Toxicity of Pesticides

Pesticides are designed to control pests, but they can also be toxic (poisonous) to desirable plants
and animals, including humans. Some pesticides are so highly toxic that very small quantities
can kill a person, and almost any pesticide can make people ill if they are exposed to a sufficient
amount. Because even fairly safe pesticides can irritate the skin, eyes, nose, or mouth, it is a
good idea to understand how pesticides can be toxic so you can follow practices designed to
reduce or eliminate your exposure and the exposure of others to them.

Toxicity
Toxicity refers to the ability of a substance to produce adverse effects. These adverse effects may
range from slight symptoms such as headaches to severe symptoms like coma, convulsions, or
death. Poisons work by altering normal body functions.

Toxicity is usually divided into two types, acute or chronic, based on the number of exposures to
a poison and the time it takes for toxic symptoms to develop. Acute toxicity is due to short-term
exposure and happens within a relatively short period of time, whereas chronic toxicity is due to
repeated or long-term exposure and happens over a longer period.

Acute Toxicity
The acute toxicity of a chemical refers to its ability to do systemic damage as a result of a one-
time exposure to relatively large amounts of the chemical. A pesticide with a high acute toxicity
may be deadly if even a very small amount is absorbed. Acute toxicity may be measured as acute
oral (through the mouth), acute dermal (through the skin) and acute inhalation (through the lungs
or respiratory system).

Chronic Toxicity
Chronic toxicity refers to harmful effects produced by long-term exposure to pesticides. Less is
known about the chronic toxicity of pesticides than is known about their acute toxicity, not
because it is of less importance, but because chronic toxicity is gradual rather than immediate
and is revealed in much more complex and subtle ways. While situations resulting in acute
exposure (a single large exposure) do occur, they are nearly always the result of an accident or
careless handling.

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HOW TOXICITY IS MEASURED
All new pesticides are tested to establish the type of toxicity and the dose necessary to produce a
measurable toxic reaction. In order to compare the results of toxicity tests done in different labs,
there are strict testing procedures. Toxicity testing is extensive (involving many phases) and
therefore expensive. Humans, obviously, cannot be used as test subjects, so toxicity testing is
done with animals and plants. Since different species of animals respond differently to
chemicals, a new chemical is generally tested in mice, rats, rabbits, and dogs. The results of these
toxicity tests are used to predict the safety of the new chemical to humans.

Toxicity tests are based on two premises. The first premise is that information about toxicity in
animals can be used to predict toxicity in humans. Years of experience have shown that toxicity
data obtained from a number of animal species can be useful in predicting human toxicity, while
data obtained from a single species may be inaccurate. The second premise is that by exposing
animals to large doses of a chemical for short periods of time, we can predict human toxicity
from exposure to small doses for long periods of time. Both premises have been questioned.

Acute Toxicity Measures

The commonly used term to describe acute toxicity is LD50. LD means lethal dose (deadly
amount) and the subscript 50 means that the dose was acutely lethal to 50% of the animals to
whom the chemical was administered under controlled laboratory conditions. The test animals
are given specific amounts of the chemical in either one oral dose or by a single injection, and
are then observed for a specified time.

The lower the LD50 value, the more acutely toxic the pesticide. Therefore, a pesticide with an
oral LD50 of 500 mg/kg would be much less toxic than a pesticide with an LD50 of 5 mg/kg.
LD50 values are expressed as milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), which means milligrams of
chemical per kilogram of body weight of the animal. Milligram (mg) and kilogram (kg) are
metric units of weight. LD50 values are generally expressed on the basis of active ingredient. In
some cases, other chemicals mixed with the active ingredient for formulating the pesticide
product may cause the toxicity to differ from that of the active ingredient alone.

Acute inhalation toxicity is measured by LC50. LC means lethal concentration. Concentration is

used instead of dose because the amount of pesticide inhaled in the air is being measured. LC50

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values are measured in milligrams per liter. Liters are metric units of volume similar to a quart.
The lower the LC50 value, the more poisonous the pesticide.
Chronic Toxicity Measures
There is no standard measure like the LD50 for chronic toxicity. How chronic toxicity of
chemicals is studied depends upon the adverse effect being studied. Chronic adverse effects may
include carcinogenic effects (cancers), teratogenic effects (birth defects), mutagenic effects
(genetic mutations), hemotoxic effects (blood disorders), endocrine disruption (hormonal
problems), and reproductive toxicity (infertility or sterility).

