Journal of Geromologv

1983, Vol. 38. No. I, 111-116

The Life Satisfaction Index: A

Methodological and Theoretical Critique1
Danny R. Hoyt, PhD2 and James C. Creech, MA:

The Life Satisfaction Index A (LSIA) was examined by factor analytic techniques. The data do not
support the original conceptual framework of Neugarten and her colleagues. Although the results indicate a

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strong need for caution, there is evidence of an alternative interpretation of the LSIA that has a degree of
consistency across racial and gender categories. In addition, these findings raise implicit questions about
prior research using the LSIA and demonstrate the importance of making comprehensive, critical evalua-
tions of scales with complex theoretical origins.
Key Words: Psychological well-being, Factor analysis, Validity, Measurement

RDINARILY the transition to old age is a
O period of status and role losses. The ability to
adjust or cope with these losses has been, conse-
quently, central to the theoretical and empirical
development of social gerontology since the begin-
ning of the modern era (cf. Burgess, 1950; Cavan et
al., 1949; Folsom& Morgan, 1937;Pollak, 1948).
The operational definition of adjustment usually has
been in terms of morale, happiness, psychological
well-being, and life satisfaction; and to this end,
several measures have been developed (see Sauer &
Warland, 1982). Although these indicators were
constructed initially to test general theories of
adjustment, such as disengagement (Cumming &
Henry, 1961) or activity (Havighurst & Albrecht,
1953), in recent years they have become a major
subject of inquiry in their own right (Adams, 1971;
Edwards & Klemmack, 1973; Larson, 1978;
Lohmann, 1977). Much of this research, however,
has been characterized by an underlying, almost
unquestioned acceptance of the particular measure
of well-being chosen.
Others have indicated that, typically, measures
of psychological well-being are not grounded with
clear conceptualization (Lawton, 1977; Rosow,
1963, 1977; Sauer & Warland, 1982). One of the
few exceptions is the work by Neugarten,
'We arc grateful to Nicholas Babchuk, Harold Orbach. Edward Powers, and
Hugh Whitl for comments made on earlier drafts. The data were made available
through the National Archive of Computerized Data on Aging. The authors have been
supported, in part, by National Institute on Aging predoctoral traineeships with the
Midwest Council for Social Research in Aging. Neither the original collector of the
data nor any of the agencies named above bear any responsibility for the analyses or
interpretations presented here.
department of Sociology and Anthropology, Iowa State University, Ames, 1A
50011.
•'Department of Sociology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588.
Havighurst, and Tobin (1961) on life satisfaction.
Neugarten and her associates were concerned with
developing a multidimensional measure that would
represent the complexity of psychological well-
being. In this vein, five components of life satisfac-
tion were identified: (a) zest versus apathy — the
degree of involvement in activities, with other per-
sons, or with ideas; (b) resolution and fortitude —
the extent that persons take responsibility for their
own lives; (c) congruence — the extent to which
life goals were achieved; (d) self-concept — the
person's concept of self, physically, psychological-
ly, and socially; and (e) mood tone — whether the
person holds optimistic attitudes and happy feelings
(Neugarten et al., 1961). Using in-depth inter-
views, a Life Satisfaction Rating Scale (LSR) en-
compassing each of these five dimensions was de-
veloped. The structure and validity of the LSR was
confirmed through examination of the intercorrela-
tions of the dimensions and the independent assess-
ments of clinical psychologists.
Given the extensive interviewing required to
construct the LSR, Neugarten et al. (1961) de-
veloped the Life Satisfaction Index A (LSIA) for
use in shorter survey instruments. In its final form
the LSIA consisted of 20 "agree" or "disagree"
attitude items (see appendix for items). Although
the LSIA was conceptualized as having the same
multidimensional structure as the LSR, the pro-
posed coding scheme was additive and unidi-
mensional. The validity of the LSIA was checked
through its correlation with the original LSR and the
assessments of clinical psychologists. The reported
correlations were only .55 and .39 respectively
(Neugarten et al., 1961). These correlations, as

