id
n o t scru p le to p e rp e tu a te a n d p rofit from th eir b ack w ard n e ss and
m isg o v e rn m e n t. T h e y w e re th us fa scin ate d b y th e W est b u t also
d isgu ste d . T h e y w e re d e te rm in e d to a c q u ire th e k n o w le d g e , skill
a n d e q u ip m e n t o f th e W e st, b u t to use it to sh ak e o f f th e y o k e o f
th e W est.
N a tio n a lism a n d so cia l re v o lu tio n w e re in e x tr ic a b ly lin k ed .
N a tio n a l lib e ra tio n from W e ste rn d o m in a tio n — w h e th e r d ire ct as
B ritish ru le in E g y p t, o r in d ire ct as F re n ch c a p ita l in Im p e ria l
Russia-— w as e x p e c te d a lso to b rin g so cia l lib e ra tio n to th e pea san t
a n d w o rk e r. T h is is n o s p e c ia lly E ast E u ro p e a n p h e n o m e n o n . T h e
c o n tra st b e tw e e n th e lu x u r y o f b o u rg e o is B u carest an d th e sq u alo r
o f th e W a lla c h ia n v illa g e ten m iles a w a y docs n ot essen tially
difTer from th e co n tra st b e tw e e n th e lu x u r y o f b o u rg e o is S h a n g h a i
a n d th e sq u a lo r o f th e C h in e se v illa g e a t its gates. T h e Iron
G u a r d in R u m a n ia , th e e a r ly W a fd in E g y p t, th e e a r ly K u o m in ­
ta n g in C h in a , th e first c o m m u n ist m o ve m e n ts in th e B alkan s
a ll h a v e in co m m o n th e fru stra tio n o f th e in te lle c tu a l w h o h as
sa v o u re d th e d e lig h ts o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y an d k n o w s th a t
h is p e o p le is liv in g in th e six teen th . A ll w e re m o ve m e n ts fo r b o th
n a tio n a l a n d so cia l re v o lu tio n
I n a sense R u ssia n B o lsh evism is o n ly a sp e cia l case o f this
g e n e ra l p h e n o m e n o n . M a rx ism w a s a lr e a d y a b o d y o f w e ll-
d e fin e d d o c trin e , b ased o n th e e x p e rie n c e o f in d u stria l E u ro p e ,
b e fo re L e n in cre a te d th e B o lsh e v ik P a rty . B u t L e n in w as th e h eir
n o t o n ly o f M a r x b u t o f th e R u ssia n re v o lu tio n a ry in te lle c tu a ls.
H e w a s fig h tin g n o t o n ly a class w a r a g a in st R u ssia ’ s ru lers b u t a
w a r fo r th e n a tio n a l lib e ra tio n a n d th e m o d e rn isa tio n o f R u ssia.
T h e r e v o lu tio n a r y le a d e r o f a c o u n tr y w h o se in d u stria l w e alth
la r g e ly b e lo n g e d to F re n c h , B ritish , G e r m a n a n d B e lgia n c a p ita l­
 414 the EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
ists felt a sp e cia l s y m p a th y fo r th e n a tio n a l r e v o lu tio n a ry m o v e ­
m en ts o f th e c o lo n ia l a n d se m i-co lo n ial co u n trie s. U n d e r th e ru le
o f th e G e o r g ia n S ta lin this e le m e n t in S o v ie t p o lic y , a n d so
in w o rld c o m m u n ist d o c trin e , b e c a m e still m o re p ro m in e n t.
T h e role o f th e fru strated in te llig e n tsia in I m p e r ia l R u ssia , a n d
th e d e b t o f L e n in to th e e a r ly R u ssia n re v o lu tio n a rie s, a re o f
cou rse w e ll k n o w n in th e W e st. T h e y a re a m o n g th e fa v o u rite
p la titu d e s o f A n g lo -S a x o n jo u rn a lists a n d b ro a d c a ste rs. W h a t is
n ot so w ell k n o w n is th a t th ere is n o th in g p a r tic u la r ly R u ssia n
a b o u t this p h e n o m e n o n . A re ce n t b rillia n t stu d y h as d r a w n a
p a ra lle l b e tw e e n the R u ssia n a n d I n d ia n in te llig e n ts ia .1 N o d o u b t
sim ila r p a ra llels c o u ld be fo u n d in P eru , I n d o - C h in a o r N ig e r ia .2
T h e fru strated re v o lu tio n a ry in te lle c tu a l is a n in e v ita b le p r o d u c t
o f a n e n viro n m e n t in w h ich th e six te en th a n d tw e n tie th c e n tu rie s
e xist side b y sid e, th a t is o f an e n v iro n m e n t w h ic h is b e c o m in g
ty p ic a l fo r th e g re a te r p a rt o f th e h u m a n ra ce . T h e W e st E u ro p e a n
an d N o rth A m e r ic a n ty p e o f so c ie ty , w ith its n u m e ro u s m id d le
class, skilled a n d e d u c a te d farm ers a n d w o rk e rs, a n d clo se c o n ­
n ection s b e tw e e n v illa g e a n d to w n , is th e e x c e p tio n n o t th e ru le.
I t is th e so cie ty o f som e 350 m illio n s o u t o f 2,000 m illio n p e o p le .
A s ru ra l o v e r -p o p u la tio n in th e b a c k w a r d co u n trie s g ro w s m o re
a cu te , as th e m asses g ro w m ore a w a re a n d m o re d esirou s o f th e
g o o d th in g s o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y , a n d as th e ru lers g r o w m ore
a fra id o f th e pressure o f th e m asses, so in e v ita b ly a se ctio n o f the
w estern ised o r sem i-w eśtern ised in te llig e n tsia b eco m es th e sp e a r­
h e a d o f a re v o lu tio n a ry m o ve m e n t.
C o m m u n ism has e x te n d e d fro m its first ‘ te rrito r ia l b a s e ’ in
R u ssia to E astern E u ro p e a n d to C h in a . Its tw o n e x t o b je c tiv e s
a re W e ste rn E u ro p e an d c o lo n ia l o r fo rm e rly c o lo n ia l A sia .
C o m m u n ism a lr e a d y co m m a n d s th e a lle g ia n c e o f th e m a jo rity o f
F re n ch a n d I ta lia n w o rk ers, b u t th a t is n o t e n o u g h to g iv e th e
co m m u n ists c o n tro l o f th e F re n c h an d I ta lia n states. C o m m u n ists
h a v e so fa r c a p tu r e d o n ly on e a d v a n c e d in d u stria l sta te w ith a
c u ltu r a lly a d v a n c e d p e o p le — C z e c h o s lo v a k ia — a n d this th e y
a ch ie v e d b y in filtra tio n o f p o lic e , a rm y a n d b u r e a u c r a c y p r e p a re d
lo n g b e fo re h a n d . S u c h in filtr a tio n is n o t p o ssib le in F r a n c e o r
I ta ly . O n ly th e d estru c tio n o f th e sta te m a c h in es in w a r c a n g iv e
th e co m m u n ists v ic to ry . A n d w a r is n o t a g o o d risk fo r th e S o v ie t
U n io n u n til she h as w o n c o n tro l o f G e r m a n y . A n d th is it m a y be

1 G u y W in t, The British in Asia, ch a p s. a n d 6.

* In terestin g a n d sig n ifica n t ac co u n ts o f the ro le o f th e in te llig e n tsia in n a tio n a list
m o v em en ts in W est A fr ic a m a y b e fo u n d in W'. R . C r o c k e r , Self-government in the
C o b n u t.
 EAST A ND WES T 415
h o p e d th e W e ste rn P o w ers a re w ise e n o u g h to p re v e n t. O n th e
o th e r h a n d in A s ia , w h e re sta te m a c h in e s a re fra g ile an d e c o n o m ic
m isery is g r o w in g , p ro sp ects a re m o re fa v o u ra b le for c o m m u n ism .
T h e stru g g le b e tw e e n th e W e st a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n fo r the
s u p p o r t ' o f A s ia a n d A fr ic a w ill d e c id e th e fu tu re o f th e w o rld .
I f th e W e st c a n use its g r e a t resou rces to b en efit th e peoples o f
A s ia a n d A fr ic a , i f it c a n c a p tu r e th e ir c o n fid e n ce a n d d isp ro ve
th e c o m m u n ist a ccu sa tio n s o f ‘ im p e ria list e x p lo ita tio n ’ , th en it ca n
w in this stru g g le . T h e n th e S o v ie t co m m u n ists w ill also lose th eir
h old o n E a ste rn E u ro p e , w h ic h , i f it suffers from th e so cia l and
c u ltu ra l m a la d ie s o f A sia , is b o u n d to th e W e st b y th e C h ris tia n
re lig io n a n d , a t least to som e e x te n t, b y th e lib e ra l tra d itio n . B ut
to w in th e stru g g le w ill not be easy. Prom ises o f U to p ia o n ly
c re a te d isa p p o in tm e n t an d h a tre d . P o sitive a c tio n at o n c e in the
p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic an d c u ltu r a l fields is n e ed e d . Y e t i f the W est
loses th e stru g g le , th e v ic to r y o f co m m u n ism on a w o rld scale
b e co m e s a p o ssib ility , its o n ly lik e ly a lte r n a tiv e b e in g the d e stru c ­
tion o f m ost o f h u m a n c iv ilisa tio n in in te rn a tio n a l a n a r c h y g re a te r
th a n a n y y e t k n o w n .
T h u s th e fu tu re o f E aste rn E u ro p e , a n d o f a ll E u ro p e , an d o f
A m e r ic a to o , d ep e n d s o n th e d efen sive a n d o ffen sive p o w e r o f
th e W e st. Its d efen sive p o w e r c a n b e en su red b y th e u n ity o f
W e ste rn E u ro p e a n d N o rth A m e r ic a a n d b y u n tirin g v ig ila n c e
o v e r th e d á n g e r-p o in ts in E u ro p e — G e r m a n y , G r e c c c , Y u g o s la v ia ,
T u r k e y a n d S c a n d in a v ia . Its o ffen sive stren gth m ust be used in th e
stru g g le , n ot o f arm s b u t o f e c o n o m ic stren gth an d p o litic a l ideas,
th a t m ust be w a g e d b e tw e e n th e W est a n d th e S o v ie t U n io n for
th e frien d sh ip o f th e A s ia tic a n d A fr ic a n peop les. T h e d efen sive
a n d o ffen siv e p o lic y a re not a lte r n a tiv e s : b o th a re e q u a lly
e ssen tial. I f th e W e st c a n m a k e a success o f b o th , it w ill h a v e
p ro v e d th a t W e ste rn civ ilisa tio n d ese rve s to su rv ive.

1 T e n y e a rs a g o o n e m ig h t h a v e w ritte n , in stea d o f ‘ s u p p o r t ’ , ‘ lead ersh ip *. T o - d a y

th a t w o rd is o u t o f d a te . T h e W est has o f co u rse m u ch to te a c h A sia a n d A frica .
A sia n s a n d A fric a n s k n o w this, b u t insist o n b e in g tre a te d as e q u a ls. T h e su p e rio rity
o f S o v ie t to W e ste rn p r o p a g a n d a is la r g e ly d u e to its em p h asis o n e q u a lity , w h ic h
co n tra sts w-ith co n d e sc e n d in g a t titu d e o f m a n y W estern ers, e v e n th e m ost g e n u in e ly
p ro g ressiv e. T h e a im o f S o v ie t p o lic y is o f co u rse to e x p lo it th e peo p les o f A s ia an d
A f r ic a , as it ex p lo its th e p e o p le o f R u ssia . B u t th e W est, w h ic h is far m o re c a p a b le
o f tru e frie n d sh ip to .Asia a n d A fr ic a th a n are th e S o v ie t lead ers, m ust le a rn to m o d e rn ­
ise its la n g u a g e . W o rd s a r c so m e tim e s as im p o rta n t as deeds.
 B IB L IO G R A P H IC A L N O T E

(a ) B ack g r o u n d

(1) General History

T h is is n o p la c e fo r a sy ste m a tic h isto ric a l b ib lio g r a p h y fo r
E astern E u ro p e . T h e fo llo w in g b ooks w o u ld , h o w e v e r, b e u sefu l
to a n y re a d e rs w h o w ish to p u rsu e th e su b je ct.
S u m n e r, Survey o f Russian History.
S tä h lin , Geschichte Russlands.
H o c tz sc h , Russland.
M a y n a r d , Russia in Flux.
R ose, The Rise o f Polish Democracy.
F e ld m a n , Geschichte der politischen Ideen in Polen.
Z w e ig , Poland between Two Wars.
B u e ll, Poland, Key to Europe.
T a y lo r , The Habsburg Monarchy.
M a c a r tn e y , Hungary and her Successors.
R . W . Seton -Y V atson , History o f the Czechs and Slovaks.
History o f the Rumanians.
S w ire , Bulgarian Conspiracy.
S ir C h a rle s E lio t, Turkey in Europe.
F oster, A Short History o f Modern Greece.
K o la r z , M yth and Reality in Eastern Europe.
H . S c to n -W a tso n , Eastern Europe between the Wars.
(2) Russian Bolshevism
T h e fo llo w in g a re re c o m m e n d e d , n ot b e ca u se th e y e x h a u s t th e
su b je ct, b u t b e cau se th e y h e lp to e x p la in th e p o lic y o f co m m u n ists
in b oth th e S o v ie t U n io n a n d so vietised E a ste rn E u ro p e .
V . I. L e n in , The Development o f Capitalism in Russia.
What is to be Done ?
Two Tactics o f Social Democracy.
The State and Revolution.
Y . M a r to v a n d F . D a n , Geschichte der russischen Sozialdemokratie.
F. D a n , P roiz’ hozhdenie Bolshevizma.
J. V . S ta lin , Problems o f Leninism.
I. D e u tsc h e r, Stalin, a Political Biography.
J. T o w 'ster, Political Power in the U .S .S .R .
416
 B I B L I O G R A P H I C A L NOTF. 417
S . N . P r o k o p o v ic h , Russlands Volkswirtschaft unter den Sowjets.
R . C a r e w H u n t, The Theory and Practice o f Communism.

(3) Political, social and economic problems before 1939

T h e fo llo w in g is a list o f so m e E ast E u ro p e a n a n d o th e r books,
o f v a r y in g q u a lit y , w h ic h I h a v e fo u n d useful.
D . W a r r in e r , The Economics o f Peasant Farming.
M o llo fl (e d .), D ie sozialökonomische Struktur der bulgarischen Land­
wirtschaft.
S tu d ie s o f v a rio u s a spects o f B u lg a ria n a g ric u ltu re in 1936 b y
a n u m b e r o f B u lg a ria n exp erts.

Hungarian works
I. K o v á c s , A néma forradalom ( The Silent Revolution).
Kivándorlás (Emigration).
G . Illy é s, A puszták népe ( The People o f the Puszta).
J . R é v a i, M arxizm us és népiesség ( Marxism and Populism).
G . R é z le r , A magyar nagyipari munkásság kialakulása ( The Develop­
ment o f a Working Class in Large-scale Industry in Hungary).
T h e first th re e d e a l w ith p ro b lem s o f th e H u n g a ria n
p e a sa n try . B oth a u th o rs w e re p ro m in e n t m em b ers o f the
g ro u p o f in te lle c tu a ls w h ic h la te r form ed the N a tio n a l
P e a sa n t P a rty (see p p . 199 -20 0 a b o v e fo r th e fa te o f this
p a r t y ) . R é v a i’ s b o o k is a frie n d ly criticism o f the w o rk o f the
g ro u p fro m a stric tly M a rx is t p o in t o f v iew . T h e last w o rk is
a n a c c o u n t o f th e rise o f in d u stry , tra d e u n ion s an d the la b o u r
m o v e m e n t in H u n g a r y u p to 1914 .

Rumanian works
M a d g e a r u , Evoluţia economiei româneşti.
G o lo p e n ţia , Starea culturală si economică a populaţiei rurale.
Z e le tin , Burghezia română.
P ă tr ă ş c a n u , Problemele de bază ale României.
Sub trei dictaturi.
P etre scu , Istoria socialismului in România.
M a d g e a r u ’s b o o k is th e best su rv e y o f th e R u m a n ia n e c o n o m y
o n th e e v e o f th e S e c o n d W o rld W a r . G o lo p e n ţia ’s is a stu d y
o f th e e d u c a tio n an d e c o n o m ic situ a tio n o f th e R u m a n ia n
p e a sa n try a t th e sam e tim e . Z e le tin is a lib e ra l o f th e tw enties
w h o a p p lie d a q u a s i-M a rx is t a n a lysis to R u m a n ia n so ciety in
o r d e r to d efe n d th e p ro gressiv e ro le o f th e b o u rg e o isie an d o f
th e L ib e r a l P a rty . T h e tw o w o rk s o f P ă tră ş c a n u , th e e m in en t
c o m m u n ist in te lle c tu a l p u rg e d fo r ‘ n a tio n a lis t’ d ev ia tio n s
4 18 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
in 1948, w ere w ritte n in w a r tim e in te rn m e n t, a n d c o n ta in
e x tre m e ly in terestin g id eas. P e tre scu d escrib e s th e so cia list
m o v e m e n t from th e m o d e ra te , o r ‘ rig h t w i n g ’ sta n d p o in t.
F o r th e fa te o f P e tre scu , sec p. 209 a b o v e .

P o li'h works
J a b ło ń sk i, P .P .S . za w olnoil 1 lud ( The Polish Socialist Parly fo r
Freedom and the People).
Bezrobocie wSród chłopów (Peasant Unemployment).
Struktura społeczna wsi polskiej ( The Social Structure o f the Polish
Village).
T h e first is a b r ie f h isto ry o f th e P olish so cia list m o v e m e n t
from th e p o in t o f v ie w o f th e old p a r ty , b e fo re it w as c a p tu r e d
b y th e co m m u n ists. T h e o th e r tw o b o ok s a rc e x p e rt stu dies
p u b lish e d b y th e In stitu te o f S o c ia l S c ie n c e in W a r s a w in
1937-
Serbo-Croatian works
S v e to z a r M a rk o v ié , Srbija na istoku (Serbia in the East).
D im itrije T u c o v ic , Srbija i Albanija (Serbia and Albania).
L a p ie v ic , Istorija socializma u Srbiji (History o f Socialism in Serbia).
K o s ta T o d o r o v , Politiika istorija savremene Bugarske (Political
history o f Modern Bulgaria).
R u d o lf B ić a n ić , Kako i iv i narod (How the People Live).
T h e first is a classic w o rk o n S e r b ia ’s p osition in th e B a lk a n s
b y th e th eo rist o f ‘ p o p u lis t’ so cia lism in S e rb ia in th e
seven ties. T h e secon d , o n re la tio n s b e tw e e n S e r b ia a n d
A lb a n ia , is b y th e fo rem o st S e rb ia n M a rx is t b e fo re 19 1 4 .
L a p ie v ic w as an e a r ly m o d e ra te le a d e r o f th e S e r b ia n
socialist m o v e m e n t. T o d o r o v w as a B u lg a ria n a g r a r ia n e x ile ,
w h o liv e d in Y u g o s la v ia b e tw e e n th e w ars. H is b o o k , th o u g h
su p e rfic ia l, co v ers g ro u n d o n w h ic h th ere is n o seriou s b o o k
a v a ila b le . B ic a n ic w as o n e o f th e le a d e rs o f th e left w in g o f
th e C r o a tia n P e a san t P a rty in th e th irties. H is b o o k d escrib e s
socia l a n d e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s in th e p o orest p ro v in c e s o f
C r o a tia , B osn ia a n d D a lm a tia sh o rtly b e fo re th e w a r .

(b) T h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r
( I ) The origins
B o rk c n a u , Austria and After.
G e d y e , Fallen Bastions.
R . W . S e to n -W a ts o n , Britain and the Dictators.
M a c a r t n e y a n d C r e m c n a , The Foreign and Colonial Policy o f Italy.
 B I B L I O G R A P H I C A L NOT E 41g
B clo ff, The Foreign Policy o f Soviet Russia, 1929-41.
W isk e m a n n , Czechs and Germans.
Undeclared War.
W h e e le r-B e n n e tt, Munich.
N a m ie r, Diplomatic Prelude.

(2) Wartime diplomacy

U .S . S ta te D e p a rtm e n t, Nazi-Soviet Relations.
R ossi, D eux ans d'alliance germano-soviétique.
G a fe n c u , Préliminaires de la guerre d 1’ Est.
C ia n o , Diary.
L ’ Europa verso la catastrofe.
H itle r a n d M u sso lin i, Leitete e documenti ( R iz z o li, 1946).
W isk e m a n n , The Rome-Berlin Axis.
D o n o sti, M ussolini e 1' Europa.
B o v a S c o p p a , Colloqui con due dittatori.
A n a c c o u n t o f co n ve rsa tio n s w ith th e A n to n e scu s b y th e w a r ­
tim e I ta lia n M in iste r in B u carest.
C o r d e ll H u ll, War Memoirs.
S h e r w o o d (e d .), The While House Papers o f Harry Hopkins.
B yrn es, Speaking Frankly.
S te ttin iu s, Roosevelt and the Russians.
C h u r c h ill, The Second World War, V o ls . 1 a n d 2.
D e a n e , Strange Alliance.
T h e e x p e rie n c e s o f th e h e a d o f th e U n ite d S tates m ilita ry
m ission in M o sco w .
A n d e rs, Army in E xile.
C ie c h a n o w s k i, Defeat in Victory.
T h e a u th o r w a s P olish A m b a ssa d o r in W a sh in g to n .
F o tić , The W ar we Lost.
T h e a u th o r w as Y u g o s la v A m b a ssa d o r in W a s h in g to n , a
sta u n ch S e rb ia n n a tio n a list an d su p p o rte r o f M ih a ilo v ic

(3) A xis occupation and resistance

The Trial o f the M ajor German War Criminals
B iih lc r, D as Generalgouvernement, seine Verwaltung und seine
Wirtschaft.
B y th e S ta te S e c re ta r y o f th e G e rm a n o c c u p a tio n a d m in is­
tra tio n in P o la n d u n d e r F ra n k . A rtic le s b y a n u m b e r o f N a z i
b u re a u c ra ts.
K a r s k i, The Story o f a Secret State.
T h e e x p e rie n c e s o f a m e m b e r o f the P olish u n d e rg ro u n d
m ovem ent
420 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N

Z a re m b a , Powstanie sierpniowe.
A n a c c o u n t o f th e W a r s a w risin g o f 1944 b y a P olish so cia list
in e x ile , b ased o n a m ass o f e v id e n c e in th e possession o f th e
e xile d Polish g o v e rn m e n t
G r a n t D u ff, H itler's Czech Protectorate.
L a w re n c e , Irregular Adventure.
R o o th a m , Missfire.
D a v id so n , Partisan Picture.
C lisso ld , Whirlwind.
T h e last fo u r a rc a c c o u n ts o f Y u g o s la v re sista n ce b y B ritish
officers w h o served in Y u g o s la v ia . L a w r e n c e w as w ith C h e t-
niks in S e rb ia in 1 9 4 1 -2 , R o o th a m w ith C h e tn ik s in S e rb ia
in 19 4 3 -4 , D a v id so n w ith p a rtisan s in B osn ia a n d in th e
D a n u b ia n p ro vin ce s in 19 4 3 -4 , C lisso ld w ith p a rtisa n s in
C r o a t ia in 1944. D e sp ite a n u n fo rtu n a te la c k o f referen ces,
C lisso ld ’ s b o o k , b ased on m u c h e x p e rie n c e a lso o f p r e -w a r
Y u g o s la v ia , is th e best a c c o u n t o f p o litic a l a n d m ilita r y
d ev e lo p m e n ts in Y u g o s la v ia as a w h o le . T h e o th e r th re e are
a ll v a lu a b le as eye-w itn ess a c c o u n ts
M a c le a n , Eastern Approaches.
B y th e h e ad o f th e B ritish M ission to T ito .
M a rtin , A lly Betrayed.
A passion ate d efe n ce o f G e n e ra l M ih a ilo v ic .
D u d ic, Dnevnik 1941.
D c d ije r, Dnevnik.
T ito , Borba za oslobodjenje Jugoslavije.
T h e first tw o a rc p e rso n a l d iaries o f p a rtisa n s, th e th ird is a
co lle c tio n o f speech es a n d article s b y T i t o w h ic h a p p e a r e d in
th e press p u b lish e d b y th e p a rtisa n s on lib e ra te d te rrito r y
d u r in g th e w a r.
A m e ry , Sons o f the Eagle.
E x p e rie n c e s o f a B ritish o fficer w ith A lb a n ia n resista n ce. N o t
o n ly a n in te re stin g sto ry , b u t a n e x c e lle n t a c c o u n t o f th e
social a n d c u ltu ra l b a c k g ro u n d o f A lb a n ia .
V a s ilic v , Suprotivata sreshtu fashizm a v Bulgaria.
A n o ffic ia l co m m u n ist v ersio n o f B u lg a ria n resistan ce.
W o o d h o u se , Apple o f Discord.
A d e ta ile d p o litic a l a n a ly sis o f G r e e c e d u r in g a n d a fte r th e
A x is o c c u p a tio n , b y th e h e a d o f th e B ritish m ilita r y m ission
in G re e c e .
 B I B L I O G R A P H I C A L NOTE 421

