Energy 60 (2013) 1e12

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Review

Prediction, operations, and condition monitoring in wind energy

Andrew Kusiak a, *, Zijun Zhang b, Anoop Verma c
a
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 3131 Seamans Center, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242e1527, USA
b
Department of Systems Engineering and Engineering Management, P6600, 6/F, Academic 1, City University of Hong Kong,
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
c
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, NY 14260, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Recent developments in wind energy research including wind speed prediction, wind turbine control,
Received 18 February 2013 operations of hybrid power systems, as well as condition monitoring and fault detection are surveyed.
Received in revised form Approaches based on statistics, physics, and data mining for wind speed prediction at different time
27 June 2013
scales are reviewed. Comparative analysis of prediction results reported in the literature is presented.
Accepted 24 July 2013
Available online 23 August 2013
Studies of classical and intelligent control of wind turbines involving different objectives and strategies
are reported. Models for planning operations of different hybrid power systems including wind gener-
ation for various objectives are addressed. Methodologies for condition monitoring and fault detection
Keywords:
Wind energy
are discussed. Future research directions in wind energy are proposed.
Wind speed prediction Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Wind turbine control
Condition monitoring and fault detection

1. Introduction deployed in different regions [8,9] can also be observed in the

A rapid expansion of wind energy [1,2] has led to new challenges
in turbine control, plant operations, production planning, condition
monitoring, and maintenance. Advances in research over the past
years have provided numerous solutions to different problems. The
research has focused on variability of wind speed, increase of power
generation efficiency, and reduction of the generation cost. The
need to review and organize the generated knowledge is apparent.
Greater understanding of the developed models and techniques
could positively impact future of wind energy research.
A number of review papers in wind energy have been published.
Weisser and Garcia [3] surveyed wind-diesel hybrid systems and
discussed their challenges. Ackermann and Soder [4] presented
historical developments of wind energy technology including is-
sues in wind turbines and wind projects. Joselin Herbert et al. [5]
provided a survey paper covers wind resource assessment, site
selection, and aerodynamic models, including wake effects. Foley
et al. [6] addressed concepts and techniques applied to wind power
forecasting. De La Salle et al. [7] reviewed wind turbine control
systems developed before 1990. Review of wind energy technology
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: andrew-kusiak@uiowa.edu (A. Kusiak), zijzhang@cityu.edu.hk
(Z. Zhang), anoopver@buffalo.edu (A. Verma).
literature.
In the previous studies, the survey focused more on a specific
area in wind industry while the description of a larger map of wind
energy research is rare. This paper aims to survey a wider scope of
recent progress in developing models, methods, and techniques in
key areas of wind energy such as wind speed prediction, wind
turbine control, operation of hybrid power systems, condition
monitoring, and fault detection.
2. Wind speed prediction
Determining the power generated by wind turbines at future
times is important for unit commitment planning and maintenance
scheduling. Wind speed must be predicted to estimate wind power
generation capacity. Prediction (forecasting) of wind speed at three
time scales, short-, medium-, and long-term, is discussed. Short-
term prediction aims at estimating wind speed at time intervals
such as 10-sec or 10-min [10e12]. Medium-term wind speed pre-
diction studies usually focus on hourly predictions [13e15], and
long-term wind speed prediction involves days [16e18]. Short-
term wind speed prediction is important to control of wind tur-
bines [19]. Medium-term wind speed prediction supports unit
commitment planning [19]. Long-term wind speed prediction is
used in determining generation mix and scheduled maintenance of
power systems [19]. Various approaches to wind speed prediction

0360-5442/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.07.051
2 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12
Nomenclature
v wind speed value
c autoregressive (AR) coefficients
t the current time
m the number of prediction steps
I the order index of the AR process
N the largest order index
E the error (white noise)
s the moving trend of wind speed
q the moving average coefficient
p the order of the autoregressive process
at different time scales have been developed in the past two de-
cades. In Section 2.1 wind speed prediction methods are surveyed.
The existing wind speed prediction studies are summarized in
Section 2.2.
2.1. Prediction methods
Wind speed prediction methods can be grouped into four cat-
egories, statistical, physics-based, data mining, and hybrid
methods.
2.1.1. Statistical methods
Several variations of the AR (autoregressive) method [20e22]
are used in wind speed prediction. Brown et al. [23] published
one of the earliest studies of modeling and prediction of wind
speed with the AR method. The main goal of the study in Ref. [23]
was to recognize several basic features of wind speed, such as
autocorrelation, non-Gaussian distribution and diurnal non-
stationarity. The general AR model for predicting wind speed was
expressed in (1).
X
N
vt ¼ ct;i vti þ εt ; t ¼ N þ T; N þ 2T; .; N þ mT
i¼1
To predict wind speed based on (1), the order of AR process, i,
needs to be determined. In the case study of [23], AR with i ¼ 1
and i ¼ 2 were compared in hourly wind speed prediction. As
reported in Refs. [23], AR with i ¼ 2 provided lower residuals
than AR with i ¼ 1. Yule-Walker recursion [24] was utilized to
estimate the AR coefficients. The AR method was extended to
improve accuracy of wind speed prediction. Bossanyi [12] com-
bined the AR method with Kalman filters to predict wind speed.
The AR method without the error term, ε in (1), was considered
as a persistence method and compared with the approach pro-
posed by Bossanyi where the Kalman filter recursively estimated
AR coefficients based on updated measurements of the wind
speed.
Huang and Chalabi [25] modified the AR wind speed prediction
model by adding s. The modified AR model is expressed as:
X
N speed in an exact time window. Therefore, the NWP model was
vt ¼ ct;i vti þ st þ εt
i¼1
The Kalman filter was also utilized to estimate the AR co-
efficients and the order of AR is set to 2 in Ref. [25]. An ARMA
(autoregressive and moving average) model was introduced by
Kamal and Jafri [26] to predict wind speed in 1997. The ARMA wind
speed prediction model is formulated as (3).
q the order of the moving average process
P the generated power
r the air density
R the rotor radius
Cp($) the power coefficient
b the blade pitch angle
l the tip speed ratio
u the shaft speed
xc a set of controllable variables
xnc a set of non-controllable variables
fA($) the data-driven model trained by algorithm A
X
p
 
