Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Experiments for combustion temperature measurements in a sugarcane T

bagasse large-scale boiler furnace
Carlos T. Salinasa,b, , Yang Puc, Chun Louc, Débora B. dos Santosa
⁎

a
Posgraduate Program of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Cecilia University, Rua Cesário Mota 08, Sala F-34, Santos (SP) CEP 11.045-040, Brazil
b
University of Piura, Av. Ramón Mugica 131, Urb. San Eduardo, Piura, Peru
c
State Key Laboratory of Coal Combustion, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430074, China

HIGHLIGHTS

• In-situ bagasse flame temperature measurement in industrial boiler.

• Short time monitoring of bagasse flame temperature.
• Application of image processing technique in biomass flame.
• Estimation of flame emissivity and extinction coefficient in bagasse combustion.

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This work presents a numerical and experimental study to measure local combustion temperature from the
Sugarcane bagasse boiler combustion reactive zone in an industrial sugarcane. A bagasse boiler furnace is utilized preliminary step to-
Flame temperature wards obtaining online three-dimensional temperature measurements. Two different methods were used for in
Flame emission spectroscopy situ measurement of local temperatures in a sugarcane bagasse flame: Spectral Analysis and Image Processing in
In-situ measurement combustion
the Visible Spectrum. The maximum instantaneous temperatures found in the focused reactive zone area of the
bagasse flame were 1623 K and 1520 K by the spectrometric and imaging system respectively and the time
average maximum flame temperatures measured were 1443 K and 1496 K. Additionally, a set of flame tem-
perature measurement tests was carried out in a laboratory furnace by the spectrometric method and a time
average flame temperature of 1569 K was noted. The flame temperatures found in this work show reasonable
agreement with results of CFD simulations and results obtained in laboratory tests which were also reported in
the literature. Intensity of emission lines of alkali metal (K) were measured in the flame spectra during the
bagasse combustion. Spectral flame emissivity was estimated for an industrial level operating condition.

1. Introduction origin of the sugarcane. Despite the different methods of combustion

Sugarcane bagasse is the most important biomass waste in Brazil
and stands for about 7% in the Brazilian energy matrix. In a recent
report [1], there are 405 accounted sugarcane bagasse power plants in
Brazil with an installed power of 11,271 MW. About, 203 power plants
are in the São Paulo State with an installed power of 5779 MW. These
power plants burn sugarcane bagasse for supply thermal, mechanical
and electrical power to the industrial units. They also supply electrical
energy to the electric power distribution network.
The bagasse particles have variable composition and geometry due
to the characteristics of the industrial process and the geographical
that are used, combustion on sugarcane bagasse boilers is a complex
process that consists of consecutive homogeneous and heterogeneous
reactions. The main process steps are drying, devolatilization, gasifi-
cation, char combustion, and gas-phase oxidation [2]. The time used for
each process depends on the fuel particles size distribution, fuel prop-
erties, temperature and combustion conditions. For any combustible the
flame radiation properties depend on the distributions of temperatures
and species within the flame. A detailed prediction of radiation from
flames is not often possible from only using knowledge of the fuel
constituents and the flame geometry [3].
During the last few years, some experiments in laboratorial scale to