( C) S O V IE T ISA T IO N

M y best sin gle so u rc c on this p e rio d has been th e Summary o f

Broadcasts from Eastern Europe, p u b lish e d b y th e m o n ito rin g
se rv ice o f th e B .B .C . F ro m this so u rce th e p o lic y o f th e E ast
E u ro p e a n go v e rn m e n ts c a n b e a d e q u a te ly c o v c re a . Im p o rta n t
sp eech es a n d d ec re es, m a jo r d ecisio n s o f e c o n o m ic p o lic y , and
con gresses o f c o m m u n ist a n d c o m m u n ist-to lera te d p a rties an d
o rg a n isa tio n s a re fu lly re p o rte d . W h a t o f cou rse does n ot a p p e a r
fro m this so u rc e is p u b lic o p in io n .
I n th e B ritish press, th e m ost v a lu a b le sou rces h a v e b e e n The
Times a n d th e Manchester Guardian. T h e N ew York Herald Tribune
I h a v e a lso b e en a b le to fo llo w re g u la rly , an d h a v e fou n d m ost
u sefu l. I h a v e rea d E ast E u ro p e a n p a p ers so m e w h a t irre g u la rly .
A m o n g C o m m u n ist P a r ty p u b lic a tio n s w h ic h I h a v e fou n d useful
a re th e fo llo w in g :
Bolshevik (S o v ie t C o m m u n ist P a rty ) F o rtn ig h tly
Társadalmi Szemle (H u n g a ria n C o m m u n ist P a rty ) M o n th ly
Nowe Drogi (P o lish W o rk e rs’ P a rty ) do.
Novo Vreme (B u lg a r ia n C o m m u n ist P a rty ) d o.
tComunist (Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ist P a rty ) d o.
Narodna Dreava ( Y u g o s la v S ta te C o n tro l C o m m ission ) d o.
For a lasting Peace, fo r a People's Democracy (o rg a n o f the
C o m in fo r m ) F o rtn ig h tly
T h e p r o p a g a n d a p u b lica tio n s in E n g lish — Hungarian Bulletin,
Roumanian New s an d Polish Facts and Figures— are also som e­
tim es o f use.
T h e fo llo w in g b o ok s b y p o litic a l exiles from E astern E u ro p e ,
w h o a tte m p te d to w o rk u n d e r th e n e w regim es b u t w e re rem oved
fro m p o w e r a n d (led fo r th e ir lives, a re o f co n sid e ra b le interest.
I n g e n e ra l, a d istin c tio n sh o u ld b e d r a w n b e tw e e n th eir a cco u n ts
o f th e p e rso n a l e x p e rie n c e s o f th em selves a n d th eir frien d s, w h ich
m u st b e r e g a rd e d as re lia b le , a n d som e o f th eir gen eralisatio n s,
w h ic h a re less c e rta in .
M ik o ła jc z y k , 7 he Pattern o f Soviet Domination (P o la n d ).
R ip k a , Le coup de Prague (C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ).
J o s te n , Oh, M y Country (C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ).
N a g y , The Struggle behind the Iron Curtain (H u n g a ry ).
S u ly o k , Zw ei Nächte ohne Tag ( H u n g a ry ).
K o v á c s , Im Schatten der Sowjets ( H u n g a ry ).
A n in te re stin g a c c o u n t o f th e R e d A r m y in H u n g a ry is
O r m e , From Christmas to Easier.
422 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
T h e fo llo w in g a re a cco u n ts b y W e ste rn o b se rv e rs:
B arker, Truce in the Balkam.
M a in ly R u m a n ia an d B u lg a ria in 194C. E x tr e m e ly fa ir a n d
w e ll in fo rm e d .
D ia m o n d , Czechoslovakia between YVest and East.
B y a fo rm e r U .N .R .R .A . o fficial.
M c N e ill, The Creek Dilemma.
A n im p a rtia l A m e ric a n a c c o u n t.
M a rk h a m , Rumania under the Soviet Yoke.
Passion ate b u t w e ll-d o c u m e n te d a tta c k b y a v e te ra n A m e r i­
ca n co rresp o n d en t.
B a rtle tt, East o f the Iron Curtain.
A b a la n c e d an d m ost re a d a b le su rv e y o f th e situ a tio n in
>9 4 9 -
G u n th e r, Behind Europe's Curtain.
V o ig t , Pax Britannica.
The Greek Sedition.
B itter a tta ck s on w a rtim e British p o lic y , p assion ate d efe n ce o f
M ih a ilo v ic an d o f th e p o st-w a r G r e e k re g im e , b y a v e te ra n
British fo reign co rresp o n d e n t a n d e d ito r.
I n v a lu a b le e c o n o m ic m a te ria l is c o n ta in e d in th e U .N . R . R .A .
O p e ra tio n a l A n a ly sis R e p o rts fo r P o la n d , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , G r e e ce ,
Y u g o s la v ia , A lb a n ia an d H u n g a ry . T h e U .N . E c o n o m ic C o m ­
m ission for E u ro p e ’s p u b lic a tio n The European Economy 1948 has
useful m a te ria l. T h e texts o f th e C o n s titu tio n s a n d o f th e e c o n o m ic
p la n s o f th e d iffe re n t co u n trie s a re o f co u rse essen tial. A m o n g
speech es b y c o m m u n ist lead ers m en tio n sh o u ld b e m a d e o f th e
p o litic a l rep o rt to th e fifth con gress o f th e Y u g o s la v C o m m u n is t
P a rty in J u ly 1948 b y T i to , a n d o f th e p o litic a l re p o rt to th e fifth
con gress o f th e B u lg a ria n C o m m u n ist P a rty in D e c e m b e r 1948, b y
D im itro v . B oth a re o b ta in a b le in E n glish . B oth a rc in te re stin g for
th eir su m m a ry o f th e p rev io u s h isto ry o f th e re sp ectiv e p arties.
T w o e x c e lle n t p u b lic a tio n s b y th e R o y a l In stitu te o f I n te r­
n a tio n a l A ffa irs m a y be re c o m m e n d e d :
E liz a b e th B a rk e r, Macedonia.
A n in v a lu a b le a c c o u n t o f th e p o licies o f th e Y u g o s la v , B u l­
ga ria n an d G re e k C o m m u n ist P arties in M a c e d o n ia b e tw e e n
19 18 an d 1948.
The Soviet-Yugoslav Dispute.
T h e letters b e tw e e n th e S o v ie t a n d Y u g o s la v co m m u n ist
leaders.
A n a b le a n a lysis o f th e p o litic a l m ach in es o f th e n e w regim es
 B I B L I O G R A P H I C A L NOTE 4 23
a n d o f th e th eo rie s a d v a n c e d b y S o v ie t a n d o th e r c o m m u n ist
p o litic a l w rite rs in th e ir s u p p o rt is g iv e n in S a m u e l S . S h a rp ,
N ew Constitutions in the Soviet Sphere, F o u n d a tio n fo r F o re ig n
A ffa ir s , W a s h in g to n , D .C . S im ila r g ro u n d is co v e re d , from a
d iffe re n t p o in t o f v ie w , in tw o a rtic le s b y FI. G o r d o n S k illin g ,
‘ P e o p le ’s D e m o c r a c y in S o v ie t t h e o r y ’ in Soviet Studies (p u b lish ed
fo r G la s g o w U n iv e r s ity b y B. H . B la c k w c ll), J u ly 1951 and
O c t o b e r 19 5 1 .
In th e last y e a r th e fo llo w in g w ork s h a v e b een p u b lish ed , or
h a v e b e e n b ro u g h t to m y n o tice :
G . K á lla i, A magyar függetlenségi mozgalom ( The Hungarian In­
dependence Movement). B u d a p e st 1948.
A n a c c o u n t o f c o m m u n ist resistan ce to th e rig h t-w in g
g o v e rn m e n ts a n d to th e G e rm a n s, from 1936 to 1945, b y a
le a d in g co m m u n ist, re c e n tly d isgra ced .
D o r e e n W a r rin e r, Revolution in Eastern Europe. T u rn stile Press,
■ 950.
F irst h a lf o f th e b o o k p o litic a l, seco n d h a lf in terestin g c o m m e n t
on e c o n o m ic d ev e lo p m e n ts.
H . L . R o b e rts , Rumania, Political Problems o f an Agrarian State.
Y a le U n iv e r s ity Press, 19 5 1.
A p e n e tra tin g stu d y o f R u m a n ia n p ea san t p o litics from the
re v o lt o f 190 7 u n til th e p resen t d a y .
M a r g a r e t D e w a r , Soviet Trade with Eastern Europe. R .I .I .A .,
>9 5 '-
J . P. N e ttl, The Eastern %one and Soviet Policy in Germany. O .U .P .,
>9 5 '-
H . F ish A rm stro n g , Tito and Goliath, G o lla n c z , 19 5 1.
 IN D E X
A d e n a u e r , C h a n c e llo r , 393, 397
A d le r , V ik to r , A u stria n so cialist lea d er,
3».
A g o stin i, H u n g a ria n so cialist. M in is te r o f
J u s tic e ( 19 4 5 ). «92-3
A g r ic u ltu r e , 1 3 - 1 6 , 2 32, 234, 2 4 2 -5 2 ,
2 6 4 -7 7 . 375 - 9..385
A J b a n ia , e a r ly h isto ry, 4; b e tw e e n th e
w a rs, 5 0 - 2 , 5 5 ; I ta lo -G re e k w a r in,
6 5; resistan ce m o v em en t in, 13 9 -4 6 ;
p o st-w a r p o litics in , 2 2 6 -9 ; ec o n o m ic
p la n n in g in, 2 4 8 -9 ; ch a n g e o f le a d e r ­
sh ip in , 374
A le x a n d e r , k in g o f Y u g o s la v ia , 2 7, 47, 52,
78, 120, 158, 296, 35 7
A lte n b u r g , G e r m a n p o litic a l rep re sen ­
ta tiv e in A th e n s ( 1 9 4 1 ), 82
A lte r , P o lish J e w is h so cialist, 152
A n d e rs, W ła d y s ła w , P olish g e n e ra l, 114 ,
>5 « - 2 . >73-4
A n to n e sc u , M a rsh a l Io n , 46, 6 2, 8 3 -9 0 ,
203, 205
A n to n o v - C h e n to , M a c e d o n ia n lea d er,
356
A n to n o v , G e n e ra l, S o v ie t C h ie f o f
G e n e ra l S ta ff, 165
A p o sto l, G h e o r g h e , R u m a n ia n c o m ­
m u n ist le a d e r, 374
A r a n y , B á lin t, H u n g a ria n p o litic ia n , 197
A rcisze w s k i, Polish P rem ier in e x ile
( 1944), ' 56. '7 8
A re s , see V e lo u c h io tis
A r r o w C ro ss, H u n g a ria n fascist p a rty ,
4 4 -6 , 1 0 0 -1 , 10 A -5 , 1 9 0 ,3 0 9
A th a n a ssia d e s, B o a o ssak is, G re e k in d u s­
trialist, 322
A th e n a g o ra s , P a tria rc h o f C o n s ta n ti­
n o p le, 290
A u s tn a , 4, 6, 52, 3 6 8 - 7 1 , 392
B a b a F a ja , A lb a n ia n resistan ce le a d e r,
14 1 , 227
B a g ria n o v , B u lg a ria n P rem ier (19 4 4 ),
9 6 , 2 11
B a ile y , C o lo n e l, 128 n ., 159
B a jcs i-Z s ilin sz k y , H u n g a ria n S m a ll F a r ­
m e rs’ P a r ty le a d e r, i o i , 104
B a k ird zis, C o lo n e l, 138
B a lick i, P o lish n a tio n a list w rite r, 24
B a lo g h . H u n g a ria n priest a n d p o liticia n ,
2 0 1 -2
B á n , A n t a l, H u n g a r ia n so cialist lea d er,
202, 31 i
425
B a ń cz y k , Polish p easan t lea d er, 174 , 176
B a rá n k o v ics, H u n g a ria n C a th o lic p o liti­
cia n , 1 7 1 , 2 0 0 -1, 292
B árdo ssy, H u n g a ria n Prem ier ( 19 4 1 -2 ),
9 8 -10 0
B a rlick i, P o lish so cialist lead er, 112
B á rta , H u n g a ria n M in is te r o f W a r
(19 4 6 ), 197
B a u e r, O t to , A u stria n so cialist lead er,
339
B e ck , C o lo n e l, Polish F o reig n M in is te r
( 19 3 2 -9 ) . 5 *. 5i >-7
B e le a, R u m a n ia n p easan t lea d er, 204
B e le v , B u lg a ria n an ti-sem ite, 93
B e n eś, D r. E d u a rd , President o f C z e c h o ­
slo v a k ia , 24, 53, 148, 1 6 2 -4 , *7*» *83.
18 5, 18 8-90 , 303
B eran , M g r ., A rc h b is h o p o f P ra g u e ,
294-5
B e re cz k y , H u n g a ria n C a lv in is t bishop,
291
B e ria, R u ssia n p o lice ch ief, 3 7 4 -5 , 395
B erlin g , G e n e ra l, 15 2 -4
B e ssa rab ia , 6, 59, 6 0 - 1 , 8 5, 87
B eth len , C o u n t S te p h e n , H u n g a ria n
P rem ier ( 1 9 2 1 - 3 1 ) , 25, 39
B ięak u , Ib ra h im , A lb a n ia n q u islin g
P rem ier (19 4 4 ), 145
B ien , Polish p easan t lea d er, 118
B ien ert, C z e c h q u islin g P rem ier (19 4 4 ),
. 73 .
B ieru t, P olish co m m u n ist P residen t o f
re p u b lic a n d P rem ier u n til 1954, 155,
297 3' 5 . 374 . 375 > 398
B la g o e v , D im ita r, fo u n d e r o f B u lg a ria n
C o m m u n ist P a rty , 4 1 - 2
B o d n ă ra ş, E m il, R u m a n ia n co m m u n ist
a n d M in is te r o f W a r ( 1 9 4 7 ), 89, 206,
211, 3OI, 307
B ó r, G e n e ra l, see K o m a ro w s k i
Boris, k in g o f B u lg a ria , 44, 48, 9 1 , 95,
2 1 1 - 1 2 , 35 7
B o sh n yak u , A lb a n ia n co m m u n ist, 227
B o z h ilo v , B u lg a ria n P rem ier ( 19 4 3 -4 ),
9 6, 2 1 1
B o sn ia, I, 28, 78, 12 1, 125, 129, 2 19 , 222,
340
B o u rg eo isie, u n d e r p re -w a r regim es, 7,
1 0 - 1 1 ; a n d p o litica l p a rties, 2 3 -3 1 ;
u n d er n e w regim es, 2 3 7 -4 0 , 2 8 2 -3,
286, 38 0 -1
B ra tia n u , C o n sta n tin , R u m a n ia n libera l
lea d er, 89, 2 11
426 THE EAST E U R O P E A N
B r itia n u , Io n , R u m a n ia n statesm a n , 26
B rä tia n u . Io n el, R u m a n ia n statesm an , 26
B reslau, co n gress o f P olish S o cialist P a rty
in, '7 9
B u lg a n in , M a rsh a l, c h a irm a n o f C o u n c il
o f M in isters o f U .S .S .R ., 379 , 391
B u lg a ria , e a rly h isto ry, 3—4; b etw een the
w o rld w ars, 44, 52; in a llia n c e w ith the
A x is, 6 5, 9 0 -8 ; p o st-w ar po litics in,
2 1 1 - 1 9 ; ec o n o m ic p la n n in g in, 244,
2 49 -5 0 ; ch a n g e in lead ersh ip , 374;
in tro d u ctio n o f ‘ N e w C o u r s e ’ in, 378,
379-
Bumbarov, Bulgarian A grarian leader,
2 17.
B u n aciu , R u m a n ia n co m m u n ist an d
M in ister o f J u stic e (1948) , 2 1 1
B u re a u c ra c y , u n d er p re -w a r regim es,
1 1 - 1 2 ; co m m u n ist in filtra tio n into ,
1 6 7 -7 0 ; u n d er n ew regim es, 2 8 2 -3,
301
B yrn es, U .S . S e c re ta ry o f S ta te (19 4 6 ),
176
C ilin e s c u , A r m a n d , R u m a n ia n Prem ier
(1939), 46
C a r o l I I , k in g o f R u m a n ia , 35, 40, 43,
45 * 7. 53 . 57 . 6 1 - 2 , 8 3 -4 , 203
a tlo ś . S lo v a k G e n e ra l, 146
C e p ić k a , C z e c h co m m u n ist. M in is te r o f
J u stic e (19 4 8 ), 188, 398
C<*rnik, C z e c h ten n is-p laye r, 280
C h a m b e rla in , N e v ille , 5 7 -8 , 60
C h ern ysh ev ski, R u ssia n so cialist w rite r,
27
C h e rv e n k o v , B u lg a ria n co m m u n ist
P rem ier ( 1949 - 54 ). 219 , 3 ° 7 . 374» 375-
39 °
C h e sh m e d jie v , B u lg a ria n so cialist lead er,
2 14
a. ijin ev sch i, R u m a n ia n co m m u n ist
lead er, 316
C h u r c h ill, W in sto n , 135, 15 4 - 5 , *57 » 3 *9 »
320
C ia n o . C o u n t G a le a z z o , 52 -3, 5 5 , 59
C io tk o s z, Polish socialist lea d er, 178
C lem e n tis, S lo v a k co m m u n ist, F o reig n
M in is te r (19 4 8 -5 0 ), 163, 3 16 n ., 373
C o d re a n u , R u m a n ia n fascist lea d er, 44
* 5 , 84, 206
C o lla b o r a tio n , types o f, 1 0 6 -7 ; trials for,
190 n ., 205 n ., 2 2 0 -1 , 238
C o m in fo rm , 1 7 t , 18 5, 224-6^ 2 2 7 -9 ,
3 1 3 - 1 4 , 3 16 , 328, 3 5 7 -8 , 382
C o n sta n tin e , k in g o f G re e c e , 29
C o n sta n tin e sc u -Ia ji, R u m a n ia n com ­
m u n ist, 2 11
C o n tro l C o m m issio n s, A llie d , in R u m a ­
n ia , H u n g a ry an d B u lg a ria , 199, 207,
3 7 2 - 3 ; S ta te (org a n o f n e w co n s titu ­
tio n s), 304, a n d n.
C o -o p e ra tiv e s, p re -w a r 1 5 - 1 7 ; u n d e r n ew
regime«,. 2 68 ^), 2 7^ -3
REVOLUTION
C o u n c il fo r M u tu a l E c o n o m ic A id
( U .S .S .R . a n d E ast E u ro p e a n states),
255
C r e ţia n u , R u m a n ia n M in is te r of
F in a n ce (19 4 0 ), 84
C r o a tia , e a r ly h isto ry , 3, 6 ; in Y u g o s la v ia
betw een th e w ars, 2 7, 3 5 , 54, 5 5 ; as
‘ in d e p e n d e n t’ v assa l o f th e A x is ,
7 8 -9 , 8 0 -2 ; resistan ce m o v e m e n t in ,
12 3 ; u n d e r n e w reg im e, 340, 342
C s a ta y , H u n g a ria n M in is te r o f W a r
(1943), 103
C u r z o n line, as P o lish -R u s sia n fro n tie r,
■53-6
C v e t k o v ić , D ra g iś a , Y u g o s la v P rem ier
( 1 9 3 9 - 4 0 . 44. 55
C v e tk o v ić -M a ć e k a g re e m e n t (A u g u st
>939). 5 5 . '5 8
C y p r u s , 38 9-90
C y r a n k ie w ic z , P olish so c ia list, P rem ier
10 4 7 -5 2 a n d sin ce »954, 1 7 8 -9 , 3 1 1 ,
3^ > 374
C y r il, P rin c e R e g e n t in B u lg a ria (19 4 3 -
4 4 ). 9 5. 211
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , e a r ly h isto ry , 2; b etw een
th e w ars, 5 0 - 1, 5 3 -4 , 5 5 - 6 ; u n d e r
G e r m a n ru le, 7 0 -3 ; resistan ce in,
1 4 6 -9 : a n d th e A llie s, 1 6 2 - 5 ; P ° st*w a r
p o litics in, 17 9 -9 0 ; e c o n o m ic p la n n in g
in , 241 - 2 , 2 5 0 - 1 ; rela tio n s w ith P o la n d ,
343; relatio n s w ith H u n g a ry , 3 4 4 -5 ;
c h a n g e s in lead ersh ip , 3 73 ; ‘ N e w
C o u r s e ’ in , 3 7 6 -9 passim ; relatio n s
w ith G e r m a n y , 3 9 7 -8
D a h lem , G e r m a n co m m u n is t, 366
D a la d ic r , E d o u a rd , 162
D a lu e g e , S .S . G e n e r a l, 1 2
D a m a sk in o s, A rc h b is h o p o f A th e n s,
R e g e n t o f G re e c e ( 19 4 5 - 6 ) , 136, 320,
323
D a p ic v ić, G e n e ra l, Y u g o sla v p a rtisa n
c o m m a n d e r, 1^4
D a s k a lo v , G e n e ra l, B u lg a ria n M in is te r o f
W a r ( 1 9 4 1 ), 92
D a v ie s, M a jo r M o sty n , 95
D a v ie s, B rig a d ie r, 143
D e k a n o z o v , S o v ie t d e p u ty F o re ig n C o m ­
m issar (19 4 0 ), 62
D e a k in , L ie u te n a n t- C o lo n e l, 159
D ea n e, G e n e ra l, 165 n.
D e G a u lle , G e n e r a l, 163
D e v a , X a fe r , A lb a n ia n p o litic ia n , 144
D in e , F iq ri, A lb a n ia n q u islin g P rem ier,
.'45
D im o v , V ir g il, B u lg a r ia n p o litic ia n , 2 12
D im itro v , G e o rg e , B u lg a ria n co m m u n ist,
P rem ier (19 4 6 - 9 ) , 9 3, 16 7, 2 1 4 , 2 1 6 -
*9 » 3° 7 . 3 «5 . 357
D im itro v , D r. G . M ., B u lg a ria n A g r a r ia n
le a d e r, 36, 9 4, 170 , 2 13
D in n y é s, H u n g a ria n P re m ie r ( 1 9 4 7 -8 ),
170, 191J, 202