vt  m ¼ ct;i ðvti  mÞ þ εt þ q1 ðεt1 þ q2 ðεt1 ÞÞ þ . þ qq εtq
i¼1
(3)
where q1 ðεt1 þ q2 ðεt1 ÞÞ þ . þ qq ðεtq Þrepresents the moving
average process. The autoregressive coefficients, ct,i, were esti-
mated based on Yule-Walker recursion [24]. The order parameters,
p and q, were determined based on plots of the estimated auto-
correlation function and partial autocorrelation function. To esti-
mate the moving average coefficients, a least squares fit was
utilized. The ARMA model was also extended to predict both wind
speed and direction [19,27,28].
The presented AR and its extensions emphasized short- and
medium-term wind speed prediction. The short-term wind speed
prediction was conducted based on wind speed data measured at
second to minute intervals. The study discussed in Ref. [11] utilized
an AR-based model to perform wind speed prediction based on the
filtered second data. The proposed model was able to capture the
curvature of the wind speed. In Ref. [12], a wind speed predictions
over 5-min or 10-min intervals was examined and the results
indicated that the incorporation of AR and Kalman filter out-
performed the persistent method. Studies [23,25e29] presented
(1) medium-term wind speed predictions based on hourly data.
Application of AR-based models in forecasting wind speed hours
ahead was discussed in Refs. [25] and [29]. The results concluded
that the forecasting accuracy was decayed due to the increase of
prediction time-horizon. However, periodically adjustment of the
model could be utilized to maintain the performance of the pro-
posed models. In Refs. [23,25e29], the prediction model accuracy
was demonstrated based on different statistic metrics. However,
besides [29], the comparison between the proposed method and
other methods was rarely observed. Therefore, the real effective-
ness of the proposed methods was not explicit.
2.1.2. Physics-based methods
NWP (numerical weather prediction) models are used to predict
wind speed, temperature, pressure, and humidity. The commonly
discussed NWP model for wind speed prediction was the mesoscale
model. It was capable to offer accurate ranges of daily wind speed.
However, it usually did not provide a point-estimation of the wind
(2) incorporated with the statistical methods to produce more reliable
wind speed predictions. Zhao et al. [30] utilized the wind speed
output of the NWP model as the input to a Kalman filter to improve
wind speed prediction. Khalid and Savkin [31] applied AR model to
predict wind speed for one turbine based on the measured
wind speed data of nearby wind turbines and wind speed data from
the NWP model. Bhaskar and Singh [32] introduced an adaptive
wavelet neural network model for wind power forecasting based on
 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12
wind speed data from a NWP. Salonen et al. [33] validated the low-
level NWP wind forecast model against radar wind observations.
In the studies presented in Refs. [30e32], a two-layer structure
was employed to combine NWP and statistical models. The NWP
models provided the wind speed prediction results and then those
results were treated as inputs of the statistical models to generate
more accurate wind speed estimations. Short-, medium-, and long-
term wind speed prediction based on the physics-based method
were reported. In Ref. [31], the combination of NWP and AR model
was introduced to predict wind speed and direction based on 10-
min data. The proposed model was compared with a persistent
method and a grey predictor to prove its effectiveness. In Ref. [32],
the NWP was incorporated with NN (neural network) model to
predict hourly wind speed. A 30-h ahead forecasting was offered.
The proposed method was validated by comparing with a persis-
tent method and a new-reference model. The incorporation of NWP
and NN model was also applied to do daily wind speed prediction
[30]. The prediction results were compared with observations to
show the accuracy of the proposed model.
2.1.3. Data mining models
Besides statistical and physics-based methods, data mining has
been frequently considered for wind speed prediction. Wind speed
exhibits both linear and nonlinear characteristics. Statistical
methods usually focus on capturing the linear portion of the wind
speed data while the nonlinear part is overlooked. Data mining
methods model both linearity and nonlinearity of the wind speed.
Data mining regression algorithms, such as tree based regression
algorithms [34e37], k nearest neighbor [38], SVM (support vector
machine) regression [39,40], NN (neural network) [41e43], and
ensemble data mining algorithms [44], have been applied to wind
speed prediction. Some of the most accurate models for wind speed
prediction have been developed from NN and SVM algorithms.
The NN model was applied to short- and long-term wind speed
prediction. In short-term wind speed prediction, Kusiak and Li [45]
used wind speed measured at different turbine locations to predict
the wind speed measured at a target turbine every 10-s based on a
neural network ensemble algorithm [45]. A procedure for selecting
turbine locations across a wind farm was discussed. The Pearson’s
correlation coefficient was applied to evaluate the affinity of the
wind speed measured at different locations. Locations with high
affinity wind speed were selected to predict wind speed at the
target location. Kusiak and Zhang [10] compared various prediction
methods, including exponential smoothing, a tree based data
mining algorithm, a neural network, and support vector machines,
for 10 s ahead wind speed predictions. Multi-step wind speed
predictions for horizons up to 1 min were reported. The neural
network algorithm in Ref. [10] provided better prediction results
than other algorithms. Kusiak et al. [46] discussed a virtual sensor
to estimate wind speed at a target wind turbine with a malfunc-
tioning anemometer based on 10-s data. Residual analysis was
performed to compare the observed and estimated wind speed. The
results of residual analysis indicated whether the anemometer was
malfunctioning. This method could validate the wind speed mea-
surements or be applied to sensorless measurement. Barbounis and
Theocharis [47] published a recurrent neural network model for
wind speed prediction based on 1-min data in 2007. The accuracy
of a data mining model may suffer from limited data. The recurrent
neural network algorithm overcame this challenge by using an on-
line learning mechanism based on a recursive prediction error
approach. The multi-step ahead prediction results for horizons
from 15 min to 3 h were reported. The recurrent neural network
model performed better than the persistence model. The applica-
tions of NN in long-term prediction were generally discussed based
on daily and monthly data. Mohandes et al. [48] presented a three
3
layer feed-forward neural network model to predict wind speed. A
back propagation algorithm was used to train the neural network
model and minimize the least square error. Three activation func-
tions, hard limiter, sigmoid, and linear saturation, were utilized.
The monthly and daily wind speed prediction based on NN was
investigated. An autoregressive model was considered as a baseline
to compare with the neural network model. The test results
demonstrated that the neural network model outperformed the
autoregressive model for one-step ahead and multi-step ahead
predictions. Bilgili et al. [49] applied neural networks to predict the
monthly mean wind speed at a target wind farm based on the mean
of wind speeds measured from neighboring wind farms. The
monthly mean wind speed was calculated based on the hourly
collected wind speed data. Poitras and Cormier [50] compared a
neural network algorithm with a PSO (particle swarm optimiza-
tion) [51] based method for daily wind speed prediction over 36
months. A second order polynomial equation was used to predict
wind speed in the PSO based method. PSO was used to tune the
coefficients in the second order polynomial equation in order to
minimize the mean square error.
SVMr (support vector machine regression) is also frequently
used for wind speed prediction. The original SVM (support vector
machine) algorithm [52] was developed for two-group classifica-
tion. Drucker et al. [53] proposed a modified version of the Support
Vector Machine algorithm for regression. In Ref. [53], the label of
each instance (data point) is a real number in a regression problem
rather than classes in a classification problem. In the literature, the
SVM algorithm was applied for medium- and long-term wind
speed prediction. Salcedo-Sanz et al. [54] applied the SVMr algo-
rithm to predict wind speed at hourly intervals. Heuristic search
algorithms, the evolutionary strategy and particle swarm optimi-
zation algorithm were utilized to estimate the parameters of SVM
in Ref. [54]. Mohandes et al. [55] compared the SVMr and NN al-
gorithms for daily wind speed prediction and reported that a well-
tuned SVMr model performs better than the NN model. Ortiz-
Garcia et al. [56] presented another study on predicting hourly
wind speed by SVMr algorithm. An ensemble of different SVMr
models was investigated in Ref. [56] to develop a wind speed pre-
diction model.
Tree based regression algorithms and k nearest neighbors have
also been applied to wind speed prediction in Refs. [10,45]. Ac-
cording to [10,45], the NN and SVM models performed better than
the tree based regression algorithms and k nearest neighbors for
wind speed prediction.
2.1.4. Hybrid methods
Besides statistical, physics-based, and data mining approaches,
an ensemble of models based on algorithms of the same or different
types have been used in wind speed prediction. Hybrid methods for
medium- and long-term wind speed predictions have been pub-
lished. In medium-term prediction, Monfared et al. [57] developed a
new hybrid strategy for wind speed prediction based on Fuzzy Logic
and Neural Networks. This integrated approach provided improved
prediction results while learning time was reduced. The wind speed
data was sampled in 30-min intervals. Salcedo-Sanz et al. [58]
applied a number of NNs (neural networks) for hourly wind speed
prediction. Liu et al. [59] presented a hybrid method combining
wavelets and time series analysis to predict hourly wind speed for
small wind farms. The results published in Ref. [59] indicate that the
mean relative error of the proposed hybrid method in multi-step
prediction was smaller than the classical time series method and
the back propagation method. In long-term prediction, Guo et al.
[60] proposed a seasonal auto-regression integrated moving
average model and a least square support vector machine model for
monthly wind speed prediction in the Hexi Corridor of China. In
4 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12