⁎
Corresponding author at: Posgraduate Program of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Cecilia University, Rua Cesário Mota 08, Sala F-34, Santos (SP) CEP 11.045-040,
Brazil.
E-mail addresses: csalinas_99@yahoo.com (C.T. Salinas), clou@hust.edu.cn (C. Lou).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115433
Received 6 September 2019; Received in revised form 20 April 2020; Accepted 1 May 2020
Available online 04 May 2020
1359-4311/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C.T. Salinas, et al.
temperature measurement (during the combustion of a single particle of
sugarcane bagasse) were conducted [2,4]. These studies reported
combustion temperatures in the range from 1600 K to 1900 K. During
the combustion process, information was given about the time and
stages of the combustion process of a single particle of sugarcane ba-
gasse. In a recent work, it was reported that indirect temperature
measurements of combustion of sugarcane bagasse in a laboratorial
scale in a bubbling fluidized bed combustor [5].
Numerical simulation of sugarcane bagasse particle in suspension
combustion in a small combustion furnace predicted maximum gas
temperatures were about 1400 K for bagasse with 30% of moisture [6].
These temperatures reported are a consequence of the heating rate in
the combustion process determined by the neighboring conditions. This
kind of boundary condition is not usually in industrial boilers. Efforts to
simulate a Brazilian industrial sugarcane boiler using computational
fluid dynamic (CFD) code were made in [7,8]. CFD simulations were
made considering a boiler with similar geometry and operation para-
meters such as the boiler studied in this work. The results of the CFD
simulation in [7,8] show temperature profiles inside of the boiler fur-
nace and the maximum temperature is smaller than the maximum
temperature in laboratory measurements reported in Refs. [2] and [4].
These CFD simulations showed smooth temperature distribution in the
reactive zone due the suppositions adopted to simplify the problem.
Other studies of CFD modeling of sugarcane bagasse combustion in an
industrial boiler with similar geometry and operation characteristics is
presented in [9]. Maximum flame temperatures from CFD simulation
and a comparison with experimental temperature measurements were
reported and they were in in the range of 1500 K.
In a recent study, a laboratory swirl burner using dry pulverized
biomass from pelletized biomass of a rubber tree presented CFD simu-
lation and experimental results [10]. For an experimental combustion
test with 20% air excess, result in experimental measurements of flame
temperature in the range of 1300 K to 1450 K using thermocouples
installed along the axis of a combustion chamber. Reports also show
CFD simulations for the temperature distribution where the maximum
temperatures in the reactive zone are in the range of 1650 K.
Many methods for measuring temperature in furnaces have been
developed in the past. Thermocouples and pyrometers are the most
widely methods used, but they can only provide single-point mea-
surement and they suffer degradation in severe environments [11].
Optical methods based on laser diagnostic techniques to measure
flame temperature distributions were used in many research studies
[12–13]. A review of some optical methods is presented in [14]. Laser
spectrum diagnostics are superior in high precision, but the large di-
mensions of the furnace whose size may be more than 10 m has been
challenging to apply in industrial furnaces. The spontaneous emission
spectra of flames contains continuous spectra from blackbody radiation
of solid particles (e.g., soot, char or ash particles); from the band spectra
produced by the radiation of gas molecules (e.g., CO2 or H2O); from
chemiluminescence of excited radicals (e.g., OH, CH or C2); and from
the line spectra of free atoms (e.g., alkalis or alkaline earth metals)
[15]. Spectrometric measurement based in the flame emission spectrum
technique is relatively simple to implement due to the independence of
the laser. There are detailed reports in the literature of their application
for furnace combustion control [16–17] and pollutant emission mon-
itoring [18–19]. The basic idea is to process spectral signals to provide
radiative intensity of flame that can be used for feedback temperature
measurement and combustion control. The multi-wavelength method
has been developed by some researchers for application in temperature
measurement and combustion studies [4,20] and was used with dif-
ferent fuels: many types of coal, oil and biomass. It is assumed that the
change of emissivity with wavelength satisfies certain regularity.
Flame image processing technologies in the visible spectrum has
widely been used for measurements of flame temperature and radiative
properties in small-scale test furnaces [21–22], in industrial furnaces
[23–24] and the use of portable equipment in industrial furnaces [25].
2
Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433
With this technology, the two-color method is usually used based on the
assumption that the emissivity at two wavelengths is the same. How-
ever, most of the works are dedicated to the study of fossil fuels as coal
and hydrocarbons. In recent years this technology was applied in a
municipal solid waste incinerator [18].
The objective of this study is to apply a spectral analysis and an
image processing technique in the visible spectrum to estimate the
flame temperature related to a combustion reactive zone in an in-
dustrial bagasse fired boiler. Both the spectrometer system and the
portable flame image detection system are introduced at first and then a
description of the measurement principle. Initially, experiments are
conducted to measure flame temperature associated with a laboratorial
scale in an electrical blackbody furnace. Suitable values of radiative
properties in sugarcane bagasse flame were discussed, tested and as-
sumed following experimental numerical tests. The monitoring ex-
periments were conducted in a 136 t/h rate evaporative capacity su-
garcane bagasse boiler furnace and short thermal monitoring was
carried out to obtain instantaneous and average flame temperatures in
sugarcane bagasse combustion. This work is carried out as a research
step aiming to apply methods for continuous online thermal monitoring
to estimate three-dimensional temperature maps in a furnace of a su-
garcane bagasse boiler.
2. Materials and experimental Set-up
In many industrial applications, it is necessary to resort to experi-
mental methods for temperature measurement to estimate with more
accuracy the radiative transfer in systems involving combustion.
However, only a few in situ measuring systems focus on monitoring
combustion or flame temperature inside a sugarcane boiler furnace.
This information can help with studies to improve the boiler project,
the safety/efficiency of the power plant operation and mitigation of
pollution.
2.1. General bagasse characteristics
Bagasse is composed of fiber and water-soluble materials, mainly
sugar and impurities. Routine reports in the power plant includes in-
formation of the proximate analysis of bagasse burned in the boiler
furnace. For a bagasse sample with 53.5% of moisture in the days of the
experiments was reported in dry basis, 12.5% fixed carbon, 69.9%
volatiles and 17.6 ash content. The ultimate analysis in dry and ash free
basis of bagasse in the power plant is presented in Table 1.
The bagasse samples for the combustion test in the laboratory were
collected at a power plant in Pirassununga City, Sao Paulo State. The
bagasse samples were collected in the same condition as they are used
to burn at the boiler with 50% of moisture. During the transporting of
the samples some variation of moisture occurred. Before the experi-
mental tests in the laboratory, measurement of the sample moisture was
carried to the chemical department laboratory at Santa Cecilia
University only after following the procedure stated in [26]. Three
bagasse samples of approximately 1 g are used for measuring the
moisture content and the result is shown in table 2.
2.2. Portable imaging system
A scheme of the portable imaging system is shown in Fig. 1. The
system consists of a color CCD camera, an objective lens with a viewing
Table 1
Ultimate analysis of some samples in routine report in the power plant.
C% H% 0% N% Sulfur % Chlorine % High heating Value MJ/
Kg
48.17 6.55 44.9 3.64 Less to 0.10 0.0449 16.12
C.T. Salinas, et al.
Table 2
Average moisture of bagasse samples in laboratorial tests.
Test Moist sample (g) Dry sample (g) Moisture (%) Average moisture (%)
1 1.0386 0.7269 30.0115 27.9748
2 0.9914 0.7059 26.9013
3 0.9929 0.7247 27.0117
angle field of 90° in a horizontal direction fixed at the top end of the
CCD camera and a laptop with a frame grabber. The flame radiation
conveyed by the lens entered the color CCD camera and the shutter
speed of the color camera is adjustable from 1/120 to 1/10000 s. The
video signal from the CCD camera is transferred into the laptop through
a video cable. A USB frame-grabber transfers the CCD camera’s ana-
logue signal into a two-dimensional digital color image with 24-bit true
color. Combined with a DELL Latitude D630 laptop, the system pro-
vides a frame rate of 24 frames / s with a 24-bit true color. Every color
flame image is saved as a 24-bit RGB Windows Bitmap (BMP) file. When
the CCD camera is installed in the boiler furnace to capture flame
images on-line, it should be cooled by air or water. However, while the
portable system works, flame capturing time in every viewing port is
very short. Furthermore, the objective lens and CCD camera were
packaged by a steel shell. As a result, there is no cooling air for the
measurement in the power plant. A photo of the flame image detector of
the portable imaging system used in the bagasse power plant is shown
in Fig. 2.
2.3. Spectrometer system
The spectrometer system consists of a spectrometer, a measuring
probe and a portable computer. An AvaSpec-USB2048 Fiber-Optic
Spectrometers with 2048 pixels is used to process the incoming light
data. The measurement wavelength range of the spectrometer was
200 nm to 1100 nm. The spectral resolution of this spectrometer is
0.4–0.6 nm. The measuring probe consists of a collimating lens and a
fiber-optic cable. The COL-UV/vis collimating lens, screws onto the end
of the fiber optic entrance connector and converts the divergent beam
of radiation into a parallel beam. The spectrometer is connected to a
portable computer through a USB cable and AvaSoft-8 USB2 interface.
For experiments reported in this paper, the exposure (integration) time
is about several hundred milliseconds, which means that measurement
of radiative intensifies at different wavelengths simultaneously by the
spectrometer. Fig. 3(a) shows a scheme of the spectrometric system.
The spectrometric system was used to collect spectral intensities of
sugarcane bagasse flame through the viewing port of the boiler furnace
every second. In Fig. 3(b) a photo is shown of the installation of the
spectrometric system at the bagasse boiler viewing port.
2.4. Laboratorial Set-Up
Before the experimental tests in the industrial bagasse boiler, an
Fig. 1. Schematic Diagram of Portable Imaging System.
3
Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433
Fig. 2. Photo of Flame Image Detector of the Portable Imaging System.
experimental test ring is mounted in the laboratory to obtain the
spectrum of the bagasse flame. This process during a bagasse combus-
tion process to calculate the flame temperature. A small GRION Electric
Furnace that has the characteristics of a blackbody furnace and the
spectrometric system described above were used. The furnace has an
operation range between 500 K and 1500 K (with temperature mea-
surement errors within ± 1 K) and a set point electronic control. The
furnace has a viewing port in a front wall to install the sensor of the
spectrometric system. A small chimney is installed in the upper wall of
the furnace as an exit for combustion gases allowing the circulation of
fresh air into the furnace supporting the combustion process. The
combustion process is carried out in a batch procedure using small
samples of sugarcane bagasse between 2 g and 5 g.
2.5. Sugarcane bagasse boiler facilities
In Brazil, sugarcane bagasse is burned in two main types of boilers:
i) grate fired furnaces that are found in the many of the older units and
also in some new industrial units; ii) burning bagasse in suspension
furnaces the preferred option by industrial manufacturers and buyers in
the last years. In recent years, some fluidized bed boilers have also been
installed.
The experiments were conducted in a boiler at a bagasse power
plant in a boiler at Pirassununga City, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. This
particular boiler is the type that burns in suspension and it was man-
ufactured in 2010. A simplified scheme that shows the boiler operation
is presented in Fig. 4. This boiler has a moving grate in the floor of the
furnace to remove the ash. Primary air for the combustion process is
supplied through entrances at the floor furnace. Secondary air for the
combustion process promotes the particles suspension is supplied by
entrances at the front and back walls. The boiler has a 136 t/h rate
evaporative capacity and a sugarcane bagasse average consumption of
1500 t/day. The content of moisture in the sugarcane bagasse fuel was
has an average of 49.33% based on the daily operation reports of the
C.T. Salinas, et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433

