THEGFY? A post office box is a compact form of the Wheatstone’s bridge. In the instrument each of the arms AB & BC contains three of 10, 100 and 1000 © respectively as shown in figure. These are called ratio arms. The arm AD is the other ratio arm R. The key K1 is connected to the point A and the key K2 to the point B internally as shown by the lines drawn on the ebonite plate. The unknown, S, is connected between C & D, the battery, E, between C & A through the key K1 and the galvanometer, G, between D & B through the key K2. Hence P/Q=R/G =>6=RQ/P In the Kelvin’s method the same galvanometer whose has to be measured, is also used as an indicator for obtaining the balance point. The galvanometer acts as its own indicator for obtaining the balance point. Apparatus: the apparatus used in the experiment are Post Office box Galvanometer Power Supply High Resistance BoxConnecting Wires. Penske teas The galvanometer is an instrument used to determine the presence, direction, and strength of an electric current in a conductor. Galvanometer works on the principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a current flows in a magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic torque. Ifit is free to rotate under a controlling torque, it rotates through an angle proportional to the current flowing through it. A galvanometer is a type of ammeter. It is an instrument for detecting and measuring electric current. Wea ee eet es According to the Wheatstone bridge principle if the ratio of the two resistances (R1/R2) on one edge is equal to the ratio of the two resistances (R3/Rx) on another edge then there will be no flow of current between the midpoints of the two edges of resistance. This condition of the bridge is known as the Balanced Bridge Condition. in the Balanced Bridge condition, the current through the galvanometer is zero and also the voltage difference between the points B & D becomes zero, i.e., at both points voltage level would be the same. Bout A ty » RL R3 c D R2 Rx B Writing equations for the balanced bridge condition would look like: R1/R2=R3/ Rx. RL* Rx =R2* R3 Rx = R3 * (R2/R1) This detection of zero current in galvanometer is of high precision, thus depending on the level of precision of known values, the unknown resistance can be found with the highest rate of i i | i i i i i i | ' | | Laccuracy and precision. In the Wheatstone bridge experiment, one resistor should always be variable in order to obtain a balanced condition. The Circuit performs at its best when the regulated voltage source is used, instead of the current with repelling characteristics.Voc = Voc IQ = LX a Eq (4) Divide Eq (3) by Eq (4) UP /1uQ=bR / 1X We get x=aR/P R,=QR/P Procedure: the point Cand point D of Post Office Box is connected by wires to Galvanometer both terminals. The point C of Post Office Box is also connected to High Resistance Box and the other end of High Resistance Box is connected to the Battery (Negative Terminal). The positive terminal of Battery is connected to Key 1 of Post Box Office. The point D of Post Box Office is connected to Key 2. According to Wheatstone bridge the circuit is assembled as shown below. From Post Box Office “P” and “Q” resistors, screws of 10 ohms are removed from each. Pressed the Key 1 and the deflection of Galvanometer is reached to 30, then from High Resistance Box a screw is removed which minimized the deflection from 30 to 10. Key 2 is. pressed which showed the deflection. Then the screws from resistor “R” are removed one by one with pressing both keys (K1 and K2) and where no deflection was shown that is the point where the whole circuit is balanced. It gave the value of “R’’ Calculated the resistance of Galvanometer. ‘Again From Post Box Office “P” 100 ohms and from “Q” 100 ohms are removed from each. Pressed the Key 1 and the deflection of Galvanometer is reached to 30, then from High Resistance Box a screw is removed which minimized the deflection from 30 to 10. Key 2is pressed which showed the deflection. Then the screws from resistor “R” are removed one by one with pressing both keys (K1 and K2) and where no deflection was shown that is the point where the whole circuit is balanced. It gave the value of “R”. Calculated the resistance of Galvanometer. ‘The whole process is repeated 4 times by changing the values of “P” and “Q" and value of “R," is calculated. Observation and Calculatior [_Piohms) [ @(ohms) | R(ohms) | R= aR/P | 4(wi) BR etter of Gatvanoneter's 20] | All connections should be neat and tight. ‘The screws of the instruments may not be loose. All the plugs should be properly tight. K1 should be pressed first and thereafter K2. P= Q (always). a 10 10 20 209 2 100 100 20 200 3 1000 10 2110 21.19 4 1010 100 210 20.89 Precautions: (i) Clean the connecting wires.Objectives: To convert a sensitive