Refs. [60], performance of four algorithms was studied: the single
auto-regression integrated moving average, the seasonal auto-
regression integrated moving average, the least square support
vector machine and the combination of auto-regression integrated
moving average, and least square support vector machine. Bouzgou
and Benoudjit [61] introduced a multiple architecture system con-
sisting of an ensemble of multiple linear regression, multi-layer
perceptron, radial basis function, and support vector machine, to
predict wind speed. Three types of ensemble strategies, simple
average, weighted average and non-linear combination, were
investigated. Daily wind speed data were analyzed.
2.2. Summary and discussion
Accuracy of the models developed in wind energy application is
evaluated using statistical metrics, including MSE (mean square
error), MAE (mean absolute error), MAPE (mean absolute per-
centage error), RMSE (root mean square error), NMSE (normalized
mean square error), SDAE (standard deviation of absolute error)
and SDAPE (standard deviation of absolute percentage error).
The MAE measures the absolute difference between the pre-
dicted and the observed value. MAPE depicts the percentage error
of the predicted value and 1eMAPE explicitly demonstrates
the accuracy of a prediction model. Table 1 summarizes the
MAPE of the wind speed prediction models reported in Refs.
[10,19,27,45,49,60].
In the existing literature, wind speed is measured by ane-
mometers located at the back of the nacelle which did not fully
reflect the real wind speed. The laser wind sensor [62] designed for
sensing wind speed and direction in the approaching free-stream
inflow offers more meaningful wind measurements and could be
utilized to develop more reliable wind speed prediction models.
Bossanyi [64] reviewed techniques for reduction of the wind tur-
bine load. Two control strategies were designed for different wind
speed ranges: 1) when wind speed larger than the rated value, a
pitch controller was designed to adjust the pitch angle of each
blade to limit power generation; 2) when wind speed between cut-
in and rated wind speed, a generator torque and pitch combined
controller was designed to reduce loads. Settings of generator tor-
que and blade pitch were generated based on a signal representing
the difference between the measured value and demanded value of
parameters, provided by a feedback loop. Camblong et al. [65]
designed and analyzed a discrete LQG (Linear Quadratic Gaussian)
controller which could benefits the reduction of drive train fatigue
loads of a wind turbine and the primary frequency control of the
grid. The generator torque and the pitch angle were considered as
control variables. The developed controller was tested in a simu-
lation based on Simulink. Kumar and Stol [66] applied a nonlinear
feedback linearization controller with an Extended Kalman Filter to
control wind turbines when wind speed was above the rated wind
speed. A LQR (linear quadratic regulator) was compared with the
proposed controller. Superior rotor speed regulation was observed
to be provided by the proposed controller when wind speed was
close to the rated wind speed. Arrigan et al. [67] studied control of
flapwise vibrations of wind turbine blades by installing semi-active
tuned mass dampers. A semi-active algorithm was proposed to
tune the mass dampers based on the signal frequency. Shen et al.
[68] investigated the control of wind turbine aerodynamics and
loads in the wind shear flow which would lead to unsteady blade
airloads and performance. The advanced lifting surface method
with time marching free wake model was utilized to model the
turbine blades. Individual pitch control was applied to reduce the
flapwise fatigue damage in the wind turbine blades.
Studies on maximizing power captured by wind turbines are
commonly based on the model (see (4) and (5)).

3. Wind turbine control 1

P ¼ rpR2 CP ðl; bÞv3 (4)
2
Control of variable speed wind turbines is challenging. Usually,
two parameters, the generator torque and blade pitch angle, are
uR
considered. l ¼ (5)
v

3.1. Classical control Based on (4), various controllers were investigated to maximize
generated power. Thiringer and Linders [69] studied control of a
Two main control objectives are frequently considered in con- wind turbine with fixed pitch angle by varying rotor speed. A dead-
trol of wind turbines: 1) load reduction; 2) maximum power beat control system was designed in Ref. [69]. A reference power
generation. value and a nonlinear control parameter were both considered to
Novak et al. [63] reported on control of the drive train system of vary the rotor speed of a wind turbine with fixed pitch angle. Per-
a variable speed wind turbine. The dynamics of the drive train formance of wind turbines with fixed and variable rotor speed was
system was described by three sub-models, drive train dynamics, compared. The results indicated that variable rotor speed control
aerodynamics, and generator dynamics. The three sub-models produced more power. Bhowmik et al. [70] proposed a variable
were integrated as a model of the drive train system. Three linear speed controller to optimize power output of a wind turbine
and nonlinear controllers were proposed and compared based on generator. The controller included a wind speed estimation based
the model developed through physics to improve system stability. maximum power point tracker and a heuristic model based
maximum efficiency point tracker. The power coefficient of the
power point tracker was modeled as an nth-order polynomial to
Table 1
derive the optimal tip speed ratio. Then, the desired angular ve-
MAPE of different wind speed prediction models.
locity of the wind turbine could be determined from the obtained
Method Reference Short-term Mid-term Long-term optimal tip speed ratio. Based on the optimal angular velocity, the
(second to (Half-hour (day to
maximum power output was calculated for the wind turbine con-
minute) to hour) month)
trol. Munteanu et al. [71] applied a Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian
Hybrid [60] NA NA 6.76%
controller to optimize wind power generation of a fixed pitch
NN [49] NA NA 4.49%
NN [45] 11.57% NA NA wind turbine. The wind speed in this research was measured by an
NN [10] 5.92% NA NA anemometer. The simulation results reported in Ref. [71] did not
Grey Predictor [19] NA 7.41% NA include a comparison with other controllers. Further investigation
ARMA [27] NA 3.16% NA should be undertaken to prove the quality of the LQG controller
NA ¼ not applicable. discussed in the research. Boukhezzar et al. [72] discussed
 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12
optimization of the turbine power coefficient by adjusting gener-
ator torque. Nonlinear static and dynamic state feedback control-
lers were proposed. As the wind speed measured by a turbine
anemometer is not precise due to the anemometer position, it was
not considered in control. An estimator was developed to provide
wind speed in two steps: 1) a Kalman filter was used to estimate
the aerodynamic torque of the wind turbine; 2) the wind speed was
derived from the estimated aerodynamic torque based on (4). The
proposed controller was compared with a baseline control strategy
based on the FAST (fatigue, aerodynamics, structures, and turbu-
lence) simulator. Boukhezzar and Siguerdidjane [73] presented an
extended study of wind turbine control discussed in Ref. [72] and a
new nonlinear controller was proposed. The proposed nonlinear
controller included an inner control loop and an outer control loop.
The outer control loop controlled the mechanical system and pro-
vided reference inputs for the inner loop controlling the electrical
system of the wind turbine. Nonlinear static state feedback line-
arization with PI (proportional-integral) action and wind speed
estimator provided the best power generation efficiency. Evangel-
ista et al. [74] proposed a simple robust second order sliding mode
controller for optimizing power production of a variable speed
wind turbine. The simple robust controller was intended to address
wind speed variability, the nonlinear nature of the turbine system,
model uncertainties, and external disturbances. Power efficiency
was maximized by tracking a reference speed. Performance of the
controller in Ref. [74] was not compared with a baseline controller.
Vlad et al. [75] presented a low-power wind energy conversion
system with a permanent magnet synchronous generator. The
maximum power point tracking control approach was applied. Lin
and Hong [76] applied a Wilcoxon radial basis function network
with hill-climb searching maximum power point tracking strategy
to maximize the generated power of a variable speed wind turbine
with permanent-magnet synchronous generator. A real time
adjustment of the rotational speed of the wind turbine was real-
ized. Iyasere et al. [77] studied a robust nonlinear controller for
maximizing wind power production by a variable speed wind tur-
bine. The controller optimized rotor speed and blade pitch angle. In
Refs. [69e77], maximization of wind power generation by
designing various controllers based on (4) was discussed. Optimi-
zation of the power output was translated to the optimization of
power coefficient, Cp($). The blade pitch angle b was fixed at the
optimal value and discussions of power coefficient optimization
were mainly conducted based on the optimal l. Controllers with
various control logic were designed to track the optimal shaft
speed, u, in order to maintain l at its optimal value via (5). Wind
power production was maximized by optimizing torque. However,
blade pitch control was not adequately discussed in Refs. [69e77].
Wind turbine control has been studied to achieve objectives
other than load reduction and power optimization. In Ref. [78],
control of a wind turbine system to meet the wind farm grid code
requirement was discussed. Minimizing the variation of wind tur-
bine power output by pitch angle control was investigated [79].
Adaptive control of a DFIG (double-fed induction generator) wind
turbine to actively estimate and compensate for the plant dynamics
and external disturbances in real time was presented in Ref. [80]. In
Ref. [81], a pitch control method was investigated to operate a 3 kW
wind turbine to achieve the expected performance measured by
generated power and stability.
3.2. Intelligent control
Accurately modeling the nonlinear relationship in (4) is chal-
lenging. In traditional control [70e73], the power coefficient Cp($)
was approximated by a nth-order polynomial or described by a Cp
vs l curve. However, the function (4) does not adequately reflect
5
wind turbine operations [82]. Some papers have suggested devel-
oping controllers without Eq. (4). Skikos and Machias [83] pro-
posed a fuzzy logic controller. Four variables, yaw error, grid
voltage, grid frequency and wind turbine temperature, were
considered as control variables. Chen et al. [84] discussed a sto-
chastic approach for maximizing power of fixed-speed wind tur-
bines. The wind turbine controllers in Refs. [83,84] were not
validated in the Megawatt variable speed wind turbines deployed
at commercial wind farms. Developing intelligent controllers for
Megawatt wind turbines has also been investigated. Data-driven
approaches were utilized to model the wind power generation
process. The data were collected by condition monitoring systems,
e.g., SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) systems,
installed at wind farms. A condition monitoring system usually
monitors numerous parameters and the measurements can reflect
wind turbine dynamics.
Neural Networks have often been used in modeling wind tur-
bines. Kelouwani and Agbossou [85] applied a neural network
approach to identify the power coefficient of a wind turbine from
data. Historical data of average wind speed, standard deviation of
the wind speed, and power output were considered as input vari-
ables to predict the future power coefficient. Although an accurate
power coefficient can improve accuracy of wind power estimation,
prediction of the power output directly rather than via the power
coefficient mitigates the impact of the cubic wind speed term. The
accuracy of power predicted by NN in Ref. [10] was better than the
wind power estimated from (4) based on the predicted power co-
efficient. Generally, the data-driven model of power generation is
expressed as:
P ¼ fA ðxc ; xnc Þ (6)
Kusiak et al. [86] presented a control approach based on data-
driven models and evolutionary computation. Blade pitch angle
and yaw angle were considered as controllable variables in Ref.
[86]. A Neural Network was shown to be the most accurate algo-
rithm for modeling a wind turbine. An evolutionary algorithm
was employed to compute optimal settings of the blade pitch
angle and the yaw angle. Based on the data-driven framework
presented in Refs. [86], more advanced control strategies were
investigated. Kusiak and Zheng [87] discussed application of the
data-driven framework to maximize power generation efficiency
and increasing power quality. The simulation results indicated that
performance of the wind turbine could be improved with intelli-
gent controller. Based on the similar framework, Kusiak et al. [88]
investigated anticipatory control for wind power maximization.
The proposed models provided the current and future optimal
settings of controllable parameters. An adaptive control strategy
was introduced in Ref. [89] to maximize power output and mini-
mize the generator torque. Based on the results, the wind turbine
could realize an adaptive switch between power maximization and
power variation minimization. In addition to power maximization,
minimization of wind turbine vibration has been studied. In Refs.
[90,91], power output was maximized and turbine vibrations were
minimized by using SCADA data. Comparison of intelligent control
and classical control presented in Refs. [92] and [93] demonstrated
advantages of intelligent control over classical control.
3.3. Summary and discussion
To fully compare the two approaches, benchmark studies are
needed. Most controllers discussed in the literature have not been
validated and deployed in practice. Implementation of the pro-
posed controllers in industry to fully demonstrate their effective-
ness is necessary.
6 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12