Probe Spectrometer

Optical Fiber

Tripod
Personal Computer
Furnace
(a)

(b)
Fig. 3. (a) Schematic Diagram of the Spectrometric System, (b) Photo of Spectrometric System Installation at a Power Plant.

heating value of a sample of wet bagasse with 53.5% mass of moisture

(as it is burning in the boiler) was 7.5 MJ/Kg. The overall dimensions of
the boiler furnace are as follows: 21 m height, 11.05 m length and
7.86 m width. There are six viewing ports in the bottom of the front
wall of the boiler furnace; two of these viewing ports are used as
measurement in the experiments. These viewing ports are to 1.45 m
height from the moving grate.

3. Theoretical basis and measurement method

3.1. Theoretical basis

The radiation intensity emitted by a flame at wavelength λ is de-

pendent on the flame’s emissivity ε (λ) and the temperature T according
to Planck’s Law as below:
2 hc 2
I ( , T) = ( ) 5 (e hc / kT (1)where h is Planck’s Constant, c is the
1)
speed of light and k is the Boltzmann Constant.
The flame image detection system could get approximately mono-
chromatic radiation images of red (R), green (G) and blue (B) [23,25].
The images are determined by the spectroscopic response of the CCD
Fig. 4. Simplified Scheme of the Boiler. camera of the color flame image detector and the central wavelengths
of red and green are λr = 625 nm and λg = 520 nm, respectively. The
power plant. Typical weekly and monthly average reports from su- flame temperature is expected to be upper to 800 K. However, from
garcane bagasse moisture on the date of the experiments were 49.77% wavelength range from 300 to 1000 nm and temperature range from
and 49.38% respectively. The bagasse used is obtained from raw su- 800 to 2000 K, since hc/λkT ≫ 1, Planck’s Law can be replaced by
garcane, non-burnt and mechanically cut. Most of the current tests of Wien’s Radiation Law:
2 hc2 2 hc 2
ultimate analysis in bagasse boiler plants do not measure alkali metals I( , T) = ( ) 5 (ehc/ kT)
= ( )Ib ( , T) I ( , T ) = ( ) 5 (e hc / kT )
= (2)
content. A high heating value in a dry basis was 16.12 MJ/Kg. A high
( ) Ib ( , T )