galvanometer into a voltmeter. Theory: A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter of desired range by connecting a suitable high resistance R in series with the galvanometer. Let G is the resistance of the galvanometer which gives full scale deflection when Iz current flows through it. Galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting it with a very high resistance. Potential difference across the given load resistance is the sum of potential difference across galvanometer and potential difference across the high resistance. Itis a high resistance galvanometer, used to measure potential difference between two paints. itis connected across the component's ends potential difference across which is to be measured Hence, itis in parallel to that component. Apparatus: Two batteries of 1.5 volt (3 volt) High Resistance Box (HRB) Low Resistance Box (LRB) Connecting Wires Galvanometer Voltmeter Plug Keys Procedure: First of all | determined the resistance of Galvanometer (Rc) by half deflection method. Full scale deflection is attained by changing the resistance of the HRB. Then LRB is connected in parallel with galvanometer without any other changes or disturbance in the above circuit. Changing resistance in LRB, galvanometer is set to half scale deflection. The current distributes itself into two equal parts; it means resistance of the LRB at that instant is same as roo| the resistance of the galvanometer. So Rg is calculated by looking onto the resistance of LRB in half scale deflection. Then circuit is assembled by connecting Galvanometer, HRB, and Keys with the help of connecting wires. | connected the circuit to the DC power supply through key K1. | adjusted the resistance (R) of HRB in such a way that there were deflections of 30 divisions in galvanometer. Then measured the ‘emf’ of the power supply with volt meter to know the merit of Galvanometer (|). | adjusted the resistance (R) of HRB in such a way that there were deflections of 28, 26 and 20 divisions in galvanometer to find the mean value of merit of galvanometer. At the end | verified the difference between calculated value of voltage ‘measured by converted Galvanometer and that measured by volt meter was near to 0.Mathematical Expressions: | | ' |Observation and Calculation: Siaay Resistance of Galvanometer: S.No. | Resistance () e e/2 R, R,=R, 1 2000 12 6 179 179 2 5000 7 a3 199 199 3 5010 12 35 209 209 Average Value of R, = 18.670 Sar Current I,: Average Value of 0.0009 A f= High Resistance: Ry = (V/ Ip) - Ry| | V=3 Volt 0.0009 A R,= 18.679 Ry = (3/0.0009) — 18.67 R, = 3314.67 Q Verification: Let 1 Division = 0.1 V 30 Division = 0.3 V 1 2 0.2 0.1 0.1 2 | 7 0.1 0.1 0 3 4 0.4 0.3 0.1 Precautions: 1, At any moment the resistance in the High resistance box should not be ZERO (should be around 5000}, otherwise high current will flow through galvanometer and it will get damaged. 2. The Voltmeter used for calibration must be of the same range, as set for the conversion. 3. all connections should be tight. 4. The screws of the instruments may not be loose. 5. Do not pass current in the circult without introducing a high resistance in high resistance box. 6. The initial reading of the galvanometer and voltmeter should be zero. 7. The voltmeter used for calibration should be of the same range. 2 |Objectives: To convert a sensitive Galvanometer into an Ammeter. Theory: itis a low resistance galvanometer, used to measure current in a circuit, The current to be measured must pass through it, hence, itis connected in series combination. An ideal ammeter should have zero resistance. Galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by shunting it with a very small resistance. Potential difference across the galvanometer and shunt resistance is equal. A galvanometer is a device used to detect the flow of the current, but not to measure. Because its scale is not marked in amperes, though its deflection is proportional to the current. Being the sensitive instrument, galvanometer cannot be used to measure large currents, because it may cause damage to the coil of the galvanometer. In order to avoid this damage and to use it as an ammeter, a low resistance is connected in parallel to the galvanometer. As a result, even ifa large amount of current is sent in the main circuit, only a very small fraction of it passes through the galvanometer. The scale is calibrated in amperes, for the total current, so as to read the current directly. To measure the current, the ammeter must be connected in series in the circuit, The value of shunt resistance ( Rs ) depends upon the fraction of the total current required to pass through the galvanometer. Apparatus: Galvanometer Ammeter High Resistance Box Low Resistance Box Power Supply roo2 Keys Connecting wires. Formula Used! Fo: the conversion of galvanometer