D io m e d es, G re e k P rem ier (19 4 9 ), 3 2 7 -6
D jila s , M ilo v a n , Y u g o s la v co m m u n ist
le a d e r, 2 2 5, 383, 384
D m o w sk i, R o m a n , Polish statesm a n , 23,
24, 262
D ó b i, H u n g a ria n P re m ie r since 1949, 202
D o b r o g e a n u -G h e r e a , R u m a n ia n so cialist
w rite r, 40 n.
‘ D octors* P lo t’ , th e, in U .S .S .R . (19 5 3 ),
374
D o la p c h e v , B u lg a ria n d ip lo m a t, 218
D o n á th , H u n g a ria n p o liticia n , 197
D r a g a n o v , B u lg a ria n F o re ig n M in ister
(1944), 96
D r o b n y , C z e c h ten n is-p la ye r, 280
D r tin a , C z e c h o s lo v a k M in is te r o f J u stic e
(19 4 6 -8 ), 182, 185, 187
D uca, Io n , R u m a n ia n lib e ra l and
P rem ier (19 3 3 ), 45
D u rć a n s k y , S lo v a k q u islin g F o reig n
M in is te r, 186
D u n s , C z e c h o s lo v a k M in is te r o f A g r i­
c u ltu re (19 4 6 ), 180, 187
E .A .M ., G re e k co m m u n is t-le d resistan ce
m o v e m e n t, 1 3 2 -9 , 3 1 8 - 2 1 , 333
E c k h a r d t, T ib o r , H u n g a r ia n p o liticia n ,
34 . ' OI
E d e n , A n th o n y , 14 1, 1 5 4 - 5 , 3 ao
E .D .E .S ., G re e k resistan ce m o v em en t,
133-7
E c o n o m ic p la n n in g , ab sen ce o f b etw een
th e w a rs, 1 6 - 1 7 ; r e c o v e ry p la n s o f n ew
reg im es, 2 4 1 - 6 ; lo n g -te rm p la n s, 2 4 6 -
54; ‘ N e w C o u rse*, 3 7 5 - 9
E h rlic h , P olish J e w is h so cialist, 152
E ise n h o w e r, G e n e r a l, 165
EliaA, G e n e r a l, C z e c h q u islin g p rem ier,
72
E rd e i, H u n g a ria n p ea san t lea d er, 192,
200, 272
E .L .A .S ., G re e k co m m u n ist a rm e d fo rce,
* 3 2 -9 , 3 18 -2 2
F a b ritiu s , G e r m a n d ip lo m a t, 61
F a n N o li, B ish o p , A lb a n ia n le a d e r, 140
F a rk a s, H u n g a ria n c o m m u n is t lea d er,
202, 375
F a scism , 43-8* 7 0 -8 2 , 309
F e re n ćik , S lo v a k g e n e ra l, 14 7 , 186
F ie ld , H e rm a n a n d N o e l, A m e ric a n
b ro th ers, 375
F ie rlin g e r, C z e c h so cialist lea d er, 164,
186, 189, 190, 366
F ilo v , P ro fesso r, Bu u lf
lg a ria n P re m ie r a n d
R e g e n t ( I 93 & - 44 ). ? * , 95 . 2 M ,
F o tić , K o n s ta n tin , Y u g o s la v d ip lo m a t,
128 n.
F o u s ek , C z e c h q u islin g , 72
F ra n k , H a n s, N a z i G o v e r n o r o f P o la n d ,
113
>EX 427
F ra n k , K . H ., N a z i S ta te S e c re ta ry an d
S .S . c h ie f in C z e c h 'P ro te c to r a te ',
^ (« 939 - 45 ). 70, 75-7
F rash eri, M e h d i, A lb a n ia n p o liticia n ,
R e g e n t (19 4 4 ), 143
F rash eri, M id h a t, lead er o f A lb a n ia n
B a lli K o m b e ta r , 143
F ric k , N a zi M in ister, P ro te cto r o f
C z e c h lan d s (19 4 2 - 5 ), 72
F u lz , H a rry , A m e ric a n school d ire cto r in
A lb a n ia , 227
F u n k , N a z i e c o n o m ic e x p e rt, 259
F u sio n o f S o cialist a n d C o m m u n ist
P arties, 148, 17 8 -9 , 190, 202, 209,
2 18 , 3 1 0 - 1 1
G a b ro v s k i, B u lg a ria n M in ister o f In terio r
(»940-3). 92. a»'
G a jd a , G e n e ra l, C z e c h fascist lea d er, 71
G á l, G a szto n , H u n g a ria n p easan t lea d er
in 1920’s, 34
G a fe n c u , R u m a n ia n F o re ig n M in is te r
( ' 939 - 4 ° ) . 62
G an ev, Professor, B u lg a ria n R egent
(19 4 4 -6 ) , 2 1 7
G assier, C o lo n e l, N a z i S .S . o fficer in
P o la n d , 1 13
G a v r ila , S e rb ia n P a tria rc h , 288
G a v r ilo v ié , M ila n , Y u g o s la v A g r a r ia n
lea d er, 6 6 - 7
G a i i , C r o a tia n p o liticia n im p riso n ed b y
T it o , 220, 223
G a i i , le a d e r o f ru m p C r o a t ia n P easant
P a rty , 220, 223 n.
G e m in d e r, C z e c h co m m u n ist, 3 16
G e o r g e I I , k in g o f G re e c e , 29, 135, 3 2 0 -2 ,
324-5
G e o rg e sc u , R u m a n ia n co m m u n ist a n d
M in is te r o f In te rio r, 2 0 5 -6 , 373
G e r m a n y , p re -w a r d ip lo m a c y of, 49 -6 0;
a n d R u ssia , 6 0 -9 ; a n d th e co n q u e re d
co u n tries, 7 0 -8 2 , 10 6 -4 9 ; a n d the
p o st-w ar a im s o f th e East E u ro p e a n
states, 36 0 -8 ; a n d S o v ie t aim s, 3 9 2 -8
G e r ö , H u n g a ria n co m m u n ist a n d ec o n o ­
m ic p la n n e r, 244, 272
G h e o r g h ie v , K im o n , B u lg a ria n P rem ier
('9 3 4 5 a n d ' 944 - 6 ). .47 . 97 . 2 1 6 - 1 5
G h e o r g h iu -D e j, R u m a n ia n co m m u n ist
le a d e r a n d P rem ier, 89, 206, 2 1 1 , 245,
30 7. 3 «4 . 374 . 375
G h ig i, Ita lia n d ip lo m a t, 82
G ic h e v , B u lg a ria n A g r a r ia n lea d er, 36,
96, 2 12
G jin is h i, A lb a n ia n co m m u n ist, 141
G lo b o ts c h n ig g , N a z i o ffic ial, 370
G o lia n , C o lo n e l, S lo v a k resistance lead er,
147-a
G o m b o s , G e n e ra l, H u n g a ria n P rem ier
( 19 3 6 -8 ), 2 5 , 43 , 45
G o m u łk a , P olish co m m u n ist, 173, 3 1 4 - 1 5
G o n o ta s , G e n e ra l, G re e k p o liticia n , 29,
'37
428 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N
G o rin g , M arsh a l H e rm a n n , 5a
G o ttw a ld , K le m e n t, C zech Prem ier
(19 4 6 -8 ) an d P residen t o f th e re p u b lic
(19 4 8 -5 5 ), 163 4, 170 , 18 1-9 0 , 274,
297 . 303. 3° 7. 373 - 4 . .377 . 395 . . .
G o tz a m a n is, G re e k q u islin g p o liticia n ,
82
G re e c e , ea rly histo ry, 4; b etw een the
w ars, 50, 5 5 ; at w a r w ith the A x is, 6 5,
67; u n d er A x is o c c u p a tio n , 82;
resistance in , 1 3 1 - 9 ; p o st-w ar p o litics
in, 3 18 -2 9 ; p o st-w ar e c o n o m ic p ro b ­
lem s, 3 2 9 -3 5 ; relatio n s w ith n e ig h ­
bours, 358-^60; g o v e rn m en t b y G re e k
R a lly , 3 8 6 -8 ; a n d C y p r u s , 38 9-90
G re e n , A m e ric a n tra d e u n io n lead er
( A .F .L .) , 152
G re e n , L ie u te n a n t, U .S . N a v y , 148
G ro c h o lsk i, C o u n t, 177
G ro l, M ila n , S e rb ia n p o liticia n , 221
G ro te w o h l, O t to , E ast G e r m a n c o m ­
m unist lead er, 365
G ro z a , P etru . R u m a n ia n P rem ier since
*945. 8 7, 170, 204, 2 0 6 -7
G yo rlT y, H u n g a ria n ed u c a tio n ist, 283
G y u la i, H u n g a ria n p o liticia n , 19 7, 199
H a c h a , C z e c h q u islin g P resid e n t, 56, 70.
H a d jid im itrio u , G re e k rig h t-w in g tra d e
u n io n lea d er, 333
H a ra p i, A lb a n ia n R e g e n t (19 4 4 ), 143
H a rrim a n , U .S . a m b a ssa d o r in M o sco w ,
156, 207 n.
H a tie g a n u , R u m a n ia n p o liticia n , 207
H e b ra n g , Y u g o s la v co m m u n ist, 224
H e n lein , lead er o f G e r m a n N a zis in
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , 54
H e y d rich , h ead o f G e sta p o a n d P ro tecto r
o f C z e c h land s, 72, 149
H im m ler, H e in ric h , 72, 7 4 -6
H itle r, A d o lf, 4 9 - 5 1 , 5 3 -7 . 6 4 -9 , 73 , 79,
8I-2
H lin k a, S lo v a k fascist lead er, 3 1 , 54
H lo n d , C a rd in a l, h ra d o f P olish C a th o lic
C h u r c h , 293
H o d źa , M ila n , C z e c h A g r a r ia n lead er
a n d P rem ier (19 3 7 ), 33
H o e rn le , Last G e r m a n co m m u n ist, 362
H o m e A rm y , Polish resistance m o v em en t,
i n 18, 1 5 4 - 5 , 172 , 174
H o p kin s, H a rry , 157
H o rth y , A d m ira l, R e g e n t o f H u n g a ry ,
25, 6 7 , 98, 10 3 -4 . *9®. 3*6
H o rv á th , H u n g a ria n p o liticia n , 198
H o ttl, S .S . o fficial, 77
H o x h a , E n v e r, A lb a n ia n co m m u n is t
lea d er. P rem ier u n til 19 54 , ' 4° . ' 4 1 -
146, 168, 2 2 6 -9 , 2 6 7 , 2 85, 3 5 9 -6 0 , 374
H risto v , B u lg a ria n M in is te r o f In terio r
(■9+ 4 ). 95 ; 2 ”
H ru sc h o v , N . S ., ist S e c re ta ry o f C o m ­
m u nist P a rty , U .S .S .R ., 373 , 374 , 379,
3 9 ' . 394
REVOLUTION
H u d so n , C a p ta in , 159
H u n g ary ', e a r ly h isto ry, 2, 4 ; b e tw e e n th e
w ars, 5 0 - 7 , 6 1 - 2 , 6 7 ; in th e A x is ,
98 105; p o st-w a r p o litics in, 19 0 -2 0 2 ;
e c o n o m ic p la n n in g in, 2 4 3 -4 , 2 5 , - 2 i
H u n g a ria n m in o ritie s, 2 0 - 1 , 3 4 4 -5 ;
in tro d u c tio n o f ‘ N e w C o u r s e ’ in , 3 7 5 -
376,378,379
H u s, J o h n , 46, 287
H u sa k, S lo v a k co m m u n ist le a d e r, 183,
»86, 344, 373
Im ré d y , B ela, H u n g a ria n P re m ie r (19 3 8 -
9 ), 25, 100, 190 n.
I .M .R .O ., M a c e d o n ia n terro rist o rg a n i-
sa tio n , 354 , 356
In d u stry , b etw een th e w a rs, 16 , 1 7 - 1 9 ;
w a r d a m a g e to , 2 33; re c o n stru ctio n o f,
2 4 1 - 6 ; n a tio n a lisa tio n o f, 2 3 7 - 4 1 ;
p la n n in g a n d p ro sp e cts o f, 2 4 6 -5 4 ;
'N e w C o u r s e ’ a n d , 3 7 5 - 9
In te llig e n ts ia , b e tw e e n th e w a rs, 12 ;
u n d er th e n ew regim es, 2 8 2 - 7 ; w estern
a n d ea ste rn in flu en ces o n , 13; ‘ to ilin g
in te llig e n tsia ’ , th e, 380 1
lo a n n id e s, G re e k co m m u n ist, 328
I o rg a . P rofessor, R u m a n ia n p o litic ia n
a n d h isto ria n , 6 1 , 84
Iro n G u a r d , R u m a n ia n fascist m o v e-
m cn t. 4 4 - 7 , 53, 62
I ta ly , p re -w a r d ip lo m a c y , 50--5, 6 5 ;
o c c u p a tio n p o lic y in the B a lk a n s ;
78 82; a n d R u m a n ia d u rin g th e w a r,
86; a n d th e resistan ce m o v em en ts, 12 1,
12 2 -3 , 12 6 -8 , 136, 14 0 -2 , 15 9 ; p e a ce
t re a t y w ith ( 19 4 7 ), 349; rela tio n s w ith
B a lk an s, 389, 3 9 1 -2
Iv a n o v , A n to n , B u lg a ria n c o m m u n is t, 93
J a c z k ó , H u n g a ria n p o litic ia n , 19 7 -8
J a k o v a , T u k , A lb a n ia n co m m u n ist, 228,
3 12
J a n iik o v ic , C r o a t ia n p o litic ia n , 223
J a n k o w s k i, P olish resistan ce le a d e r, 118
J a n o u se k , A ir M a rsh a l, 303
J á n y , G e n e r a l, H u n g a ria n c o m m a n d e r -
in -c h ie f (19 4 2 ), 99
J ew s, b e tw e e n the w ars, 2 1 ; m assacres o f,
b y N a z is, 7 7 , 1 1 3 ; p ersecu tio n b y
R u m a n ia n Iro n G uard , 8 4; in
H u n g a r y (19 4 4 ), 103; in B u lg a ria , 93;
in co m m u n is t p a rtie s, 3 16 ; Z io n ism
a n d C o m m u n ism , 3 4 5 -7 ; an ti-sem itism
after d e a th o f S ta lin , 3 73 , 3 7 4 -5
Jovanovk, A rso , Y u g o s la v p a rtisa n
g e n e ra l, 22 5, 348
J o v a n o v ic , D ra g o lju b , S e rb ia n p easan t
lea d er, 36, 2 2 2 -3
J o v a n o v ic , S lo b o d a n , Y u g o s la v h isto ria n
a n d P rem ier in e x ile ( 19 4 2 - 3 ), 15 8 -6 0
J u d ic ia r y , u n d e r n e w reg im es, 2 9 9 -3 0 0
J u ra -S o sn a r, C z e c h co m m u n ist p o liticia n ,
188
 INDEX 429
J u stin ia n , R u m a n ia n P a tria rc h sin cc K o v á c s , Istv á n , H u n g a ria n S m a ll F a r ­
1946, 289 m ers’ P a r ty d e p u ty , 198
K r a m a f , K a r e l, C z e c h statesm an, 24, 33,
K á d á r , H u n g a ria n co m m u n ist, 202 262
K a lin in , P resid e n t o f S o v ie t U n io n , 150 K r e jć i, C z e c h q u islin g P rem ier ( 19 4 2 -4 ),
K á lla y , H u n g a r ia n P re m ie r ( 19 4 2 -4 ),
„ 72"3
100, 10 2 -3 K ris to , P a n d i, A lb a n ia n co m m u n ist,
K a lte n b r u n n e r , N a z i le a d e r a n d G e sta p o 229
ch ief, 370 K m je v ié , C r o a tia n P ea san t P a rty lead er
K a lu g in , C a p ta in , R e d A r m y , 116 in e x ile , 158
K a n c llo p o u lo s , G re e k p o litic ia n , 3 2 3 -4 , K r y e z iu , A lb a n ia n resistance lead er,
32 6 , 329 , H5
K a r d e lj, Y u g o s la v co m m u n ist a n d V ic e - K u b y t o w ic z , Professor, U k ra in ia n co l-
P re m ie r, 225 lalx>rationist, 77
K á r o ly i, C o u n t M ic h a e l, 39 K u n , B é la , H u n g a ria n co m m u n ist lead er
K a r ta lis , G re e k p o litic ia n , 134, 323, 388 in 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 , 39, 102, 190
K a s c h e , N a z i d ip lo m a t, 80, 82 K u n e v , B u lg a ria n jo u rn a list, 2 16
K e it e l, W ilh e lm , 99 K u n in , B u lg a ria n co m m u n ist, 280
K e m a i A t a t ü r k , 29 K u p i, A b b a s , A lb a n ia n resistance lead er,
K e re sz te s-F is ch e r, H u n g a ria n M in is te r o f 14 1-6
In te rio r, 10 0 -1 K u ts c h e ra , G e n e ra l, G e r m a n c o m m a n ­
K e re s z tu ry , H u n g a ria n M in is te r o f E d u ­ d a n t o f W a rsa w , 113
ca tio n (19 4 6 ), 196 K v a t e r n ik , C r o a tia n fascist lead er, 80 1
K e s e ro v ié , S e rb ia n C h c tn ik c o m m a n d c r, K w a p iń s k u , P olish so cialist lea d er, 178
«3 * n -
K ć t h ly , A n n a , H u n g a ria n so cialist lead er, L a b o u r, b etw een th e w ars, 1 7 - 1 9 ; u n d er
202, 376 n ew regim es, 2 7 7 - 8 1 ; u n d e r ‘ N e w
K h r u s c h e v , see H ru sc h o v C o u r s e ’ , 3 7 9 - 8 1 ; S e e also T r a d e
K i d r ić , B o ris, Y u g o s la v co m m u n is t an d u n io n s, P arties
ec o n o m ic p la n n e r, 2 4 7 -8 L a k a to s, G e n e ra l, H u n g a ria n P rem ier
K i e m ik , P olish p e a s a n t le a d e r, 17 2 -3 ( • 944 ). '° 3
K in o v , G e n e ra l, B u lg a ria n co m m u n ist, L a n d refo rm , afte r F irst W o rld W a r,
3°3 1 3 - 1 4 ; after S ec o n d W o rld W a r,
K ir il, M e tr o p o lita n , P a tria rc h o f th e B u l­ 2 6 5 -7
g a r ia n O r t h o d o x C h u r c h sin cc 1953, I.au S m an , C z e c h so cialist lea d er, 187
382 L e n in , 236, 305, 306, 339, 380
K is , H u n g a r ia n p ea sa n t d e p u ty , 19 7 -8 L e o n tić , Y u g o s la v d ip lo m a t, 225
K o c , C o lo n e l, P o lish p o litic ia n , 43 L e u sc h n e r, E ast G e r m a n co m m u n ist, 364
K o e v , B u lg a r ia n A g r a r ia n d e p u ty , 2 17 L ip sk i. Polish d ip lo m a t, 56
K o jd e r , P olish p ea sa n t le a d e r, 174 L itv in o v , S o v ie t d ip lo m a t, 5 7 , 152
K o la r o v , B u lg a ria n co m m u n is t an d L jo tić , S e rb ia n fascist lead er, 79
P re m ie r (19 4 9 ), 9 3, 307 L o rk o v ié , C r o a tia n fascist p o liticia n , 82
K o m a ro w s k i, G e n e r a l, c o m m a n d e r-in - L u b lin C o m m itte e , 1 1 5 , 1 5 5 - 7
c h ie f o f P olish H o m e A r m y , 1 1 5 - 1 7 L u c a , V a s ile , R u m a n ia n co m m u n ist and
K o p e c k y , V a c la v , C z e c h co m m u n is t a n d M in ister o f F in a n ce afte r >947,
M in is te r o f In fo rm a tio n , 180, 285 e x ec u ted in 1954, 206, 2 1 1 , 236, 373 ,
K orn eev, G e n e r a l, head o f S o v ie t
m ilita r y m ission to T it o , 159 L u k o v , G e n e ra l, B u lg a ria n C h i e f o f
K o r o ś e c , M g r ., S lo v e n e p o liticia n , 30 S t a f f (19 4 2 ), 93
K o s sa , H u n g a r ia n co m m u n ist tra d e L u lc h e v , K o s ta , B u lg a ria n socialist
u n io n le a d e r, 19 2, 19 5, 202 lea d er, 2 14 , 2 15 , 218
R o s t o v , T r a ic h o , B u lg a ria n co m m u n ist I.u p u , R u m a n ia n p o litic ia n , 2 11
a n d V ic c - P r c m ic r (19 4 6 - 9 ) , 93 , «60 n ., L u x e m b u rg , R o sa , P olish co m m u n ist
274. 307. 3>5 , lea d er, 3 7, 262
K o s tu r k o v , B u lg a ria n R a d ic a l le a d e r, 218
K o ś u t ić , C r o a tio n p ea san t le a d e r, 81 M a c e d o n ia , m ix tu re o f n atio n a litie s in,
K o v á c s , B é la , S e c r e ta r y - g c n c r a l o f H u n ­ 2 1 , 3 5 4 -5 ; o c c u p ie d b y B u lg a ria
g a r ia n S m a ll F a rm e rs’ P a r ty , 170 , 194, ( 1 9 4 1 ), 6 7 , 77 , 90, 96; resistance m o v e­
m en t in, 1 2 3 -4 ; anc* Y u g o s la v -B u lg a r
■98-9
K o v á c s , I ., H u n g a r ia n co m m u n ist relatio n s since 19 45 , 355 anc*
d e p u ty , 200 G re e c e , 3 2 5 -7 , 358
K o vács, Im re , H u n g a r ia n N a tio n a l M a ć e k , D r. V la d k o , C r o a tia n P ea san t
P ea sa n t P a r t y le a d e r, 199, 231 n. P a r t y le a d e r, 35, 5 5 , 79, 81
F.F.
430 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N
M a c h , S lo v a k fascist lea d er, 146
M a c le a n , B rig a d ie r F itz ro y , 159, 3 1 3
M a c le a n , M a jo r , 142
M a c N e il, H e cto r, 323
M a d g e a r u , Professor, R u m a n ia n eco n o ­
m ist a n d p o liticia n , 84
M a is k y , S o v iet d ip lo m a t, 150
M a je r, C zech so cialist le a d e r an d
M in is te r o f F o o d ( 19 4 6 -8 ), 187
M a k ris, G re e k rig h t-w in g tra d e u n io n
lead er, 333, 334
M a le n k o v , R u ssian lea d er, 3 73 , 3 7 5 , 394
M a lin o v , A le x a n d e r, B u lg a ria n D e m o ­
c ra t P a r ty lead er, 36 , 47
M a lle sh e v a , S e y fu lla , A lb a n ia n c o m ­
m u n ist le a d e r, 140, 227
M a n iu , Iu liu , R u m a n ia n N a tio n a l P ea s­
a n t P a r ty lea d er, 26, 34 , 8 5, 8 7 -9 ,
2 08 -9
M a rk a g jo n i, A lb a n ia n ch ie fta in , 140, 145
M a rk czin is, S p iro , G re e k p o liticia n ,
3 2 7 - 7 , 387
M ark o s, G e n e ra l, 32 7, 328, Ş56, 358
M a rsh a ll A id p ro g ra m m e , 18 5, 235
M a s a ry k , T . G ., P re s id e n t-L ib e ra to r o f
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , 2 n.
M a s a ry k , J a n , C z e c h o s lo v a k F o re ig n
M in is te r ( 1 9 4 1 -8 ), 16 3, 1 7 1 , 185,
«89-90
M a v ro m ih a lis, G re e k r ig h t-w in g p o liti­
c ia n , 329
M a x im o s, G re e k P o p u lis t a n d P rem ier
(■947 ) . 326
M e ta x a s, G e n e ra l, d ic t a t o r o f G re e c e
(1936-41), 19,43,44
M ic h a e l, k in g o f R u m a n ia , 83, 8 9-90 ,
170 , 203, 207, 2 10 , 296
M ih a ilo v , V a n c h o , M a c e d o n ia n terro rist
le a d e r, 356
M ih a ilo v ic , G e n e ra l D r a 2a , S e rb ia n
n atio n a list resistan ce le a d e r and
M in is te r o f W a r o f Y u g o s la v g o v e rn ­
m en ts in e x ile ( 19 4 2 -4 ), 79 , 8 1 , n o ,
1 1 7 , 1 2 6 - 3 1 , 1 5 8 - 6 1 , 168, 2 1 5 , 222
M ih a la c h e , Io n , R u m a n ia n N a tio n a l
P ea san t P a rty lea d er, 34, 8 5, 20 8 -9 ,
211
M ih á ly ffi, H u n g a ria n p o liticia n , 199
M ih o v , G e n e ra l, B u lg a ria n M in is te r o f
W a r a n d R e g e n t, 92, 9 5, 2 11
M ik ló s, G e n e ra l, H u n g a ria n P rem ier
(1945)» »04 * *9°
M ik o ła jc z y k , S ta n is la w , P olish p easan t
le a d e r a n d P rem ier 19 4 3 -4 , 118 ,
>54 - 7 » i6 9 > >70 , 1 7 1 - 8 , 260 n ., 266 n .,
343
M in e , H ila ry , P o lish co m m u n is t a n d
ec o n o m ic p la n n e r, 238 n ., 252 , 274
M in d s z e n ty , C a r d in a l, H e a d o f H u n ­
g a r ia n C a th o lic C h u r c h , 1 7 1 , 2 0 1,
292-5
M isté th , H u n g a ria n S m a ll F a rm e rs’
P a r ty p o litic ia n , 197
REVOLUTION
M ita k o v , B u lg a ria n M in is te r o f J u stic e
(19 4 2 ), 92
M it r o v ic a , A lb a n ia n q u islin g P rem ier,
>45
M o g a , R u m a n ia n p ea sa n t le a d e r, 204 n.
M o lo to v , 5 7 , 5 9 -6 3 , 6 4, 6 6 - 7 , 88, 11 4 ,
>5 «» 156-7» 181» 225
M o n a r c h y , 2 9 6 -7
M oravec, C o lo n e l E m a n u e l, C zech
q u islin g , 73
M o sh a n o v , S to ic h o , B u lg a ria n p ea ce
e n v o y (19 4 4 ), 96
M o slem s, in Y u g o s la v ia , 78; in A lb a n ia ,
4, 150; a n d C o m m u n ism , 287, 288
M u h a rre m B a ira k ta r, A lb a n ia n ch ief­
ta in , 145
M u k a i a g re e m e n t, b e tw e e n A lb a n ia n
g u e rrilla s, 142
M u r a v ie v , B u lg a ria n A g r a r ia n le a d e r
a n d P re m ie r (19 4 4 ), 9 6 - 7 , 2 12
M u sh a n o v , N ik o la , B u lg a ria n D e m o c ra t
P a r ty le a d e r a n d P re m ie r ( 1 9 3 1 - 4 ) ,
28, 4 7 , 9 6, 2 12
M u sso lin i, B en ito , 5 2 , 6 4 -5 , 8 1 - 2 , 142
M y e rs, B rig a d ie r, 133
N a g y , F e re n c , H u n g a r ia n S m a ll F a r ­
m ers’ P a rty le a d e r and P re m ie r
( 1 9 4 6 - 7 ), 10 1, 193, 1 9 8 -9 , 200, 345
N a g y , Im re , H u n g a r ia n co m m u n ist,
P re m ie r ( i 953 ~ 5 ). 19 2, 194. 374 » 375 “ ^
N a stić , B ish o p , 223
N a tio n a l B a n d s A g re e m e n t, 135
N a tio n a lisa tio n , 2 3 6 -4 1
N a tio n a lism , 1 9 -2 2 , 3 3 9 -4 7 , 381
N e d ić , G e n e r a l, S e r b ia n q u islin g P re m ie r,
79 , 82, 107, 120, 1 3 1 , 302
N e ik o v , B u lg a ria n so cialist le a d e r, 2 14 ,
218
N ć je d ly , Pro fesso r, C z e c h co m m u n is t,
M in is te r o f E d u c a tio n , 16 3, 16 5 , 180,
189, 303, 307
N é m e c , C z e c h so cialist le a d e r, 164, 181
N e o la ia , G re e k fascist y o u th m o v e m e n t,
44
N e u b a c h e r, N a z i e x p e rt o n B a lk a n
affa irs, 145, 370
N e u ra th , B a ro n v o n , G e r m a n ‘ P ro te c to r’
in th e C z e c h lan d s, 70
N icu le sc u -B u z e şti, R u m a n ia n d ip lo m a t,
..®9 .
N ie d z ia łk o w s k i, P o lish so c ialist le a d e r,
1 12
N o sek , C z e c h c o m m u n is t, M in is te r o f
In te rio r, 16 3, 180, 18 7 -8 , 301
N o si, L e f, A lb a n ia n R e g e n t, 143
N o v o m e sk y , S lo v a k c o m m u n is t le a d e r,
373
N o v o tn y , A n to n in , C z e c h co m m u n ist,
is t se c re ta ry o f P a r ty sin ce 19 53 , 3 7 4
N o v y , C z e c h c o m m u n is t e d ito r, 3 1 6 n.
N u sh i, G o g o , A lb a n ia n c o m m u n is t a n d
ec o n o m ic p la n n e r, 248
 I NDEX
N y a r á d i, H u n g a r ia n M in is te r o f F in a n c e
(19 4 8 ), 202
O b b o v , B u lg a ria n A g r a r ia n le a d e r, 2 13
O i l in d u s try , in R u m a n ia , 6 1 , 240, 245;
in H u n g a r y , 240; in A lb a n ia , 140, 248;
in Y u g o s la v ia , 247
O k u lic k i, G e n e r a l, C o m m a n d e r o f P olish
H o m e A r m y , 118
O rd a ss , H u n g a r ia n L u th e r a n b ish o p , 291
O r g a n ic u n ity , co m m u n ist ta c tic , 3 1 0 - 1 1
O r t h o d o x C h u r c h , 3 - 4 , 288 -90
O r t u t a y , H u n g a ria n p o litic ia n , 199
O s ó b k a - M o ra w s k i, P o lish so c ialist lea d er,
P re m ie r ( 10 4 5 - 6 ) , 11 4 . 15 5 . *78
O s u sk y , C z e c h o s lo v a k d ip lo m a t, 162