4
C.T. Salinas, et al.
where Ib (λ,T) is the monochromatic blackbody radiation intensity.
The sugarcane bagasse-fired boiler furnace is considered be filled by
gray emitting, absorbing and scattering medium of suspended particles.
It is also surrounded by gray water-cooled surfaces. The principle of
judging the gray property of flames is based on spectral analysis and the
two-color method for determining the temperature and emissivity of a
flame which has been described in [27]. The sensitive bands of the R, G
and B images are not narrow, but the assumption of gray medium [27]
and the continuous radiation from particles of the suspension-bagasse-
fired combustion medium leads us to assume that R, G and B data in an
image are directly proportional to the monochromatic radiative in-
tensities.
A significant principle of processing a flame image and re-
constructing 2D and 3D temperature distribution in large scale furnaces
has been described in [28 –29]. The integral radiative transfer equation
for an emitting, absorbing and isotropic scattering medium [30] is used
to calculate the radiative intensity field. The DRESOR method [31] was
the numerical procedure used for brevity. In order to reconstruct the
temperature distribution from radiative images, a temperature imaging
model was used to relate flame temperature image Tm with the tem-
perature distribution T in the furnace as seen below [32],
Tm = A 'T (3)where Aʹ is matrix coefficient related with installation
geometry, the imaging parameters of the image detectors and the ra-
diative properties of medium [32]. The reconstruction procedure can be
described as the following: the radiative intensity image I and the ra-
diative temperature image Tm can be detected by the image detectors as
they serve as input data. A Tikhonov regularization method has been
used to reconstruct the temperature distribution determined by equa-
tion (3) from the radiative temperature image Tm as below:
Tm = (A 'T A ' + DT D) 1A 'T T (4)where D is a regularization operator
and α is a regularization parameter. The detailed description of the
numerical procedure can be found in [28–29]. A decoupled re-
construction method combining optimization methodology and reg-
ularization methodology was proposed in [33] to simultaneous re-
construct the temperature distribution and the average absorption and
scattering coefficient of the medium. An iteration algorithm and a least-
squares method were used to estimate the absorption and scattering
coefficients of the medium. It has been proven that the radiative
properties can converge to stabilize values after a few iterations [33].
Due to the complicated processes occurring when sugarcane bagasse
particles burn in industrial furnaces, radiative properties such as ab-
sorption and scattering coefficients are not always given exactly. They
are essential in making a reliable calculation of radiative transfer in
combustion computation. In research with different types of fuels as
coal [34], gas [35] and oil [22], it was shown that the flame emissivity
and the absorption and scattering coefficients have higher values near
the more intense reactive zone and decreased trough the flame. In [34],
the distribution of the extinction coefficient with coal combustion in a
large-scale boiler was estimated after a numerical procedure with 68 h
of computational time consumption. It was found that the extinction
coefficient varies from 0.4 m−1 to 0.85 m−1 along the combustion
spatial volume and the maximum values were detected in the com-
bustion reactive zone of the furnace [34]. In practical applications, an
iterative algorithm may not be permitted for obtaining real-time results
due to the consumption of time. For sugarcane bagasse combustion in a
large-scale boiler. No information is available about the estimation of
the radiative properties. In this work, the measurements are focused in
the reactive zone of sugarcane bagasse combustion and after previous
numerical experiments using captured thermal images, the value of
0.8 m−1 for the extinction coefficient for online monitoring test is
adopted.
The spectrometric system can get the monochromatic radiation in-
tensity within a certain wavelength range over the wavelength range of
operation with a spectrometer that is 200–1100 nm. The output of the
spectrometric system and flame image system is just a voltage value
converted from the radiation signal through photoelectric conversion.
5
Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433
Based on the assumption of a constant emissivity at wavelength λ
and λ + Δλ, the temperature T is given by
( )/ln
5
(5)
1 1 I ( , T)
T= C2 + I ( + , T ) ( + )5
After the temperature T is obtained the emissivity ε (λ) can be found
from,
( ) = I ( , T )/ Ib ( , T ) (6)
By using the spectrometric data, once the wavelength range meeting
the gray property is determined [27], the nearly constant temperature
calculated by the two-color method within this wavelength range can
be taken as the temperature to be measured, as well as the averaged
emissivity calculated from Eq. (6).
Also, for the flame detection system, temperature T can be calcu-
lated from the ratio of two monochromatic intensity images Ir and Ig by
the two-color method,
T= C2 ( 1
r
1
g )/ln I ( r, T ) r5 r
I ( g, T ) g5 g
(7)
If the central wavelength λr and λg are within the wavelength range
meeting the gray property deduced from the spectral analysis method
using spectrometer mentioned above, it is reasonable to set εr / εg ≈ 1,
and the flame image temperature can be calculated from eq. (7). The
flame emissivity image ε can be calculated from one monochromatic
intensity image data as follows:
= Ir 5
r /(C1 e
C2/ r T ) (8)
It is noted that both the spectrometric system and the portable flame
image detection system detect line-of-sight radiation intensity. For 2D
and 3D images, temperature measurements will be needed to install
multiple image detectors [22,34]. A simple calibration procedure based
on a blackbody furnace to correlate the output value and the mono-
chromatic radiation intensity was employed to calibrate the two sys-
tems. A Mikron Model M330 blackbody furnace with a temperature
range from 500 to 2000 K (with temperature errors within ± 1 K) was
used to calibrate the two systems. The characteristic calibration profiles
of the spectrometer system at different temperatures are shown in
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6 shows the variations of Ir and Ig with the R and G data, when
the shutter speed of the color camera was 1/250 s.
4. Results and discussion
At the first stage of research towards application of thermal mon-
itoring in an industrial sugarcane boiler, we reported experimental
measurement results of sugarcane bagasse flame temperature and
emissivity. The spectrometric system and a portable flame imaging
system with a single flame detector were both used in obtaining the
results.
4.1. Laboratory tests results
Experimental tests were carried out during the bagasse combustion
into a blackbody furnace to measure flame temperature. The bagasse
samples were collected on the boiler furnace feed line in the power
plant. The experimental tests were made using the batch method with
5 g of bagasse samples to guarantee enough air for the combustion
process. Samples of sugarcane bagasse with 29% of moisture were
weighed and put in a small plain cup of refractory steel and introduced
into the furnace at 873 K. The spectrometric system can collect one
flame spectrum for every one second. After some initial combustion
tests, the following experimental procedure was adopted: bagasse
combustion into the blackbody furnace with the door open and
C.T. Salinas, et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433