to ammeter (GA) a low resistance (shunt resistance) ‘Rs’ is connected parallel to galvanometer. The value of Sis determined by following expression. Rs = IgRp/ I - Here k maximum value of current range Ge galvanometer resistance |, =current for full scale deflection in galvanometer I=KxN N= total number of divisions in galvanometer K =Current sensitivity of galvanometer or figure of merit Procedure: Read the value of G written in galvanometer and total number of division (N) in galvanometer. Connected the circuit as shown in the igure. introduce a high resistance (say 5000 ohm) into high resistance box and obtain maximum deflection. The deflection in the galvanometer is to be noted, Key K2 should remain open while doing this. Close key K2 and introduce a resistance from resistance box, so that the deflection in the galvanometer is reduced to half of n. The resistance R introduced in the resistance of galvanometer i.e, R=R,. Varied the high resistance to get different values of n and find R for half deflection. Take 3-5 sets of such readings and mean of it will be Ry. Calculated the value of K. Now determine |, with expression |,= Kx Nand calculated the mean value of it. In galvanometer, a value of current is written this is |, ( If the calculated |, value is approximately same with this value then observation up to this point i correct. fit is not true then repeat/check the process). After it calculated the value of Rs with the formula given in formula used. Now made the circuit diagram as shown in figure. Varied the deflection in galvanometer from 2 to 30 divisions and noted the corresponding ammeter readings. Then verified the designed ammeter with standard ammeter. The values obtained have no difference i | iMathematical Expressions:Observation and Calculation: S.No. | Resistance (2) n . | Resistance (A) 1=NxK K=V/(R#R,)nAverage Value of I, = 0.0026 A Rs=1,R,/1- ly R,= 18.679 1=30mA |,= 0.0026 A Rs = 0.0026 x 18.67 / 0.03 - 0.0026 Rs = 1.7720 SSUMVE Verification: Let 1 Division = 0.1 A 30 Division = 0.3 A ey 4 0.4 0.4 13 1.3 LS 3 9 09 09 Precautions: 1, The needle of the Galvanometer should read ZERO; otherwise the error must be corrected. 2. Resistance in determination of figure of merit should be of high value. 3. Ammeter should be connected using sign convention. 4. ammeter used in calibration of shunted galvanometer should be of nearly same range. 5. In calibration process the readings should be noted from zero. | | i i | | | | | |[XIE To determine the frequency of A.C supply using sonometer. [DEENA sonometer is an apparatus used to study the transverse vibrations of stretched strings. tis in the form of a hollow wooden rectangular box. On the wooden rectangular box there are two bridges and a pulley at one end, A wire string is attached to one end of the wooden box, run over the bridges and pulley and carries a weight hanger at the free end. A sonometer is used to determine the frequency of alternating current. A step down transformer is used for the determination of frequency of A.C. because the voltage of the A.C. mains is 220V, which is dangerous. The step down transformer reduces this voltage to 6 volts. The string wire of the sonometer is a non-magnetic metalic wire like brass or copper. A horse shoe ‘magnet is placed at the middle of the sonometer wire so that the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the sonometer wire in a horizontal plane. When an alternating current of definite frequency passes through the wire there willbe interaction between the magnetic field and the current carrying conductor. Soa force will act on the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both the field and the direction of current. When A.C. is passing through the conductor, since the current direction reverses periodically, the direction of force also reverse periodically and hence, the conductor vibrates. Since the current flowing is alternating, the wire vibrates with a frequency equal to the frequency of A. C. By adjusting the length of the vibrating wire segment, this frequency can be made equal to the natural frequency of the wire segment. Then the resonance takes place and the wire vibrates with maximum amplitude. At this stage, the length of the wire segment is called the resonating length and it increases with increase in the mass of the suspended weights. When the length ‘U of the sonometer wire vibrates with ‘maximum amplitude, the frequency of the applied A.C. is equal to the natural frequency of the wire, Sonometer with non-magnetic wire Two bar magnets Step-Down Transformer Screw Guage Meter Scale{ Weight Hanger i Paper Rider | Bridges | | GEER i | | | | | | | : i i i i i i i iPlaced the sonometer on the table. Attached a weight hanger at the free end of the string which passes over the pulley. Stretched the wire by loading a