O t to , A r c h d u k e , 293
O v e r p o p u la tio n , 1 5 - 1 6 , 253, 270
P a rlia m e n ts, befo re th e w a r, 4 6 -8 ; u n d er
n e w co n stitu tio n s, 2 9 7 -9
P á lf fy - ö s tc r r c ic h c r , C o lo n e l, H u n g a ria n
co m m u n is t h e a d o f m ilita r y c o u n te r­
esp io n ag e , 1 9 6 - 7 , 3 0 1, 302 n.
P a n te v , C o lo n e l, 93
P a p a g o s, F ie ld -M a rs h a l, 3 2 7, 38 6 -8
P a p a n d re o u , G re e k P re m ie r (19 4 4 ), 138,
3 1 9 , 32 4 , 326, 329
P a p a rh ig a s, G re e k so cialist tra d e u n io n
le a d e r, 333
P artie s, 2 3 -4 6 , 1 6 7 -2 2 9 , 3 0 4 -1 7
P o lish :
N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic , 2 3 -4 , n o , 1 12
P e o p le ’s (P e a sa n t), 3 2 -3 , n o , 112 ,
156, reo rg an ised b y M ik o ła jc z y k ,
1 7 4 -8 , ‘ L u b lin it e ’ fa ctio n , 174 ,
•77
S o cia list ( P .P .S .) , 3 7 - 8 , n o , 112 ,
«56, 17 8 -9 , 3 * 0 - 1 1
S o c ia l D e m o c r a c y ( S .D .K .P .L .) , 37
C o m m u n ist ( P .P .R .) , 38, 1 1 4 - 1 5 ,
«7 «-3» «79. 3 '4-* 5. 374. 375
L a b o u r ( C a t h o lic ) , 3 1 , 1 1 2 , 177
C a m p o f N a tio n a l U n ity , 43
N a tio n a l R a d ic a l C a m p , 44
C z e c h o s lo v a k :
N a tio n a l D e m o c ra tic , 24
A g r a r ia n , 3 3 -4 , 182
N a tio n a l S o cia list, 25, 182, 184, 188
P e o p le ’s, 3 1 , 182, 18 5, t88
S o c ia l D e m o c r a tic , 38, 182, 18 8-90
C o m m u n is t, 5 8 , 149, 179 -8 0 , 182,
■87- 90. 3 '6. 374
S lo v a k P e o p le ’ s, 3 1 , ia 6 , 184
S lo v a k D e m o c r a tic , 148, 182, 18 3-6 ,
188
S lo v a k C o m m u n ist, 148, 18 3 -6
H u n g a ria n :
G o v e r n m e n ta l P a r t y ( M .E .P .) , 25
R e b ir th , to o
A r r o w C ro ss, 4 4 -6 , 1 0 0 -1 , 309
S m a ll F a rm e rs, 34, 10 1, 10 3 -4 ,
»93 - 9 . 3 11
43'
P a rtie s, H u n g a ria n (co n t.):
S o cialist, 39, 10 1, 10 3 -4 , 19 1 , 2 0 1-2
C o m m u n ist, 39, 10 1, 104, 19 0-2 0 2,
3 >5->6, 374. 375. 37«, 379
N a tio n a l P ea san t, 10 1, 19 1, 199-300
F re e d o m , 19 4 -5 , 200
D e m o c ra tic P eo p le's, 2 0 0 -1
I n d e p en d en c e, 200-1
R u m a n ia n :
N a tio n a l L ib e ra l, 26, 89, 203, 207
N a tio n a l P ea san t, 3 4 -5 , 85, 89, 203,
207, 2 08 -9
S o cia list, 40, 89, 209
C o m m u n ist, 40, 87, 89, 2 0 3 - 1 1 ,3 1 4 ,
374
P lo u g h m e n ’ s F ro n t, 8 7, 204, 2 11
N a tio n a l P o p u la r, 2 11
T ă tă r e s c u L ib e ra ls, 206, 2 0 9 -10
Iro n G u a r d , 4 4 -6 , 8 4 - 5 , 90, 205,
309
Bulgarian:
D e m o c ra tic, 28
R a d ic a l, 28
Z v c n o , 94, 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 218
A g r a r ia n U n io n , 36, 9 4, 2 1 3 - 1 8
S o cia list, 4 1 - 2 , 94, 2 14 , 218
C o m m u n ist, 42 , 93, 94, 9 7, 2 1 2 - 1 3 ,
2 1 6 - 1 8 , 3 15 , 374
Y u g o s la v :
S e r b ia n R a d ic a l, 2 7 , 160, 221
S e rb ia n D e m o c ra t, 28, 125, 221
S e r b ia n A g r a r ia n , 3 5 -6 , 125
S e rb ia n S o cialist, 40 -1
C r o a tia n P ea san t, 35, 79 , 123, 125,
15 8 , 220, 2 2 1, 223
S lo v e n e P e o p le ’s, 30
S e rb ia n fascists, 79
U sta sh , 7 8 -9 , 11 9 , 2 1 1 , 127
Y u g o s la v C o m m u n ist, 4 1 , 11 9 -2 5 ,
2 19 - 2 6 , 3 1 2 - 1 3 , 3 8 3 -4 . 39*
A lb a n ia n :
C o m m u n ist P a rty , 1 4 1 - 6 , 2 2 6 - 9 ,3 1 5
B a lli K o m b e ta r , 14 1—3
L e g a lity m o v em en t, 143
G re e k :
P o p u lists, 2 9 -3 0 , 3 2 4 -9 , 386
L ib e ra ls, 2 9 -3 0 , 3 2 3 -9 , 386
C o m m u n ists, 4 2 - 3 , 132, 3 1 8 -2 2 ,
3 2 5 -8 , 3 8 6 -7
R a lly , 38G-8
P artisan s, in Y u g o s la v ia , 1 1 9 -2 5 , 15 9 -6 0 ;
in A lb a n ia , 1 4 1 - 5 ; in S lo v a k ia , 14 6 -7 ;
in M o r a v ia , 149
P artsalid es, G re e k co m m u n ist lea d er, 327
P a ś ić , S e rb ia n statesm an , 27
P a s tu h o v , B u lg a ria n socialist lead er, 214
P ă tră ţc a n u , R u m a n ia n co m m u n ist
le a d e r, 89, 206, 2 1 1 , 3 1 4 , 373 , 3 75
P a tto n , G e n e ra l, 16 4 -5
P a u k e r, A n a , R u m a n ia n co m m u n ist
le a d e r, 206, a n , 373 . 374~5
P a u l, P rin c e R e g e n t o f Y u g o s la v ia , 47,
54 -5. 65~7
432 TH E EAST E U R O P E A N R E V O L U T I O N
P a v elié , 78 -8 2 , 11 9 , 12 7, 291
P a v lo v , B u lg a ria n R e g e n t (i94 4~ € ), 2 17
Pea san t m o v em en t, see P arties
P ea sa n try, so cial a n d e c o n o m ic p ro b lem s
o f, befo re th e w a r, 1 3 - 1 7 ; u n d e r n ew
regim es, 2 6 4 -7 7
P e ía n a c , S e rb ia n C h e tn ik le a d e r, 79,
126
P eltekis, G re e k resistance o rg an iser, 323
P e lla , Ita lia n P rem ier, 3 9 1 -2
P en e scu , R u m a n ia n N a tio n a l P ea san t
P a r ty p o liticia n , 208
P é te r, G a b r ie l, H u n g a ria n co m m u n ist
p o lice ch ief, 197, 301
P eter I, k in g o f Y u g o s la v ia , 27
P eter I I , k in g o f Y u g o s la v ia , 79, 160-2
P e tk o v , N ik o la , B u lg a ria n A g ra ria n
lead er, 9 4, 9 7 , 170, 2 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 7 - 1 8
P etrescu , R u m a n ia n socialist lea d er, 40 n . ,
89, 209
P e y e r, H u n g a ria n so cialist le a d e r, 104,
19 2, 201
P e z a , M y slim , A lb a n ia n g u e rrilla lead er,
*4 *
P feiffer, H u n g a ria n In d e p e n d e n c e P a rty
le a d e r, 200, 201
P ia d e , Y u g o s la v co m m u n ist, 307
P ie ck , E a st G e r m a n co m m u n ist lead er,
365, 368, 3 9 2 -3
P ik a , G e n e ra l, 303
P iłsu dsk i, M a rsh a l, 3 7 - 8 , 43 , 4 7 , 50
P la k a ag re e m e n t, b etw een G re e k g u e r­
rilla s (1944)» >37
P lastiras, G e n e ra l, G re e k P rem ier (19 4 5
a n d 1950 ), 29, 133, 320, 322, 329, 358,
306
P lo jh a r, C z e c h priest a n d p o liticia n , 294
P o la n d , e a r ly h isto ry , 1; b e tw e e n th e
w ars, 5 0 - 1 , 5 6 - 7 ; u n d e r G e rm a n
o c c u p a tio n , 7 3 - 7 ; resistan ce m o v e ­
m en t in, 1 1 0 - 1 8 ; rela tio n s w ith w a r ­
tim e allies, 1 5 0 - 7 ; p o st-w ar po litics in,
1 7 1 - 9 ; e c o n o m ic p la n n in g in, 2 4 2 -3 ,
2 5 2 -3 ; p o st-w ar relatio n s w ith C z e c h o ­
slo v a k ia , 34 3; w ith G e rm a n y , 3 6 0 -1 ,
3 6 5 -7 ; revised co n stitu tio n , 3 7 2 - 5 ;
in tro d u ctio n o f ‘ N e w C o u r s e ’ in , 3 77—
9 ; relatio n s w ith G e r m a n y , 3 9 7 -8
P o p , Io n e l, R u m a n ia n N a tio n a l P ea san t
P a r ty p o liticia n , 208
P o p ie l, P olish L a b o u r P a r ty lea d er, 177
P o p to m o v , B u lg a ria n co m m u n ist, 307
P o p u la r D e m o c ra c y , 1 6 7 -7 1
P o p u la r D em o c ra cies, 372 -8 2
P o p u la r l ’ronts, 3 10
P o tsd am a g re e m e n t ( 19 4 5 ), 15 7 , 176,
207, 2 14 , 351
P resid e n cy o f re p u b lic, 297
P resid iu m o f assem blies, 298- 9
P rev isi, P re n k , A lb a n ia n g e n e ra l, 14 4 -5
P fik r y l, C o lo n e l, 14 7 -8
P ro d a n o v ié , S e rb ia n R e p u b lic a n lea d er,
220
Psaros, C o lo n e l, G re e k resistan ce le a d e r,
>34
P u b lic pro secu to rs, 300
P u rić, Y u g o s la v d ip lo m a t, P re m ie r in
e x ile (19 4 3 -4 )» .160
P u ż a k , P o lish so cialist lea d er, 118 , 178
R á c z , H u n g a ria n p o liticia n , 197
R ă d X ce a n u , R u m a n ia n so c ialist lea d er,
209
R ă d e s c u , G e n e r a l, R u m a n ia n P rem ier
(> 944 - 5 ), 203, 205
R a d ii , S te p a n , C r o a t ia n p ea sa n t le a d e r,
35 . 47 , 221
R a d k ie w ic z , P o lish co m m u n is t and
M in is te r o f P u b lic S e c u rity , 17 2 , 17 6
R a jk , H u n g a ria n co m m u n ist, M in is te r o f
In te rio r (19 4 6 - 8 ) , 104, 160 n ., 198,
200, 202, 302, 3 1 5 - 1 6 , 343 n ., 375
R á k o si, H u n g a ria n co m m u n is t, P rem ier
u n til 19 53 , 39, 16 7 -8 , 19 4 -2 0 2 , 2 74,
299, 306 n ., 30 7, 345, 3 74 , 376 , 379
R a k o v sk y , R u m a n ia n a n d S o v ie t c o m ­
m u nist le a d e r, ^o
R a llis , G re e k q u islin g P re m ie r (19 4 4 ),
>3 7 .
R â m n ic e a n u , R u m a n ia n L ib e r a l P a r ty
p o litic ia n , 207
R a n k o v ié , Y u g o s la v co m m u n is t, M in is te r
o f In te rio r, 220, 383
R a sh id A li, Ira q i p o liticia n , 69
R a ta j, P olish p ea sa n t le a d e r, 112
R a u , G e r m a n co m m u n ist, 3 6 4 -5
R a v a s z , H u n g a ria n C a lv in is t b ish o p , 291
R e ić in , C z e c h co m m u n is t m ilita r y in te l­
lig e n c e ch ief, 301
R e m é n y i-S ch n e ller, H u n g a r ia n p ro -N a z i,
100, 103, 104, 190 n.
R e n d is , G re e k M in is te r o f S e c u rity
(1948), 326
R é v a i, H u n g a ria n co m m u n ist, 280
R ib b e n tr o p , J o a c h im v o n , 5 5 - 6 , 59,
63 - 4 » 79 » 99 , >>4
R ib b e n tr o p - M o lo to v lin e, in P o la n d , 59,
«5°» >53-6
R ip k a , D r. H u b e rt, C z e c h N a tio n a l
S o cia list P a r ty le a d e r, 182
R o k o sso v sk y , M a rs h a l, 11 6
R o n e k e r, C o u n t, P o lish co lla b o ra tio n is t,
77
R o o se v e lt, P resid e n t, 1 5 5 - 7
R o se n b e rg , A lfr e d , N a z i id e o lo g u e , 2 99 n.
R u m a n ia , e a r ly h isto ry , 3; b e tw e e n th e
w ars, 50, 53, 5 7 , 6 0 -3 ; in th e A x is , 8 4 -
90; p o st-w ar po litics in , 2 0 2 - 1 1 ;
e c o n o m ic p la n n in g in, 245, 2 5 3; tre a t­
m en t o f n a tio n a l m in o ritie s in , 3 4 0 -2 ;
rev ise d co n s titu tio n a n d in tro d u c tio n
o f ‘ N e w C o u rs e ’ , 3 7 2 - 5 , 378 , 379
R u p n ik , C o lo n e l, S lo v e n e q u is lin g , 123 n.
R y d ż - S m ig ly , M a r s h a l, 51
R y u m in , R u ssia n M .V .D . o ffic ia l, 3 7 5
R z e p e c k i, C o lo n e l, 177
 I NDEX
S a lá t a , H u n g a r ia n p o litic ia n , 1 9 7 -8
S ä n ä te s c u , G e n e ra l, R u m a n ia n P rem ier
(19 4 4 ), 89, 202, 203
S a ra lis, G e n e ra l, c o m m a n d e r o f G re e k
E .L .A .S ., 134 , 139, 3 19
S a rić , B ish o p , 291
S c e lb a , Ita lia n P rem ier, 392
S c h a c h t, D r ., 259
S c h n u rre , G e r m a n d ip lo m a t, 58
S c h u lc n b u rg , G e r m a n am b a ssa d o r in
M o sc o w , 6 7 - 9
S c h u sc h n ig g , A u stria n C h a n c e llo r
(1934-8), 52
S c ib io re k , P olish p ea san t le a d e r, 17 4 -5
S c o b ie , G e n e ra l, 139, 3 19
S e h m e r, M a io r , 148
S e lb m a n n , G e r m a n co m m u n ist, 3 6 4 -5
S h a ta ro v , M a c e d o n ia n co m m u n is t, 355
S h c h u , M e h m e t, A lb a n ia n co m m u n ist,
P re m ie r sin ce 19 54 , 374
S ia n to s, G re e k co m m u n ist le a d e r, 134
S ik o rsk i, G e n e ra l, P olish P re m ie r (19 3 9 -
4 3 ), n o , 15 0 -2 , 154
S im a , H o ria , R u m a n ia n fascist lead er,
8 4, 90
S im e o n , k in g o f B u lg a r ia (> 9 4 3 -6 ), 2 16
S im o n o v , S o v ie t w rite r, 160 n.
S im o v it', G e n e ra l, Y u g o s la v P rem ier
( 1 9 4 1 ), 6 7 , 158
S iro k y , C z e c h co m m u n is t, P re m ie r since
«953 . 374 . 375
S la c h ta , S is ter M a r g a r e t, H u n g a ria n
ro y a lis t, 194
S la n sk y , R u d o lf. C z e c h co m m u n ist
lead er, 2 74 , 3 1 2 , 3 1 6 , 3 73 , 374 , 3 75
S m e ra l, C zech co m m u n ist lead er
i92o’s, 38
S m ile y , M a jo r , 142
S o c ia l classes, 6 - 1 9 , 2 6 4 -8 7 , 3 78 -8 1
S o cia list co m p e titio n , 2 7 8 -9
S o c ia l w e lfa re , 280 -1
S o p h ia n o p o u lo s, G re e k p o litic ia n , 323
S o p h o u lis, G re e k P re m ie r (19 4 6 an d
*947 - 9 ). 3 «9 . 323 - 4 . 3 2 6 -8 , 333
S o sn k o w sk i, G e n e r a l, 156
S o v ie t U n io n , relatio n s w ith G e r m a n y ,
5 7 -6 9 ; w ith A llie d P o w ers in w a rtim e ,
1 5 0 -6 5 ; tre aties w ith E a st E u ro p e a n
states, 342 n .; tra d e p o lic y in E astern
E u ro p e , 2 5 4 -6 4 ; relatio n s w ith P o p u la r
D em o c ra c ie s, 3 7 2 -8 4 passim ; fo re ig n
p o lic y , 3 9 0 -8
S p iru , N a k o , A lb a n ia n co m m u n ist, 14 1,
229
S p o le to , D u k e o f, 78
S ra m e k , M g r ., C z e c h P e o p le ’s P a r ty
le a d e r, P re m ie r (* 9 ^ 1 -5 ). 162
S r o b a r , S lo v a k p o liticia n , 148
S ta lin , 5 7 , 5 9 , 69, 1 5 1 , « 5 6 -7, 2 07, 225,
2 7 5 -6 , 290, 3 0 5 -6 , 339, 3 74 , 380, 394
S ta m b o liisk i, B u lg a ria n p ea san t lead er,
36, 42
S ta n c h e v , C o lo n e l, 9 7 , 2 16
433
S ta n is h e v , B u lg a ria n M in is te r o f In terio r
(19 4 4 ), 2 11
S tefa n , E x a rc h o f B u lg a ria n O r th o d o x
C h u r c h , 288-9
S te p in a c , A rc h b ish o p , h ead o f C a th o lic
C h u r c h in C r o a t ia , 291
Ş tirb e y , P rin ce, 8 7 8
S to ja d in o v ic , I)r. M ila n , Y u g o s la v Pre-
m ie r (19 3 5 o ), 2 7 - 8 , 44, 52, 5 4 -5 , 67
S traits, of B lack S ea , 6 3 -4 , 6 7 -8 , 3 5 0 -Ş
S tra n sk y , M in ister o f E d u c a tio n in
C z e c h o s lo v a k ia (19 4 6 -8 ), 182
S u b a ś ić , Y u g o sla v P rem ier (19 4 4), 1 6 1 -2 ,
221
S u ly o k , H u n g a ria n F ree d o m P arty lead er,
1 9 4 -5 , 200
S v e h la , C z e c h A g r a r ia n lead er, 33
S v ir id o v , G e n e ra l, 19 6 -7
S v o b o d a , G e n e ra l, 189
S v o lo s, Professor, G re ek socialist lead er,
'38. 329
S w ia tlo , Polish po lice o ffic ial, 375
Ś w ie rc ze w s k i, G e n e ra l, 303
S za k a sits, Á r p á d , H u n g a ria n socialist
lead er, 104, 19 2 -3 , 2 0 1 - 2 , 345
S zá la si, H u n g a ria n fascist lead er, 46, 100,
104, 190
S zá sz, H u n g a ria n p ro -N a z i, 103, 190 n.
S ze k fu , Professor, H u n g a ria n historian,
101
S z to ja y , H u n g a ria n P rem ier (19 4 4 ), 103,
190 n.
T a rp e s h e v , B u lg a ria n co m m u n ist lead er,
9 7. 241 n ., 244, 307
T ă t ă r e s c u , R u m a n ia n L ib e ra l lead er,
P re m ie r ( 19 3 3 - 7 ) , 26, 206, 2 0 9 -10 ,
236
T e h r a n co n fere n ce (19 4 3 ), 154, 156
T e le k i, C o u n t P a u l, H u n g a ria n P rem ier
( ' 939- 4 ' ) . 43 . 67
T ho m pso n, M a jo r, 95
T ild y , Z o ltá n , H u n g a ria n S m a ll F a r ­
m ers’ P a rty lead er, 104, 194, 198,
202
T is o , M g r ., S lo v a k q u islin g P resident, 3 1,
54 “ 5 . ' 46 - 7. ' 84 - 5 . 284. 344
T it o , M a rsh a l, 4 1 , 12 0 -5 , 144, 15 9 -6 2 ,
2 1 9 - 2 6 ,2 5 8 ,2 7 1 - 2 , 285 6 ,3 0 2 , 3 1 3 - 1 5 ,
34 #. 355 - 6 " . 382. 38 475. 38 9. 39 0-2
T itu le s c u , R u m a n ia n F o reig n M in ister
(1933-6), 53
T o g lia t ti, P a lm iro , Ita lia n co m m u n ist
le a d e r, 348, 350
T r a d e , in te rn a l, 2 4 0 -1 , 268; foreig n ,
2 5 4 -6 4 ; agre em en ts betw een East
E u ro p e a n states a n d S o v ie t U n io n ,
2 5 5 -9 ; b o y c o tt o f Y u g o s la v ia , 248,
258; A n g lo -P o lish ag re e m e n t, 257;
A n g lo -Y u g o s la v a g re em en t, 258
T r a d e u n io n s, 18 -1 9 , 2 77-8 0
T r a n s y lv a n ia , 3, 6 , 2 1 , 57, 61 2, 8 5, 99,
203, 206, 3 4 0 -2 , 345
434 THE EAST EUROPEAN
T re a tie s a n d in te rn a tio n a l ag re em en ts:
F ran co -P o lish ( 19 2 1 ) , 50
P o lish -R u m a n ia n ( 19 2 1 ), 50
L itd e E n te n te ( 1 9 2 0 - 1 ) , 50, 5 1 - 3
F ra n c o -C z e c h o slo v a k (19 2 4 ), 50
B a lk a n E n ten te (19 3 4 ), 50, 67
R o m e P ro to co ls (19 3 4 ), 50
P o lish -G erm a n (19 3 4 ), 5 1 , 57
B u lg a ria n -Y u g o s la v («937), 5 2 , 6 7
Ita lo - Y u g o s la v (19 3 7 ) , 52, 6 7
A n g lo -P o lish (19 3 9 ), 56, 58
S o v ie t-G e rm a n (19 3 9 ), 5 9 -6 0
A n g lo -F ra n c o -T u rlu sh (19 3 9 ), 6 7
T h r e e P o w e r (A xis-J ap a n ese) P a c t
(19 4 0 ), 63, 6 5, 6 6, 90, 98, 2 11
Y u g o s la v -H u n g a r ia n (19 4 0 ), 66, 6 7 , 98
T u r c o -G e r m a n ( 1 9 4 1 ), 68, 351
S o v ie t-C z e c h o slo v a k (19 4 3 ), 164, 185,
342 n.
S o v iet-P o lish (19 4 5 ), 15 7, 342 n.
Ita lia n p c a c e tre a ty (19 4 6 ), 349
E ast E u ro p e a n -S o v ie t tre a ty system
( 1 9 4 5 - 9 ) . 342 n-
T re a tie s o f Y u g o s la v ia w it h S o v iet
U n io n a n d o th e r S o v ie t satellites
d e n o u n c e d (19 4 9 ), 343 n.
T r ia ls , for ‘ c o lla b o ra tio n ’ , treaso n , es­
p io n a g e , etc., 177 , 18 5, 19 7 -9 , 20 8 -9 ,
2 1 7 , 2 18 , 220, 2 2 2 -3 , 226, 227
T rie s te , 3 4 7 -5 0 , 3 9 1 -2
T r ifu n o v ic , M ilo S , S e rb ia n R a d ic a l P a rty
le a d e r, 160, 2 2 1, 223
T ro ts k y , 306
T r u m a n , P resid en t, p ro g ra m m e o f aid to
G re e c e a n d T u r k e y (19 4 7 ), 326, 3 3 1,
352-3
T sa ld a ris, G re e k P o p u list le a d e r, P rem ier
(> 9 4 6 -7). 3 2 4 -6 , 328, 33Ş
T s a n k o v , B u lg a ria n fascist lea d er, 97
T sa o u s, G re e k n a tio n a list g u e rrilla le a d e r,
«34
T so u d e ro s, G re e k P re m ie r in e x ile
(* 94 «“ 3 ). >36
T u c o v i ć , S e rb ia n so cialist lea d er, 41
T u i ja n i c a , co m m u n ist le a d e r in C z e c h o ­
slo v a k R u th e n ia , 181
T u r k e y , 4 , 50, 6 3 -4 , 6 5 , 6 7 - 9 , 35 ° " 3 »
389- 9 >
U isz á sz i, H u n g a ria n g e n e ra l, 10 1, 104
U k ra in e , n atio n a list a n d co m m u n ist
resistan ce in , n o ; a n n e x a tio n o f
R u th e n ia to ( 19 4 5 ), 16 4, 181
U lb r ic h t , W a lth e r , E a st G e r m a n c o m ­
m u n ist le a d e r, 365, 3 9 2 -3 , 394, 395,
396
U n ia te C h u r c h , 3, 2 89 -9 0
U rsin y , S lo v a k D e m o c ra t P a r ty lea d er,
148
V a fia d e s , M a rk o s, G re e k co m m u n ist
le a d e r, 3 2 7, 328, 356 , 358
R EVOLUTIO N
V a rv a resso s, G re e k M in is te r o f F in a n ce
(1945)» 329-30
V a r v o u tis , G re e k M in is te r o f N a tio n a l
E c o n o m y ( 19 4 7 ), 332
V as, Z o ltá n , H u n g a ria n co m m u n ist
le a d e r, 307
V e lc h e v , G e n e r a l, B u lg a ria n M in is te r o f
W a r (19 4 4 -6 ) , 4 7 , 9 3 - a , 2 1 5 - 1 6
V e le b it , G e n e r a l, Y u g o s la v d ip lo m a t,
*59» 225
V e lo u c h io tis , G re e k co m m u n ist, 133
V e n iz e lo s, E leu th erio s, G re e k statesm a n ,
7 \ 29
V e n iz e lo s, S o p h o c le s, G re e k p o litic ia n ,
138, 324, 326, 329, 386
V e re s , r e t e r , H u n g a ria n N a tio n a l P ea s­
a n t P a r t y le a d e r, 196, 200, 272
V e se l, C o lo n e l, S lo v a k resistan ce lead er,
..'47
V ie s t, G e n e r a l, C z e c h o s lo v a k m in iste r,
148
V in o g r a d o v , S o v ie t a m b a ssa d o r in T u r ­
k e y (« 945 ). 3 5 1
V in o g r a d o v , G e n e r a l, S o v ie t co m m a n d e r
in R u m a n ia ( 19 4 4 ), 202
V la h o v , M a c e d o n ia n le a d e r, 3 5 4 -5
V la s o v , G e n e r a l, re n e g a d e fro m R e d
A r m y , 165
V o ite c , R u m a n ia n so cialist le a d e r, 209
V o ro s h ilo v , M a rs h a l, 193
V o u lg a ris , A d m ir a l, G re e k P re m ie r
, (> 945 ). 3 2 2 -3
V r la c i, S h e v k e t, A lb a n ia n p o liticia n , 140
V u k m a n o v ic -T e m p o , S v e to z a r , G e n e ra l,
Y u g o s la v p a rtisa n c o m m a n d e r a n d
p o litica l o rg a n iser, 124, 144, 229
V y sh in sk y , A n d r e i, 170 , 206, 2 15
W a sile w sk a , W a n d a , P o lish co m m u n ist
a n d o rg an iser o f U n io n o f Polish
P atrio ts in S o v ie t U n io n , 155
W ic k h a m , S ir C h a rle s , 322, 336
W id y - W ir s k i, P o lish p o litic ia n , 177
W ito s, W in c e n ty , fo u n d e r a n d le a d e r o f
P o lish p ea sa n t m o v e m e n t, 32 , 174
W o o d h o u s e , C o lo n e l, C . M ., 133
W 'o rk in g class, see L a b o u r
W y so c k i, P olish d ip lo m a t, 51
W y szy ń sk i, M g r ., head of P olish
C a th o lic C h u r c h sin ce 1948, 293, 382
X o x e , K o ę i, A lb a n ia n co m m u n is t a n d
M in is te r o f In te rio r ( 19 4 5 - 8 ) , 2 2 8 -9 ,
302, 3 15
Y’ a lta co n fere n ce, 15 7
Y a n a k ie v , B u lg a ria n e n g in e e r, 94
Y a n e v , B u lg a ria n p o liticia n , 93
Y e z h o v p u rg e , th e, 380
Y u g o s la v ia , e a r ly h isto ry , 3 - 4 ; b etw een
th e w a rs, 50, 5 1 - 3 , 5 5 , 6 5 - 7 ; in vasio n
o f ( 1 9 4 1 ), 6 7 ; o c c u p a tio n b y A x is, 7 7 -
8 2; resistan ce m o v e m e n t in , 1 1 8 -2 5 ,
 IN D E X 435
1 2 6 - 3 1 ; rela tio n s w ith w a rtim e allies, Z á p o to c k i, C z e c h co m m u n ist, Prem ier,
1 5 7 -6 2 ; p o st-w a r p o litics in , 2 19 -2 6 ; a n d P resident since 10^3, 18 7, 180-QO,
ec o n o m ic p la n n in g in, 2 4 6 -8 ; an d a43, 280,374,375
C o m in fo rm , 2 2 4 -6 , 2 58, 3 12 -13 ; Z a r o n i, R u m a n ia n p easan t lea d er, 204 n.
in d e p e n d e n ce fro m R u ssia , 3 8 2 -6 ; Z a w a d s k i, Polish co m m u n ist lea d er, 2 79,
relatio n s w ith W est, 389, 3 9 1 - 2 ; r e la ­ 293. .
tio ns w ith R u ssia , 390--1 Z e £ e v ić, Y u g o s la v o rth o d o x priest an d
Y u g o v , A n to n , B u lg a ria n co m m u n ist, p a rtisa n le a d e r, 220
resistan ce le a d e r a n d M in is te r o f Z e n k l, C z e c h N a tio n a l S o cialist P a rty
In te rio r, 9 7, 2 12 le a d e r, 187
Y u r u k o v , B u lg a ria n p o litic ia n , 218 Z e rv a s , G e n e ra l, G re e k resistan ce lead er,
'33- 9' 3 '9. 32<>, 3a9
Z a h a ria d e s , G re e k co m m u n ist le a d rr, Z e v g o s, G re e k co m m u n ist lead er, 327
'3 4 . ZheT ezk o v, B u lg a ria n c o lo n el, 96
Z a h a r ie v , B u lg a ria n M in is te r o f C o m ­ Z h ik o v , T o d o r , B u lg a ria n co m m u n ist,
m e rc e (19 4 2 ), 92 P rem ier since 1954, 374
Z a im o v , B u lg a ria n g e n e ra l, 93 Z o g , k in g o f A lb a n ia , 1 4 0 -1 , 144, 296
Z a k k a s, G re e k M in is te r o f L a tx rn r (19 4 5 ), Ź u jo viĆ , S reten , Y u g o s la v co m m u n ist
333 a n d M in ister o f F in a n ce ( 19 4 5 -8 ),
Z a le sk i, P olish F o re ig n M in ister
( • 939 - 4 *)» «50 Ż y m ie rsk i, G e n e ra l, Polish W a r M in ister,
Z a m b r o w s k i, P olish co m m u n ist, 302 • • 5 » «72
THE EAST EUROPEAN