Blackbody temperature = 1573 K 400

4.0x10
10
Ir
6x10
4
Counts 350 Polynomial Fit of Data1_IR
Intensity 10
5x10
4 3.2x10 300

Intensity( W/m /sr)

3
4
4x10 10 250
2.4x10
Counts

Ir MW/m /sr
4
3x10 200

3
10
1.6x10
4
2x10 150
9
1x10
4 8.0x10
100

0 0.0 50

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

0
Wavelength (nm)
0 50 100 150 200
(a) R
1.5x10
11
Blackbody intensity-1273K
(a)
Blackbody intensity-1373K
Blackbody intensity-1473K
50
Blackbody intensity-1573K
Blackbody intensity-1673K
Ig
Intensity(W/m /sr)

11 Blackbody intensity-1773K Polynomial Fit of Data1_IG

1.0x10 40
3

Blackbody intensity-1873K
Callbrate intensity-1273K
Callbrate intensity-1373K
Callbrate intensity-1473K
Callbrate intensity-1573K
Ig MW/m /sr 30
10 Callbrate intensity-1673K
5.0x10
Callbrate intensity-1773K
3

Callbrate intensity-1873K

20

0.0

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 10

Wavelength (nm)
(b) 0
Fig. 5. Calibration results of spectrometer. (a) Raw counts of spectrometer and 0 50 100 150 200
corresponding blackbody intensities at 1573 K. (b) Comparison of calibrated G
intensities obtained by the spectrometer and corresponding blackbody in-
tensities at different temperatures. (b)
Fig. 6. (a) Variations of Ir and (b) Variations of Ig with the R and G data, re-
acquisition of the flame spectrum data installing the detector lens spectively.
0.02 m distance from bagasse flame. Bagasse samples of 5 g uniformly
dispersed in a plane cup of refractory steel was used in three experi- observed during the combustion process with a minimum value of
mental tests named a, b and c. The flame dimension in the experiments 1420 K and a maximum value of 1670 K. It is worth mentioning that the
had approximately a cross section in the range of 0.05 m height and flames in these experimental tests are diffusion flames of transient and
0.05 m width with 0.04 m deep. Being this deep guarantees the flame non-premixed nature that experience large temporal and spatial gra-
opacity during the tests. Due to the combustion monitoring time, be- dients in local species and temperature. Lowest temperature in test c
tween 10 s and 20 s, the detector did not suffer dangerous heating. For can indicate temporary overall oxygen deficiencies. Also, lowest tem-
temperature calculations, the wavelength interval Δλ in Eq. (5) should peratures in the final period of the tests are related with the final stage
be very small to make the variation of the medium emissivity much of the combustion process due to the consumption of the sample. Mean
smaller. This is the ideal condition for the application of the two-color flame temperature for every test is calculated and given the following
method to obtain reliable temperature profiles. The wavelength interval values: 1601.40 K, 1580.58 K and 1525.57 K for tests a, b and c re-
Δλ in Eq. (5) is chosen to be 30 nm as in [18]. The existence alkali spectively. The mean flame temperature for the test is 1569.58 K with a
metal potassium K (~767 nm) emission lines were identified and then standard deviation of 39.17 K (2.49%). Fig. 9 shows a median chart
extracted from the examined range of wavelength suitable for estima- comparing the three experimental tests and it can be observed that the
tion of the temperature which fundamentally should not change with median values of flame temperature of every test are closed.
the wavelength. More details about the detection of alkali is discussed
in the final part of section 4.2.2.
Calculation of the flame temperature is made for an interval be- 4.2. Industrial bagasse boiler tests results
tween 12 and 15 s of continuous experimental tests. The calculation of
every instantaneous temperature corresponds to the calculation using Experiments were conducted on a sugarcane bagasse-fired boiler
an instantaneous spectrum data at every second and afterwards it is a furnace with steam capacity of 136 t/h and 36 MW power generation
mean temperature from the spectral data. A typical instantaneous flame unit. The boiler was manufactured by a Brazilian company. It is a
spectrum is shown in Fig. 7(a) and 7(b). Results of flame temperature particle suspension combustion and moving grate boiler. A scheme of
profiles during the combustion process of three samples are shown in the boiler is shown in Fig. 4. The stream of biomass into the boiler
Fig. 8. A large variation of the instantaneous temperature values is furnace could be considered as a group of particles with various sizes
and shapes resulting in different heat/mass interaction with the

6
C.T. Salinas, et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433

Fig. 7. (a) Typical instantaneous raw counts of spectrometer, (b) Typical instantaneous Intensity profile.