suitable maximum mass on the weight hanger. The sonometer wire is connected to the secondary of the step down transformer. The horse shoe magnet is mounted at the middle of sonometer bed so as to produce a magnetic field perpendicular to the wire. The opposite poles of the magnet faced each other. The bridges are placed on either side of the magnet at equal distance from the magnet and are close to each other. A light paper rider is placed on the wire between the bridges of the sonometer. The A.C. supply is switched on. The wire began to vibrate. The length of the wire between the two bridges is adjusted tll the wire vibrates with maximum amplitude. At this stage, the paper rider placed on the wire is thrown off, which shows the condition of resonance. The length of the wire between the two bridges is measured. This is called the resonating length L. The linear density of the wire, m, can be calculated using the relation B=nrp where ris the radius of the wire which can be measured using the screw gauge. Plotted a graph between mass (M) of the suspended weights and square of the resonating length (I?) by taking M along X-axis and I? along Y-axis. The graph should be a straight sloping line. The slope of the line gives the value of M/L’, which isa constant. ESSENCE Ree Density of the steel wire (p) = 8500 kem™= 8.5 gem™ Calculated Radius = 0.044 cm The Calculated value of p= mr’p = 0.052 g/cm Average Value of Frequency of A.C. Mains = 50.29 Hz Y i |Apparatus: Voltmeter Ammeter High Resistance Box Transformer DC Voltage Source Connecting Wire Theory: Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm's law. Ghm’s law states that: “For a fixed rogigtor, the current (eowing through the resistor ig directéy proportional to the voltage across the resistor.” Mathematically, Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance R. (The resistance is a material property which can change if the internal or external conditions of the element are altered, e.g. if there are changes in the temperature) This is the mathematical form of Ohms law. R in the above equation is measured in the unit of ohms, designated Q. Thus, the resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; itis measured in ohms (2). That is, for a given current, an increase in resistance will result in a greater voltage. Alternately, for a given voltage, an increase in resistance will 24produce a decrease in current. As this is a first order linear equation, plotting current versus voltage for a fixed resistance will yield a straight line. The slope of this line is the conductance, and conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. Therefore, for a high resistance, the plot line will appear closer to the horizontal while a lower resistance will produce a more vertical plot line.Procedure: The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram. The Voltmeter is connected parallel to High Resistance Box and Ammeter is connected in series. Some resistors were plugged out from High Resistance Box. The deflection was shown on Voltmeter and Ammeter. By keeping resistance constant the voltage from DC Voltage source is changed which also changed the reading of Voltmeter and Ammeter. The readings were noted of V and / by changing Voltage from DC Voltage source. A tabular column is drawn and the readings of | and Vare tabulated. Then Voltage from DC Voltage source were kept constant and resistance from High Resistance Box were changed which changed the deflection of Voltmeter and Ammeter. The readings for this were also noted, A tabular column is drawn and the readings of / and V are tabulated, Graph of V verses / were plotted. A straight line is obtained. The slope of the graph is found out. The slope gives the resistance (R) of the unknown resistance. Step-I: Voltage Current pivFrom Step 1 we concluded that: At constant resistance Val From Step 2 we concluded that: At constant Voltage A, fap By combining both relations we get Val Hence Ohm's law is verified 1. allthe connections must be very tight. 2. Record the current at the regular intervel of voltage. 3. Do not passa large current through the resistance.4. While measuring the voltage and current the needle of meters should not move out of the scale. 