REVOLUTION

HUGH SKTON- WATSON

A
F R E D E R IC K A. PRAEGER. P u b li s h e r

N ew Y ork
B y the S a m e A uth or
E A S T E R N EU RO PE B E T W E E N T H E W A R S , I 9 I 8- I 94 I

T H E D E C L I N E O F I M PE R I A L R U S S I A

FROM LE N IN T O K H R U S H C H E V

N E I T H E R W A R NOR PE A C E
 BOOKS THAT M ATTER

F'irst p u b lish e d in th r U n ite d S ta te s of A m e ric a in 1951 by-

F re d e ric k A. P ra e g e r, In c., P u b lish e r
64 U n iv e rsity P lac e, N ew Y ork 3 , N . Y.

S eco n d e d itio n p u b lish e d in 1954

T h ir d e d itio n p u b lish e d in 1956

S e c o n d p rin tin g , 1961

A ll rig h ts reserved

L ib ra ry of C o n g ress C a ta lo g C a rd N u m b e r: A 586364

T h e E a s t E u r o p e a n R e v o l u t i o n is p u b lish e d in tw o e d itio n s :

A p a p e rb a c k e d itio n ( U - 5 1 5 )
A c lo th b o u n d e d itio n

T h is book is N u m b e r 1 in th e series of
Praeger P u b lica tio n s in R u ssia n H is to r y
a n d IV orld C o m m u n is m .

M a n u fa c tu re d in th e U n ite d S ta te s of A m erica
 PREFACE T O THE SECOND EDITION

N th e first h a l f o f th e b o o k , se v e r a l m in o r e rro rs h a v e b e en

I re c tifie d . I n th e se c o n d h a lf, a la r g e p a r t o f C h a p t e r I X has

b e e n re w r itte n . I h a v e a tte m p te d to re d u c e th e u n d ig e s te d
s ta tis tic a l m a te r ia l a n d to g iv e m o re sp a c e to g e n e r a l tren ds.
S o m e in fo r m a tio n c o n c e r n in g th e u p w a r d re v isio n o f th e e c o n o m ic
p la n s in 19 51 h a s b e e n in c lu d e d . In th e c a se o f Y u g o s la v i a som e
in fo r m a tio n o n th e p r a c t ic a l w o r k in g o f th e p la n in th e la st tw o
y e a r s h a s b e e n a d d e d . T h e se c tio n o n fo r e ig n tra d e h as b een
s h o rte n e d , a n d h e re to o fu r th e r in fo r m a tio n o n Y u g o s la v ia has
b e e n a d d e d . I n C h a p t e r X I h a v e b r o u g h t th e s u rv e y o f c o lle c t i­
v is a tio n o f a g r ic u lt u r e u p to d a te . D u r in g 19 5 1 th e p a c e w as
s u b s t a n t ia lly in c re a se d in th e C o m in fo r m c o u n trie s a n d sla c k e n e d
in Y u g o s la v ia . In th e se c tio n o f this c h a p t e r d e a lin g w ith L a b o u r ,
I h a v e re p la c e d th e e x a m p le s g iv e n in th e first e d itio n b y m o re
r e c e n t e x a m p le s a n d h a v e b r ie fly m e n tio n e d n e w tre n d s in th e
e x p lo it a t io n o f L a b o u r . I n th e se c tio n on th e C h u r c h e s re c e n t
d e v e lo p m e n ts in c o m m u n is t tr e a tm e n t o f P o lish a n d H u n g a r ia n
C a t h o lic is m h a v e b e e n m e n tio n e d . A n e w p a r a g r a p h h as b e en
a d d e d a t th e e n d o f C h a p t e r X I I on G r e e c e .
T h e o n ly p o in t o n w h ic h I h a v e m o d ifie d m y o p in io n is th e
s itu a tio n o f th e in d u s tr ia l w o r k in g class. In th e first e d itio n I
th in k I w a s s o m e w h a t to o o p tim istic . E s p e c ia lly sin ce th e re v isio n
o f th e p la n s, th e w o rk e rs h a v e b e e n su b je c te d to in c re a s in g e x ­
p lo ita tio n . T h e s itu a tio n o f m ost w o rk e rs a p p ro a c h e s th a t o f th e
B ritish w o r k e r in th e w o rst d a y s o f e a r ly c a p ita lis m , w h ile o f
c o u rse t h e ir fr e e d o m o f o p in io n a n d s p e e c h is fa r less.
O n a ll o th e r p o in ts I stick to m y o r ig in a l v ie w s . In p a r tic u la r
I re ite r a te m y v ie w t h a t th e p u rp o se o f c o lle c tiv is a tio n o f a g r i­
c u lt u r e is p o lit ic a l a n d a d m in is tr a tiv e ra th e r th a n e c o n o m ic a n d
t e c h n ic a l, a n d t h a t th e b r e a c h b e tw e e n T i t o a n d th e C o m in fo r m
w a s c a u s e d n o t b y d is a g re e m e n t o n d o c tr in e b u t b y p e tty q u a rr e ls
a r is in g fro m th e b a sic fa c t t h a t M o s c o w d istru ste d T i t o b e c a u se
h e h a d c r e a te d h is o w n sta te m a c h in e , n o t re c e iv e d it as a gift
fr o m th e R e d A r m y . J u s t as, in th e S o v ie t U n io n , S t a lin ’s feu d s
w it h h is fo r m e r c o lle a g u e s w e re c a u s e d b y p e rs o n a l h a tre d a n d
V
vi TH E E A ST EU RO PEAN R E V O L U T IO N

s u b se q u e n tly ju s tifie d b y d o c tr in a l o r p o litic a l issues, so in th e

ca se o f T it o a n d S ta lin th e p e rs o n a l b r e a c h c a m e first a n d th e
ta m e id e o lo g u e s w e re th en g iv e n th e task o f in v e n tin g th e id e o lo g i­
c a l issues. T h e y d id n o t d o th e ir j o b v e r y w e ll, b e c a u se in so fa r
as T i t o w a s a t a ll g u ilty o f th e c h a rg e s b ro u g h t a g a in s t h im , he
w as less g u ilty th a n a n y o f th e n e ig h b o u r in g p u p p e t c o m m u n ist
ru lers. O n c e th e b re a c h w a s m a d e , h o w e v e r, serio u s d iffe re n c e s
o f p o lic y d id in fa c t d e v e lo p .
It is p e rh a p s w o rth w h ile to e x p la in m o re c le a r ly th e p u rp o se
o f this b o o k . I t is tw o fo ld — to d e s c rib e th e re c e n t h isto ry o f
E astern E u ro p e , e s p e c ia lly sin ce 19 4 1 , a n d to d e s c rib e a n d
a n a ly se th e p o lic y o f th e c o m m u n ist re g im e s. T h e co m m u n ist
le a d e rs, as M a rx ists, a re b o u n d to p a y lip se rv ic e to th e th e o r y
th a t th e ca u ses o f p o litic a l p h e n o m e n a a re e c o n o m ic . In th e ir
p r a c tic a l p o lic y h o w e v e r th e y in v a r ia b ly g iv e first p r io r ity to
p o litic a l fa cto rs. I exp ress n o o p in io n c o n c e r n in g th e g e n e r a l
p ro p o sitio n th a t e c o n o m ic s d e te rm in e s p o litic s : w ith re g a rd to
th e p a r tic u la r p h e n o m e n o n o f E a s te rn E u r o p e fro m 194 5 to 1951
I h a v e n o t th e le a st d o u b t th a t p o litic s is m o re im p o r ta n t th a n
e co n o m ic s . I f th e e m p h a sis in this b o o k is o n p o litic s r a th e r th a n
e co n o m ic s , th a t is b e c a u se th e e m p h a sis o f e ve n ts is o n p o litic s
r a th e r th a n e c o n o m ic s. N e v e rth e le ss, as a g r e a t d e a l o f p o litic a l
a c tio n a n d c o n tro v e rs y is co n c e rn e d w ith e c o n o m ic s , a g o o d d e a l
o f sp a ce in this b o o k is g iv e n to e c o n o m ic p r o b le m s , a n d t h a t n o t
so le ly in th e c h a p te rs w h ic h h a v e a n e c o n o m ic o r so c ia l h e a d in g .
A n e x p e rt in e c o n o m ic a n a ly sis w o u ld o f c o u rse tre a t th ese p r o b ­
lem s q u ite d iffe re n tly . I a m n ot c o n c e rn e d w ith e c o n o m ic a n a ly sis,
b u t w ith th e e c o n o m ic co n te n t of, a n d b a c k g r o u n d to , c o m m u n is t
p o litics. B u t p o litics is n o t ‘ o n ly p o lit ic s ’ , a t r iv ia lity to b e d is­
m issed w ith c o n te m p t. P o litics in a c o m m u n ist sta te is e v e r y a sp e c t
o f p r iv a te a n d p u b lic life a n d e v e r y m o m e n t o f th e d a y a n d
n ig h t.
 PREFACE T O THE T H IR D EDITION

U R I N G th e th re e y e a r s th a t h a v e p assed sin c e th e se co n d ,

D re v ise d , e d itio n a p p e a r e d , S ta lin h as d ie d , a n d th ere h a v e

b e e n c h a n g e s in th e S o v ie t U n io n w h ic h h a v e been
r e fle c te d in th e E a s t E u r o p e a n states. It h as a lso b e c o m e possible
to see m o re c le a r ly th e tre n d to w a r d s th e fo r m a tio n o f n e w r u lin g
classes in th ese co u n trie s, c lo se ly fo llo w in g th e tre n d in th e S o v ie t
U n io n b u t d iffe r in g in c e r ta in im p o r ta n t resp ects. In Y u g o s la v ia
a d iffe r e n t ty p e o f re g im e h as b e e n e v o lv in g sin ce th e b re a c h w ith
th e C o m in fo r m , a n d h e re to o th e p ic tu re is s u b s ta n tia lly c le a re r
th a n it w a s th re e y e a r s a g o . F in a lly th e p la c e o f E a ste rn E u ro p e
in in te r n a tio n a l p o litic s h as b e e n m o d ifie d , b y th e fo rm a tio n a n d
s u b s e q u e n t d is lo c a tio n o f th e B a lk a n A llia n c e , a n d still m o re b y
th e in c r e a s in g u r g e n c y o f th e G e r m a n p ro b le m .
T h e s e su b je c ts a r c s u ffic ie n tly im p o rta n t to ju s tify a n e w
c h a p te r , w h ic h h as b e e n in se rte d b e l w e e n th e la st tw o . O th e rw is e
th e r e h a s b e e n n o c h a n g e .
S in c e th e n e w c h a p t e r w a s w r itte n , th e G e n e v a c o n fe re n c e o f
O c t o b e r 19 5 5 h as b e e n h e ld . I t h as o n ly too sa d ly c o n firm e d th e
a n a ly sis w ritte n in th e e a r ly su m m e r.

December 19 5 5
 To
My Wife
 CONTENTS

CHAP. HAf l E

I n t r o d u c t io n xi
N o te on P r o pe r N am es x vii

PART I— B A C K G R O U N D

I T h e S o c ia l S t r u c t u r e

T h e E a st E u r o p e a n N a tio n s , I-— T h e R u lin g

C lasses, 6 — P e a sa n ts and W o rk e rs, 13 —
N a t io n a lis m , 19
II P a r t ie s a n d P o l it ic s
23
B o u rg e o is D e m o c r a tic P a rtie s, 23— P e a sa n t
P a rtie s, 3 1 — M a r x is t P a rtie s, 36— F ascist P a rtie s,
4 3 — F ro m P a r lia m e n ta r is m to D ic ta to r s h ip , 46

PART II— W A R

III T h e C o n q u est o f E a ster n E u r o pe

49
IV T h e A x is N e w O r d e r 70
V T h e A x is S a t e l l it e s
83
R u m a n ia , 83— B u lg a r ia , 90— H u n g a r y , 98
VI T h e R e s is t a n c e M o vem en ts 106
R e s is ta n c e a n d C o lla b o r a t io n , 106— P o la n d , 110
— Y u g o s la v ia , 1 1 8 — G r e e c e , 1 3 1 — A lb a n ia , 139
— C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , 146
V II G r e a t a n d S m a ll A l l ie s 150
P o la n d , 150— Y u g o s la v i a , 1 5 7 — C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ,
162

PART III— S O V IE T IS A T IO N

V III T h e S e iz u r e o f P o w e r 167
T h e P a tte r n , 16 7 — P o la n d , 1 7 1 — C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ,
179 — H u n g a r y , 190— R u m a n ia , 202— B u lg a ria ,
2 1 1 — Y u g o s la v i a , 2 1 9 — A lb a n ia , 226
ix
X THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

IX E c o n o m ic R e c o v e r y a n d P l a n n in g 230
T h e A fte r m a th o f W a r , 230— N a tio n a lis a tio n ,
236— R eco very Plans, 2 4 1 — T h e L on g-term
Plans, 246— Foreign T ra d e Problem s, 2 54
X S o c i a l a n d R e lig io u s P o l i c y 265
T h e Peasants, 2 65 — L a b o u r, 2 7 7 — T h e In tel­
ligentsia, 282— T h e C hu rches, 287
XI P o litic a l P o w er 296
T h e State M ach in e , 296— T h e C om m unist
Parties, 304
X II T h e G r e e k E x c e p t io n 3 18
P o litic a l D e v e lo p m e n t, 3 18 — E c o n o m ic D e v e lo p ­
m e n t, 329 — G r e e k P ro sp e cts, 336
X III I n t e r n a t io n a l P ro blem s 339
N a tio n a lis m , 339— B a lk a n P ro b le m s, 3 4 7 — T h e
G e r m a n P r o b le m , 360
X IV S in c e St a l in 372
XV E ast a n d W est 399
B ib l io g r a p h ic a l N o t e 416
I n d ex 42 5

M APS

Drawn by Denys R . Baker

P o la n d a n d C z e c h o s l o v a k ia 5
S o u t h -E a ster n E u r o pe 8 -9
 IN T R O D U C T IO N

H E N th e B o lsh e v ik s m a d e th e ir re v o lu tio n in N o v e m b e r

W 1 9 1 7 , th e y fe lt th e m se lv e s th e h eirs o f th e m en w h o m a d e
th e g r e a t ‘ b o u rg e o is r e v o lu t io n s ’ o f 1688 in E n g la n d a n d
178 9 in F r a n c e . A t th e sa m e tim e th e ir r e v o lu tio n w as th e first o f
a n e w ty p e . I t w a s a ‘ p r o le ta r ia n r e v o lu t io n ', m a d e in th e n a m e
a n d o n b e h a lf o f th e in d u s tr ia l w o r k in g class. I t w as e x p e c te d to b e
fo llo w e d soon b y sim ila r re v o lu tio n s in o th e r c o u n trie s, e s p e c ia lly
in th e a d v a n c e d in d u s tr ia l c o u n trie s.
T h e B o lsh e v ik re v o lu tio n e sta b lis h e d th e S o v ie t sy ste m in
R u ssia , a c o u n t r y w h o se p o p u la tio n to - d a y is so m e 200 m illio n s.
D e s p ite a fe w b r ie f successes, h o w e v e r, C o m m u n is m d id n o t
e sta b lis h it s e lf e lse w h e r e fo r t h ir ty y e a rs. T o - d a y th e S o v ie t fo rm
o f g o v e r n m e n t is b e in g r a p id ly e x te n d e d to a fu rth e r 100 m illio n
E u ro p e a n s . W o r ld w a r g a v e th e R u ssia n B o lsh e v ik s th e ir o p p o r ­
t u n ity in 19 1 7 , b y s h a tte r in g th e c u m b ro u s b u t b rittle m a c h in e r y
o f th e R u ssia n sta te . W o r ld w a r a g a in g a v e c o m m u n ists th e ir
o p p o r t u n it y in 19 4 5 , b y sh a tte r in g th e R e ic h o f A d o lf H itle r , w h o
h a d d e s tro y e d so m e o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n states a n d p la c e d som e
u n d e r his p r o te c tio n . H is to r y m a d e a p re s e n t o f ch a o s to th e
B o lsh e v ik s in 1 9 1 7 , b u t th e y h a d to fig h t th e ir o w n c iv il w a r in
o r d e r to p u t th e ir r e g im e in th e p la c e o f ch a o s. A lo n e in E a ste rn
E u r o p e in 1 9 4 4 -5 *he Y u g o s la v co m m u n ists a c h ie v e d this ta sk :
e lse w h e r e c o m m u n ists w e r e p la c e d in p o w e r b y th e v ic to rio u s
a r m y o f B o lsh e v ik R u ssia . E v e n th e Y u g o s la v c o m m u n ists h a d
h a d su b s ta n tia l fo reig n h e lp , first fro m th e W e st a n d th en from
th e E ast.
T h e E a s te rn E u r o p e a n re v o lu tio n th e n w-as im p o se d fro m o u t ­
sid e a n d fro m a b o v e . I t c a n n o t ju s t ly b e c o m p a r e d w ith th e
re v o lu tio n s o f 1688, 178 9 a n d 1 9 1 7 . B u t b e c a u se it w a s im p o se d ,
it is n o t less a r e v o lu tio n . T h e p u b lic a n d p r iv a te lives o f 100
m illio n E a st E u ro p e a n s a re b e in g tra n s fo rm e d o u t o f re c o g n itio n
a n d a t b r e a k n e c k sp e e d . T h e so cia l s tru c tu re a n d p o litic a l regim es
o f E a s te rn E u r o p e (e x c e p t C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ) b e tw e e n th e w o rld
w a rs w e r e n e a r e r to th o se o f I m p e r ia l R u ssia th a n o f W e ste rn
E u r o p e , b u t its c u lt u r e w a s fa r m o re w e ste rn th a n th a t o f I m p e r ia l
xi
xii THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION

R u ssia h ad e v e r b e en . A n d c u ltu r a l tra d itio n s, th o u g h felt m ost