Table 2 5. Condition monitoring and fault detection

Common failures associated with wind turbine components.

No. Component Fault type The maintenance cost for wind turbines due to failures such as
1 Control system Fastening, dirt, corrosion
spalled bearings, fractured gears, and drive train failures is signif-
2 Drive train Leakages, corrosion icant. Condition monitoring and fault detection aim to prevent
3 Hydraulic system Corrosion, cracks failures and reduce maintenance cost. This section reviews condi-
4 Tower and foundation Corrosion, cracks tion monitoring and fault detection approaches used in wind
5 Nacelle Corrosion, cracks
energy.
6 Safety devices Damage, wear
(sensors and braking systems)
7 Rotor blade Surface damage, cracks,
5.1. Wind turbine components and fault sources
structural discontinuities

Due to the dynamic nature of wind, failures in wind turbines can

occur anywhere between the tower base and the nacelle [106]. A
4. Operations of hybrid power systems
list of typical faults associated with turbine components is shown in
Table 2.
Due to the variability of wind speed, supplying stable power
Depending upon the extent of damage, the faults associated
output to the grid has become a challenge in wind farms. Hybrid
with turbine components are divided into three categories. Cate-
power systems have become a potential solution for tackling this
gory A represents the most severe faults which can lead to shut-
issue. Studies of incorporating wind farms and other power gen-
down of the turbine. Condition monitoring is developed to prevent
eration systems including solar panels, hydro systems, thermal
such faults types and minimize their impact. Category B faults can
plants, as well as battery storage systems in power generation have
partially affect the ability of a wind turbine to produce power.
been gradually increased in past years [94e96]. The majority of the
Category C faults arise due to over speeding and therefore can be
presented studies investigated the economic power dispatch
easily controlled (see Fig. 1).
problem for the hybrid power system [97]. Yao et al. [98] investi-
Rotor speed, torque, yaw, and pitch angle affect operational
gated wind turbines and dual battery systems as a means to stable
characteristics of a turbine. Component temperature and lubrica-
power output. In Refs. [98], one of the dual battery systems was
tion are responsible for the condition of turbine components. Wind
charged by wind turbines and another one discharged power to the
speed, wind turbulence, and ground drag are external factors
grid. The battery systems created a buffer to manage fluctuations in
affecting the turbines. The impact of external factors such as wind
wind power output. Perez-Navarro et al. [99] studied a hybrid
turbulence and ground drag can be minimized by choosing
biomass-wind power plant producing stable power. The biomass
appropriate wind farm location and tower height. Condition
system in Ref. [99] served as a backup power generation system for
monitoring is required to minimize the impact of other indicators.
a wind park. Chen [100] combined a branch-and-bound and a dy-
Pacot et al. [107] reviewed the key indicators such as turbine age,
namic programming algorithm to schedule a wind-thermal hybrid
size and location and their impact on management of wind farms.
system. Garcia-Gonzalez [101] applied stochastic optimization to
In the next section, condition monitoring and performance moni-
solve the unit commitment problem of a hybrid wind and pumped-
toring approaches are discussed.
storage system. Wind speed and price of electricity were consid-
ered random parameters. In Ref. [102], a stochastic model for a
wind-thermal hybrid system was proposed. A self-adaptive particle 5.2. Recent methods
swarm optimization algorithm was adopted to solve the stochastic
model to generate optimal schedules for the unit commitment 5.2.1. Condition monitoring of wind turbines
model. Condition monitoring implies continuous oversight of the
Deployment of hybrid power systems to mitigate power operating conditions of the equipment. This leads to the generation
transmission issues, limiting emissions, transmission during full- of early warnings so that the chance of a system failure is mini-
load hours, power transmission congestions, and overvoltage in mized. It is also useful in identifying the root cause of the fault and
low-load scenarios were discussed in Refs. [103e105]. The eco- thus facilitating effective maintenance. Key characteristics of con-
nomic power dispatch model was extended by including con- dition monitoring include: early warning, problem identification,
straints and adjusting the objective function to accommodate and continuous monitoring. Due to irregular loads caused by tur-
different goals. bulent wind conditions, the fatigue cycle of turbine rotating

Category A Category B Category C

1. Catastrophic blade failure 1. Cracks in blades 1. Controller failure

2. Catastrophic hub failure 2. Dirt/ice built up on blades 2. Hydraulic system failure
3. Main bearing failure 3. Hub spinng on shaft 3. Mechanical brake failure
4. Main shaft failure 4. Blade pitch fault 4. Pitching system failure
5. Gearbox failure 5. Shaft misalignment
6. Shaft-gearbox coupling failure 6. Yaw fault
7. Generator failure 7. Cable twist
8. Tower failure 8. Error in wind speed/direction
9. Foundation failure measurement
10. Metrological system failure
11. Premature brake activation
12. Electrical system failure

Fig. 1. Main faults of wind turbines grouped by severity.