5. Ammeter is always connected in series in the circuit while voltmeter is parallel to the, conductor. | | i | i | | | i | i i i | |Apparatus: Ballistic Galvanometer Morse key Mirror Stop watch Three Keys High Resistance Box cell Capacitor (14F) Connection wires Theory: Ballistic Gaivanometer is used for estimating the quantity of charge flow through it. Capacitor is a device which is used for storing electric current consisting of one or more pairs of conductors separated by an insulator. When a capacitor of capacitance C and initial charge qo is allowed to discharge through a resistance R for a time t, the charge remaining on the capacitor is given by 0/4 logego/a=t/CR R=t/Cloge (qo/ q) =t / 2.3026 C logia (a0 / 4) If Ris high, CR will be high and the rate of discharge of capacitor will be very slow. Thus if we determine qo/q from experiment, then R can be calculated. C is a capacitor of known capacitance, R is the high resistance to be measured, B.G. is a ballistic galvanometer, E is a cell, and Kz, Kp, Ks are tap keys. Keeping Kz and Ks open, the capacitor is charged by depressing the key Kx. Ks is then opened and at once ks is closed. The capacitor discharges through the galvanometer which records a throw 80 is proportional to go. The capacitor is again charged to the maximum value keeping Kz and Ks open and closing Ka. Ki is the open and Kz is closed for a known time t. Some of the charge leaks through R. Ka is opened and at once Ks is closed. The charge Q remaining on the capacitor then discharges through the galvanometer. The resulting throw @ is noted. Then qoe Now, qo/q= 6/8 R=t/2,3026 C logis (80/8)| Where t= time period of the leakage of condenser through the resistance 6= first throw of spot of light when initially the condenser is discharged through ballistic. galvanometer © = first throw of spot of light when the condenser is discharged through the ballistic galvanometer after a leakage of charge for time t through R. C= capacity of the standard condenser Principle: The working principle of this experiment is Gaged on charging and discharging of a capacitor. Circuit Diagrai Saanometer ‘Standard capacitor IFS — Ballistic galvanometer calibration setup Procedure: First of all a capacitor was connected with Key 1, 2, 3, High Resistance and Battery in parallel combination. Switched ON the light spot on the Mirror. Closed K1 and pressed the Morse key, ie. charge the condenser for few seconds. Released the Morse key K2 so that the capacitor is discharged through the galvanometer. Noted down the first throw @o. Repeated the above procedure for several times i.e. every time charged the capacitor and then 30 |discharged it through B.G. Obtained mean value of 8p. Closed K1 and pressed Morse key K2, charge the capacitor for the same time. Keeping Morse key pressed, opened K1 and closed K1. Started the stop watch. After a measured time t seconds, released Morse key and noted down, the first throw 0 in the galvanometer. Repeated procedure and for different values of To calculate R: The procedure is same as adopted in the measurement of R except that the high resistance is never put in the circuit. First charged the capacitor for same time and then opened key K1. Allowed the capacitor to stand for specific time which should be measured bya stop watch. After this specific time, released the Morse key and noted down the deflection of light spot on the scale due to passage of remaining charge of the capacitor through the ballistic galvanometer. Thus t is the time for which the condenser is allowed to leak through itself and @ is the first throw of the galvanometer corresponding to the charge left on capacitor after leakage for time t. Observation and Calcula S.No.) 6. 0 T R(Q) = &/ On ( 60/ 6) al 80 60 iS 10.43 X 10° 85 55 4.8 11 X 10° 81 55 5.4 11.4 X 10° 86 51 6.5 12.43 X 10° fs 49 4.1 9.64 X 10° wind Dia Average = 11 MQ Conclusion: We concluded that by including resistance the Final deflection was less than Initial deflection 31 |Theory: when high energy light particles fall on a solid body, the body absorbs energy from light particles and its electrons excite and left the surface of body. This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect. And electrons emitted are called photo electrons. @ingteia gives theory about the behavior of light which is as follows: “When a Cight itluminates a metal plate, photons coltide with electrons in the plate and, depending on the encrgy needed to oject the ebectron from the metat, the electrons are cither free or remain stuck in the metal” Apparatus: wooden box with moving light source (bulb) inside the box and photocell at the other end of the box, Voltmeter, Micro ammeter, Power supply. Working Formulas: In photo cell the current “I” is directly proportional to the intensity of light “E”. IoE According to inverse square law By combining both equations Principle: Photoelectric cell or photocell or photovoltaic cell is an electronic device which works on the principle of the photoelectric effect and converts light energy into electrical energy.emitter plate Incoming blue light current flows D Ammeter electrons get to collector plate collector plate Circuit Diagram:Procedure: First of all, | made connections to the whole apparatus as shown in circuit diagram. Turned the circuit switch ON, so that light from bulb falls on photo cell. As soon as light falls on photo cell, the Micro Ammeter showed