4

Mathematical Preliminaries

4.1 LINEAR VECTOR SPACE

The concept of linear vector space is the backbone of quantum mechanics. The important feature of quantum mechanics is the
principle of superposition. If ψ1 and ψ2 are two states of a system, then there exists a state corresponding to ψ = c1ψ1 + c2ψ2,
where c1 and c2 are complex numbers. It is the concept of linear vector space which expresses the idea of superposition. The simple
concept of linear vector space is not sufficient in quantum mechanics. The structure of quantum mechanics requires imposition of
additional properties on linear vector space. More particularly, quantum mechanics requires the linear vector space to be Hilbert
space. The simplest way of expressing the Hilbert space is that it is a linear vector space with an inner product.
First, let us review the basic ideas of linear vector space. Let us start with a collection of geometric vectors-quantities with
direction and magnitude. The best examples are position vector, velocity vector, force vector and so on. If V1 and V2 are two vectors
representing velocity, then we can define a new vector c1V1 + c2V2 which also represents another velocity vector V.

i.e.,

Any vector V can be expressed in terms of unit vectors i, j and k and as follows:

For a given pair of vectors A and B, we can assign a number(A, B). In vector algebra, the most useful way of assigning such a
number is the usual dot product.

Note that this expression is only a definition. One has to recognize the fact that there are many ways of assigning a number for any
two vectors. However, within the vector algebra, the definition given in the Equation (4.3) is one of the most profitable definitions,
especially in the context of classical physics and engineering. This definition satisfies the following properties:
 
A · B = B · A
A · (c1B + c2C) = c1A · B + c2A · C

and

We have just summarized a few important properties of geometrical vectors in order to develop the basic concepts of linear vector
space.
 The next thing to do is to leave the fact that the vector is a quantity with magnitude and direction and concentrate on some
abstract properties satisfied by the geometrical vectors. In particular, we have to focus on the ideas of closure property, linear
combinations, basis, dimension, scalar product and so on, and we will extend these ideas to other mathematical objects.
In what follows, we present a brief introduction to linear vector space.
A linear vector space L is a collection of (or a set of) objects {ϕ1,ϕ2,ϕ3,…} called vectors with an operation of addition,
providing a rule to add two elements, and an operation of scalar multiplication, providing a rule to multiply a vector by scalar (real
or complex number), which obey the following axioms:

1. For every ϕ1 and ϕ2, which are elements of L, we can define an addition operator + such that

ϕ1 + ϕ2 = ϕ = ϕ2 + ϕ1

where ϕ should also be an element of L. This is called closure property.

2. Addition is associative. ϕ1 + (ϕ2 + ϕ3) = (ϕ1 + ϕ2) + ϕ3

3. There exists an element 0 of L called a null vector such that

ϕ + 0 = 0 + ϕ = ϕ

4. If c is a real or a complex number, then the multiplication of vectors by a scalar is distributive

c(ϕ1 + ϕ2) = cϕ1 + cϕ2

5. Multiplication of vectors by scalars is distributive with respect to scalars.

(c1 + c2)ϕ = c1ϕ + c2ϕ

6. Associative property with respect to scalar multiplication: c1(c2ϕ) = (c1c2) (ϕ).

7. 1 · ϕ = ϕ · 1 = ϕ

8.

It is very easy to see that all these axioms are satisfied by geometrical vectors V1, V2, V3…. In fact, these axioms have been
formulated from the study of geometrical vectors. However, they are also satisfied by a number of other mathematical objects. This
can be seen by the list of examples given below for such linear vector space.

Linear vector space of column vectors with two elements:

The typical elements of this linear vector space are

where a, a1, a2,… and b, b1, b2,… are either real or complex numbers.

We can see that   which is again a column vector. So the closure property is
satisfied.

The null vector of this linear vector space  . It can be easily seen that
 It can be multiplied by a real number like, say, 5.

In fact, the verification of all these axioms by these sets of column vectors is trivial.

Linear vector space of continuous functions.

Let
L = {f1(x), f2(x),…}

It is obvious to see that the sum of two continuous functions f1(x) and f2(x) is again a continuous function.
 
f(x) = f1(x) + f2(x)

If f(x) is the result of the addition, then f(x) is also a continuous function.