 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12 7

components is greater than other rotating machines [108]. Even for
unavoidable faults, overall damage can be minimized by gener-
ating early alarm signals. This can be achieved by installing
monitoring systems. Condition monitoring of wind turbine drive
train faults can lead to significant savings [109,110]. Vibration
analysis, strain measurement, lubrication analysis, thermo-
graphics, and acoustic analysis are common condition monitoring
approaches.
(a)Vibration analysis: Vibration analysis is used to evaluate the
performance of non-stationary components and is used for
monitoring bearings (gearbox bearings and generator bearing)
of wind turbines. Rotational speed, noise and stress are common
analysis parameters as rotational speed and stress are indicators
of component damage. Components affected by failures produce
new vibration frequencies which allow the identification of a
change of status. A gearbox is a typical example hence vibration
analysis is natural in detection of gearbox failures [111]. Orsagh
et al. [112] demonstrated the application of vibration analysis in
CBM (condition-based maintenance) of a drive train. They
illustrated the benefits of HUMS (health and usage monitoring
system) technology (initially developed for helicopters) in CBM.
(b)Lubrication analysis: Oil and lubrication are an integral part of
the rotating components of wind turbines. Offline oil analysis is
frequently used, however online oil monitoring offers additional
benefits [111]. Lubrication analysis falls under the umbrella term
‘tribology’ aimed at analysis of the dynamics of operating com-
ponents and their support structures. Oil properties such as
viscosity, water content, particle count, and presence of addi-
tives are commonly used to identify faults. Tandon and Pary
[113] surveyed the literature on oil analysis and its applications
to wind turbine condition monitoring. Condition monitoring

Fig. 2. One-to-many relationship of condition monitoring techniques and their applications to turbine components.
8 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12

approaches such as thermographics, acoustic analysis, visual monitoring approaches are applicable to most wind turbine
inspection, and performance monitoring are used frequently. component.

The one-to-many relationship between condition monitoring 5.2.1.1. Condition monitoring of rotors. Caselitz et al. [114] pre-
techniques and turbine components is shown in Fig. 2. It is clear sented methods to analyze rotor anomalies. The most common
from Fig. 2 that some condition monitoring approaches are suit- rotor anomalies are aerodynamic asymmetry and yaw misalign-
able for certain wind turbine components, while performance ment [114,115]. Spectral analysis of electrical power generated by