Carcinogenesis (Oncogenesis)
Carcinogenesis means the production of malignant tumors. Oncogenesis is a generic term
meaning the production of tumors which may or may not be carcinogenic. The terms tumor,
cancer, or neoplasm are all used to mean an uncontrolled progressive growth of cells. In medical
terminology, a cancer is considered a malignant (potentially lethal) neoplasm. Carcinogenic or
oncogenic substances are substances that can cause the production of tumors. Examples are
asbestos and cigarette smoke. Several organophosphorus insecticides have been have been
shown to be carcinogens. Both the herbicide impurity tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD)nand
maleic hydrazide have been shown to be carcinogenic in mice and rats.

Teratogenesis
Teratogenesis is the production of birth defects. A teratogen is anything that is capable of
producing changes in the structure or function of an embryo or fetus exposed before birth. An
example of a chemical teratogen is the drug thalidomide, which caused birth defects in children
when their mothers used it during their pregnancies. Measles virus infection during pregnancy
has teratogenic effects. First or second trimester exposure to individual pesticides (e.g.,
glyphosates, paraquat, imidacloprid) were associated with a small increase (3⁻7%) in risk for
preterm birth.

Mutagenesis
Mutagenesis is the production of changes in genetic structure. A mutagen is a substance that
causes a genetic change. Many mutagenic substances are oncogenic, meaning they also produce

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tumors. Many oncogenic substances are also mutagens. Several
organophosphorus insecticides have been shown to be mutagens.
Hemotoxic Effects
Some pesticides can cause blood disorders. Hemotoxins destroy red blood cells,
disrupt blood clotting, and/or cause organ degeneration and generalized tissue damage.
Endocrine Disruption
Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) are compounds that alter the normal functioning of the
endocrine system of both wildlife and humans. A huge number of chemicals have been identified
as endocrine disruptors, among them several pesticides.
Reproductive Toxicity
Some chemicals have effects on the fertility or reproductive rates of animals. Males or females
can be affected.

Human Pesticide Exposure

There are three ways in which pesticides can enter the human body:
1. through the skin or eyes (dermal),
2. through the mouth (oral) and
3. through the lungs (respiratory or inhalation).
1. Through the skin or eyes /Dermal Exposure
Skin Exposure
In typical work situations, skin absorption is the most common route of pesticide poisoning.
Absorption will continue as long as the pesticide remains in contact with the skin. The rate of
absorption is different for each part of the body. The head (especially the scalp and ear canal)
and the genital areas are particularly vulnerable. Absorption may occur as a result of a splash,
spill or drift when mixing, loading or applying a pesticide. Applicators may also be exposed to
residues on application equipment, protective clothing or treated surfaces after pesticide
application. Following exposure, residues can also be transferred from one part of the body to
another. A cut or skin abrasion can greatly increase pesticide absorption.
The dermal toxicity of a pesticide depends on the pesticide formulation, the area of the body
contaminated and the duration of the exposure. In general, liquids are more easily absorbed
through the skin than wettable powders or granules. The hazard from skin absorption increases

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when workers are mixing pesticides because they are handling concentrated pesticides that
contain a high percentage of active ingredient.

Protect yourself from dermal exposure. Follow these guidelines:

1. Wear protective clothing and equipment when using pesticides or repairing contaminated
equipment.
2. Spray during periods when there is little or no wind.
3. Do not re-enter a sprayed field without protective clothing.
4. If your clothes become contaminated, change immediately. Wash affected areas of the skin.
5. Change clothes as part of the clean-up after pesticide use at the end of the day.
6. Wash and shower after using pesticides.
7. Wear clean clothes at the start of each day during pesticide application.