111
112 HOYT AND CREECH
noted by the authors, were not as high as might be
expected, inasmuch as the LSIA was derived from
the LSR. Accordingly, Neugarten et al. observed
that the effort to develop an adequate short report
measure of life satisfaction "was only moderately
successful" and that the index should be "used
with caution" (1961, p. 143).
Since publication, the LSIA has become widely
adopted. Due to its frequent use, it has also been the
subject of methodological analyses. For example,
Adams (1969) examined the reliability and multi-
dimensionality of the LSIA. Reliability was evalu-
ated by using a discrimination value and the biserial
correlation between the mean of the affirmative-
response group for each item and the LSIA mean
score for the whole sample. The results indicated
that all but two items (the last two listed in the
appendix) were reliable. Adams then factor ana-
lyzed the LSIA in search of the five theoretical
components specified in Neugarten et al. (1961).
The first three factors, according to Adams, corres-
pond with the mood tone, zest versus apathy, and
congruence dimensions. The fourth factor was said
to be more ambiguous because it tapped both the
resolution and fortitude and the congruence dimen-
sions. The component items of these four factors
differed in some instances from those implied by
Neugarten et al. (1961), and as a result Adams was
not able to identify any factor corresponding to the
self-concept dimension.
Wood et al. (1969) also examined the LSIA and
suggested a shortened, alternative form, the LSIZ.
Using coefficient alpha as a measure of reliability,
seven of the original 20 items were not included in
the LSIZ. They also proposed an alternative coding
scheme, where "don't know" responses were
coded as a neutral, separate category rather than
combined with those who disagreed with the item.
In two recent papers Lohmann (1977, 1980) has
investigated the construct validity of several stan-
dard measures of psychological well-being, includ-
ing the LSIA. The first study correlated the various
scales with one another; the LSIA correlated in the
range of .6 to .8 with almost all of the other scales.
Lohmann's (1980) second study consisted of a fac-
tor analysis of all the items from seven measures of
psychological well-being. Her results indicate that
there are two dimensions to life satisfaction and that
the LSIA contributes to both dimensions of her new
composite scale.
A point that emerges from these methodological
inquiries is a lack of consensus regarding the under-
lying structure of the LSIA. This may be, in part,
due to the fact that the data bases used in the prior
analyses typically have been small, homogeneous,
and limited to primarily rural states. The present
inquiry will reconsider some of the measurement
properties of the LSIA by using a large national
sample and statistical techniques that have only
become available during the past decade.
OBJECTIVES
This study will examine measurement issues that
concern the LSIA. Two questions were central to
this investigation. When tested on a larger, more
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heterogeneous sample, does the LSIA demonstrate
an underlying structure similar to the one concep-
tualized by Neugarten et al. (1961)? If not, then is
there an alternative interpretation that describes the
empirical results in a theoretically meaningful way?
The rationale for these assessments can be sought
on both methodological and theoretical grounds.
In this assessment there were two methodologi-
cal criteria. First, do the items display a simple
factor structure (do they load primarily on a single
factor and not much on any other factor)? Such a
structure is a minimal condition for asserting the
presence of one or more underlying attitude dimen-
sions. Second, is the observed factor structure con-
sistent across the various subgroups in the sample?
This condition is necessary to imply that a scale
measures the same thing for different segments of
the population. This question is of particular impor-
tance because life satisfaction scores are often com-
pared across groups (e.g., men vs. women, blacks
vs. whites).
Although these methodological criteria will
serve to identify an optimal item structure, they will
not indicate whether the scale actually measures
what it is purported to measure. Evaluation of valid-
ity ultimately must rest upon theoretical considera-
tions. However, validity may be asserted by the
empirical demonstration of a relationship between a
set of indicators and its statistical true score (see
Lord & Novick, 1968). In brief, the issue is whether
the item structure indicated by the methodological
results is consistent with that predicted by Neugar-
ten et al. (1961) conceptual discussion on life
satisfaction.
DATA AND METHODS
The data used in this analysis are from the 1974
Myth and Reality of Aging Survey (Harris &
Associates, 1975). These data were considered par-
ticularly suitable because they are based on a
national sample that oversampled both blacks and
adults aged 65 and older. Because the LSIA was
 EVALUATING THE LIFE SATISFACTION INDEX
designed explicitly for use in older populations,