stro n g ly b y th e fa irly sm all e d u c a te d class, o r in te llig e n tsia ,
p e n e tra te d also to o th e r classes, in c lu d in g e v e n th e im p o v e rish e d
p e a sa n try . T h e in flu e n ce o f sch o o l, a n d o f th e C a t h o lic an d
P ro testa n t c h u rc h e s, en su red this. T h e r e fo r e th e c h a n g e fro m th e
p re -w a r c iv ilisa tio n to th e civ ilisa tio n o f th e S o v ie t w o rld is fa r
g re a te r an d fa r m o re a b r u p t for th e p e o p le o f E a ste rn E u ro p e
th a n it w as fo r the p e o p le o f E u ro p e a n a n d A s ia tic R u ssia a fter
th e B olsh evik re v o lu tio n . T h e p a ce is a lso q u ic k e r. E le v e n y e a rs
passed b e tw e e n th e B o lsh e v ik re v o lu tio n a n d th e in a u g u r a tio n o f
th e first F iv e - Y e a r P la n , tw e lv e y e a rs b e tw e e n th e re v o lu tio n
a n d c o lle c tiv isa tio n o f a g ric u ltu re . T h e first E ast E u ro p e a n F iv e -
Y e a r P la n , th e Y u g o s la v , b e g a n in 194 7, tw o y e ars a fte r T i t o ’s
go v e rn m e n t h ad o b ta in e d p o w e r th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y . T h e
o th e r co u n trie s a re b e g in n in g th eir fiv e- o r six -y e a r c o n stru c tio n
p la n s in 1949 a n d 1950. C o lle c tiv is a tio n w as a n n o u n c e d as th e aim
in E astern E u ro p e in th e su m m e r o f 1948, a n d b y th e e n d o f
1949 it h a d g o n e a lo n g w a y in b o th Y u g o s la v ia a n d B u lg a ria .
T h e ch a n g e s in E astern E u ro p e th e n a re tr u ly re v o lu tio n a ry .
T h e y a re also im m e n se ly im p o rta n t fo r th e o u te r w o rld . B y th em
th e S o v ie t w o r ld ’ s s u p p ly o f p o te n tia l fa c to ry -fo d d c r a n d c a n n o n -
fo d d e r has risen from 200 m illio n to n e a rly 300 m illio n . M o r e o v e r
th e a v e ra g e lev el o f m a n u a l skill a n d e d u c a tio n o f E a ste rn E u ro p e
is fa r h ig h e r th a n th a t o f E u ro p e a n , le t a lo n e A s ia tic , R u ssia . I f
th e so v ie tisa tio n o f E astern E u ro p e c a n b e c o n so lid a te d , it w ill
p r o b a b ly p ro v e a m o re v a lu a b le g a in to M o s c o w th a n th e
so v ie tisa tio n o f C h in a w ith its 400 m illio n s.
T h e p u rp o se o f this b o o k is b o th to d e sc rib e a n d to a n a ly se
th e so v ietisatio n o f E astern E u ro p e . T h e o b sta c le s a n d p itfalls a re
o f co u rse o b v io u s. S o m e in fo rm a tio n is u n o b ta in a b le , a n d m u ch
m o re is u n re lia b le . T h e process is b y n o m ea n s co m p le te . I n te r ­
n a tio n a l crises o c c u r a lm o st e v e ry m o n th . M a n y d e ta ils, a n d n o
d o u b t som e im p o rta n t po in ts, w ill la te r b e seen to b e m ista k e n .
Y e t still I th in k th e a tte m p t w o rth m a k in g . I b e lie v e th ere is ro o m
fo r a w o rk in te rm e d ia te b e tw e e n jo u rn a lis m a n d h isto ry . I b e lie v e
th a t th e a c a d e m ic to o l-b o x c a n b e a p p lie d to c u rre n t e ve n ts.
I b e lie v e th a t th e g e n e ra l p a tte rn , a n d m ost o f th e d e ta il, w ill b e a r
th e test o f tim e.
T h r e e th in g s seem to m e d e s ira b le fo r o n e u n d e r ta k in g su ch
w o rk — p e rso n a l e x p e rie n c e o f E astern E u ro p e a n d k n o w le d g e o f
its b a c k g ro u n d ; close a tte n tio n to c u rre n t e v e n ts in E aste rn
E u ro p e o v e r th e p e rio d c o n c e r n e d ; a n d stu d y o f th e th e o r y a n d
 I NT RO DU C T I O N XÜi
p r a c tic e o f R u ssia n b o lsh evism a n d E u ro p e a n c o m m u n ism . In
a n e a r lie r w o rk s o m e w h a t h u r rie d ly co m p o sed in 1 9 4 2 - 3 ,' an d
d e a lin g w ith th e p e rio d b e tw e e n th e w o rld w a rs, I w as, I h o pe,
r e a s o n a b ly w e ll su p p lie d w ith th e first q u a lific a tio n , a n d to a
lesser e x te n t w ith th e se co n d , b u t c o m p le te ly la ck e d th e th ird .
I k n e w n o th in g o f R u ssia n h isto ry , th e S o v ie t re g im e , o r the
o rg a n isa tio n o f c o m m u n ist p a rties. I h ad seen co m m u n ists in
E a ste rn E u r o p e o n ly as m a rty rs o f fascist d icta to rsh ip s, re g a rd e d
w ith s y m p a th y b y m a n y d e m o c ra tic in te lle c tu a ls an d d isco n ­
te n te d p ea san ts. N o in d ic a tio n c o u ld be fo u n d in E astern E u ro p e
o f h o w th e y w o u ld b e h a v e sh o u ld th e y th em selves o b ta in p o w e r.
I w as o f co u rse fa m ilia r w ith a n ti-co m m u n ist p r o p a g a n d a : it w as
im p o ssib le to v isit E a ste rn E u ro p e w ith o u t b e in g d elu g e d b y it.
B u t I d id n o t feel d isp osed to b e lie v e w h a t I w as told b y Iro n
G u a rd ists, b y th e scrib es o f M ila n S to ja d in o v ic , o r b y th e d isciples
o f th e la te D r . J o s e p h G o e b b e ls. N o r w as I im pressed b y the
a rg u m e n ts o f th e B a lk a n r u lin g classes, w h o se a ttitu d e to c o m ­
m u n ism w as o b v io u s ly d e te rm in e d b y fe a r fo r th e ir d u b io u sly
a c q u ir e d possessions. M y re lu c ta n c e to b e lie v e a n y o f these
p e o p le w as sh a red b y o ld e r a n d w ise r m en th an I on b o th sides
o f th e A tla n tic .
In p r e p a r in g th e presen t w o rk I h a v e tried to som e e x te n t to
fill this g a p . I t is r e m a rk a b le h o w m u c h o f c u rre n t even ts in
E a ste rn E u ro p e is e x p la in e d b y e v e n a little re a d in g o f R u ssia n
tw e n tie th -c e n tu ry h isto ry , o f th e w o rk s o f L e n in a n d S ta lin , and
o f th e e a r ly h isto ry o f th e C o m in te rn . T h e w h o le p ro g ra m m e is
th ere in th e sp eech es a n d a rticle s o f th e p ro m in e n t S o v ie t an d
C o m in te rn fig u res o f th e i g 2 o ’ s. O rg a n is a tio n , m eth o d s o f p o liti­
c a l w a r fa r e , p o litic a l a llia n ce s a n d tactics, sh ort-term a n d lo n g ­
te rm aim s— a ll a re e x p la in e d n o less fr a n k ly a n d m u c h m ore
c le a r ly th a n in M ein Kampf. T h e en em ies a n d th e d u p e s are
n a m e d . B u t n o o n e seem s to h a v e rea d o r listen ed b u t th e fa ith fu l.
F o r th ose o u tsid e th e fold , u n c ritic a l p raise o r u n c ritic a l ab u se,
p a n ic o r o stric h -h e a d e d o p tim ism to ok th e p la c e o f k n o w led g e .
T h is p e rso n a l re m in isce n ce h as, I th in k , a p la c e in this in tro ­
d u c tio n , b e ca u se I b e lie v e th a t m y o w n ig n o ra n c e w as not
u n ty p ic a l o f m y g e n e ra tio n , in c lu d in g those w h o tried o r p r o ­
fessed to try to le a rn s o m e th in g a b o u t in te rn a tio n a l a ffa irs. A n d
th o u g h w e a re n o d o u b t to b la m e fo r o u r ig n o ra n c c , little less
b la m e a tta c h e s to th e g e n e ra tio n b e fo re us, w h o h ad m o re
th a n tw e n ty y e a rs, b e tw e e n th e B o lsh e v ik re v o lu tio n an d th e
1 Eastern Europe beluvtn the Wars, iq r fí-ji (C.U.I*..
xiv THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION
S e co n d W o rld W a r , in w h ic h to le a rn , y e t d id n ot re a d th e sign s.
A s fo r th e c o rre sp o n d in g g e n e ra tio n in E astern E u ro p e , w h o w e re
n o t o n ly ig n o ra n t o f th e n a tu re o f co m m u n ism b u t to ok few steps
to re m o ve th e social in ju stic e on w h ic h co m m u n ism th riv e d , th e y
h a v e less reason th a n a n y o n e to p rid e th em selves o n p o litic a l
w isd o m . O n e m ust h o p e th a t in th e W e st, on b o th sides o f th e
A tla n tic , th e lesson w ill n o w b e le a rn e d , a n d th a t steps w ill be
tak e n in o u r schools a n d u n iversities to tell th e n e x t g e n e ra tio n
s o m e th in g a b o u t b o th R u ssia n h isto ry a n d th e th e o ry a n d p r a c ­
tice o f c o m m u n ism . A s fa r as B rita in is c o n c e rn e d , it m u st be
a d m itte d th at so fa r th ere is m ig h ty little sign o f a n y c h a n g e .
T h r o u g h o u t th e p e rio d d escrib e d in this b o ok I h a v e tried m y
best to fo llo w even ts in E astern E u ro p e . D u rin g th e w a r I w a s c o n ­
ce rn e d in v a rio u s o fficia l c a p a c itie s w ith th e a ffa irs o f v a rio u s East
E u ro p e a n co u n trie s— in 19 3 9 -4 1 in E a ste rn E u ro p e , in 1 9 4 1 -4 in
th e M id d le E ast a n d 19 4 4 -6 in L o n d o n . In th e su m m e r o f 1946 I
v isited C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , Y u g o s la v ia , B u lg a ria , R u m a n ia a n d
H u n g a r y ; in th e sp rin g o f 1947 C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d H u n g a r y ; in
th e a u tu m n o f 1948 G r e c c c . I re g ret th at I h a v e n ot h a d a n
o p p o rtu n ity to visit P o la n d sin ce th e w a r. In a ll th ese jo u r n e y s I
m et w ith h e lp a n d co u rte sy fro m o fficials as w e ll as from p r iv a te
citize n s. It is n o w m o re th an tw o y e ars sin ce I w as b e y o n d th e
‘ iro n c u r t a in ’ . S u c h c o n ta c ts as h a v e b e en po ssib le w ith p e o p le o f
th ose co u n trie s, a n d w ith B ritish p e o p le w h o h a v e m o re re c e n tly
v isite d , o r w o rk e d in , th ose co u n trie s, h a v e o f co u rse b e en v a lu a b le
to m e. A p a r t from th is I h a v e relied o n a g o o d d e a l o f w ritte n
m a te ria l, in b o th E ast E u ro p e a n a n d W e ste rn la n g u a g e s, w h ic h is
d escrib e d , a n d th e m ost useful p a rt o f w h ic h is listed , in th e b ib lio ­
g r a p h ic a l n o te a t th e en d o f th e b ook .
I h a v e a tte m p te d to d e s c rib e th e process b y w h ic h th e E ast
E u ro p e a n co m m u n ists o b ta in e d p o w e r, a n d to a n a ly se th e re g im e
th e y h a v e e stab lish e d . I h a v e trie d to sh o w th e im p a c t o f this
re g im e on th e so cia l classes a n d on th e c itiz e n . T h e s e th in g s I
b e lie v e ca n b e d isco v ere d w ith c o m p a r a tiv e c e r ta in ty . H o w th e
c itiz e n feels a b o u t it, h o w e v e r, is m u c h m o re d iffic u lt to fin d o u t.
H e re th e ‘ iron c u r t a in ’ is a re a l o b sta c le . I h a v e som e id e a h o w
th e citiz e n felt u n d e r th e p r e -w a r regim es, a n d so m e id e a h o w h e
fe lt in th e su m m e r o f 1946 a n d th e sp rin g o f 1947 w h e n I visite d
E a ste rn E u ro p e . M y id eas o f b o th m a y w e ll h a v e b e e n m isg u id e d .
S in ce 1947 I c a n o n ly guess, b a sin g m y gu ess o n o b s e rv a n c e o f
o fficia l p o lic y a n d m y p rev io u s k n o w le d g e , s u p p le m e n tin g it
w h e n possib le b y th e a c co u n ts o f th ose w h o h a v e b e e n m o re
 I NT R O D U C T I O N XV
re c e n tly . I h a v e trie d to a v o id gen e ra lisa tio n s a b o u t p u b lic
o p in io n to -d a y , a n d w h ere th e y c a n n o t b e a v o id e d I h a v e tried
to w a r n th e re a d e r o f th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n guesses a n d facts.
T h e S o v ie t z o n e o f E u ro p e to -d a y in clu d es E astern G e r m a n y
a n d to a lesser e x te n t E astern A u s tria an d F in la n d . I h a v e o n ly
a v e r y b r ie f p a ssa ge on th e first tw o , a n d n o n e a t a ll a b o u t F in ­
la n d . T h is is b e c a u se G e r m a n y a n d A u s tria ca n o n ly b e a d e q u a te ly
d iscu ssed in co n n e c tio n w ith E u ro p e as a w h o le , an d b e cau se
F in la n d is u n k n o w n to m e a n d b e lo n g s to a q u ite d iffe re n t
c u ltu r a l a n d s tra te g ic a r e a from th e E astern E u ro p e w h ic h is th e
s u b je c t o f this b o o k . O n th e o th e r h a n d , I h a v e in c lu d e d G r e e c e ,
w h ic h is n o t so v ietised , b e c a u se it d oes b e lo n g in e x tr ic a b ly to th e
B a lk a n s a n d b e c a u se its re g im e presents a n in te re stin g c o m p ariso n
b o th w'ith th e so vietised regim es a n d w ith th e p r e -w a r B alkan
regim es.
T h e p resen t c a n n o t b e d escrib e d w ith o u t som e refe re n ce to th e
re ce n t p ast. O n e o f th e less p le a sa n t p h e n o m e n a o f c o n te m p o r a r y
p o litic a l co n tro v e rsy is th e fa lsific a tio n o f th e past fo r th e sake o f
th e p resen t. I t is as u n p a r d o n a b le to p resen t the p r e -w a r regim es
as h a p p y d e m o c ra c ie s b e c a u se o n e d islikes C o m m u n ist d ic ta to r ­
sh ips, as to d e p ic t a ll p a st h isto ry as b la c k m isery an d opp ression
b e ca u se o n e loves th e c o m m u n ist b r a v e n e w w o rld . I h o p e th a t,
w h a te v e r o th e r e rro rs I h a v e c o m m itte d , I h a v e a v o id e d these
tw o .
T h e first tw o c h a p te rs c o v e r m u c h th e sam e g ro u n d as m y
e a r lie r b o o k , b u t a re d iffe re n tly a n d o f c o u rse m u c h m ore sh o rtly
p resen te d . T h e seco n d c h a p te r c o n ta in s m a te ria l on th e o rig in o f
th e m a in p o litic a l p a rtie s o f E astern E u ro p e w h ic h is n ot I th in k
e a s ily o b ta in a b le in E n g lish , o r o b ta in a b le a t a ll in on e p la c e .
T h e e ve n ts d e s c rib e d a n d d iscussed in th e th ird c h a p te r h a v e
a lr e a d y fig u re d in se v era l b rillia n t w ork s b y pro fessio n al d ip lo ­
m a tic h isto ria n s, w h ic h a re listed in th e b ib lio g r a p h ic a l n o te. I
th in k , h o w e v e r, th a t th e re a d e r w ill fin d useful a b r ie f su m m a ry
o f th e e ve n ts o f 1 9 3 9 -4 1 as fa r as th e y c o n c e rn E aste rn E u ro p e
o n ly . T h e h isto ry o f th e resistan ce m o ve m e n ts an d o f th e rela tio n s
b e tw e e n th e e x ile d g o v e rn m e n ts a n d th e G r e a t A llie s has n o t, I
b e lie v e , y e t b e en p resen ted as a w h o le . H e re I am w ell a w a re th a t
m u ch im p o rta n t d e ta il is n o t y e t a v a ila b le , a n d v e r y stro n g
d iffe re n ce s o f o p in io n a re held in g o o d fa ith b y b e tte r an d m o re
le a rn e d m en th a n I. I v e n tu re , h o w e v e r, to h o p e th a t if e v e r a ll th e
facts a re k n o w n m y a c c o u n t w ill n o t b e fo u n d to b e v e r y fa r from
th e tru th .
xvi THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e seizu re o f p o w e r b y th e co m m u n ists falls p a r tly in to th e
w a rtim e p erio d a n d p a r tly in to th e first y e a rs o f a rm is tic e . In
Y u g o s la v ia a n d A lb a n ia it too k p la c e , in G r e e c e it w a s fru stra te d ,
a n d in P o la n d it m a d e m u c h p ro gress, a lr e a d y in 1944. T h e
e ig h th c h a p te r, th e first in th e th ird p a rt, giv e s a c h ro n o lo g ic a l
s u m m a ry o f p o litic a l e ven ts in fiv e co u n trie s u p to th e e sta b lis h ­
m en t o f c o m p le te d ic ta to rs h ip b y th e C o m m u n is t P a rty (d u rin g
1948), an d in Y u g o s la v ia a n d A lb a n ia u p to th e T ito - C o m in fo r m
b re a c h . E v e n ts su b seq u en t to this a re m en tio n e d in th e la te r c h a p ­
ters, w h ic h a re n ot c h ro n o lo g ic a l, b u t d e a l w ith e c o n o m ic p o lic y ,
so cia l classes, d istrib u tio n o f p o litic a l p o w e r a n d fo reig n p o lic y .
T h e c h a p te r o n G r e e c e is m a in ly c h r o n o lo g ic a l, d iv id e d in to a
p o litic a l a n d a n e c o n o m ic sectio n , a n d e n d in g w ith a b r ie f su m ­
m a ry o f p ro b lem s a n d tren ds.
In th e a n a ly tic a l c h a p te rs I h a v e tried to p o in t o u t th e d iffe r ­
e n ces w h ic h still exist betw 'een in d iv id u a l c o u n trie s, b u t m y
em p h a sis is ra th e r on u n ifo rm ity th a n o n d iv e rs ity . T h is is b e ca u se
I a m co n v in c e d th a t in a ll th e sovietised c o u n trie s th e tre n d o f
g o v e rn m e n t is id e n tic a l, an d th a t th e d iffe re n ce s a re b e in g ra p id ly
re m o v e d . It is th e sim ila rity b e tw e e n th e regim es, a n d th e close
im ita tio n b y a ll o f th e past h isto ry o f th e S o v ie t U n io n , w h ic h n eed
to be stressed for W e ste rn re a d e rs, to w h o m th e th e o ry a n d p r a c ­
tice o f co m m u n ism a re still w o e fu lly u n fa m ilia r. I t is n o d o u b t tru e
th a t b e n e a th th e su rfa ce , n a tio n a l c h a ra c te rs re m a in as d istin ct
as e ve r. B u t th e y h a v e n o d ire c t p o litic a l effects.
I n th e last c h a p te r I h a v e g iv e n m y o w n co n clu sio n s on th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f E astern E u ro p e . T h e y fall in to th re e section s. T h e
first co n cern s S o v ie t fo reig n p o lic y a n d E a ste rn E u r o p e ’ s p la c e in
it. T h e secon d con sid ers th e n a tu re o f th e n e w regim es, th e c o n ­
cep ts o f ‘ p o lit ic a l’ a n d ‘ e c o n o m ic ’ d e m o c r a c y , a n d th e forces
w h ic h su p p o rt a n d op p ose th e n e w ru lers. T h e last p a g e s a re a n
a tte m p t to e x p la in th e d isru p tiv e in flu e n c e o f E a ste rn E u ro p e in
w o rld a ffa irs in th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y , a n d to p la c e it in som e sort
o f w o rld p e rsp e c tiv e .
 NOTE ON PROPER NAM ES

G r e e k n am es a re tra n s lite ra te d fro m th e G r e e k to th e L a tin

a lp h a b e t in th e n o rm a lly a c c e p te d w a y . B u lg a ria n an d R u ssian
n am es a r c tra n s lite ra te d fro m th e C y r illic , a n d sh o u ld b e p ro­
n o u n c e d as w ritte n . T h e o n ly u n fa m ilia r c o m b in a tio n to E n glish
re a d e rs w ill b e ‘ z h ’ . T h is a p p ro x im a te s to ‘ s ’ in ‘ p le a s u r e ’ or
to th e F re n c h ‘j ’ in ‘j o u r ’ . W h e r e a ‘ z ’ o r an ‘ s ’ is fo llo w e d by
a n a sp ira te , it is sh o w n b y an a p o stro p h e b e fo re it. T h u s ‘ z ’ h ’
o r ‘ s’ h ’ sh o u ld b e d istin g u ish ed from ‘ z h ’ o r ‘ s h ’ . F o r th e a sp ira te
in B u lg a r ia n o r R u ssia n n am e s I h a v e used a sim p le ‘ h ’ , w h ic h is
n o t v e r y d iffe re n t from its so u n d , ra th e r th an th e ‘ k h ’ b e lo v e d b y
m a n y p h o n e tic ia n s, w h ic h is m ea n in g le ss in E n glish .
T h e o th e r E ast E u ro p e a n la n g u a g e s use th e L a tin a lp h a b e t
w ith v a rio u s m o d ific a tio n s (S e rb o -C ro a tia n u sin g th e L a tin in
C r o a t ia a n d th e C y r illic in S e r b ia ) . A s it is b e y o n d m y p o w e r to
re d u ce th ese v a rio u s uses o f L a tin letters to a system b oth u n iform
a n d in te llig ib le , I h a v e k ep t th e e x a c t sp e llin g used in e ach
c o u n tr y — e x c e p t fo r c e rta in w e ll-k n o w n n am es w h ic h h a v e a
re co g n ise d E u ro p e a n sp e llin g , e .g . P ra g u e in stead o f P ra h a . T h e
fo llo w in g is an a p p ro x im a te e x p la n a tio n o f the m ain letters in
p r o p e r n am e s o f e a c h la n g u a g e w h ic h d iffe r from E n g lish . I f this
a d v ic e is follow 'ed, n am e s w ill be p ro n o u n c e d in te llig ib ly . N o
a tte m p t, h o w e v e r, is m a d e to d e a l w ith q u a lit y o f v o w e ls o r stress
o f sy lla b le s.

P o l is h

sz E n g lish sh in ‘ s h o w ’ ,
ś E n g lish s in ‘ s u e ’ ,
cz E n g lish c h in ‘ c h u r c h ’ ,
ć E n g lish t in ‘ v e n t u r e ’ .
1 v a rie s b e tw e e n 11 in ‘ d u l l ’ a n d w in ‘ w e d ’
ń E n g lish n in ‘ t e n u r e ’ ,
a a n asa lised v ersio n o f F re n c h o n in ‘ b o n ’ ,
e v a rie s b e tw e e n en in ‘ h e n ’ a n d F re n c h en in ‘ b ie u ’ .
rz as s in ‘ p le a s u r e ’ o r F re n c h j in ‘j o u r ’ ,
ż th e sa m e as rz.
xvii
XVIII THE EAST EUROPEAN REVOLUTION

c E n glish ts in ‘ le ts ’ ,
j E n glish y in ‘ y e t ’ .

C zech

c a n d j as in P olish.
ś as P olish sz; ć as P olish c z ; ń as P o lish ń; ź as P o lish ź ;
t’ A p p ro x im a te ly as P olish c.
r v a rie s b e tw e e n r fo llo w e d b y a y a n d th e so u n d o f a
P olish rz. S o m etim e s sou n ds lik e E n g lish sh in ‘ s h o w ’ ,
é E n glish y e i n ‘ y e l l ’ .

S er b o -C r o a t ia n

c , ć a n d j as in P olish.
t , I an d ź as in C z e c h .

H u n c a r ia n

c a n d j as in P olish.
s E n glish sh i n ‘ s h o w ’ .
sz E n glish s in ‘ s o ’ .
cs E n glish c h in ‘ c h u r c h ’ .
zs E n glish s in ‘ p le a s u re ’ o r F re n c h j in ‘j o u r ’ .
ly v a rie s b e tw e e n 11 in ‘ a llu r e ’ a n d y in ‘ y e t ’ .
g y E n glish d in ‘ v e r d u r e ’ .
n y E n glish n in ‘ t e n u r e ’ .
ó as in G e rm a n .
ü as in G e rm a n .
Ő, ű le n g th en e d form s o f ö a n d ü .
a E n g lish o in ‘ h o t ’ ,
á E n glish a in ‘ fa t h e r ’ .

R u m a n ia n

ă E n glish er in ‘ w e a t h e r ’ ,
â E n glish e in ‘ g a r m e n t ’ ,
ş E n glish sh in ‘ s h o w ’ ,
ţ E n g lish ts in ‘ le ts ’ ,
j F re n c h j i n ‘j o u r ’ ,
oa a p p ro x im a te s to F re n c h o i in ‘ t o it ’ .
g b e fo re a , o a n d u as in E n g lish , b e fo re e a n d i as d g in
‘ b rid g e ’ . W h e n ge o r gi co m es b e fo re a , o o r u , th e iis n o t
p ro n o u n c e d b u t th e g h as th e so u n d o f d g in ‘ b r id g e ’ .
W h e n g h co m es b e fo re e o r i, th e h is n ot p r o n o u n c e d b u t
the g is as E n glish in ‘g e t’ or ‘g iv e ’ .
 NOT E ON P R O P E R NAMES XIX

c b e fo re a , o an d u as in E n g lish , b e fo re e a n d i as ch in
‘ c h u r c h ’ . W h e n c i o r c c co m es b e fo re a, o o r u, th e c
o r i is n o t p ro n o u n c e d b u t the c h as the sou n d o f ch in
‘ c h u r c h ’ . W h e n ch co m es b efore e o r i th e h is not
p r o n o u n c e d b u t th e c is as in E n g lish ‘ c a t ’ .

A l b a n ia n

ę E n g lish c h in ‘ c h u r c h ’ .
X E n g lish d s in ‘ h e a d s ’ ,
x h E n glish d g in ‘ b r id g e ’ .
11 E n g lish 11 in ‘ a llu r e ’ ,
g j E n g lish d g iii ‘ b rid g e ’
 Part One

BACKGROUND

C H A P T E R ONE

T H E S O C IA L S T R U C T U R E

T H E E A ST E U R O P E A N NATIONS

A S T E R N E u ro p e , as it is u n d e rsto o d in this b o ok , th e a re a
stre tc h in g fro m th e B a ltic in th e n o rth to th e M e d ite rra n e a n
in th e so u th , a n d fro m th e fro n tiers o f G e rm a n y , A u s tria an d
I t a ly in th e w est to those o f th e S o v ie t U n io n in th e east, is
in h a b ite d b y a t least tw e lv e n atio n s. S e v e n o f these— Poles, C z e c h s,
S lo v a k s, S lo v e n e s, C r o a ts, S erb s a n d B u lg a ria n s— are S la vs. T h e
o th ers a re th e H u n g a ria n s, R u m a n ia n s, G ree k s, T u r k s and
A lb a n ia n s . T o th e tw e lv e sh o u ld p e rh a p s b e a d d e d tw o m o re S la v
g ro u p s w h o se c la im to se p a ra te n a tio n h o o d is a little u n c e rta in —
M a c e d o n ia n s a n d M o n te n e g rin s. A n o th e r sp ecia l g ro u p are S la v s
o f M o sle m re lig io n (S e rb o -C ro a t-sp e a k in g in B osn ia, B u lg a ria n ­
s p e a k in g ( ‘ P o r n a k ’ ) in T h r a c e ) , w h o se o u tlo o k , fo rm ed b y th eir
re lig io n , is so d iffe re n t from th a t o f th eir C h ris tia n n e ig h b o u rs as
to co n stitu te s o m e th in g lik e se p a ra te n a tio n a lity .
T h e P oles a re th e m ost n u m ero u s o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n n ation s,
a n d h a v e th e lo n gest u n in te rru p te d h isto rica l tra d itio n . T h e
P olish sta te to o k sh a p e a fte r th e estab lish m e n t o f C h ris tia n ity in
th e te n th c e n tu r y , a n d re m a in e d in d e p e n d e n t u n til th e en d o f th e
e ig h te e n th . P o la n d h a d to fa ce co n sta n t pressure from h e r G e rm a n
n e ig h b o u r s— first from th e relig io u s o rd e r o f th e T e u to n ic kn igh ts
a n d th en fro m th e se c u la r p r in c ip a lity o f P russia. In th e cast she
w as fo r lo n g p e rio d s a t w a r w ith th e G r a n d D u c h y o f M u s c o v y ,
w h ic h la te r b e c a m e th e R u ssia n e m p ire . In th e fifteen th and
six te e n th ce n tu rie s P o la n d w as a G r e a t P o w e r, a n d h e r n e ig h ­
b ou rs w e re still w e a k , b u t in th e se v en te e n th sh e w as e xh a u ste d
b y S w e d ish in va sio n s a n d w ars w ith R u ssia , a n d in 1772 b e g a n the
p a rtitio n s b e tw e e n R u ssia , A u stria an d P russia w h ic h w e re c o m ­
p le te d b y 179 5. F ro m th en u n til 19 18 P o la n d w as d iv id e d in to
th re e p o rtio n s— P o m e ra n ia u n d e r P russia, G a lic ia u n d e r A u stria ,
a n d th e ‘ C o n g re ss K in g d o m ’ a n d h istoric L ith u a n ia u n d e r
R u ssia .
2 T H E EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
T h e C z e c h s h ad a n a tio n a l sta te in th e K in g d o m o f B o h e m ia ,
w h ich lasted w ith v a r y in g d eg re e s o f in d e p e n d e n c e fro m th e
ten th c e n tu r y u n til 1620. Its h e ro ic p e rio d w as th e H u ssite w ars
o f th e e a r ly fifteen th c e n tru y , w h e n th e C z e c h relig io u s reform ers
d efe n d e d th em selves su ccessfu lly a g a in st ‘ C r u s a d e r s ’ su m m o n e d
b y th e P op e from a ll o v e r E u ro p e . In th e six te en th c e n tu r y
B o h e m ia b e c a m e a p a rt o f th e H a b s b u rg e m p ire , a n d a fte r 1620
w as su b je cte d to a process o f re lig io u s p e rsecu tio n a n d ge rm a n isa -
tion . N o t u n til th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y d id a C z e c h n a tio n a l
r e v iv a l b e g in , a n d in d e p e n d e n c e w as restored b y th e co lla p se o f
th e H a b s b u rg e m p ire in 19 18 . T h e S lo v a k s h a v e so m e c la im to be
con sid e re d th e d esce n d a n ts o f th e S la v s w h o e sta b lish e d a
M o ra v ia n k in g d o m in th e D a n u b e b asin in th e n in th c e n tu r y , b u t
th e a rriv a l o f th e H u n g a ria n c o n q u e ro rs a t th e e n d o f th a t c e n ­
tu ry en g u lfe d th em . T h e y re m a in e d su b je cts o f H u n g a r y , w ith o u t
a n y n a tio n a l se lf-g o v e rn m e n t, u n til 19 18 . T h e n , on th e g ro u n d s o f
th eir close a ffin ity w ith th e C z e c h s, a n d so m e w h a t v a g u e pro m ises
o f a u to n o m y m a d e b y th e P ittsb u rg h a g r e e m e n t ,1 th e ir p o litic a l
le a d e rs a g re e d to form a c o m m o n sta te w ith th em .
T h e H u n g a ria n s e n tered C e n tr a l E u ro p e a t th e en d o f the
n in th c e n tu r y , an d c o n q u e re d th e S la v k in g d o m o f M o r a v ia ,
w h ic h th en o c c u p ie d th e m id d le D a n u b e v a lle y . In th e y e a r 1000
th e ir k in g a c c e p te d th e C a t h o lic form o f C h r is tia n ity , a n d his
successors took th eir p la c e a m o n g th e e stab lish e d C h r is tia n ru lers
o f m e d ie v a l E u ro p e . N o th in g re m a in e d o f th e ir A s ia tic o rig in b u t
th eir la n g u a g e . T h e k in g d o m o f H u n g a r y w as n o t co n fin e d to th e
a re a in h a b ite d b y p e o p le w h o sp o k e th e H u n g a r ia n la n g u a g e ,
b u t w as e x te n d e d b y c o n q u e st to th e n a tu ra l b o u n d a rie s o f th e
C e n tr a l E u ro p e a n p la in — th e C a r p a th ia n s , th e riv e r S a v a a n d th e
footh ills o f th e A lp s. T h u s for a th o u san d y e a rs H u n g a r y h as c u t
th e S la v b lo c k in tw o , s e p a ra tin g th e C z e c h s , P oles a n d S lo v a k s
in th e n o rth from th e S erb s, C r o a ts a n d S lo v e n e s in th e sou th .
W ith in its fro n tie rs w ere la rg e n u m b e rs o f R u m a n ia n s , C r o a ts a n d
S lo v a k s, w h o w e re tre a te d as su b je c t n atio n s. B y th e tre a ty o f
T r ia n o n o f 1920, H u n g a r y w as re d u c e d to a te rrito r y w h ic h w as
su ppo sed to co rresp o n d to th a t in h a b ite d b y H u n g a ria n s , b u t
w h ic h in fa c t left som e th re e m illio n H u n g a ria n s as su b je cts o f
n e ig h b o u r states.