Again, it is very easy to verify that all the axioms of a linear vector space are satisfied by the set of continuous functions.

Linear vector space of polynomials of degree n

For the sake of clarity, we choose n = 2, that is, polynomials of degree 2. Then L is given by
 
L = {a1 + a2x + a3x2, b1 + b2x + b3x2,…}

It is obvious that the sum of two polynomial of degree 2 is again a polynomial of degree 2.
Let ϕ1 = a1 + a2x + a3x2 and ϕ2 = b1 + b2x + b3x2. Then we have

The null element corresponds to a = b = c = 0. It is easy to verify that all the axioms of a linear vector space are satisfied by the set
of polynomials of degree 2.

Note: The term vector no longer refers to an object with magnitude and direction.

Any object which satisfies all the eight axioms of a linear vector space is called a vector.

Thus, a vector may be   or ϕ = f(x) or ϕ = a + bx + cx2 etc

Let us briefly explain the other concepts of a linear vector space. For a detailed discussion, the reader can refer to a book on linear
algebra. The important concepts associated with a linear vector space are (i) linear combination (ii) linear independence (iii) basis
(iv) dimension of a linear vector space and (v) complete set of linearly independent vectors.

Linear Combination

If ϕ1, ϕ2,…ϕn are elements of the linear vector space, then we can form a new vector ϕ by

where c1, c2, c3,… are complex numbers.

 This is called a linear combination of the vectors ϕ1,ϕ2,…ϕn.

Linear Independence

The vectors ϕ1, ϕ2 … are said to be linearly independent if it is not possible to find non-zero scalars c1, c2,… cn such that the linear
combination

The simplest example is the set {i, j, k}. Let us write the linear combination
 
c1i + c2j + c3k = 0

This is possible only if c1 = c2 = c3 = 0. Therefore, the vectors i, j, k are linearly independent.

Another example is {ϕ1 = 1, ϕ2 = x and ϕ3 = x2}. The linear combination of these vectors is ϕ = a + bx + cx2. If we
demand a + bx + cx2 = 0 for all x, the only possible solution is a = b = c = 0. Therefore, the set {a, x, x2} forms linearly independent
vectors.

Basis

The linearly independent vectors e1, e2, e3,… en form a basis of a linear vector space provided any vector ϕ of the linear vector space
can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors e1, e2,… en.

i.e.,
ϕ = c1e1 + c2e2 + c3e3 + … cnen

For example   and   are the basis vectors for the linear vector space of 2 × 1 column vectors. Any vectors   can be
expressed as

Dimension

A linear vector space L is said to be of dimension n if the maximum number of linearly independent vectors in that space is n.

Continuing the example of linear vector space of 2 × 1 column vectors, let us choose three vectors, say,   and   
for which we can find a linear combination with non-zero values for c1, c2 and c3 such that

i.e., one solution is c1 = c2 = c3 = 0; but there also exist solutions with c1 ≠ 0, c2 ≠ 0, c3 ≠ 0 (for instance, (c1 = 6, c2 = 9, c3 = −3).

Therefore, of the three vectors   and  , only two are independent.

 Note that   and   are not the only set of linearly independent vectors in L. We can form an infinite number of such

pairs. For example,   and   are a pair of two linearly independent vectors. Any vector   of L can be expressed as a

linear combination of   and  .

 

 where   and c2 = (a − b)/2

However, of the four vectors   and  , only two are independent. So the linear vector space of 2 × 1
column vectors is a two-dimensional linear vector space.

Complete Set

The set of n vectors {ϕ1, ϕ2,…ϕn} forms a complete set in a linear vector space L, provided they satisfy the following conditions:

1. They are linearly independent.

2. The dimension of the linear vector space is n.

This implies that any arbitrary vector ψ of the linear vector space L can be expressed as linear combination of ϕ1, ϕ2,…ϕn.

i.e.,

Now let us introduce additional structures to a linear vector space. Depending on the kind of additional structure imposed, a linear
vector space can become a metric space, Banach space, Hilbert space and so on. From the point of view of quantum mechanics, we
are interested in a particular kind of linear vector space called Hilbert space. This requires the introduction of new concept called
scalar product.