only those respondents aged 65 and older were
analyzed. This yielded the following subsample
sizes: white men, 846; white women, 1341; black
men, 177; and black women, 287.
Although only 18 of the 20 items from the LSI A
were utilized in this survey, they should, if the
implied structure is correct, still sufficiently repre-
sent the five dimensions identified by Neugarten et
al. (1961). Accordingly, it was assumed that the
results would not be altered substantially by the
exclusion of the two items.
The data were analyzed using the confirmatory
and exploratory factor analysis techniques de-
veloped by Joreskog, (1969; Joreskog & Sorbom,
1978). These techniques permit tests for the number
of factors, alternative loadings of the items onto
factors, and equality of factor structures across sub-
groups. Furthermore, by using a maximum likeli-
hood solution, these programs also provide a chi-
square statistic for assessing and comparing the fit
of various models. The purpose of this chi-square is
to assess goodness of fit. In other words, the model
should fit the data, so a low chi-square value and a
high probability level are desired.
As previously noted, one concern was whether
the scale is consistent across various subgroups in
the population. Traditional views on attitude
measurement indicate that the rules of correspon-
dence associated with a scale should transcend the
observed group (Thurstone, 1928; Upshaw, 1968).
The factor structure of a scale, then, should be
consistent across population groupings. If not, it
would denote that some caution would need to be
exercised in cross-group comparisons. In the pres-
ent analysis race and gender were selected as partic-
ularly relevant groupings for testing these prop-
erties. The basic concern was whether any observed
differences across these categories reflect differing
factor structures, or just differing scores on the
scales. That is, if group scores do vary, are they
discriminating levels of well-being or are they arti-
factual, owing to differing properties of measure-
ment? Following the procedure outlined by Jores-
kog (1971), the models must be assessed initially
for each group independently. If some model exists
that cannot be rejected for any subgroup, then a test
for equality of factor structures across groups can
be made.
The first step in this analysis was a simple test of
the five factors implied in the original formulation
of the LSIA. If this model displays an acceptable fit
for each subgroup, the loading of the items across
groups will be explored.
113
FINDINGS
The results from the initial test, which posited a
five-factor model underlying the LSIA, do not dis-
play an acceptable fit for either of the white groups.
The chi-square fits, with 73 degrees of freedom, are
as follows: white men, 107.97 (p = .005); white
women, 99.25 {p = .022); black men, 72.31 (p =
.501); and black women, 75.99 (p = .382).
Similar tests were also conducted (results not
shown) on an 18-item, four-factor model and a
13-item, four-factor model representing Adams'
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(1969) and Wood et al. (1969) revisions, respec-
tively. Neither model adequately fit the data for the
white groups, but the Wood et al. model did fit for
both black men and women.
Whereas the initial model was not acceptable, the
number of factors underlying the LSIA was then
identified. In brief, an exploratory analysis was
used to determine the best fitting model as defined
by two criteria. First, the fit of the model, based on
the chi-square statistic, must be acceptable.
Second, the next higher model, allowing for an
additional factor, should not provide significant im-
provement in the fit (based on the difference of the
two chi-square statistics). The results from this
analysis show large cross-racial differences. The
best fitting models for the black respondents require
six factors, and, by contrast, eight factors were
needed for the white participants. Clearly, both the
discrepancy in the number of factors across racial
categories and the large number of factors required
for an acceptable fit indicate the need to reevaluate
the component items of the scale.
Using exploratory factor analysis, an attempt
was made to find some underlying factor structure
common to each group, while retaining as many of
the original items as possible. The preliminary re-
sult is the following four-factor, 11-item configura-
tion: Factor 1 —Satis, Have-Exp, Past-OK; Factor
2 — Happy, Best-Yrs, Happier; Factor 3 — Future,
Plans; and Factor 4 — Dreary, Boring, Get-Dep
(see appendix for items). The chi-square fits for the
respective subgroups, with 17 degrees of freedom,
are 18.91 (p = .334) for white men, 18.78 (p =
.341) for white women, 22.85 (p = .154) for black
men, and 16.76 (p = .471) for black women.
Although this structure could not be rejected for any
of the groups, the results remain problematic. There
are, for example, marked variations in the factor
loadings across groups. The interpretation was
clearer for both white men and women as neither
black subgroup displayed a simple factor structure.
From a methodological viewpoint this new factor
structure is, at best, only minimally adequate. In an
114 HOYT AND CREECH