Fig. 3. One-to-many relationship of performance monitoring techniques and their applications to turbine components.
 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12
the turbine is shown to be appropriate to detect those anomalies.
Online analysis of rotor faults resulting from fatigue of blade ma-
terial is being pursued. Amati and Brusa [116] developed vibration
monitoring models to analyze the condition of AMBs (active mag-
netic bearings). They analyzed the impact of non-uniform air gap
and slip speed on bearing behavior. Shekar and Prabhu [117]
applied a transient response approach to condition monitoring of
a rotor. They considered the impact of crack depth and eccentricity
on phase and acceleration. Watson and Xiang [118] used power
signals to detect generator rotor misalignment and bearing faults
using FFT (fast Fourier transformation) and wavelet analysis.
5.2.1.2. Condition monitoring of the gearbox and bearings.
Fault diagnosis of bearings is usually performed using envelope
curve analysis based on high frequency resonances. Other methods
such as cepstrum analysis are also used. A network based CMS
(condition monitoring system) technique for fault diagnosis of a
turbine gearbox and a rotor was reported in Ref. [114]. Amplitude
and frequency demodulation of the current signal of an induction
motor is widely used to determine gearbox faults. Garcia et al. [119]
used an intelligent search technique to identify and diagnose
gearbox faults. They validated their model on an operating wind
turbine and developed an optimized maintenance schedule.
5.2.1.3. Condition monitoring of blades. Jeffries et al. [120] identified
defects in the blades of a small wind turbine by analyzing power
spectrum density at the generator terminals. A normalized bis-
pectrum namely ‘bicoherence’ was used to monitor small physical
changes in the turbine. Tsai et al. [121] used a continuous wavelet
transform approach to detect blade damage. In general, it is very
difficult to monitor turbine blade damage using wind turbine
generator terminals as most of the time they can be affected by
lightning which is random in nature. To alleviate this issue, modern
turbine blades are equipped with lightning protection systems
[122]. To monitor blade performance, a lightning impact localiza-
tion and classification method was discussed by Kramer et al. [123].
They reported the usage of fiber optic current sensors for detection
of damage caused by lightning. Computational intelligence was
applied to monitoring wind turbine components such as tower,
nacelle, and power train Ref. [124].
5.2.2. Performance monitoring of wind turbines
Performance monitoring based on data mining and statistical
methods offers an alternative to condition monitoring for wind
turbines [125e128]. Condition monitoring approaches usually
require sensors to be installed at specific locations of a wind turbine
while performance monitoring relies on historical operational data
recorded by the SCADA system. Performance monitoring ap-
proaches allow for early fault warning and on-line/off-line moni-
toring. Fig. 3 shows performance monitoring approaches applied to
various wind turbine components.
5.2.2.1. Performance monitoring of turbine blades. Turbine blades
are frequently affected by faults. A two-class classification model of
faults utilizing turbine SCADA data and fault log information was
developed in Ref. [126]. Turbine parameters such as wind speed,
rotor speed, and nacelle revolution were used to detect blade angle
implausibility faults. Qiu et al. [129] developed a monitoring
approach for turbine blade pitch faults. The authors included time-
sequence and probability models in their analysis. Turbine fault
logs information was used in Ref. [127] to extract hidden fault
patterns.
5.2.2.2. Performance monitoring of turbine gearbox. Gearbox
related issues are usually addressed in the frequency domain by
9
utilizing vibration data. Zhang et al. [125] utilized high frequency
vibration data from controlled gearbox testing to identify faults.
They applied a FFT (fast Fourier transformation) and k-means
clustering algorithm to detect faults at high speed stage of gearbox.
5.2.2.3. Performance monitoring of turbine generators. Faults of
wind turbine generators have been analyzed using temperature
measurements. Zaher et al. [130] developed a neural network
model for fault detection using generator fan speed, nacelle tem-
perature, power output, and generator cooling air temperature. In
another approach, a random forest algorithm was applied in Ref.
[128] to analyze generator brush faults.
5.2.2.4. Performance monitoring of wind farm. Research on perfor-
mance monitoring of wind farms has been reported in the litera-
ture. Performance monitoring of a wind farm can provide an early
warning of wind turbine performance deviation. Power curve in-
formation was used in Ref. [131] to monitor several wind turbines
with a data transformation approach based on 3rd and 4th order
moments. Yan et al. [132] presented an inverse data transformation
method to detect changes in wind turbine performance.
5.3. Challenges and opportunities
Condition and performance monitoring approaches have shown
potential in early fault detection. Condition monitoring approaches
provide more accurate results in a controlled environment; how-
ever, their applicability in real environments shows weaknesses. On
the other hand, performance monitoring based approaches need to
be refined to provide more accurate results.
Current advances in data acquisition systems support progress
in online monitoring of wind turbines. Component condition
monitoring and performance monitoring could be combined to
provide better outcomes.
6. Conclusion
Models and methods applied to wind speed prediction, wind
turbine control, condition monitoring and fault detection of wind
turbines were surveyed in this paper. Research results in wind speed
prediction were grouped according to modeling approaches based
on statistics, physics-based, data mining, and hybrid approaches.
Statistics and data mining algorithms were more frequently utilized
for short- and medium-term wind speed prediction. Physics-based
approaches were usually considered in long-term predictions.
Short-term wind speed prediction was more beneficial to wind
turbine control while medium-term and long-term wind speed
predictions were more meaningful to wind power production
planning and wind turbine maintenance scheduling.
Research in wind turbine control was surveyed. Control of wind
turbines was investigated to achieve two main objectives, load
reduction and power output maximization. Power maximization
was frequently accomplished with an aerodynamics-based model.
The resulting controllers maximized the power coefficient by
estimating the optimal tip speed ratio. Fixed pitch turbines were
considered in many power optimization studies. Intelligent control
was offered as an alternative to classical control. Data-driven ap-
proaches were utilized to develop wind power generation models
and computational intelligence was applied to compute optimal
control settings. Comparative analysis of classical and intelligent
control on practical and benchmark cases was lacking in the in-
vestigations. The main body of the wind turbine control research
focused on wind turbines with induction generators located on
land. Wind turbines with PMSG (permanent magnet synchronous
10 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12
generators) received less attention. More research in control of
offshore wind turbines is needed.
Various approaches to condition and performance monitoring of
wind turbine components were reviewed. The frequently discussed
components included rotors, gearbox, bearing, blades, and gener-
ators. Vibration, lubrication, and acoustic signals were considered
as major indicators in condition monitoring and performance
research. Frequency analysis was utilized to identify faults and
reasoning about root causes. Time domain analysis was performed
to monitor condition of components. Recent research in wind tur-
bine condition monitoring focused more on individual components
than the entire system. Research on models for monitoring wind
turbine systems is needed.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by funds from the Iowa Energy
Center Grant No. 07-01 and City University Project No. 7200314.
References
[1] Wang Z, Shi J, Zhao Y. Technology roadmaps: China wind energy develop-
ment roadmap 2050. Paris, France: International Energy Agency; 2011.
Available at: http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
china_wind.pdf.
[2] U. S. Department of Energy. 20% wind energy by 2030: increasing wind
energy’s contribution to U.S. electricity supply. NREL/SR-500-41869. Golden,
Co: National Renewable Energy Laboratory; 2008. Available at:, http://www.
nrel.gov/docs/fy08osti/41869.pdf.
[3] Weisser D, Garcia RS. Instantaneous wind energy penetration in isolated
electricity grids: concepts and review. Renewable Energy 2005;30(8):
1299e308.
[4] Ackermann T, Soder L. Wind energy technology and current status: a review.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2000;4(4):315e74.
[5] Joselin Herbert GM, Iniyan S, Sreevalsan E, Rajapandian S. A review of wind
energy technologies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
2007;11(6):1117e45.
[6] Foley AM, Leahy PG, Marvuglia A, McKeogh EJ. Current methods and ad-
vances in forecasting of wind power generation. ReneCble Energy 2012;
37(1):1e8.
[7] De La Salle SA, Reardon D, Leithead WE, Grimble MJ. Review of wind turbine
control. International Journal of Control 1990;52(6):1295e310.
[8] Himri Y, Boudghene Stambouli A, Draoui B, Himri S. Review of wind
energy use in Algeria. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2009;
13(4):910e4.
[9] Hepbasli A, Ozgener O. A review on the development of wind energy in
Turkey. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2004;8(3):257e76.
[10] Kusiak A, Zhang Z. Short-horizon prediction of wind power: a data-driven
approach. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 2010;25(4):1112e22.