1 T h e a g re em en t sign ed in 19 18 in P itts b u rg h b y P rofessor T . G . M a s a ry k (la te r

P residen t o f C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ) a n d re p re sen tativ es o f th e S lo v a k e m ig ra n ts in the
U n ite d S tates. T h e a g re e m e n t p ro m ised se lf-g o v ern m en t for S lo v a k s w it h in th e n ew
re p u b lic , b u t th e term s w ere not m a d e c le a r. A c c u s a tio n s o f b ad fa ith w e re su b ­
se q u e n tly m ad e b y b o th sides.
 THE SOCI A L S T RU C T U RE 3
T h e R u m a n ia n s a re th e d esce n d a n ts o f th e D a c ia n s, a p e o p le
w h o w e re co n q u e r e d b y th e R o m a n s in th e secon d c e n tu r y a . d .,
a n d u n d e r R o m a n ru le a c c e p te d L a tin as th eir la n g u a g e . A fte r the
d e p a r tu r e o f th e R o m a n s, th e c o u n tr y w as c o n q u e r e d in tu rn b y
S la v s, H u n g a ria n s , M o n g o ls a n d T u r k s . B u t th ro u g h o u t th e c e n ­
tu ries o f fo reig n ru le , th e p e o p le k ep t th eir s e p a ra te n a tio n a l
c h a r a c te r . T h e ir la n g u a g e to -d a y , in sp ite o f m a n y S la v a n d o th er
w o rd s, re m a in s p r e d o m in a n tly L a tin in b o th v o c a b u la r y an d
s tru c tu re . T h e c h ie f c u ltu r a l a n d relig io u s in flu en ces in R u m a n ia n
h isto ry h a v e b e e n B y z a n tin e , a n d to -d a y th e m a jo rity o f R u m a n ­
ia n s b e lo n g to th e O r t h o d o x C h u r c h . T h e o n ly e x c e p tio n to this
w as th e im p o rta n t U n ia te fr a c tio n a m o n g th e R u m a n ia n s o f
T r a n s y lv a n ia .1 D u r in g th e M id d le A g e s th ere w e re p erio d s w h en
th e R u m a n ia n p r in c ip a litie s o f M o ld a v ia a n d W a lla c h ia w ere
in d e p e n d e n t, b u t in th e six te en th c e n tu r y th e y w e re c o n q u e re d
b y th e T u r k s , w h o ru le d th e m d ir e c tly o r in d ire c tly for o v e r th ree
h u n d r e d years.
T h e S o u th S la v s se ttle d in th e B a lk a n s in th e sixth a n d seven th
ce n tu rie s, a t a tim e w h e n th e B y z a n tin e e m p ire w as w e a k e n e d b y
w ars in th e E ast. T h e S lo v e n e s p e n e tra te d fa r in to A u stria , b u t
w e re d r iv e n b a c k b y C h a rle s th e G r e a t a n d his successors to th eir
p resen t h o m e a t th e n o rth -e a st c o rn e r o f th e A d r ia tic . T h e y n e ve r
h ad a n in d e p e n d e n t S ta te o f th e ir o w n , b u t w e re ru le d b y A u stria
r ig h t u p to 19 18 . T h e C r o a ts fo u n d ed a sta te in th e n in th c e n ­
tu ry , a n d h a d in d e p e n d e n t re la tio n s w ith V e n ic e a n d C o n ­
s ta n tin o p le . In th e tw e lfth c e n tu r y C r o a tia w as c o n q u e r e d b y the
H u n g a r ia n s , a n d in c o rp o ra te d , w ith a m ea su re o f a u to n o m y , in
th e k in g d o m o f H u n g a r y . B oth th e S lo v e n e s a n d th e C r o a ts
a c c e p tc d C h r is t ia n it y fro m R o m e , a n d u n til 19 18 w e re lin k ed
m o re c lo se ly w ith C a t h o lic C e n tr a l E u ro p e th a n w ith th e B alkan s.
T h e S e rb s w e re c o n v e r te d to C h r is tia n ity b y em issaries from
th e S o u th , fro m C o n s ta n tin o p le , a n d h a v e re m ain e d sin ce th en
a n O r t h o d o x n a tio n . T h e m a in in flu e n ce s in th eir h isto ry h a v e
b e e n B y z a n tin e ra th e r th a n w e ste rn . T h e y h a d an in d e p e n d e n t
sta te fo r som e ce n tu rie s, a n d w e re for a b r ie f p erio d th e stron gest
p o w e r in th e B a lk a n s. In th e fifteen th c e n tu r y th e y w e re fin a lly
c o n q u e r e d b y th e T u r k s . T h e B u lg a ria n s a re a lso O r th o d o x , an d
ł T h e U n ia t e C h u r c h w as fo u n d e d in ea stern P o la n d at th e en d o f th e sixteen th
c e n tu r y , anti in tro d u c e d in T r a n s y lv a n ia in th e e ig h te e n th . It w as h ie ra rc h ic a lly
su b o rd in a te to th e P o p e , b u t its priests w e re a llo w e d to m a rry a n d it c o u ld use the
lo c a l la n g u a g e s in c h u r c h se rvices in stea d o f I.a tin . T h e p u rp o se o f its fo u n d a tio n w as
to w in o v e r th e p e o p le o f th e R u m a n ia n a n d R u ssia n b o rd e rla n d s to R o m e . In fact it
c a m e to b e a c e n tre o f U k r a in ia n a n d R u m a n ia n n a tio n a lism , d ire cte d as m u ch
a g a in st P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y as a g a in st R u ssia . S ee also b e lo w , p p . 289 90.
4 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
w e re still m o re p r o fo u n d ly in flu e n ce d b y B y z a n tin e c u ltu r e th an
th e S erb s. T h e first B u lg a ria n sta te w as fo u n d e d in th e n in th
c e n tu r y b y a c o n q u e r in g M o n g o l trib e c a lle d B u lg a rs, w h o su b ­
s e q u e n tly a c c e p te d th e la n g u a g e a n d cu stom s o f th e S la v in ­
h a b ita n ts w h o m th e y fou n d on th e ir a r r iv a l, w h o h a d th em selv es
o c c u p ie d th e .c o u n tr y som e ce n tu rie s e a rlie r. M e d ie v a l B u lg a ria
e n jo y e d se v eral b r ie f p e rio d s o f civ ilisa tio n an d m ilita r y p o w e r.
It w as c o n q u e re d b y th e T u r k s a few y ears e a r lie r th a n S e rb ia .
T h e G ree k s h a v e o f co u rse a fa r lo n g e r a n d m o re g lo rio u s h isto ry
th an a n y o th e r E ast E u ro p e a n p e o p le . T h e y w e re th e d o m in ­
a n t n a tio n o f th e B y z a n tin e e m p ire , w h o se th o u s a n d -y e a r ru le
w as b ro u g h t to a n en d b y th e T u rk is h co n q u e st o f C o n s ta n tin o p le
in 1453. U n d e r th e T u rk is h re g im e th e G re e k s e n jo y e d m o re rig h ts
th an th e B a lk a n S la v s. T h e y c o n tro lle d th e h ig h e r offices in th e
O r th o d o x C h u r c h , a n d also p la y e d a la rg e p a rt in th e c o m m e rc e
o f th e T u rk is h e m p ire . T h e A lb a n ia n s a re p r o b a b ly th e m ost
d ire ct d esce n d a n ts o f th e Illy ria n s o f R o m a n tim es. T h e ir c o u n try
w as ru le d in tu rn b y m a n y d iffe re n t c o n q u e ro rs, u n til it fell to
th e T u rk s in 1467 a fte r a fierce resistan ce led b y th e n a tio n a l
h e ro S k a n d c rb e g . A fte r th e T u rk is h c o n q u e st th e m a jo rity o f th e
A lb a n ia n s b e c a m e M o slem s. C a th o lic a n d O r t h o d o x m in o ritie s
also exist in n o rth a n d sou th re sp e ctiv e ly .
T h e T u rk is h e m p ire in E u ro p e fell g r a d u a lly to p ieces d u r in g th e
n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . T h e S erb s re v o lte d in 1804, a n d th e G re e k s
d id th e sam e in th e tw en ties. T h e R u m a n ia n s a n d B u lg a ria n s
g o t th eir in d e p e n d e n c e in th e seco n d h a lf o f th e c e n tu r y , less b y
th e ir o w n effo rts th a n as a resu lt o f w ars b e tw e e n R u ssia a n d
T u r k e y . M a c e d o n ia re m a in e d in th e O t to m a n e m p ire till 19 12 ,
w h e n it b e ca m e th e o b je c t o f d isp u tes b e tw e e n B u lg a ria , S e rb ia
a n d G r e e c e . A lb a n ia w a s m a d e a n in d e p e n d e n t sta te b y a g r e e ­
m en t b e tw e e n th e G r e a t P o w e rs in 19 13 .
In C e n tr a l E u ro p e , th e H u n g a ria n s o b ta in e d m ost o f th e
su b stan ce o f in d e p e n d e n c e b y th e C o m p r o m is e o f 1867 w ith
E m p e ro r F ra n c is J o s e p h . U n d e r th e ‘ D u a l S y s t e m ’ w h ic h it
e stab lish e d , A u s tria a n d H u n g a r y h a d se p a ra te g o v e rn m e n ts.
E a ch c o n tro lle d in te rn a l a ffa irs w ith in its o w n te rrito r y , w h ile
fo reig n p o lic y an d m ilita r y a ffa irs w e re c o n d u c te d in c o m m o n fo r
th e w h o le e m p ire . U n d e r th is system th e G e rm a n s a n d H u n ­
ga ria n s w e re p r iv ile g e d n atio n s, a n d th e R u m a n ia n s a n d S la v s
h a d an in fe rio r statu s. T h e co lla p se in th e F irst W o rld W a r o f th e
th re e e m p ires o f G e r m a n y , R u ssia a n d A u s tr ia m a d e p ossib le th e
re sto ra tio n o f P o la n d . T h e d isin te g ra tio n o f A u s tr ia a lso a llo w e d
L a n d o v e r 3,000 ft.
is in d ic a te d by
d o tte d areas.

POLAND AND CZECH O SLO V A K IA

6 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
th e C z e c h s to form a n e w sta te to g e th e r w ith th e S lo v a k s, w h o h a d
b e en su b je c t to H u n g a r y . R u m a n ia w a s a b le to a n n e x T r a n s y l­
v a n ia , B u k o v in a a n d p a rt o f th e B a n a t fro m A u s t r ia - H u n g a r y , a n d
B essa rab ia from R u s s ia .1 F ro m th e so u th ern te rrito ries o f A u stria -
H u n g a r y w a s fo rm ed th e n e w sta te o f Y u g o s la v ia , w h ic h also
a b so rb ed M o n te n e g ro . T h e c re a tio n o f Y u g o s la v ia w a s th e resu lt
o f a m o v e m e n t w h ic h h a d g ro w n stro n g d u r in g th e last d e c a d e s
o f th e H a b s b u rg e m p ire , a n d w h ic h a im e d a t th e c re a tio n o f a
s in g le sta te o f a ll th e S o u th S la v n a tio n s, o n a b asis o f e q u a l
fe d e ra l rig h ts for e a c h n a tio n . T h is c o n c e p tio n w a s o p p o se d b y th e
le a d in g p o litic ia n s in B e lg ra d e , w h o w ish e d in ste ad to c re a te a
‘ G r e a te r S e r b ia ’ , a te rrito ria l e x te n sio n o f th e p r e - w a r k in g d o m .

T H E R U L IN G CLASSES
T h e r u lin g class o f th e E ast E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s on th e e v e o f
th e S e co n d W o r ld W a r w a s c o m p o se d o f fo u r e le m e n ts in v a r y in g
m ixtu re s— la n d o w n e rs, business m en , b u re a u c ra ts a n d in te lle c ­
tu als.
In P o la n d , in th e p r e -1 9 1 8 K in g d o m o f H u n g a r y , a n d in
R u m a n ia , b ig la n d o w n e rs w e re b o th p o litic a lly a n d e c o n o m ic a lly
p o w e rfu l. U p to th e e n d o f th e F irst W o r ld W a r th e y w e re th e
c h ie f cle m en t in th e r u lin g class. F o rm a l serfd o m w as a b o lish e d in
th e m id d le o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , b u t th e d e p e n d e n c e o f th e
p ea san ts o n th e la n d o w n e rs w as o n ly slig h tly r e d u c e d , as th ere
w as n o la rg e -sc a le re d istrib u tio n o f la n d . W h e n A m e r ic a n ce re a ls
b e g a n serio u sly to c o m p e te in th e E u ro p e a n m a rk e t, in th e th ird
q u a r te r o f th e n in e te e n th cen tury', m a n y P o lish , H u n g a r ia n a n d
R u m a n ia n la n d e d e states w e re ru in e d . A la rg e p a rt o f th e ‘ g e n t r y ’
(ow n ers o f a few’ h u n d re d s o f acres) sold th e ir la n d , a n d w e n t to
th e tow n s, w h e r e th e y e n tered th e c iv il se rv ic e o r free profession s,
o r b e c a m e p rofession al a r m y officers. T h e ir la n d w as a c q u ire d ,
p a r tly b y th e ‘ m a g n a te s ’ (o w n e rs o f th o u san d s, o r tens o f
th o u san d s, o f a c re s), a n d p a r tly b y th e b a n k s .2 T h e s e c h a n g e s d id

1 T h e s e reg ion s a r e sh o w n o n th e m a p o n p p . 8 -9 . In b o th T r a n s y lv a n ia a n d the

B a n a t, w h ic h h a d b ee n p a rt o f H u n g a r y fo r ce n tu ries , th e R u m a n ia n s w e r e th e m o st
n u m ero u s n a t io n a lity , w h ile H u n g a ria n s a n d G e rm a n s fo rm e d c o n s id e ra b le m in o r­
ities. T h e p o p u la tio n o f B u k o v in a w as p a rt ly R u m a n ia n a n d p a rtly U k r a in ia n . In
B e ssa rab ia th e R u m a n ia n s w e re th e m o st n u m e ro u s n a t io n a lity , fo llo w e d b y U k r a in ­
ians, R u ssia n s, B u lg a ria n s, G e rm a n s a n d T u rk s . N o rth e rn B e ssa ra b ia h a d bee n
a c q u ir e d b y R u ssia fro m T u r k e y in 18 12 , S o u th e rn B e ssa ra b ia in 18 78. F o r fu rth e r
h isto ric al a n d eth n ic a l d e ta ils see R . W . S e to n -W a tso n , History o f the Rumanians, a n d
M a c a r tn e y , Hungary and fur Successors.
* A n e x c e p tio n to this sta te m e n t is G a lic ia , w h e re a la r g e p a rt o f th e la n d so ld b y
im p o v erish ed P o lish la n d o w n e rs p assed in to th e h a n d s o f P o lish p ea san ts. S e c W a r -
rin e r, The Economics o f Peasant Fanning, p p . 2 2 -3 .
 T H E S OCI AL STRUCTURE 7
n o t le a d to a n y m a rk e d class co n flic t b e tw e e n th e m a g n a te s an d
th e g e n tr y , th o u g h this m ig h t h a v e b e en e x p e c te d on p u re ly
e c o n o m ic g ro u n d s. B o th b e lo n g e d to th e sa m e tra d itio n a l aris­
t o c r a c y , a n d h a d a sim ila r h isto ry a n d e d u c a tio n . T h e y w ere
in te rm a rrie d , a n d tre a te d e a c h o th e r as so cia l e q u a ls. T h e a ris­
to c r a c y co n sid e re d its e lf a sin g le class. T h e c h ild re n o f th e g e n try
w h o h a d settled in th e tow n s k e p t th e a risto c ra tic m e n ta lity o f
th e ir fa th e rs. T h o u g h th e ir e c o n o m ic p o sition w as th a t o f a
m id d le class, th e ir m e n ta lity w as d iffe re n t from th a t o f e ith e r th e
W e st E u ro p e a n o r th e B a lk a n b o u rg e o isie .
A fte r th e F irst W o rld W a r , la n d reform s w e re c a rrie d o u t in
R u m a n ia , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d Y u g o s la v ia . T h e la n d o w n in g class
lost th e e c o n o m ic basis o f th e ir p o litic a l p o w e r. T h e p o litic a l basis
w a s a t th e sa m e tim e re m o v e d b y th e in tro d u c tio n o f u n ive rsa l
su ffra g e . T h e resu lt o f th ese m easu res w as th a t th e la n d o w n e rs
b e c a m e a sm a ll a n d r e la tiv e ly u n in flu e n tia l e le m e n t in th e ru lin g
classes o f Y u g o s la v ia a n d R u m a n ia . In P o la n d , la n d refo rm w as
on a m o re m o d e st sc a le , a n d w ith th e p assage o f tim e th e p a c e o f
r e d istrib u tio n w a s slo w ed u p . In H u n g a r y o n ly a sm all p a rt o f
th e la n d c h a n g e d h an d s. T h u s in b o th these co u n trie s la n d o w n e rs
c o n tin u e d to p la y an im p o rta n t p a rt in p o litics. P o w e r w as in
e ffe c t sh a re d b e tw e e n th e g re a t la n d o w n e rs a n d th e a risto cra tic
m id d le cla ss d e s c rib e d a b o v e . E v e n in R u m a n ia an d C r o a t ia th e
a ris to c ra tic o rig in o f a p o rtio n o f th e m id d le class h ad p o litic a l
a n d c u lt u r a l effects.
In th e B a lk a n s la n d o w n e rs w e re u n im p o rta n t eve n b efore 1918 .
In S e r b ia a n d B u lg a r ia th e n a tiv e fe u d a l a risto c ra c y w as d estro yed
b y th e in v a d in g T u r k s in th e fifteen th c e n tu ry . T h e T u rk s th e m ­
selves cre a te d n o h e re d ita ry la n d o w n in g class. S u c h la n d as w as
in th e possession o f T u r k is h p ash as o r b eys a t th e tim e o f lib e ra ­
tio n w a s d iv id e d a m o n g S e rb ia n o r B u lg a ria n p easan ts. In
G r e e c e la r g e estates h ad s lig h tly m o re im p o rta n c e , b u t a reform
c a rrie d o u t b y V e n iz e lo s on th e e v e o f th e F irst W o rld W a r w e n t
fa r tow 'ards e lim in a tin g th em . In A lb a n ia a class o f b ig la n d ­
o w n e rs fo rm e d a p se u d o -fe u d a l r u lin g class in th e so u th ern , or
T o s k , p ro v in c e s, w h ile th e n o rth e rn ers, o r G h e g s, w e re o rg an ise d
o n a trib a l basis s o m e w h a t sim ila r to th e S co ttish clan s.
A n E ast E u ro p e a n business class c a m e in to b e in g to w a rd s the
e n d o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . T h e e arliest in d u stria l ce n tre s w ere
W a r s a w , L o d z a n d D o m b ro w a -S ilc s ia in P o la n d , th e C z e c h lan d s,
a n d B u d a p e st. A C z e c h b u sin ess class g r e w u p in B o h e m ia an d
M o r a v ia in c o m p e titio n w ith th e G e r m a n from th e en d o f the
 S O U T H -E A S I
T h e n am es o f to w n s g iv e n a re those o ffic ia lly u sed b
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th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f th e res p ectiv e c o u n tries. T h e fo llo w in g
Ú jv id é k N e u s a tz ; K is h in y o v : G h iţin â u .
10 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . In P o la n d a n d H u n g a r y , th e first b u sin ess m en
ten d ed to b e J e w s o r G e rm a n s. P oles b e g a n to e n te r b u sin ess
sh o rtly b efo re th e F irst W o rld W a r , p a r tic u la r ly in th e p ro v in ce s
ru le d b y P russia. H u n g a r ia n J e w ish in d u stria lists a n d b a n k e rs to
som e e x te n t in te rm a rrie d w ith th e H u n g a r ia n la n d o w n in g fa m ilie s
a n d h ad a sh a re in th e ir p o litic a l p o w e r, th o u g h th e y w e re seld om
p ro m in e n t in p u b lic life. It w as n ot u n til a fte r th e F irst W o rld W a r
th a t e th n ic H u n g a ria n s b e g a n to g o in to business in c o n sid e ra b le
n u m b ers. B o th Polish a n d H u n g a r ia n b u sin ess m en th u s fo u n d
th em selves in d ire c t e c o n o m ic c o n flic t w ith th e J e w s . T h is g a v e a
stro n g stim ulus to a n ti-se m itism , w h ic h u n til th en h a d b e e n m a in ly
a n in te lle c tu a l a n d re lig io u s p h e n o m e n o n , w ith a c e rta in m a te ria l
basis in th e fo rm o f r iv a lr y in th e free professions. In th e th irtie s th e
g ro w th o f e th n ic P olish a n d H u n g a ria n business classes w a s ra p id
an d w as a c c o m p a n ie d b y th e sp re ad o f fascist id eas. T h e process
w as e n c o u ra g e d b y th e go v e rn m e n ts, a n d a fo rm o f S ta te c a p it a l­
ism c a m e in to b e in g , u n d e r w h ic h it w as h a rd to sa y w h e th e r th e
p o liticia n s c o n tro lle d o r w e re co n tro lle d b y th e n e w b u sin ess m en .
In C z e c h o s lo v a k ia th e J e w ish e le m e n t w as to o sm a ll to p r o d u c e
these effects, a n d th e p o litic a l tra d itio n s o f th e C z e c h p e o p le w e re
o p p osed to a n ti-sem itism . T h e C z e c h business class g re w in
n u m b e rs an d p ro d u c e d its o w n w e a lth y c a p ita lists. B u t th e b a la n c e
o f so cia l classes a n d th e d e m o c ra tic o u tlo o k o f th e n a tio n m a d e th e
C z e c h b o u rg e o isie re se m b le th a t o f W e ste rn E u ro p e r a th e r th a n o f
n e ig h b o u r in g co u n trie s.
R u m a n ia n d e v e lo p m e n t resem b led th a t o f P o la n d a n d H u n ­
g a ry , b u t a t a m ore p r im itiv e le v el. In 19 18 m ost o f R u m a n ia n
in d u stry a n d b a n k in g w as in J e w ish h a n d s, b u t c e rta in e th n ic
R u m a n ia n fa m ilies, m o stly o f ‘ g e n t r y ’ o rig in a n d c o n n e c te d w ith
th e d o m in a n t L ib e r a l P a rty , p la y e d a n im p o rta n t p a rt. T h e
fo llo w in g tw e n ty y ears b ro u g h t a fu rth e r in flu x o f e th n ic R u m a n ­
ian s in to business, o f w h o m m a n y w e re o f h u m b le r so c ia l o rig in
(for in sta n ce , sons o f sm a ll o fficials o r o f w e a lth y p e a sa n ts), a n d
from the n e w ly a c q u ire d p ro v in c e s (e sp e c ia lly T r a n s y lv a n ia a n d
B u k o v in a ). T h e ir c o m p e titio n w ith J e w ish business led to v io le n t
a n ti-se m itism . In R u m a n ia , as in P o la n d an d H u n g a r y , th£
g o v e rn m e n ts o f th e th irties h ad a p o lic y o f S ta te c a p ita lis m , w h ic h
fa v o u re d e s p e c ia lly m e ta llu rg ic a l, c h e m ic a l a n d e n g in e e r in g
h e a v y in d u s t r y .1 O n th e e v e o f th e S e c o n d W o r ld W a r th e
interests o f th e S ta te an d o f b ig b u sin ess w e re h a r d ly s e p a ra b le .

1 T h e so cial a n d p o litica l effe cts o f this ec o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t are discu ssed in a