attempt to identify a structure that is more consis-
tent across groups, configurations involving a vari-
ety of fewer items and fewer factors were em-
ployed. For example, it was found that by dropping
the Get-Dep item from the fourth factor, the fit is
improved for the black women and both white
groups. However, the fit was rejected (p = .034)
for black men on this four-factor, 10-item model.
The best reduced model evidenced by these data
is one that eliminates the fourth factor. The promax
rotated factor loadings, factor correlations, and the
second model provided a significantly better fit over
the more restrictive first model (Model 1: x2 (52) =
86.45, p< .001; Model 2 : / ( 2 8 ) = 21.36, p >
.80; difference between models: ^ ( 2 4 ) = 65.09,/?
< .001). Therefore, even with this reduced model,
it is not safe to assume that the same items can be
interpreted in the same manner for each of the
groups. Furthermore, although an examination of
the residuals suggests that the lack of fit is due
largely to the third factor with black women, neither
the freeing of those specific factor loadings nor
dropping the third factor from all groups signi-

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unique variances for this three-factor, eight-item
model are presented in Table 1. The subgroup chi-
square fits with seven degrees of freedom are white
men, 1.55 (p = .980); white women, 8.28 (p =
.309); black men, 3.19 (p = .876); and black
women, 8.34 (p — .304). Although this model
provided a substantial improvement in fit over the
four-factor model for both subgroups of men, the fit
is slightly poorer for both racial categories of
women. It appears, however, to have a greater
cross-group consistency in factor loadings.
Because the factor analytic model can be viewed
as an extension of the classical true score model,
where the factor loadings are empirical estimates of
the rules of correspondence, the ability of a scale to
transcend any given group can be assessed. To
examine this issue with the LSIA an additional test
was performed. This test compared two models:
The first constrained all subgroups to have the same
factor loadings; in the second the factor loadings
were allowed to vary. The results indicate that the
hypothesis of equal factor loadings (transcendence
of attitudes across groups) must be rejected as the
ficantly improved the fit.
Setting the methodological issues to one side for
the moment, another important issue that needs
consideration was the interpretation of the factors.
Whereas the five-factor model does not have an
adequate fit, it is apparent that these items do not
have a structure consistent with the one delineated
by Neugarten et al. (1961). The next logical ques-
tion was whether any of the identified dimensions
parallel portions of the hypothesized factor struc-
ture. The first factor includes items reported by
Adams (1969) as the congruence dimension. Reex-
amining these items, this factor appears to be
measuring something akin to satisfaction with the
past. The three items making up the second factor is
part of Adams' mood tone dimension. Although a
potential interpretation is positive mood tone,
another plausible one seems to be satisfaction with
the present. This interpretation, however, is not
without problems, because each item also implies a
baseline comparison with past levels of adjustment.
The third factor appears to be related to a future

Table 1. Factor Loadings, Factor Correlations, and Unique Variances for the Three-Factor, Eight-Item Model by
Race and Sex
Whites Blacks
Men Women Men Women
Items 1 2 3 1-h2 1 2 3 1-h2 1 2 3 1-h2 1 2 3 1-h2