4.1.1 Scalar Product

In the cases of geometrical vectors, we have already seen that a scalar product assigns a number for a given pair of
vectors A and B through the dot product A · B = AB cosθ. In the same way, the concept of scalar product has to be extended to other
linear vector spaces. We have to bear in mind that the term vector is no longer restricted to quantities with direction and magnitude
only. Let us introduce the following notation to denote a scalar product:
Instead of writing ψ ϕ for the scalar product between two vectors ψ and ϕ, we write it as (ψ,ϕ). In general, the scalar
product(ψ, ϕ) is a complex number. Mathematically, it is said that the scalar product (ψ, ϕ) maps the vectors ψ and ϕ into a complex
number. That is, it assigns a complex number for a given pair of vectors ψ and ϕ. This is shown in Fig. 4.1.
 Fig. 4.1 Scalar product as a mapping from a linear vector space to complex number

The scalar product between two elements ψ and ϕ has to satisfy the following properties:
 
(ψ, ϕ) = (ϕ, ψ)*
(ψ, c1ϕ1 + c2ϕ2) = c1(ψ1, ϕ1) + c2(ψ, ϕ2)

There are no special reasons to demand these particular conditions on a scalar product, except for the fact that in quantum
mechanics, only this kind of scalar product is useful.

Example 4.1 Prove that (cϕ,ψ) = c*(ϕ,ψ).

Solution: From the first and second conditions in the Equation (4.9), we have

 
(cϕ,ψ) = (ψ,cϕ)* = [c(ψ,ϕ)]* = c*(ϕ,ψ).

So we have
(ϕ, cψ) = c(ϕ,ψ)

Norm of a Vector ψ

In analogy with geometrical vectors (where A · A = ∥A∥2), we define the norm of a vector ψ (we reiterate again that ψ is no longer
an object with magnitude and direction) denoted by ∥ψ∥ as

Orthogonality

Two vectors ψ and ϕ are said to be orthogonal to each other if their scalar product

Scalar Product on Linear Vector Space of Continuous Functions

Let ϕ(x) and ψ(x) be two functions which are continuous in the interval [a, b]. Then we can define the scalar product between ϕ(x)
and ψ(x) as
 Note that this definition satisfies all the conditions given in (4.9).

Since the integrand ψ*(x) ψ(x) is always positive, if we demand (ψ,ψ) to be zero, the only possibility is ψ(x) = 0 for all x in the
interval [a, b].

Scalar Product on Linear Vector Space of Column Vectors

Let ϕ and ψ be two column vectors given by  , and  .

We can define the scalar product (ϕ,ψ) as (ϕ,ψ) = ϕ†ψ = (a*b*)  = a*c + b*d.
It is very easy to verify that this definition satisfies all the three axioms given (4.9).
Take the first condition:
 

(ϕ,ψ) = a*c + b*d = (ac* + bd*)* =   = (ψ ϕ)* = (ψ, ϕ)*.

Let us check the second condition.

Let

Then
 Consider (ψ,ψ)
 

(ψ,ψ) = ψ†ψ = (a*b*)  = a*a + b * b

2 2
= |a|  + |b|

(ψ,ψ) can be zero only if a = 0 and b = 0.

4.2 HILBERT SPACE

A linear vector space with an inner product is called Hilbert space. Note that this is not the way the mathematicians define a Hilbert
space. In mathematics, the Hilbert space is introduced in a complex way. First, metric space and Cauchy sequences in metric space
are considered. Then, the Hilbert space is seen as completion (another mathematical concept) of metric space. This way of
introducing Hilbert space is more meaningful in the context of infinite dimensional linear vector space. Interested reader can refer to
a simple exposition of these concepts by C. I. Tan.
In quantum mechanics, the stress is only on the inner product. Therefore, in quantum mechanics, both finite dimensional and
infinite dimensional linear vector spaces with inner product are considered as Hilbert space.