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Eye Exposure
The tissues of the eyes are particularly absorbent. Enough pesticide can be absorbed through the
eyes to result in serious or fatal poisoning. In addition, some pesticides may cause chemical
injury to the eye itself. Eye protection is needed when measuring or mixing concentrated or
highly toxic pesticides. Protective face shields or goggles should be worn whenever there is a
chance that pesticide sprays or dusts may come in contact with the eyes.
Protect yourself from eye exposure. Follow these guidelines:
1. Always wear eye protection when you measure or mix pesticides.
2. Always wear eye protection when pesticide sprays or dusts may contact your eyes.
3. Do not wipe your eyes with contaminated gloves or hands.
4. Be prepared to respond to accidental eye exposure quickly.
2. Through the mouth /Oral Exposure
Pesticides taken through the mouth result in the most severe poisoning, compared to other types
of exposure. Pesticides can be ingested by accident, through carelessness, or intentionally. The
most frequent cases of accidental oral exposure are those in which pesticides have been stored in
an unlabelled bottle or food container. There are many cases where people, especially children,
have been poisoned by drinking pesticides from a soft drink bottle. People have also been
poisoned by drinking water stored in contaminated containers. Workers handling pesticides or
application equipment can also consume excessive levels of pesticides if they do not wash their
hands before eating or smoking.

Protect yourself from oral exposure. Follow these guidelines:

1. Always store pesticides in their original labeled containers.
2. Never put pesticides in an unlabelled bottle or food container.
3. Never use your mouth to clear a spray hose or nozzle, or to begin siphoning a pesticide.
4. Always wash after handling pesticides and before eating, drinking, smoking, or using the
toilet.
5. Never leave pesticides unattended.

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6. Avoid splashes or dusts when mixing pesticides.
3. Through the Lungs
Respiratory Exposure

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Certain pesticides may be inhaled in sufficient amounts to cause serious damage to nose, throat
and lung tissues, or to be absorbed through the lungs into the bloodstream. Vapours and very
small particles pose the most serious risks. The hazard of poisoning from respiratory exposure is
great because of the rapid and complete absorption of pesticides through lung tissues. Lungs may
be exposed to pesticides by inhalation of powders, airborne droplets or vapours. Working with
wettable powders can be hazardous because the powder may be inhaled during mixing
operations and usually contains concentrated pesticide active ingredient. The hazard from
inhalation of pesticide spray droplets is fairly low when dilute sprays are being applied with
conventional low pressure application equipment. This is because most droplets are too large to
remain airborne and be inhaled. However, when high pressures are used or ultra-low volume
(ULV) or fogging equipment are used, the potential for respiratory exposure is increased. The
droplets produced during these operations are in the mist or fog size-range and can be carried on
air currents for a considerable distance.
Many pesticides give off a vapour when exposed to air. As temperatures increase, vapour levels
of many pesticides increase. Fumigants are used because their toxic vapours are desirable for
pest control. They also have the highest hazard with respect to worker exposure to vapours.
Some non-fumigant pesticides are toxic to pests as liquid or solid formulations, but also give off
vapours which could be toxic to applicators or bystanders. The hazard is greatest in enclosed
spaces where there is little air movement. Many pesticides that produce vapours provide a
warning of their presence by their smell or by causing irritation of the eyes, nose and throat.
However, some pesticide vapours have little smell and provide little warning of their presence.
Pesticides with high vapour hazards will have label directions to use respiratory protection
equipment.

Protect yourself from respiratory exposure. Follow these guidelines:

1. Wear an appropriate and properly fitting respirator:
1. If it is required on the label;
2. If pesticides are used or mixed in poorly ventilated areas;
3. If there is a possibility of inhaling spray droplets, vapour, or powder.

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2. Do not re-enter a treated area too soon. Follow the re-entry guidelines on the label.
3. Ventilate greenhouses or enclosed structures after pesticide application, before re-entry.
4. Do not apply pesticides when air temperatures are above 30°C.

Toxicity of pesticides can vary depending on the type of exposure; dermal, oral or respiratory
(inhalation), but it is important to remember that, in each case, the danger usually increases as
concentration and duration of exposure increases. The longer a pesticide remains on the skin or
in eyes, or the longer it is inhaled, the greater the damage that is likely to result.

Nagina Naveed Riaz Lecturer in Chemistry UE Vehari Campus