Fig. 8. Mean bagasse flame temperature for a set of spectral data in experi-
mental tests a, b and c in a black body furnace. Fig. 9. Median Chart of Bagasse flame temperature in experimental tests a, b
and c.

7
C.T. Salinas, et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433

Fig. 10. Viewing port and flame observed through the viewing port.

continuous phase. The measurement tests were carried out in a typical 3.00E+009

day of the boiler operation. The boiler works currently with slight po-
sitive pressure. The whole measurement procedure is relatively simple, 2.50E+009

but it is not a trivial procedure due to the experimental test that is made
in a boiler operating in conditions with in-situ measurements. A fine

Intensity (W/m 3/sr)

2.00E+009

coordination is needed with the boiler operation controller to maintain

a slight negative pressure inside the boiler and the operating para- 1.50E+009

meters during the measurement time. Based on the flue gas analysis
carried out using a Testo 330 analyzer from internal reports in the 1.00E+009

power plant, the boiler furnace was operating with 28% air excess and K
with an average of 49.33% bagasse moisture at the time of the ex- 5.00E+008

perimental test. The boiler furnace has six viewing ports in the bottom
of the boiler front wall and they are symmetrically distributed. The 0.00E+000

boiler has six bagasse fuel feeders symmetrically distributed along the
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
boiler front wall and every one of the viewing ports is located below
Wavelength (nm)
every respective fuel feeder in the same vertical line. The project of the
boiler was made in effort to obtain a uniform combustion distribution Fig. 11. Spectrum of Bagasse Flame in the Boiler Furnace.
inside the furnace; in the real operating conditions some differences can
be found. Viewing ports four and five were selected to carry out the
at 767 nm. Continuous emission is mainly due to thermal radiation
measurement experiments. Fig. 10 shows one viewing port in a front
from soot and char particles in the sugarcane bagasse flame. The
wall and a bagasse flame is observed.
spectrum contains thermal information from the flame, so the flame
The portable imaging system focuses on a flame area inside the
temperature and emissivity of sugarcane bagasse flame along the line of
furnace and the spectrometric system concentrating on a smaller flame
sight can be calculated. According to the measurement principles, the
area as the portable imaging system. Then to measure the same local
temperature and emissivity can be derived from continuous spectral
flame area, a geometrical calculation in the measurement area was
radiation intensities based on the Hotel and Broughton’s emissivity
made to properly guide the installation of the sensors. In the first step,
model. Again, for calculation of the instantaneous flame temperature
flame images from viewing ports four and five were captured simulta-
from every spectrum, the wavelength interval Δλ in Eq. (5) should be
neously using the portable image system and the spectrometer system
very small to enable a much smaller variation of the medium emissivity.
respectively. The next step is where temperature and emissivity images
were calculated by spectral analysis. The final step produced pseudo-
instantaneous 2-D temperature distribution in one cross-section and 1700
was reconstructed by the imaging system.

1600
4.2.1. Measurements with the spectrometer system
The spectrometric system is used to collect the spectrum of bagasse
flame in the boiler furnace. The flame spectrum is collected by the fiber-
Temperature (K)

1500
optic measure probe and transferred into the spectrometer. Then,
spectral data such as spectral intensities are sent into a laptop.
Monitoring of a flame reactive zone of bagasse combustion is carried
1400
out for 160 s using the spectrometric system to obtain representative
experimental data. The spectrometric system collects spectral data
every second and it will collect 160 instantaneous spectrums for this
1300
experiment. The measurements were carried out from the viewing port
five, shown in Fig. 4.
In Fig. 11, one instantaneous profile of the calibrated spectral ra-
1200
diant intensity between 300 nm and 1100 nm is captured from the 0 50 100 150 200 250
focused reactive zone in the boiler furnace. It can be seen as a con- Time (s)
tinuous emission existing within the wavelength range of 300 to
1100 nm and can be observed as one emission peak or an emission line Fig. 12. Measured Flame Temperature Varying with Time.