4.2.1 Hilbert Spaces in Quantum Mechanics

Within non-relativistic quantum mechanics, broadly, we concentrate on the following three Hilbert spaces:

Hilbert Space of Bound State Wave Functions or Square Integrable Wave Functions

The Hilbert space L2(R, dx) is a collection of square integrable wave functions. It is a collection of wave functions which go to zero
as x → ±∞. That is, if ψ(x) is an element of L2(R, dx), then, we have
 

ψ(x) → 0 as x → ±∞ and 

The scalar product between two bound state wave functions ϕ(x) and ψ(x) is defined as
 This can be extended to other higher dimensional configuration spaces. In three-dimensional space, the bound state wave
function ψ(x, y, z) has to satisfy the boundary condition
 
ψ(x, y, z) → 0 as x → ±∞, y → ±∞, z → ±∞

The scalar product between ϕ(r) and ψ(r) is defined as

In Cartesian coordinates,

In spherical polar coordinates

Hilbert Space of Square Summable Sequence l2

The elements of this Hilbert spaces are ϕ = (c1, c2, c3,…cn,…) such that |c1|2 + |c2|2 +…|cn|2 +… = 1.

This sequences can be written as a column vector  .

The scalar product between   and   is defined as

The simplest example is two-component spinor

In the last case,

 Another important Hilbert space in quantum mechanics is the Hilbert space of Dirac’s bra and ket vectors. This is the most widely
used Hilbert space in quantum mechanics. We will discuss this Hilbert space in a later chapter.

4.3 OPERATORS

It is an obvious fact that any operator acting on a mathematical object like wave function or a column vector produces a new
function or column vector.
 
Aopψ = ϕ

Aop is the operator acting on ψ whose result is ϕ.

In quantum mechanics, we require something more than the above equation for an operator. The Hilbert space operator A op is
defined by Aopψ = ϕ, where both ϕ and ψ should be the elements of the same Hilbert space.
For example, if Aop acts on ψ, which is an element of L2(R, dx) producing ϕ, then ϕ should also be an element of L2(R, dx).

i.e.,
Aopψ = ϕ

where   and   should be finite.

The second requirement leads to the definition of domain of an operator. We will discuss this aspect of an operator briefly here.

Domain of a Hilbert Space Operator

Consider xop operating on an element of L2(R, dx). xop is defined as xopψ = xψ(x).

From the definition of Hilbert space operator, we require ψ(x) as well as xψ(x) be square integrable.

i.e.,

 and 

This implies that within L2(R, dx) only a subset or subspace will obey these two conditions.

For example,   is a square integrable function.

On the other hand, xψ(x) is not a square integrable. This can be easily checked as follows:
 Obviously xop is not defined for this function. The wave functions on which xop can act form a subset of entire Hilbert space. The
subspace for which xop is defined is called the domain of xop. The domain of xop is smaller than the entire Hilbert space L2(R, dx).
So, for each operator Aop, we have to specify the domain D(A) of the operator also.

Fig. 4.2 H is Hilbert space and D(A) is domain of Aop. D(A) is a subspace of H

D(A) may be the entire space H itself or a proper subspace of H. Strictly speaking, a Hilbert space operator is a pair of (Aop, D(A)).
If B is another operator, the corresponding Hilbert space operator is (Bop, D(B)). Two Hilbert space operators are the same if
 
Aopϕ = Bopϕ for all ϕ ɛ D(A) = D(B)

In this case, one writes Aop = Bop.

For details, the reader can refer to a book on mathematical physics. (See Francois Gieres also.)

4.3.1 Linear Operator

An operator Aop is said to be a linear operator if it satisfies the following condition:

This implies that

Example 4.2 Is Aop =   a linear operator?

Solution: Let us check the condition (4.19).

Let us check the condition (4.18).

 Therefore,   is a linear operator.
Example 4.3 Is the operator defined by Aopψ = ϕ2 a linear operator?

Solution: Let us check the condition (4.19).

 
LHS: Aop(cϕ) = c2ϕ2   RHS: cAopϕ = cϕ2.

Obviously, LHS ≠ RHS.

Therefore, Aop is not a linear operator.

4.3.2 adjoint of an Operator

For every linear operator, another operator called adjoint of Aop, denoted by  , is defined by the relation

where ϕ and ψ are elements of the Hilbert space H.

Note   need not be the same as Aop itself. It is not even complex conjugate of the operator Aop. One has to do a detailed
calculation to find the adjoint of a given operator.

Example 4.4 Find the adjoint of   where Aop acts on the elements of the Hilbert space of bound states.