w o rk b y the C o m m u n ist in te lle c tu a l P â trâ ş c a n u , Sub trei dictaturi ( B u c a re s t, 19 4 5 ).
 THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE II
T h e b u sin ess cla ss o f S e rb ia a n d B u lg a ria w as o f m o re recen t
g ro w th . I t w as d e r iv e d fro m th e w e a lth y pea san ts, p ig -d ca lers,
m o n e y le n d e rs a n d c ra ftsm e n o f th e v illa g e s an d sm all tow n s. A t
th e en d o f th e last c e n tu r y c o n ta c ts b e tw e e n these e lem en ts an d
w estern b u sin ess in terests (A u stria n , G e r m a n , F re n c h and
B ritish ) d e v e lo p e d , a n d s o m e th in g lik e a c a p ita list class c a m e in to
b e in g . A fte r 1 9 1 8 th e c o m p a r a tiv e ly la rg e sta te Y u g o s la v ia
o ffe re d n e w o p p o rtu n itie s o f e n ric h m e n t to th e S e rb ia n business
m en , w h o tried to use p o litic a l p o w e r to im p o se th e ir w ill on th e
o ld e r b o u rg e o isie o f C r o a t ia . In B u lg a ria , im p o ve rish ed b y d efeat,
th ere w e r e fe w e r p rize s to be w o n . T h e A lb a n ia n b o u rge o isie h ad
n o t a d v a n c e d b e y o n d th e v illa g e sh o p k e e p e r o r u su rer stage.
G r e e k c a p ita lis m w as m u c h o ld e r : in a sense it m a y b e said to go
b a c k to B y z a n tin e o r e v e n cla ssica l tim es. I t w as b ase d m a in ly on
im p o rt a n d e x p o rt business, an d on sh ip p in g . A fte r 1 91 3 a to b a c c o
in d u s tr y g r e w r a p id ly in M a c e d o n ia a n d T h r a c e , a n d a fte r the
F irst W o r ld W a r fa cto rie s sp r a n g u p in th e A th e n s -P e ir a e u s
a n d S a lo n ic a areas.
A n im p o rta n t e le m e n t in th e r u lin g classes w e re th e h ead s o f
th e b u r e a u c r a c y . T h e P o lish b u r e a u c r a c y w as based 011 a m ix tu re
o f R u ssia n , P russian a n d A u s tria n tra d itio n s, w ith th e first on th e
w h o le p r e d o m in a tin g . T h e C z e c h s h a d b een tra in ed in the
A u s tr ia n sch o o l. H u n g a r ia n a n d C r o a tia n officials o w e d so m e­
t h in g to A u s tria n a n d so m e th in g to o rie n ta l m o d els, w h ile the
b u r e a u c r a tic tra d itio n s o f G r e e c e , R u m a n ia , S e rb ia an d B u lg a ria
w e re e n tire ly T u r k is h . C o r r u p tio n w as u n d o u b te d ly w id esp re a d in
E ast E u ro p e a n b u r e a u c r a c y . A t th e lo w lev els it w as d u e to b ad
p a y , w h ic h m a d e it a lm o st im p o ssib le fo r o fficials, w ith fam ilies to
s u p p o rt, to refu se b rib e s fo r m in o r transgression s of th e la w . A t
th e to p , c o r r u p tio n to ok th e form o f e m b e z zle m e n t b y m inisters
o r se n io r o fficials o f ‘ d is c re tio n a r y fu n d s ', sale o f fa v o u ra b le
ta riffs to fo reig n b u sin ess in terests, la rg e b rib e s from e m p lo y e rs
to la b o u r in sp ecto rs, a n d sim ila r abuses.
A se co n d u n p le a s a n t c h a ra c te ristic o f b u r e a u c r a c y w as b r u ta l­
ity . P e a sa n ts w e re o fte n ro b b e d a n d b e a te n b y ge n d a rm e s. In
th e p rison s to rtu re w as w id e ly u sed , p a r tic u la r ly fo r p o litic a l
o ffen ce s. E v e n w h e n b u re a u c ra ts w e re n o t g u ilty o f p h y sica l
v io le n c e , th e y sh o w e d a n u tte r c o n tc m p t fo r ‘ th e m asses’ . O n ly
to o fr e q u e n tly th e m a in a m b itio n o f th e p e a sa n t’s son w h o
o b ta in e d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n w as to se cu re a p la c e in som e sort o f
g o v e r n m e n t e m p lo y m e n t, w h e re h e w o u ld b e a b le to p a ra d e his
s u p e rio r ity o v e r th e p e o p le o f his n a tiv e v illa g e . T h e b u re a u c ra c y
12 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
w as e n o rm o u sly in fla te d to g iv e jo b s o f this k in d , b u t in th e slu m p
o f th e th irties th e strain w as to o m u c h for it. T h e r e w e re th en
th o u san d s o f ‘ u n e m p lo y e d in te lle c tu a ls ’ , w h o fo rm e d a n im p o r­
ta n t e le m e n t o f in sta b ility in D a n u b ia n p o litic s .1
T h e profession al class o r ‘ in te llig e n ts ia ’ w a s n o t s tric tly a
s e p a ra te class. P a rt o f it b e lo n g e d to th e r u lin g class, a n d p a rt
p ro v id e d th e n earest e q u iv a le n t in E astern E u ro p e to a ‘ m id d le
cla s s ’ o f a w estern ty p e . B efore 19 18 th e in te llig e n tsia o f P o la n d ,
H u n g a r y an d R u m a n ia w as re c ru ite d p a r tly fro m th e J e w ish
p o p u la tio n a n d p a r tly from fo r m e rly la n d o w n in g ‘ g e n t r y ’
fam ilies. A fte r 19 18 th e g r e a t d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o p u la r e d u c a tio n
o p e n e d it to sons o f p easan ts, sm all o fficials a n d sk ille d w o rk e rs.
T h e a cce s sib ility to th e m asses o f th e e d u c a tio n la d d e r— th e m ain
m ean s o f risin g in to th e ru lin g class— v a rie d b e tw e e n c o u n trie s.
It w as least in H u n g a r y a n d g re a te st in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . T h e
e d u c a tio n system o f th e B a lk a n co u n trie s h a d a lr e a d y b e fo re 19 18
b een c o m p a r a tiv e ly ‘ d e m o c r a t ic ’ in th e sense o f o p p o r tu n ity , an d
this w as s till-m o re th e ca se a fte rw a rd s. B u t th ro u g h o u t E astern
E u ro p e it w as o f co u rse m o re d ifficu lt fo r c h ild re n o f w o rk e rs o r o f
p o o r p easan ts to rise th a n fo r th ose m o re fa v o u r a b ly p la c e d , a n d
th e d ep ressio n o f th e th irties m a d e th in g s still w o rse. T h e q u a lit y
o f e d u c a tio n v a rie d g re a tly . I t w a s h igh est in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia a n d
P o la n d , p r o b a b ly low est in R u m a n ia .2 T h e le a d in g u n ive rsities
o f a ll co u n trie s m a in ta in e d a fa irly h ig h sta n d a rd , b u t in th e
v illa g e sch ools te a c h in g a ll to o o ften d e g e n e ra te d to th e th re e R ’ s
p lu s a tr a in in g in n a tio n a l h a tre d .
H ig h e r e d u c a tio n h a d h ig h p restige in E astern E u r o p e . E v e n
b u re a u c ra ts w e cc n ot a sh a m e d , b u t h o n o u re d , to c a ll th e m ­
selves ‘ in te lle c tu a ls ’ . I t w as e sp e c ia lly v a lu a b le to p u t ‘ D r . ’
b e fo re o n e ’s n a m e . L a w y e r s a n d professors w e re p r o m in e n t in
p o litics, b o th in th e p se u d o -d e m o c ra tic p e rio d o f p a r ty p o litics
a n d u n d e r th e d ic ta to rs h ip s w h ic h re p la c e d th em . A p a r t fro m
those w h o b e c a m e p u b lic p o litic a l fig u res, th e r e w e re m a n y
o th ers w h o se task it w as to p r o d u c e le g a l a n d id e o lo g ic a l th eories
to ju s tify th e p o lic y a n d m eth o d s o f th e v a rio u s regim es. B u t th e
in te llig e n tsia w as a lso a re v o lu tio n a ry fo rce . It w a s th ro u g h it th a t
fo reig n p o litic a l id eas re a c h e d E astern E u ro p e . In th e n in e te e n th
1 It is o n ly fa ir to a d d th a t this g lo o m y p ic tu re is not a p p lic a b le to C z e c h o s lo v a k ia ,
w ho se b u rra u c ra ts w e re o n th e w h o le b o th honest a n d h u m a n e .
* R u m a n ia n u n iv ersitie s o f co u rse p ro d u c e d so m e first-class a n d m a n y co m p e te n t
g ra d u a te s . But th e p re v a le n c e o f fascist a n d an ti-se m itic to u g h s, se ek in g n o t k n o w le d g e
b u t an o p p o r tu n ity to b e a t u p J e w is h stu d en ts o r sh o p k ee p ers, w a s a b lo t o n th e
R u m a n ia n e d u c a tio n syste m . T h e sa m e p h e n o m en o n w a s also fo u n d to so m e e x te n t
in P o la n d . C h a u v in is t p ro p a g a n d a passed fo r te a c h in g o f h isto ry in th e g re a te r p a rt o f
d ie B a lk a n p e n in su la as w ell.
 THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE I3
c e n tu r y , stu d e n ts w h o visite d F ra n c e o r G e r m a n y b ro u g h t b a c k
w ith th e m th e id eas o f lib e ra lism a n d n a tio n a lism , w h ic h p ro ­
fo u n d ly a ffe c te d th e ir c o u n trie s’ d e v e lo p m e n t. A fte r 19 18 it w as
th ro u g h th e y o u n g e r g e n e ra tio n o f th e in te llig e n tsia th a t c o m ­
m u n ism , a n d la te r fascism , sp re ad in E astern E u ro p e .
T h e E a st E u ro p e a n in te llig e n tsia aro se fro m c o n ta c t w ith th e
W e st. S c ie n tific d isco v erie s, lite ra ry a n d artistic in flu e n ce s, and
th e m a in p o litic a l id e a s, c a m e from F ra n c e , G e r m a n y o r th e
A n g lo -S a x o n c o u n trie s. E ast E u ro p e a n in te lie c tu a ls felt th e m ­
selves to b e p a rt o f a sin g le E u ro p e a n c u ltu r e , a n d th e ir a m b itio n
w a s to b e a c c e p te d as e q u a ls b y th e ir w e ste rn co lle a g u e s— as
in d e e d m a n y o f th e m fu lly d e se rv e d to b e. B u t i f th e E ast E u ro ­
p e a n in te lle c tu a ls w e re w estern in o u tlo o k , this c a n n o t b e said o f
th e ir p e o p les as a w h o le . T h e so cia l s tru c tu re o f E astern E u ro p e
m o re clo se ly re se m b le d th a t o f R u ssia , o r e v e n o f A s ia tic co u n trie s,
th a n t h a t o f F ra n c e , B rita in or G e r m a n y . T h is w ill b e seen b y a
b r ie f d e s c rip tio n o f th e p e a s a n try a n d w o rk in g class.

PE A SA N TS A N D W O R K E R S

E aste rn E u ro p e is still a p r e d o m in a n tly a g r ic u ltu r a l regio n .

In th e th irties th e p e a sa n try fo rm e d fifty to e ig h ty p e r c e n t o f
th e p o p u la tio n in a ll co u n trie s o f th e re gio n e x c e p t C z e c h o ­
slo v a k ia . 1
B e fo re 19 18 th e a g r ic u ltu r e o f P o la n d , A u s tr ia - H u n g a r y a n d
th e o ld k in g d o m o f R u m a n ia w'as la r g e ly b ased on g re a t la n d e d
e states, w h ile in th e B a lk a n s sm all h o ld in g s p r e v a ile d . A fte r 1918
less th a n o n e m illio n a cres w e re re d istrib u te d in ru m p H u n g a ry ,
w h ic h left m ost o f th e g re a t estates a lm o st o r c o m p le te ly in ta c t.
In P o la n d , d isa g re e m e n t b e tw e e n th e p o litic a l pa rties re ta rd e d
th e e x e c u tio n o f l a n d re fo rm , a n d in th e th irties su ch d istrib u tio n
as h a d b e en d e c id e d w as still fu rth e r d e la y e d . B e tw ee n 1921 a n d
1937 a b o u t six m illio n a cres w e re d iv id e d u p. In R u m a n ia m ore
th a n ten m illio n acres w e re tra n sfe rre d from b ig la n d o w n e rs to
p e a san ts. In th e fo llo w in g tw e n ty y ears it is tru e th a t m a n y o f
th e n e w o w n e rs w e re c o m p e lle d b y e c o n o m ic pressure to sell th eir
la n d , o f w h ic h so m e fo u n d its w a y b a c k to th e o ld la n d o w n e rs,
a n d som e w a s a c q u ire d b y w e a lt h y peasan ts, w h o b e g a n to
c o n stitu te a n e w class o f la n d o w n e rs. N e v e rth e le ss th e con trasts
in th e size o f h o ld in g s w e re v e r y m u c h sm a ller in R u m a n ia th an
1 A p p r o x im a t e fig u res for th e p ro p o rtio n o f p ea san ts in th e th irties a r e : 34 p e r c e n t o f
th e p o p u la tio n in C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , 55 p e r ce n t in H u n g a r y , 50 p er ce n t in G re e c e ,
6 3 p e r ce n t in P o la n d , 75 p e r c e n t in Y u g o s la v ia , 78 p er c r n t in R u m a n ia , a n d 80 per
c e n t in B u lg a ria .
14 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
in H u n g a r y o r P o la n d . In Y u g o s la v ia a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia fa irly
ra d ic a l la n d reform s also too k p la c e . I t is p r o b a b le th a t a sim ila r
process o c c u rre d a fte r th e refo rm as in R u m a n ia , b u t this c a n n o t
be sta ted w ith c e rta in ty o w in g to th e a b se n c e o f re c e n t statistics.
B u lg a ria a n d G r e e c e w e re a lr e a d y c o u n trie s o f sm a ll h o ld in g s. In
A lb a n ia la rg e estates c o n tin u e d to exist in th e so u th ern p ro v in ce s.
T h e so cia l a n d e c o n o m ic p ro b lem s o f th e p e a s a n try d iffe re d in
th e tw o ty p e s o f so c ie ty — th e refo rm ed a n d th e u n re fo rm e d — a n d
d ese rve b r ie f se p a ra te c o n sid e ra tio n .
In H u n g a r y a n d P o la n d th ere w a s a la rg e class o f la n d less
a g r ic u ltu r a l w o rk ers. S o m e o f these w e re c a su a l la b o u re rs, w h o
fou n d e m p lo y m e n t d u r in g th e seasons o f g re a te st a g r ic u ltu r a l
a c tiv ity , an d w e re g iv e n lo w m o n e y w a g e s s u p p le m e n te d b y som e
p a y m e n t in g ra in . F o r a la rg e p a rt o f th e y e a r th e y w e re u n e m ­
p lo y e d , a n d d rifte d ro u n d th e c o u n tr y in se a rch o f w o rk . O th e r s
w e re estate servan ts p e rm a n e n tly e m p lo y e d in th e v a rio u s jo b s
c o n n e cte d w ith th e u p k e e p o f th e b ig estates. T h e y h a d th e
a d v a n ta g e o f a c e rta in m in im u m se c u rity , b u t e n jo y e d less p e r­
son al free d o m . O n so m e estates h o u sin g a n d n o u rish m e n t w e re
e x tr e m e ly b a d .
T w o fea tu res o f this system a re w o rth stressing. O n e w a s th e
e xisten ce of a p e rm a n e n t reserve o f a g r ic u ltu r a l la b o u r , w h ic h th e
la n d lo rd s used to k ee p d o w n w ag es. T h e p o litic a l p o w e r o f th e
la n d lo rd s e n a b le d th em to som e e x te n t to p re v e n t this su p e rflu o u s
la b o u r from b e in g w h o lly a b so rb e d b y in d u str y . T h e o th e r fe a tu r e
w as th e w eakn ess o r a b se n ce o f a g r ic u ltu r a l w o rk e rs’ tra d e u n ion s.
In H u n g a r y su ch u n io n s h a d b e e n fo u n d e d in th e 1890’ s, w h e n
th e y ca rrie d o u t ‘ h a rv e st strik e s’ w h ic h serio u sly a la rm e d th e
g o v e rn m e n t.1 S p e c ia l le g is la tio n h ad th en b e e n in tro d u c e d to
p re v e n t strikes o f la n d la b o u re rs. A ft e r th e c o u n te r -r e v o lu tio n
o f 19 J9 tra d e u n io n a c tiv ity in th e v illa g e s w a s m a d e q u ite
im p o ssib le. In P o la n d sim ila r u n ion s a p p e a r e d in 1919.® T h e y
w e re to so m e e x te n t led b y co m m u n ists, a n d a fte r th e w a r o f
1920 w ith th e S o v ie t U n io n th e a u th o ritie s te n d e d to tre a t th e m
as su b v e rs iv e o rg a n isa tio n s.
O n th e e v e o f th e S e c o n d W o rld W a r th ere w a s c o n s id e ra b le
pressure b y p u b lic o p in io n in b o th H u n g a r y a n d P o la n d in fa v o u r
o f la n d refo rm . Its o p p o n e n ts trie d to ju s tify th e ir a ttitu d e b y
e c o n o m ic a rg u m e n ts, in sistin g th a t a re fo rm w o u ld d a n g e ro u sly
1 S e e K o v á c s , A néma forradalom (‘ T h e S ile n t R e v o lu t io n ’ } (B u d a p e st 19 3 7 ).
* S ee a rtic le b y M isk o in Vofnosy Istorii, th e S o v ie t h isto ric a l jo u r n a l, o f O c to b e r
1948, en title d ‘ R e v o lu tsio n n fo e d v iz h e jn ie v P o lsh i v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 g o d a h ’ . ( ‘ T h e R e v o lu ­
tio n a ry M o v e m e n t in P o la n d in 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 ’ .)
 THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE 15

d islo c a te p r o d u c tio n . T h e r e w as o f co u rse so m e fo rce in these

a rg u m e n ts. B u t th e so cia l a n d p o litic a l d isco n te n t ca u se d b y the
g r e a t co n tra sts in w e a lth re p resen te d a still m o re serio u s d a n g e r.
L a n d re fo rm c o u ld o n ly b e a step fo r w a rd : it c o u ld n ot solve
th e p ro b le m s o f th e p easan ts. T h is w as sh o w n b y th e e x p e rie n c e
o f th e B a lk a n c o u n trie s an d o f R u m a n ia . T h e n e w o w n e rs o f lan d
re c e iv e d little h e lp fro m th e g o v e rn m e n ts. T h e y w e re p o o rly
su p p lie d wi t h liv e sto c k a n d e v e n w ith essen tial a g r ic u ltu r a l tools.
C r e d it w a s h a rd to g e t, a n d m a n y p ea san ts b e c a m e h e a v ily
in d e b te d to v illa g e u su rers o r b an k s. T e c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n w'as
n e g le c te d . S o n s o f p ea san ts w h o o b ta in e d h ig h e r e d u c a tio n o n ly
to o o fte n stu d ied la w , settled d o w n in th e to w n s a n d c u t th e m ­
selves o f f fro m p e a sa n t life. T h e r e w as a sh o rta g e o f tra in ed
a g r ic u lt u r a l e n g in e ers. C o -o p e r a tiv e s w e re m a n a g e d b y th e pros­
p e ro u s m in o r ity o f th e p ea san ts in th e ir o w n in terests, a n d w e re o f
little use to th e sm a llh o ld e rs.
T h e s e fa cto rs w e a k e n e d th e sm a llh o ld e rs a lr e a d y in th e 1920 ’s:
w ith th e slu m p o f th e th irtie s th e ir p lig h t b e c a m e d esp e ra te .
A g r ic u lt u r a l p rices fell m o re ste e p ly , a n d re c o v e re d m o re slo w ly ,
th a n th ose o f in d u stria l g o o d s. T h e few essen tial th in g s w h ic h the
p e a sa n ts h a d to b u y in th e to w n s— salt, o il, so m e a rticle s o f
c lo t h in g — b e c a m e in to le r a b ly e x p e n s iv e . T h e b u rd e n o f d eb ts and
o f ta x a tio n w as e n o rm o u s ly in cre a se d .
O n th e e v e o f th e w a r , b e tw e e n tw o -th ird s a n d th re e-q u a rte rs
o f th e p e a san ts o f E a ste rn E u ro p e w e re sm a llh o ld e rs, w h o se la n d
w a s in su ffic ien t to s u p p o rt th e ir fa m ilies. T h e fu n d a m e n ta l
p r o b le m w a s o v e r p o p u la tio n . T h e g e n e ra l d e n sity o f p o p u la tio n
in a n y o f th ese c o u n trie s w as v e r y m u c h sm a lle r th an in W e ste rn
E u r o p e . B u t th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le e n g a g e d in a g ric u ltu re p er
u n it o f a g r ic u ltu r a l la n d w a s v e r y m u c h h ig h e r. G r a n te d th e low
le v e l o f in d u stria lisa tio n a n d th e b a c k w a r d m eth od s o f a g r ic u l­
tu re , E a ste rn E u ro p e w as o v e r p o p u la te d . T h e y ie ld o f cro p s w as
lo w , a n d h a d m a d e v e r y little pro gress fo r th e p r e c e d in g fifty years.
In e x istin g circ u m sta n c e s th ere w as n o t e n o u g h la n d to g o ro u n d ,
a n d th ere w a s n o t e n o u g h w o rk fo r th e p o p u la tio n liv in g on the
la n d . O n a g iv e n u n it o f la n d in Y u g o s la v ia , R u m a n ia o r B u lg a ria
th re e tim es as m a n y p e o p le p r o d u c e d th re e tim es less th an in
D e n m a r k .1 O n e o r tw o m em b e rs o f th e a v e r a g e sm a llh o ld e r

1 D e n s ity o f a g r ic u lt u r a l p o p u la tio n w as 36 6 p er sq u a re k ilo m e tre in D e n m a rk .

1 16*3 in R u m a n ia , 15 7 4 in Y u g o s la v ia . O u tp u t o f w h e a t p er h e c ta re in q u in ta ls
w as 29*2 in D e n m a rk , 9*1 in R u m a n ia , 11 in Y u g o s la v ia . I hese fig u res co m e from
M a d g r a r u , Eivlutia economia romănefti, 1940. T h e y a re o f co u rse a p p ro x im a te , as b o th
p o p u la tio n a n d o u tp u t c h a n g e d y e a r b y y e a r. But th e y g iv e a s u b sta n tia lly tru e p ic tu re .
l6 THE EAST E U R O P E A N REVOLUTION
fa m ily w e re o b lig e d to seek w o rk o n th e la n d o f a la r g e r h o ld in g
o r in in d u stry . M a n y fa iled fo r lo n g p erio d s to fin d su ch w o rk .
V e r y few p ea san ts w e re c o m p le te ly u n e m p lo y e d , in th e sense in
w h ic h w o rk ers in in d u stria l ce n tre s m a y b e u n e m p lo y e d . B u t
a lm o st e v e ry p e a san t from th e sm a llh o ld e r class w a s p e rm a n e n tly
u n d e r-e m p lo y e d . E x p e rts c a lc u la te d th a t b e tw e e n o n e -th ird an d
o n e -h a lf o f th e la b o u r p o w e r o f th e v illa g e s w a s su p e rflu o u s.
W ith th e best w ill in th e w o rld , it w a s d iffic u lt to find a so lu tio n
to this p ro b le m , an d im p o ssib le to d ev ise a ra p id o n e. L o n g -te rm
results c o u ld b e h o p e d from a g e n e ra l im p ro v e m e n t o f m eth o d s o f
a g ric u ltu re . S u c h im p ro v e m e n t re q u ire d a g re a t in cre a se o f
te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n , pro visio n b y th e S ta te o f c h e a p c re d it
fa cilitie s a n d tools, n e w ro a d s a n d r a ilw a y s , d r a in a g e a n d ir r ig a ­
tion sch em es, re g r o u p in g o f strip h o ld in g s in to e c o n o m ic a lly
w o rk a b le u n its, a n d th e o rg a n isa tio n o f m u c h m o re e ffic ien t a n d
fa r-re a c h in g form s o f co -o p e ra tiv e s. I m p r o v e m e n t o f a g r ic u ltu r a l
m eth od s w o u ld m a k e possib le sp e c ia lisa tio n in m o re v a lu a b le
cro p s, su ch as v e g e ta b le oils, in d u stria l p la n ts o r fo d d e r , th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f liv estock a n d d a ir y p r o d u c e , a n d a re d u c tio n
o f th e h ith e rto e xcessive c u ltiv a tio n o f cere als. S id e b y sid e w ith
th ese m easu res in a g ric u ltu re , it w as essen tial to d e v e lo p in d u stry .
A n d this m e a n t a c a re fu l p la n n in g o f a v a ila b le resou rces, a n d th e
c re a tio n o f su ch in d u stries as c o u ld b e b ase d o n n a tiv e ra w
m ate ria ls, p ro v id e so m e o f th e n eed s o f th e h o m e m a rk e t, a n d
a ffo rd e m p lo y m e n t to a n in c re a sin g p r o p o rtio n o f th e excess
p o p u la tio n o f th e v illa g e s.
T h e need fo r su ch an a g r ic u ltu r a l an d in d u stria l p o lic y w as
u n iv e rsa lly re co gn ise d in E a ste rn E u ro p e b e tw e e n th e tw o W o rld
W a rs, b u t v e r y little w as a c h ie v e d . I n d u stry m a d e co n sid e ra b le
progress, b u t in h a p h a z a r d fash io n . I t w as d e te rm in e d ra th e r b y
th e w ishes o f foreign c a p ita l interests th a n b y th e c o u n t r y ’s re a l
n eed s. T h e s e o f co u rse often , b u t b y n o m ean s a lw a y s , c o in ­
c id e d . T h e a g r ic u ltu r a l p o lic y o f th e g o v e rn m e n ts w as m a in ly d e ­
v o te d to th e p ro te c tio n o f th e m in o r ity ( 15 -2 0 p e r c e n t) o f m e d iu m
fa rm ers, w h o p ro d u c e d fo r th e b ig in te rn a l m ark e ts a n d fo r e x p o rt
tra d e , a n d n e g le cte d th e sm a llh o ld e rs. F o r in sta n c e , in Y u g o s la v ia
a p o lic y o f h igh g ra in p rices b e n e fited th e m e d iu m fa rm ers o f th e
g r a in -g ro w in g p ro v in c e s o f S la v o n ia a n d V o iv o d in a , b u t h a rm e d
th e sm a llh o ld e rs o f th e w o o d e d a n d m o u n ta in o u s d istricts o f
B osn ia , D a lm a tia o r M o n te n e g ro , w h o h a d to b u y th e ir fo o d .
B u t th e m e d iu m farm ers h a d m o re in flu e n c e in th e p o litic a l
p a rtie s, a n d so w e re a b le to e x e rcise m o re pressu re on th e g o v e rn -
 THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE 17

m en ts th a n th e sm a llh o ld e rs. M o st o f th e tim e th e go v e rn m e n ts

h ad n o sy ste m a tic a g r ic u ltu r a l p o lic y . T h e y c o n fin e d th em selves to
c a r r y in g o n ‘ s o m e h o w ’ a n d m a k in g d e m a g o g ic speech es a b o u t
th e stern solid v irtu e s o f th e so u n d p e a sa n try . B u t w h e n th e y d id
try to fo r m u la te a co n sisten t p o lic y , fo r in sta n ce K in g C a r o l’ s
g o v e rn m e n ts in 19 3 8 -4 0 in R u m a n ia , th e ir a im seem ed to b e to
c r e a te a s tro n g y e o m a n fa rm e r class, o w n in g from 25 to 120 acres
o f la n d . In this th e y w e re fo llo w in g th e p o lic y o f th e Im p e ria l
R u ssia n sta te sm a n S to ly p in , o r o f H it le r ’s M in iste r o f A g r ic u ltu r e
W a lte r D a r r e . B u t i f a g r ic u ltu r e w a s to b e b ased on h o ld in g s o f this
size, w h a t w as to h a p p e n to th e m a jo rity o f th e p e a sa n try for
w h o m th ere w o u ld b e n o la n d ? T h e go v e rn m e n ts h ad n o a n sw er.
S p o k e sm e n sh o o k th e ir h e ad s sa d ly , m u rm u re d a b o u t in d u stry ,
a n d left it a t th a t.
A ll g o v e rn m e n ts w e re a g re e d in d e te sta tio n o f a p o lic y o f
c o - o p e r a tiv e c u ltiv a tio n . Y e t th ere w o u ld a p p e a r to be m u c h to
be said fo r c o -o p e ra tiv e fa rm in g in these c o u n trie s, a t least in th e
g r a in -g r o w in g p la in la n d s. It w o u ld m a k e possible a ra tio n a l use o f
m a c h in e r y , a n d p r e v e n t th e e x p lo ita tio n o f th e p o o re r p easan ts b y
th e w e a lth ie r. S u c h a p o lic y w o u ld h o w e v e r o n ly w in p o p u la r
su p p o rt i f it w e re p u rsu e d w ith o u t th e in ju stices a n d excesses
w h ic h o c c u rre d in R u ssia in 19 2 9 -3 3 .
L a n d re fo rm c o n tin u e d to b e th e d esire o f th e H u n g a ria n an d
P o lish p e a san ts, m a n y o f w h o m d id n ot th in k fu rth e r a h e a d . In
th e B a lk a n co u n trie s th e m ise ry o f th e th irties b ro u g h t a g re a t
d isillu sio n m e n t to th ose w h o h a d e x p e c te d g re a t th in gs o f th e la n d
refo rm s. B u t th e r e a c tio n o f th e p e a sa n ts to p o v e rty an d u n d e r­
e m p lo y m e n t v a rie d a c c o r d in g to th e g e n e ra tio n . T h e o ld e r m en
te n d e d to re g a rd th e ir m isfo rtu n es as te m p o ra r y a n d a b n o rm a l,
a n d to h o p e fo r a re tu rn o f th e b e tte r tim es th e y h a d k n o w n . T h e
y o u n g e r m en , w h o h a d n e v e r k n o w n a n y th in g b u t m isery,
re g a rd e d it as n o rm a l, a n d w e re m o re in c lin e d to a ttr ib u te it to a
fa u lt in th e w h o le so cia l system . T h e y listen ed w ith g re a te r sy m ­
p a th y th an th e ir fa th e rs to r e v o lu tio n a ry p r o p a g a n d a .
A se p a ra te w o r k in g class, w ith a m o d e o f life a n d o u tlo o k q u ite
d is tin c t fro m th ose o f b o u rg e o isie o r p e a sa n try , w as an im p o rta n t
fa c to r in W e ste rn an d C e n t r a l P o la n d , in th e C z e c h la n d s, and
in B u d a p e st. In a ll th ese re gio n s tra d e u n io n s w e re firm ly e sta b ­
lish ed b y 19 18 , a n d e v e n in th e fa ce o f p o lic e pressure b e tw e e n
th e w a rs th e y k e p t th e ir h o ld o n th e w o rk e rs. In th e so u th -ea stern
c o u n trie s in d u s tr y w a s less a d v a n c e d , b u t it w as g r o w in g q u ic k ly .
R u m a n ia w as a h e a d o f h e r so u th ern n e ig h b o u rs. T h e p e tro leu m