8
C.T. Salinas, et al.
0.12
0.10
0.08
Emissivity (\)
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 50 100 150 200
Time (s)
Fig. 13. Measured Flame Emissivity Varying with Time.
This is the ideal situation for the application of the two-color method to
obtain temperature and emissivity profiles reliability. Also, the ex-
istence and effects of the K emission lines were identified and then
extracted from the examined range of wavelength that is suitable for
estimation of the temperature which fundamentally should not change
with the wavelength. The wavelength interval Δλ in Eq. (5) is chosen to
be 30 nm as in Ref. [27]. Calculation of flame temperature is made for
an interval of 160 s of continuous experimental tests.
In Fig. 12, the illustration shows the sugarcane bagasse flame tem-
perature variation for the reactive zone. It can be observed as a max-
imum and minimum instantaneous mean temperatures of 1653 K and
1265 K respectively. The average flame temperature in the focused
reactive zone was 1443 K for the 160 s monitoring. The flames in these
experimental tests can be considered as diffusion flames of transient
and non-premixed nature that experience large temporal and spatial
gradients in local species and temperature. A large and continuous
variation of the instantaneous flame temperature observed may in-
dicate large variations of the instantaneous distribution de species. A
low instantaneous flame temperature can indicate temporary local
oxygen deficiencies and species variation. From spectral data and using
the Eq. 6, calculations were made for the sugarcane bagasse flame
emissivity. Fig. 13 gives the flame emissivity varying with time. It is
observed that the emissivity of the sugarcane bagasse flame for the local
measured point is in the range of 0.04 to 0.11. Variation of in-
stantaneous flame temperature and flame emissivity can possibly
Fig. 14. Flame Image and Corresponding Temperature Image Obtained by Portable Imaging System.
Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433
250 Fig. 15. Average Instantaneous Flame Temperature in the Focused Reactive
Combustion Area During Short Time Monitoring Measured by the Flame
Imaging System.
indicate that the combustion process in the focused flame area is un-
stable.
4.2.2. Measurements by the portable imaging system
Flame temperature images using the portable flame image system
were calculated from flame radiative images data of Ir and Ig. A photo of
a typical flame image of bagasse burning into the boiler furnace is
shown in Fig. 14 (a). The 2-D temperature distribution in the focused
area is calculated employing the methodology introduced in section 3.1
and using a dedicated computational code. Currently, information is
not available about the estimation of the radiative properties for su-
garcane bagasse combustion in a large-scale boiler. In this work, mea-
surements are focused in the reactive zone combustion [34].
After previous numerical simulations using captured thermal
images, the value of 0.8 m−1 for the extinction coefficient for online
monitoring test is adopted. The portable imaging system can process
one radiative image every five seconds. A monitoring test of 160 s is
carried out with this imaging system. A typical instantaneous 2-D
temperature distribution map of the focused flame section is shown in
Fig. 14 (b). It can be observed in the focus section that the temperatures
near the floor of the furnace are lower than temperatures farther away
from the floor. It seems that most parts of the sugarcane bagasse par-
ticles are burned in suspension above of the furnace floor. This is in
reasonable agreement and with the fact that the primary air is in-
troduced to the furnace via the floor. From the 2-D flame temperature
map the instantaneous mean flame temperature of the focused area is
9
C.T. Salinas, et al. Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433

calculated. The variation of the mean flame temperature with the time
is shown in Fig. 15. It found a maximum instantaneous mean flame
temperature of 1520 K with a mean temperature of 1496.1 K with a
standard deviation of 10.79 K in 160 s of the monitoring test. Of course,
these values of temperatures are not representative for all of the spatial
domain of the boiler furnace however it gives representative tempera-
tures in the reactive zone focus. From flame image temperatures it was
also observed that the combustion process is not uniform. It can be
attributed along with other factors to the great variation of the size of
the particles of bagasse and the high moisture content that seems to
promote particle agglutination in the feeding system. The average
temperature measured using the spectrometric system is in reasonable
approximation with results by the portable image system. The noted
discrepancy between the two measurements is 53.61 K (3.58%).
Throughout the measurement process, the color CCD camera and
spectrometer fiber were fixed on the tripod and the optical path was
calibrated by the laser calibrator before measurement. There was no
movement during measurement, so the systematic errors caused by the
optical path and camera angle changing can be ignored. The average
temperature measured by the spectrometer system and the portable
imaging system for 160 s are 1446 K and 1496.61 K respectively. The
noted discrepancy between the two measurements is 53.61 K (3.58%).
Two main reasons contribute to the difference between two methods of
temperature measurement. One reason is that the measurements with
the spectrometer system results obtained are the average value in the
direction of the line of sight, while the portable imaging system cal-
culate the average temperature for the focus flame area. The two sys-
tems are located at different viewing ports. The obtained temperature
are different between two systems because the average distribution
temperature in boiler is not uniform. We compute the error of mea-
surement result with respect to the data, using the root-mean-squared
error (RMSE), which defined as shown below:
RMSE = m 1 i = 1 (Ti Tave )2 / Tave (9)where m is the total num-
1 m
bers of temperature data, Ti is temperature data, and Tave is the mean
temperature. The value of RMSE for spectrometer measurement result
and color CCD camera measurement result are 3.95% and 2.0%. The
value of RMSE for the two methods are acceptable, considering the
flame temperature changing caused by temporary local oxygen and
species variation in the boiler furnace.
Besides that, Table 3 shows the comparison of the results of flame
temperature in this work with results in other works. In table 3 is used
the follow abbreviations: SP, single particle; BBF, Bach in Black body
furnace; SM, Spectrometric method; and IM, Therma Imaging Method.
It was found that flame temperature in the laboratory tests in this work
is slightly higher than the temperatures measured in the boiler. Once is
a reasonable fact that this difference is primarily due to the boundary
conditions in the blackbody furnace with close and hotter walls. Also,
the moisture content in the bagasse burning boiler is a key factor in
reducing the flame temperature. Temperatures reported in Refs. [2] and
[4] are larger than the temperatures found in this work due to the
moisture content of the samples and the use of a hotter furnace. CFD
simulations in [7–8], in [9] and in [36] were made for a similar kind of
boiler, with comparable geometrical dimensions and operating para-
meters. The overall outcome of the temperature calculations of the CFD
simulations in Refs. [7], [8] and [9] are in reasonable agreement with
the results in the experimental test at the bagasse boiler of this work as
shown in table 3. In [36] the CFD simulation predicted that strong re-
active zones are principally near the grate are consistent with the ex-
perimental observations in this work. However, in [36], higher tem-
peratures in the reactive zones in the range of 2000 K to 2300 K were
calculated with a higher prediction and was not in agreement with
pattern measurements in [2] and [4]. In [10], a CFD simulation and an
experimental test in a 300 kW pilot furnace using pulverized dry bio-
mass from pelletized biomass of a rubber tree provided vital evidence.
The ultimate analysis of the pulverized dry biomass has in approx-
imation with the ultimate analysis of the sugarcane bagasse in this
work. The laboratorial experimental tests in [10] were made by using
dry biomass and intensive promoting of a species mixture. It can be
considered as a reference of the higher values for maximum tempera-
tures in biomass combustion in furnaces with air at atmospheric pres-
sure. The measured maximum flame temperature in the reactive zone in
[10] (by using thermocouples along the flame) is in agreement with
results in this work.
The results show a workable application of a monitoring system
based in radiative image processing through a visible spectrum for
continuous temperature field measurements in a sugar cane bagasse
boiler furnace. More time devoted to flame temperature monitoring will
give us a better understanding of boiler operation conditions. Three-
dimensional temperature information of flame and combustion gases
inside the boiler furnace can be used as feedback data in the controlling
biomass combustion operation and efficiency of the power plant. Also,
extensive monitoring data can be used as a vital component to expand
the boiler project.
Finally, according to the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST)’s Atomic Spectra Database, the detected emission
peak in the spectrum of bagasse flame represents the atomic emission
lines of potassium (K) (766.490 nm, 769.896). Subsequently, from the
flame spectrum in Fig. 11, emissions lines are originating from the al-
kali metal potassium K (̴ 767 nm). The alkali metal combines with Cl to
form KCl, which has a low melting point and can shrink upon contact