Solution: Note that since ϕ and ψ are elements of the Hilbert space of bound states, the functions ϕ(x) and ψ(x) are such that
 
ϕ(x) → 0 as x →±∞
ψ(x) → 0 as x →±∞

But since ϕ and ψ are bound state wave functions, the first two terms are zero.
 In the case of Hilbert space of m × 1 column vectors, the linear vector space is a finite-dimensional linear vector space. In such
cases, if A is the matrix operator, A† is the conventional Hermitian conjugate. This can be easily seen as follows:
Let ψ and ϕ be

Let A be the m × m matrix operator. Then

 
(ψ, Aopϕ) = ψ†Aϕ

where the dagger symbol indicates a Hermitian conjugate of the matrix. Let us recall that the scalar product between two column
vectors ψ and ϕ is ψ†ϕ
 
(ψ, Aϕ) = ψ†Aϕ
(A ψ, ϕ) = (A†ψ)†ϕ = ψ†(A†)†ϕ = ψ†Aϕ
†

∴ (ψ, Aϕ) = (A†ψ, ϕ).

4.3.3 Self-adjoint Operator

A linear operator A is said to be self-adjoint or Hermitian if A† is the same as A itself.

Alternatively, a linear operator A is said to be self-adjoint if it satisfies the relation

Example 4.5 Prove that the momentum operator pop = −iħd/dx is a self-adjoint operator when it acts on the elements of Hilbert
space of bound state wave functions.

Solution:

Since ϕ(x) and ψ(x) are bound state wave functions, both ϕ(x) and ψ(x) go to zero as x → ±∞. Therefore, the first two terms are zero.
 Therefore, pop = −i   is a self-adjoint operator.

4.4 EIGENVALUE EQUATION

For every linear operator Aop, we can define an eigenvalue equation

Here a is called the eigenvalue and ϕa is called the eigenvector or eigenfucnction corresponding to the eigenvalue a. Note that
eigenvalues and the eigenfunctions for a given operator are not arbitrary. We have to solve the eigenvalue Equation (4.22) to get the
eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenfunctions for a given operator.
The list of all possible eigenvalues are called the eigenvalue spectrum of the operator Aop. The eigenvalues may be discrete or
continuous. If they are discrete, they can be enumerated as {a1, a2, a3,…}. For the same eigenvalue, if there exists more than one
eigenfunction, such eigenvalue is called degenerate, and the corresponding eigenfunctions are called degenerate eigenfunctions.
Let us make the following observation from the point of view of quantum mechanics. Though the domain of the operator is
restricted to a subspace of Hilbert space, its eigenfunctions need not be the elements of the Hilbert space. For instance, the
eigenfunctions of the momentum operator are not the elements of Hilbert space of square integrable functions.

Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions of a Self adjoint Operator

The eigenvalues of a self-adjoint operator are real, and their eigenfunctions are orthogonal to each other. We shall prove this result
by considering a restricted case, namely distinct eigenvalues and their eigenfunctions. However, this result is true, irrespective of
the fact whether the eigenvalues are discrete or continuous and degenerate or non-degenerate.

Example 4.6 Prove that the eigenvalues of a self-adjoint operator are real and the eigenfunctions belonging to distinct eigenvalues
are orthogonal to each other.

Solution: Let Aop be the self-adjoint operator. Therefore, Aop satisfies the relation

 
(ϕ, Aopψ) = (Aopϕ,ψ)

Let a1, a2, a3,…be the set of eigenvalues of the operator Aop, and the corresponding eigenfunctions are ϕ1, ϕ2,…ϕn.
 
Aopϕi = aiϕi and Aopϕj = ajϕj

The definition of self-adjoint operator leads to the relation

 
(ϕi, Aopϕj) = (Aopϕi, ϕj)
LHS: (ϕi, Aopϕj) = (ϕi, ajϕj) = aj(ϕi, ϕj)

RHS: (Aopϕi, ϕj) = (aiϕi, ϕj) =   (ϕi, ϕj)

If the reader finds the above results difficult, he can work them in the Hilbert space L2(R, dx).
 Case 1: i = j: The above equation becomes
 

(ai −  )(ϕi, ϕi) = 0

Since (ϕi, ϕi) cannot be zero (see (4.9)),

 

ai −   = 0 or ai = 

Therefore, ai is a real number.

Case 2: ai ≠ aj
Then the Equation (4.23) becomes
 
(aj − ai) (ϕi, ϕj) = 0

Since (aj − ai) cannot be zero, the only possibility is (ϕi, ϕj) = 0.