[11] Riahy GH, Abedi M. Short term wind speed forecasting for wind turbine
applications using linear prediction method. Renewable Energy 2008;33(1):
35e41.
[12] Bossanyi EA. Short-term wind prediction using Kalman filters. Wind Engi-
neering 1985;9(1):1e8.
[13] Liu H, Shi J, Erdem E. Prediction of wind speed time series using modified
Taylor Kriging method. Energy 2010;35(12):4870e9.
[14] Song YD. A new approach for wind speed prediction. Wind Engineering
2000;24(1):35e47.
[15] Hong Y, Chang H, Chiu C. Hour-ahead wind power and speed forecasting
using simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation (SPSA) algorithm
and neural network with fuzzy inputs. Energy 2010;35(9):3870e6.
[16] Bouzgou H, Benoudjit N. Multiple architecture system for wind speed pre-
diction. Applied Energy 2011;88(7):2463e71.
[17] Guo Z, Zhao J, Zhang W, Wang J. A corrected hybrid approach for wind speed
prediction in hexi corridor of China. Energy 2011;36(3):1668e79.
[18] Carro-Calvo L, Salcedo-Sanz S, Kirchner-Bossi N, Portilla-Figueras A, Prieto L,
Garcia-Herrera R, et al. Extraction of synoptic pressure patterns for long-
term wind speed estimation in wind farms using evolutionary computing.
Energy 2011;36(3):1571e81.
[19] El-Fouly THM, El-Saadany EF, Salama MMA. One day ahead prediction of
wind speed and direction. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion
2008;23(1):191e201.
[20] Jones RH. Maximum likelihood fitting of ARMA models to time series with
missing observations. Technometrics 1980;22(3):389e95.
[21] Gardner G, Harvey AC, Phillips GDA. Algorithm AS154: an algorithm for exact
maximum likelihood estimation of autoregressive-moving average models
by means of Kalman filtering. Applied Statistics 1980;29(3):311e22.
[22] Brockwell PJ, Davis RA. Introduction to time series and forecasting. New
York: Springer; 1996.
[23] Brown BG, Katz RW, Murphy AH. Time series models to simulate and fore-
cast wind speed and wind power. Journal of Climate and Applied Meteo-
rology 1984;23(8):1184e95.
[24] Box G, Jenkins GM, Reinsel G. Time series analysis: forecasting and control.
3rd ed. Prentice Hall; 1994.
[25] Huang Z, Chalabi ZS. Use of time-series analysis to model and forecast wind
speed. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics
1995;56(2e3):311e22.
[26] Kamal L, Jafri YZ. Time series models to simulate and forecast hourly aver-
aged wind speed in Quetta, Pakistan. Solar Energy 1997;61(1):23e32.
[27] Erdem E, Shi J. ARMA based approaches for forecasting the tuple of wind
speed and direction. Applied Energy 2011;88(4):1405e14.
[28] Jeon J, Taylor JW. Using conditional kernel density estimation for wind po-
wer density forecasting. Journal of the American Statistical Association
2012;107(497):66e79.
[29] Torres JT, Garcia A, De Blas M, De Francisco A. Forecast of hourly average wind
speed with ARMA models in Navarre (Spain). Solar Energy 2005;70(1):65e77.
[30] Zhao P, Wang J, Xia J, Dai Y, Sheng Y, Yue J. Performance evaluation and
accuracy enhancement of a day-ahead wind power forecasting system in
China. Renewable Energy 2012;43:234e41.
[31] Khalid M, Savkin AV. A method for short-term wind power prediction with
multiple observation points. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 2012;
27(2):579e86.
[32] Bhaskar K, Singh SN. AWNN-assisted wind power forecasting using
feed-forward neural network. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy 2012;
3(2):306e15.
[33] Salonen K, Niemela S, Fortelius C. Application of radar wind observations for
low-level NWP wind forecast validation. Journal of Applied Meteorology and
Climatology 2011;50(6):1362e71.
[34] Friedman JH. Stochastic gradient boosting. Computational Statistics and Data
Analysis 2002;38(4):367e78.
[35] Friedman JH. Greedy function approximation: a gradient boosting machine.
Annals of Statistics 2001;29(5):1189e232.
[36] Breiman L. Random forests. Machine Learning 2001;45(1):5e32.
[37] Breiman L, Friedman JH, Olshen RA, Stone CJ. Classification and regression
trees. Monterey, CA: Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole; 1984.
[38] Shakhnarovish G, Darrell T, Indyk P. Nearest-neighbor methods in learning
and vision. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press; 2005.
[39] Schölkopf B, Burges CJC, Smola AJ. Advances in kernel methods: support
vector learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press; 1999.
[40] Steinwart I, Christmann A. Support vector machines. New York: Springer-
Verlag; 2008.
[41] Siegelmann H, Sontag E. Analog computation via neural networks. Theo-
retical Computer Science 1994;131(2):331e60.
[42] Liu GP. Nonlinear identification and control: a neural network approach.
London, UK: Springer; 2001.
[43] Smith M. Neural networks for statistical modeling. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold; 1993.
[44] Hansen LK, Salamon P. Neural network ensembles. IEEE Transactions on
Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 1990;12(10):993e1001.
[45] Kusiak A, Li W. Estimation of wind speed: a data-driven approach. Journal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 2010;98(10e11):559e67.
[46] Kusiak A, Zheng HY, Zhang Z. A wind speed virtual sensor for wind turbines.
ASCE Journal of Energy Engineering 2011;137(2):60e9.
[47] Barbounis TG, Theocharis JB. Locally recurrent neural networks for wind
speed prediction using spatial correlation. Information Sciences 2007;
177(24):5775e97.
[48] Mohandes MA, Rehman S, Halawani TO. A neural networks approach for
wind speed prediction. Renewable Energy 1998;13(3):345e54.
[49] Bilgili M, Sahin B, Yasar A. Application of artificial neural networks for the
wind speed prediction of target station using reference stations data.
Renewable Energy 2007;32(14):2350e60.
[50] Poitras G, Cormier G. Wind speed prediction for a target station using neural
networks and particle swarm optimization. Wind Engineering 2011;35(3):
369e80.
[51] Kennedy J, Eberhart RC. Particle swarm optimization. In: IEEE international
conference on neural networks 1995. p. 1942e8.
[52] Cortes C, Vapnik V. Support-vector networks. Machine Learning 1995;20(3):
273e97.
[53] Drucker H, Burges CJC, Kaufman L, Smola A, Vapnik V. Support vector
regression machines. In: Advances in neural information processing systems,
vol. 9; 1997. p. 155e61.
[54] Salcedo-Sanz S, Ortiz-Garcia EG, Perez-Bellido AM, Portilla-Figueras A,
Prieto L. Short term wind speed prediction based on support vector regression
algorithms. Expert Systems with Applications 2011;38(4):4052e7.
[55] Mohandes MA, Halawani TO, Rehman S, Hussain AA. Support vector ma-
chines for wind speed prediction. Renewable Energy 2004;29(6):939e47.
[56] Ortiz-Garcia EG, Salcedo-Sanz S, Perez-Bellido AM, Gascon-Moreno J, Portilla-
Figueras JA, Prieto L. Short-term wind speed prediction in wind farms based on
banks of support vector machines. Wind Energy 2011;14(2):193e207.
[57] Monfared M, Rastegar H, Kojabadi HM. A new strategy for wind speed
forecasting using artificial intelligent methods. Renewable Energy 2009;
34(3):845e8.
 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12
[58] Salcedo-Sanz S, Perez-Bellido AM, Ortiz-Garcia EG, Portilla-Figueras A,
Prieto L, Correoso F. Accurate short-term wind speed prediction by
exploiting diversity in input data using banks of artificial neural networks.
Neurocomputing 2009;72(4e6):1336e41.
[59] Liu H, Tian H, Chen C, Li Y. A hybrid statistical method to predict wind speed
and wind power. Renewable Energy 2010;35(8):1857e61.
[60] Guo Z, Zhao J, Zhang W, Wang J. A corrected hybrid approach for wind speed
prediction in hexi corridor of China. Energy 2011;36(3):1668e79.
[61] Bouzgou H, Benoudjit N. Multiple architecture system for wind speed pre-
diction. Applied Energy 2011;88(7):2463e71.
[62] Blue Scout, http://www.bluescout.com, accessed in 2012.
[63] Novak P, Ekelund T, Jovik I, Schmidtbauer B. Modeling and control of
variable-speed wind-turbine drive-system dynamics. IEEE Control Systems
1995;15(4):28e38.
[64] Bossanyi EA. Wind turbine control for load reduction. Wind Energy
2003;6(3):229e44.
[65] Camblong H, Nourdine S, Vechiu I, Tapia G. Control of wind turbines for
fatigue loads reduction and contribution to the grid primary frequency
regulation. Energy 2012;48(1):284e91.
[66] Kumar A, Stol K. Simulating feedback linearization control of wind turbines
using high-order models. Wind Energy 2009;13(5):419e32.
[67] Arrigan J, Pakrashi V, Basu B, Nagarajaiah S. Control of flapwise vibrations in
wind turbine blades using semi-active tuned mass dampers. Structural
Control and Health Monitoring 2010;18(8):840e51.
[68] Shen X, Zhu X, Du Z. Wind turbine aerodynamics and loads control in wind
shear flow. Energy 2011;36(3):1424e34.
[69] Thiringer T, Linders J. Control by variable rotor speed of a fixed-pitch wind
turbine operating in a wide speed range. IEEE Transactions on Energy Con-
version 1993;8(3):520e6.
[70] Bhowmik S, Spee R, Enslin JHR. Performance optimization for doubly fed
wind power generation systems. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications
1999;35(4):949e58.
[71] Munteanu I, Cutululis NA, Bratcu AI, Ceanga E. Optimization of variable speed
wind power systems based on a LQG approach. Control Engineering Practice
2005;13(7):903e12.
[72] Boukhezzar B, Siguerdidjane H, Maureen Hand M. Nonlinear control of vari-
able speed wind turbines for generator torque limiting and power optimiza-
tion. ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 2006;128(4):516e30.
[73] Boukhezzar B, Siguerdidjane H. Nonlinear control with wind estimation of a
DFIG variable speed wind turbine for power capture optimization. Energy
Conversion and Management 2009;50(4):885e92.
[74] Evangelista C, Puleston P, Valenciaga F. A simple robust controller for power
maximization of a variable-speed wind turbine. International Journal of
Energy Research 2010;34(10):924e32.
[75] Vlad C, Munteanu I, Bratcu AI, Ceanga E. Output power maximization of low-
power wind energy conversion systems revisited: possible control solutions.
EnergyCnversion and Management 2010;51(2):305e10.
[76] Lin W, Hong C. Intelligent approach to maximum power point tracking
control strategy for variable-speed wind turbine generator system. Energy