Satis .687 -.048 -.019 .571 .593 -.020 .106 .604 .818 -.136 .366 .295 .846 -.085 .028 .340
Have-Exp .644 -.007 .020 .578 .769 .013 - .041 .421 .597 .012 .224 .576 .560 -.013 .073 .655
Past-OK .485 .086 -.019 .726 .479 .063 - .028 .746 .541 .095 -.087 .633 .565 .172 - .164 .614
Happy .106 .556 .137 .509 .056 .667 .070 .469 .191 .546 .163 .507 .046 .545 .208 .526
Best-Yrs -.106 .702 .027 .553 - .073 .641 .024 .620 -.178 .874 .244 .317 - .014 .829 .051 .289
Happier .080 .557 .050 .674 .067 .547 - .071 .689 .175 .454 -.179 .644 - .049 .625 - .166 .693
Future -.051 .053 .678 .534 - .006 .013 .676 .539 .079 .131 .570 .631 - .004 .012 .997 .000
Plans .119 .000 .450 .731 - .003 .044 .469 .762 .199 .082 .395 .771 .141 .173 .226 .812
Factor
correlations
2 .496 .507 .594 .415
3 .520 .493 .370 .405 .033 .037 .418 .570
 EVALUATING THE LIFE SATISFACTION INDEX
orientation and/or optimism. Both of these items
are components in the zest for life dimension iden-
tified by Adams. The three items in the fourth factor
are the other half of the mood tone dimension. In
contrast to the items in the first three factors, all
these questions were worded negatively. As such,
they might be perceived as negative mood tone.
This positive/negative contrast might also underlie
the differences, noted above, between the three-
and four-factor models. Nonetheless, although a
reasonably coherent interpretation may be con-
structed for these factors, the correspondence be-
tween Neugarten et al. (1961) theoretical dimen-
sions and their statistically derived counterparts is
not at all strong.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The analysis and findings raise serious questions
about the structure and interpretation of the mea-
sures in the LSI A. When examined in the context of
a heterogeneous, national sample, the original con-
figuration is not supported. There is, however,
some support for an alternative structure for a sub-
set of the items. The most consistent factor structure
found is a three-factor, eight-item model. These
factors generally can be interpreted as measuring
satisfaction with the past, satisfaction with the pres-
ent, and future orientation/optimism. There is also
some evidence, albeit weaker, of a fourth factor
tapping negative mood tone. If precedents were to
dictate, the next step would be to advocate the
adoption of a new variant of the LSIA. But there are
both methodological and theoretical considerations
that counsel caution to this course of action.
Although, methodologically, both the three-
factor, eight-item and the four-factor, 11-item con-
figurations identified in this analysis provide a bet-
ter fit to the data than previous conceptualizations,
it is important to recognize that neither of those
formulations is totally adequate. Although both
models provided an adequate fit for each of the
subgroups examined, there are significant differ-
ences in the factor loadings across both race and
sex. Thus, observed group differences may reflect
something more profound than unequal scores.
This makes it unwise to assume that these items
measure the same thing in differing segments of the
population. Indeed, as other researchers have noted
(Larson, 1978), this problem undermines the ability
to make meaningful cross-group comparisons of
psychological well-being scores.
The alternative form identified in this analysis
may also be seen as being theoretically deficient.
115
Although there appears to be a feasible interpreta-
tion for each of the factors, they do not correspond
well with the original conceptual work. Indeed,
there is little in these factors to suggest that they tap
the dimensions of life satisfaction as delineated by
Neugarten et al. (1961); thus, it is questionable
whether the items measure what they were designed
to measure. Therefore, to use the alternative for-
mulation would require, at least implicitly, a differ-
ent theoretical framework for the concept of life
satisfaction. The results from the present study
could be viewed as an exploratory analysis to be
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confirmed or disconfirmed with other data.
In sum, this inquiry was designed to either sub-
stantiate the conceptual design of Neugarten and
her associates (1961), or, failing that, to identify a
useful alternative structure. The analysis, rather
tellingly, did not support Neugarten et al., but the
search for an alternative structure was somewhat
more successful. Although interpretative caution is
still warranted because total consistency was not
found, there nonetheless seems to be a multi-
dimensional life satisfaction measure that maintains
a degree of consistency across race and gender.
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