Orthonormal Eigenfunctions

In the previous example, note that (ϕi, ϕi) ≠ 0. This can be made to be equal to 1, by suitably re-defining ϕi. Therefore, without
losing any generality, we can write
 
(ϕi, ϕi) = 1 and (ϕi, ϕj) = 0 if i ≠ j

Let us define Kronecker delta function δij as

Using Kronecker delta function, we can write

The set of linearly independent functions ϕis is said to be orthonormal set if they satisfy (4.24). Therefore, the set of eigenfunctions
of a self-adjoint operator forms an orthonormal set.

Complete Set

The eigenfunctions of a self-adjoint operator form a complete set. The meaning of this statement is that any arbitrary wave function
in the Hilbert space can be expressed as a linear combination of this set of orthonormal functions. Let ψ be any arbitrary wave
function in the Hilbert space. Then we have
 This is very much similar to an arbitrary geometrical vector F = F1i + F2j + F3k. The component or coefficient can be obtained by
taking scalar product F with a basis vector. For instance, F1 can be obtained by
 
F1 = i · F

Going back to the Equation (4.25), now the coefficient cm can be found to be

This can be easily checked.

In the last summation  , only one term, namely the term with n = m, alone will survive. i.e.,
 

 cn δmn = cm
∴ (ϕm, ψ) = cm

The formal mathematical treatment of Hilbert spaces concentrates considerably on the validity of the expansion of ψ as a linear
combination of the basis function as given in (4.25). Though we have used the analogy of geometrical vectors to explain the
meaning of the Equation (4.25), in the case of infinite dimensional linear vector space, things are not so simple, and the validity of
the Equation (4.25) requires elaborate scrutiny.

4.5 DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION

There are many definitions of Dirac delta functions. Here we choose the simplest one, though this may not be mathematically
satisfactory.
The Dirac delta function δ(x) is defined as

such that

In the above integral, it is enough to have the upper and lower limits on either side of x = 0 so that x = 0 is included within these
limits.

i.e.,

This delta function δ(x) is said to be centred at x = 0. We can have a delta function centred at any point x = a. In such case, the Dirac
delta function becomes

such that
We have a number of representations of Dirac delta function. One of the simplest representations of Dirac delta function is to
consider gɛ(x, a) in the limit ɛ → 0 where gɛ(x, a) is given by

Fig. 4.3 gε (x, a) for different values of ε

In the Fig. 4.3, gɛ (x, a) is sketched for different values of ɛ. It is a rectangular box of width 2ɛ and height 1/2ɛ so that the area under
the curve always is 1 for all values of ɛ. However, as ɛ goes to zero, the width becomes smaller, and the height becomes larger. This
is essentially the Dirac delta function, so we can define Dirac delta function as

δ(x − a) =  gɛ(x, a)

Example 4.7 Prove that  .

Solution: This is one of the important properties of δ (x − a). Consider the integral  .

Fig. 4.4
In the limit ɛ → 0, the function f(x) does not change much from f(a) in the integration range a − ɛ to a + ɛ. Therefore, f(x) can be
replaced by f(a) throughout this range of integration.

i.e.,

In fact, this result itself can be taken as the defining property of Dirac delta function.

Example 4.8 By considering Fourier transform and its inverse, show that   = 2πδ(x − a). The Fourier transform and
its inverse are given by

Solution: Let us start with the inverse Fourier transform.

provided we make the following identification

In three dimensions, we have

Example 4.9 Show that δ(−x) = δ(x).

Solution:

On changing the variable k to k′ = −k, we get

Example 4.10 Prove that 

Solution: One way of checking this result is as follows:
 As x → 0,

For other values of x, 

Alternative method: Consider the integral representation 

The integral does not converge, so multiply each integrand by convergent factor. Multiply the integrand in the first integral by ekɛ (in
this case, k varies from −∞ to 0, so ekɛ = e−|k|ɛ) and multiply the integrand in the second integral bye−kɛ. In the end, take ɛ → 0 limit.