Table 3
Bagasse flame temperature comparison.
Reference/Bagasse origin Moisture % Maximum Flame/Char Temperature Average Flame/Char Temperature K Wall Furnace Temperature K Source of result derivation
K

[2]/ Brazil (SP)1 dry 2000 (Char) 1820 1400 Exp. Laboratory
[4]/ Brazil (SP)1 4.4 1890 (Char) – 1400 Exp. Laboratory
[6]/ Brazil (SP)1 30 1400 – 1123 Simulation Lab
[7]/ Brazil 50 1700–1800 – 558 CFD Boiler
[8]/ Brazil 50 1400–1600 – 558 CFD Boiler
[9]/Colombia 50.32 1474–1615 – 558 CFD Boiler
[9]/Colombia2 50.32 1503 – 558 Exp Boiler
[10]/Thailand3 5.81 1680 – – CFD Boiler Lab
[10]/Thailand3,2 5.81 1450 – – Exp Boiler Lab
[36]/Brazil 50 2000–2300 – 559 CFD Boiler
This work BBF1 29 1670 1569.18 ± 39.17 (2.4%) 873 Exp Laboratory
This work SM1 49.6 1623 1443 ± 45.3 565 Exp Boiler
This work IM1 49.6 1520 1496.61 ± 10.78 565 Exp Boiler

1
SP: single particle; BBF: Bach, Black body furnace; SM: Spectrometric method; IM: Imaging Method.
2
Measurement Using Thermocouple.
3
Pulverized Dry Biomass from Pelletized Biomass of a Rubber Tree.

10
C.T. Salinas, et al.
Fig. 16. Measured alkali metal (K) intensity varying with time.
with particles in the flue gas and super heater tubes [37]. This can
increase the deposit rate on the tubes in the sugarcane bagasse-fired
boiler. It has been found that in a complicated series of reactions, the
KCl destroys the protective layer of chromium iron oxide on tubes,
thereby increasing corrosion; the corrosion problem increases if the
deposit is partly in the phase liquid [38]. Furthermore, the radiative
intensity of alkali metal (K) varying with time can also be reached as it
is shown in Fig. 16. The temporally variation of the alkali intensity
indicated among the other differences of the composition and char-
acteristics of the bagasse burning in the boiler furnace is also illu-
strated. The information of the variation of the radiative intensity of the
alkali metal (K) can be used to calculate the alkali content in the flame
of bagasse combustion. While worth noting, this topic is not in the
scope of this work and it is expected to be examined in an upcoming
paper.
5. Conclusion
A spectral analysis and image processing methods in the visible
spectrum were used to measure in-situ the sugar cane bagasse flame
temperature in a 136 t/h boiler. The adopted value of 0.8 m−1 for the
extinction coefficient was suitable for reasonable approximation of
temperature estimation for the imaging system. Actual temperature
measurement results were obtained using both spectrometric and
imaging methods aligned with a discrepancy of 3.58%. A short time
span of 160 s of the flame monitoring with the spectrometric system
produced an average flame temperature of 1443 K. A standard devia-
tion of 45.3 K was calculated for the flame focused area. Similarly,
based on a shorter time of 160 s of the flame monitoring with an
average flame temperature 1496.61 K with a standard deviation of
10.78 K was calculated for the flame focused area. The maximum flame
temperatures found is in relative agreement with maximum tempera-
tures in a numerical CFD simulation study in a very similar geometry
and boiler type. The maximum temperatures measured in this work
agree with experimental measurements in [10] however, they are
smaller than temperature measurements in the range of 1600–1900 K,
obtained in a laboratory test of single particles of sugarcane bagasse
combustion [2,4]. Values of flame emissivity in operating conditions at
sugar cane bagasse boiler were individually obtained. Studies on three-
dimensional thermal monitoring are planned as the next step for this
boiler flame research.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
11
Applied Thermal Engineering 175 (2020) 115433
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Science and Technology
Partnership Program, Ministry of Science and Technology of China
(KY201401003), FAPESP of Brazil (Process 2016/01493-9) and the
National Key Research and Development Program of China
(2018YFB0604100). The first author also thanks CONCYTEC of Perú
(contract 010-2019-FONDECYT-BM-INC.INV) by his financial support.
The authors would also like to thank the Baldin Power Plant and the
Equipalcool Company for their cooperation in this research.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2020.115433.
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