2010;35(6):2440e7.
[77] Iyasere E, Salah MH, Dawson DM, Wagner JR, Tatlicioglu E. Robust nonlinear
control strategy to maximize energy capture in a variable speed wind tur-
bine with an internal induction generator. Journal of Control Theory Appli-
cations 2012;10(2):184e94.
[78] Muyeen SM, Takahashi R, Murata T, Tamura J. A variable speed wind turbine
control strategy to meet wind farm grid code requirements. IEEE Trans-
actions on Power Systems 2010;25(1):331e40.
[79] Senjyu T, Sakamoto R, Urasaki N, Funabashi T, Fujita H, Sekine H. Output
power leveling of wind turbine generator for all operating regions by pitch
angle control. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 2006;21(2):467e75.
[80] Song Z, Shi T, Xia C, Chen W. A novel adaptive control scheme for dynamic
performance improvement of DFIG-based wind turbines. Energy 2012;38(1):
104e17.
[81] Nagai BM, Ameku K, Roy JN. Performance of a 3 kW wind turbine generator
with variable pitch control system. Applied Energy 2009;86(9):1774e82.
[82] Kusiak A, Li W, Song Z. Dynamic control of wind turbines. Renewable Energy
2010;35(2):456e63.
[83] Skikos GD, Machias AV. Design and development of fuzzy logic control stra-
tegies for wind turbine generators. Wind Engineering 1995;19(5):235e48.
[84] Chen P, Siano P, Bak-Jensen B, Chen Z. Stochastic optimization of wind tur-
bine power factor using stochastic model of wind power. IEEE Transactions
on Sustainable Energy 2010;1(1):19e29.
[85] Kelouwani S, Agbossou K. Nonlinear model identification of wind turbine with
a neural network. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 2004;19(3):607e11.
[86] Kusiak A, Song Z, Zheng HY. Power optimization of wind turbines with
data mining and evolutionary computation. Renewable Energy 2010;35(3):
695e702.
[87] Kusiak A, Zheng HY. Optimization of wind turbine energy and power factor
with an evolutionary computation algorithm. Energy 2010;35(3):1324e32.
[88] Kusiak A, Song Z, Zheng HY. Anticipatory control of wind turbines with data-
driven predictive models. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion
2009;24(3):766e74.
[89] Kusiak A, Zhang Z. Adaptive control of a wind turbine with data mining
and swarm intelligence. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy 2011;2(1):
28e36.
11
[90] Kusiak A, Zhang Z, Li MY. Optimization of wind turbine performance
with data-driven models. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy 2010;1(2):
66e76.
[91] Kusiak A, Zhang Z. Control of wind turbine power and vibration with a data-
driven approach. Renewable Energy 2012;43(7):73e82.
[92] Soares O, Goncalves H, Martins A, Carvalho A. Nonlinear control of the
doubly-fed induction generator in wind power systems. Renewable Energy
2010;35(8):1662e70.
[93] Kasiri H, Abadeh MS, Momeni HR. Optimal estimation and control of WECS
via a genetic neuro fuzzy approach. Energy 2012;40(1):438e44.
[94] Howlader A, Izumi Y, Uehara A, Urasaki N, Senjyu T, Yona A, et al. A minimal
order observer based frequency control strategy for an integrated wind-
battery-diesel power system. Energy 2012;46(1):168e78.
[95] Niknam T, Golestaneh F, Malekpour A. Probabilistic energy and operation
management of a microgrid containing wind/photovoltaic/fuel cell genera-
tion and energy storage devices based on point estimate method and self-
adaptive gravitational search algorithm. Energy 2012;43(1):427e37.
[96] Kaabeche A, Belhamel M, Ibtiouen R. Sizing optimization of grid-
independent hybrid photovoltaic/wind power generation system. Energy
2011;36(2):1214e22.
[97] Fusco F, Nolan G, Ringwood J. Variability reduction through optimal com-
bination of wind/wave resourcesean Irish case study. Energy 2010;35(1):
314e25.
[98] Yao DL, Choi SS, Tseng KJ, Lie TT. Determination of short-term power
dispatch schedule for a wind farm incorporated with dual-battery
energy storage scheme. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy
2012;3(1):74e84.
[99] Perez-Navarro A, Alfonso D, Alvarez C, Ibanez F, Sanchez C, Segura I. Hybrid
biomass-wind power plant for reliable energy generation. Renewable Energy
2010;35(7):1436e43.
[100] Chen C. Optimal wind-thermal generating unit commitment. IEEE Trans-
actions on Energy Conversion 2008;23(1):273e80.
[101] Garcia-Gonzalez J, de la Muela RMR, Santos LM, Gonzalez AM. Stochastic
joint optimization of wind generation and pumped-storage units in an
electricity market. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 2008;23(2):
460e8.
[102] Pappala VS, Erlich I, Rohrig K, Dobschinski J. A stochastic model for the
optimal operation of a wind-thermal power system. IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems 2009;24(2):940e50.
[103] Bahmani-Firouzi B, Farjah E, Azizipanah-Abarghooee R. An efficient scenario-
based and fuzzy self-adaptive learning particle swarm optimization
approach for dynamic economic emission dispatch considering load and
wind power uncertainties. Energy 2013;50:232e44.
[104] Kargarian A, Raoofat M. Stochastic reactive power market with volatility of
wind power considering voltage security. Energy 2011;36(5):2565e71.
[105] Billinton R, Wangdee W. Reliability-based transmission reinforcement
planning associated with large-scale wind farms. IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems 2007;22(1):34e41.
[106] Ashley F, Cipriano RJ, Breckenridge S, Briggs GA, Gross LE, Hinkson J, et al.
Report from the Bethany Wind Turbine Study Committee. Available at:
http://docs.wind-watch.org/bethany-windturbinestudycommittteereport.
pdf; 2007.
[107] Pacot C, Hasting D, Baker N. Wind farm operation and maintenance man-
agement. In: Proceedings of the power-Gen conference Asia, Ho Chi Minh
City, Vietnam 2003. p. 25e7.
[108] Chandler H, editor. Wind energydthe facts. European Wind Energy Asso-
ciation; 2003. Available at: www.ewea.org06-05-02S.
[109] Wilkinson MR, Tavner PJ. Extracting condition monitoring information from
a wind turbine drive train. In: Proceedings of Universities’ power engi-
neering conference 2004. p. 591e4.
[110] Wilkinson MR, Tavner PJ. Condition monitoring of wind turbine drive trains.
In: Proceedings of international conference on electrical machines 2006.
p. 1e6.
[111] Mobley RK. An introduction to predictive maintenance. 2nd ed. Heinemann:
Butterworth; 2006.
[112] Orsagh RF, Lee H, Watson M, Byington CS, Powers J. Advanced vibration
monitoring for wind turbine health management. Impact Technologies;
2011. Available at: http://www.impact-tek.com.
[113] Tandon N, Parey A. Condition monitoring of rotary machines. In: Condition
monitoring and control for intelligent manufacturing. Springer series in
Manufacturing; 2006. p. 109e36.
[114] Caselitz P, Giebhardt J, Mevenkamp M. Application of condition monitoring
systems in wind energy convertors. In: Proceedings of the European wind
energy conference, Dublin 1997. p. 1e4.
[115] Caselitz P, Giebhardt J, Mevenkamp M. Online fault detection and prediction
in wind energy convertors. In: Proceedings of the European wind energy
conference, Thessaloniki 1994. p. 623e7.
[116] Amati N, Brusa E. Condition monitoring of rotors on active magnetic bearings
(AMB) fed by induction motors. In: Proceedings of IEEE/ASME advanced
engineering mechatronics (AIM) 2001. p. 750e6.
[117] Shekar AS, Prabhu BS. Condition monitoring of cracked rotors through
transient response. Mechanism and Machine Theory 1998;33(8):1167e75.
[118] Watson SJ, Xiang J. Real-time condition monitoring of offshore wind tur-
bines. In: Proceedings of European wind energy conference 2006. Paper
#BL-3.
12 A. Kusiak et al. / Energy 60 (2013) 1e12
[119] Garcia MC, Sanz-Bobi MA, Del Pico J. SIMAP: intelligent system for predictive
maintenance application to the health condition monitoring of a wind tur-
bine gearbox. Journal of Computers in Industry 2006;57(6):552e68.
[120] Jeffries WQ, Chambers JA, Infield DG. Experience with bi-coherence of
electrical power for condition monitoring of wind turbine blades. IEEE
Proceedings on Vision Image & Signal Processing 1998;145:141e8.
[121] Tsai CS, Hsieh CT, Huang SJ. Enhancement of damage-detection of wind
turbine blades via CWT-based approaches. IEEE Transactions on Energy
Conversion 2006;21(3):776e81.
[122] Cotton I, Jenkins N, Pandiaraj K. Lightning protection for wind turbine blades
and bearings. Wind Energy 2001;4(1):23e37.
[123] Kramer SGM, Leon FP, Appert B. Fiber optic sensor network for lightning
impact localization and classification in wind turbines. In: Proceedings of
IEEE International conference on multidimensional finance, insurance and
investment 2006. p. 173e8.
[124] Ribrant J. Reliability performance and maintenanceda survey of failures in
wind power systems. Master thesis. Stockholm, Sweden: KTH School of
Electrical Engineering; 2006.
[125] Zhang Z, Verma A, Kusiak A. Fault analysis of the wind turbine gearbox. IEEE
Transactions on Energy Conversion 2012;27(2):526e35.
[126] Kusiak A, Verma A. A data-driven approach for monitoring blade pitch
faults in wind turbines. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy 2011;2(1):
87e96.
[127] Kusiak A, Verma A. Prediction of status patterns of wind turbines: a data-
mining approach. ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 2011;133(1).
011008-1e011008-10.
[128] Verma A, Kusiak A. Fault monitoring wind turbine generator brushes: a data
mining approach. ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 2012;134(2):
021001-1e021001-9.
[129] Qiu Y, Richardson P, Feng Y, Tavner P, Erdos G, Viharos ZS. SCADA alarm
analysis for improving wind turbine reliability. In: European wind energy
conference and exhibition, Brussels, Belgium 2011. p. 14e7.
[130] Zaher A, McArthur SDJ, Infield DG, Patel Y. Online wind turbine fault
detection through automated SCADA data analysis. Wind Energy 2009;
12(6):574e93.
[131] Kusiak A, Verma A. Monitoring wind farms with performance curves. IEEE
Transactions on Sustainable Energy 2013;4(1):192e9.
[132] Yan Y, Osadciw LA, Benson G, White E. Inverse data transformation for
change detection in wind turbine diagnostics. In: Proceedings of Canadian
conference on electrical and computer engineering 2009. p. 944e9.