Note as k → −∞, eikx ekɛ → 0 and as k → ∞, eikx  e−kɛ → 0. Therefore, we have

Properties of δ function are listed below:

1. δ(ax) =  δ(x)

2 2
2. δ(x  − a ) =  [δ(x + a) + δ(x − a)]

3. xδ′(x) = −δ(x)

4. δ(g(x)) = 

where xi is the root of the equation g(x) = 0.

These properties are to be understood in the context of integration; that is, if the integrand in an integral contains the quantity in
the LHS as a factor, it can be replaced by the corresponding quantity in RHS (which will not alter the value of the integral). This is
illustrated in the following examples:

Example 4.11 Prove that δ(ax) =  δ(x).

Solution: Consider the integral I =  .

 Put ax = y. The upper and lower limits of the integration depend on the sign of a.

Case 1: a > 0; As x → −∞, y → −∞ and as x → ∞, y → ∞

Therefore, we have

But   f(0) can be written as

or

Since this equation is true for any arbitrary f(x), we can write

 

δ(ax) =  δ(x) a > 0

Case 2: a < 0; As x → ∞, y → −∞ and as x → −∞, y → ∞

− f(0) can be written as

Note (−a) is a positive number. In fact, −a = |a|

Since this equation is true for any arbitrary ϕ(x), we can write

 

δ(ax) =  δ(x) a < 0.

Combining the result of case 1 and case 2, we can write

Example 4.12 Prove that δ(x2 − a2) =  [δ(x + a) + δ(x − a].

2 2
Solution: δ (x  − a ) has to be zero for all values of x, except x = −a and x = a. This is schematically shown in the Fig. 4.5.
 Fig. 4.5

Since the integrand is zero in the ranges −∞ < x < −(a + ɛ), (−a + ɛ) < x < (a − ɛ) and (a + ɛ < x < ∞), the integration in these ranges
does not contribute to the integral.

In the range (−a − ɛ < x < −a + ɛ), we have

as
x → −a, δ[(x − a)(x + a)] → δ[−2a(x + a)]

But δ[−2a(x + a)] =   δ(x + a).

Similarly, in the range (a − ɛ < x < a + ɛ), we have

as
x → aδ[(x − a)(x + a)] → δ[2a(x − a)]

Since this equation is true for any arbitrary function f(x), we have

δ(x2 − a2) =  [δ(x + a) + δ(x − a)]

Example 4.13 Show that 

Solution: Consider the integral  .

Since the above result is true for any arbitrary function f(x) we have,

EXERCISES

1. Explain what is meant by linear independence.

2. What is meant by scalar product in a linear vector space?

3. Give the conditions to be satisfied for a scalar product.

4. What are the differences between axioms for a scalar product defined in a linear vector space of geometrical vectors and the linear vector space

in quantum mechanics?

5. Explain what is meant by Hilbert space.

6. Give the examples of Hilbert spaces that are used in non-relativistic quantum mechanics.

7. Explain what is meant by domain of an operator in quantum mechanics.

8. When are two operators said to be the same?

9. Define a linear operator.

10. Define the adjoint of an operator.

11. Define the self-adjoint operator.

† † †
12. Prove that (AB)  = B A .

13. Define the Dirac delta function.

14. Express   as a linear combination of basis vectors (i) e1 =   and e2 =   (ii) e1 =   and e2 =   (iii) e1 =   

and e2 = 

15. Which of the following operators is linear operator?

i.

ii.

16. Prove that xδ′(x) = −δ(x),where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to x.

17. Prove that δ(x) =  .

REFERENCES

1. A. K. Ghatak, I. C. Goyal and S. J. Chua, 1995. Mathematical Physics. New Delhi: Macmillan India Limited.

2. K. F. Riley, M. D. Hobson and S. J. Bence, 1998. Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering. Cambridge University Press.

3. P. M. Mathews and K. Venkatesan, 1976. A Textbook of Quantum Mechanics, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.

4. S. Gasiorowicz, 1974. Quantum Physics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

5. J. L, Powell and B. Crasemann, 1961. Quantum Mechanics, Reading Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.

6. Francois Gieres, ‘Mathematical Surprises and Dirac’s Formalism in Quantum Mechanics’, Reports in Progress in Physics 63 (2008), 1893–

1931.

7. C. I. Tan, ‘Notes on Hilbert Space’, http://jcbmac.chem.brown.edn/baird/quantumpdf/Tan_on_Hilbert-space.html.