deflection. Noted the distance of light source from photo cell on the given scale and also noted the deflection on galvanometer. Then changed the distance between the light source and photo cell to a small amount of 5 cm for each reading. The deflection of Micro Ammeter was also changed. Taken suitable number of readings to draw the graph between “1/d"" and “no. of deflection”. Drawn the graph and then joined the points. Observation and Calculations: Voltage = 100V S.No. | Deflection | Distance d2 ie = (A) i (e) (a) ern? « i yA Cm | 1 3 50 2500 4x10° i 2 3.5 45 2025 | 4.94x10° i 3 4 40 1600 | 6.25x 10" i 4 5 35 1225 | 8.17x10" i | 5 6.5 30 900 1.12 x 10° i i 6 8.5 25 625 1.6 x 10° i i 7 13 20 400 2.5x 10° i | 8 22 15 225 4.45 x 10° i 9 50 13 169 6 x 10° i | 10 65 10 100 1x 10° i | 11 80 8 64 1.6x 107 | 12 120 3 9 0.12 |(i) Never expose the cell for a longer period of time to light. (il) Move the lamp gradually. (iii) Take the measurements carefully. (iv) The angle of incidence of light must not be changed on photocell. Conclusion! From this experiment its concluded that the value of current is directly proportional to the intensity of light. As the distance between bulb and photo cell increases ‘micro ammeter shows less deflection and if distance between them is decreased the micro ammeter shows more deflection. | | | | |Aim: To determine the Temperature Co-efficient of Resistance of a Coil using Wheatstone Bridge. Apparatus: Coil Thermometer Water Wheatstone Bridge Keys Galvanometer High resistance box Principle: Circuit Diagram:Procedure: First of all assembled the connection of galvanometer and whole apparatus. Checked the deflection of galvanometer and it was maximum. Then plugged out some resistance from “P” and “Q”. Noting that ( P > Q) to bring deflection in range. Then brought it to zero by plugging out some resistance from “R”. Noted the temperature t; and calculated Rx: from the Equation: QR Rua = pr Then boiled water up to 56 °C and calculated the value of Riz, Then calculated the value of coefficient of resistance (a) by the formula: = Re- Re / Reate— Revtr Observation and Calculation: Cabeubation I: P(a)= 10009 Q(a) R(Q)= 2050 ,=42.5°C 6 °C 37 | | | |_ 205+100 Ra = 1000 Ry = 20.59 a= Re- Ru / Rye-tr— Rut By putting values we get a = 0.00581 C* Cabentation 2: P(a)= 10009 a(a)=100 R(Q)= 9000 t1=32°C t,= 85°C _ 900+10 "1" 1000 Ry=9Q R= 11.199 = Rio— Rus / Rer-te— Ret By putting values we get a = 0.00569 C* Precautions:Aim: To determine the angle of dip using earth inductor. Apparatus: Y Earth Inductor Y Ballistic Galvanometer ¥ Compass Needle ¥ Magnet i Principle: Circuit Diagrams: 39tan © = # verticat | 4 Hortzentat © = Caw! CF vertices | H Horizentat) 0 = tan! CH. / Hw) Procedure: Firstly, made the connections as shown in figure. Then pressed the key to damp the ballistic galvanometer and valid line, consider with meter at zero and opened the key. Taken out some resistance from HRB to make the deflection in scale. Placed the Earth Inductor so that the magnetic field lines of force are vertical to inductor. Noted the deflection of ballistic, galvanometer again in deflection perpendicular which is denoted by #F ». Again placed the ballistic galvanometer in horizontal direction and noted the reading ## w. Then calculated the angle by using formula: 0 =taw' (Hy / Hw)Observation and Calculation: S.No. 4, 4, |#,/4,| © 1 55 45 | 55/45 | 50.7° 2 25 20 [| 25/20 | 51.34° 3 30 25 | 30/25 | 50.2° 4 40 35 | 40/35 | 49° 5 35 30__| 35/30 | 49.4° 6 35 25 | 35/25 | 545° Regult: © = 50.86" Conclusion: Reading of ballistic galvanometer changes when Earth Inductor iy moved and ae EE ERE Mpa waluvoft wy always greater thaw,,.Aim? To determine resistance of given resistors by color method and to verify it Theory: The way to find the resistance value of a resistor is the color bands on the body of the resistor tell how much resistance it has. There are 5-band resistors and 4-band resistors. Form both S-and 4-band resistors, the last band indicates tolerance in given table. Fra Bans seme 423. mutpter Tomrance 2 Mipr Tolance ses‘ * 1) [p= wr [ [eeeamrs, Gy Bano Resistors COLOR] PRET [SEGaND | _MULTPER BLACK Color Tolerance arom | st Siver [= 10% neo | 2 | 2 | wret00 orance | 3 | 3 70° #1000 Gold +5% veuwow | «| «| et 0000 Red 2% es ee swe | 6 | 6 | 10*=1000000 Brown +h a Green +05% oney | + | # | 10° =tenone0 wore | 9 |» | 10° 100000000 Blue +025 ou e'=01 | |Violet =0.1% aver worsen es | bg sDES Apparatus ¥ Ohm Meter Y Various Resistors with colors band Procedure: axial resistors are cylindrical with leads extending from each end. Noted the resistors so the group of 3 or 4 colour bands are on the left side. Noted the colour bands from left to right. Noted the colour on the last colour band, which is farthest right. The values of the 42Observation and Calculatio! RMA Resistor Colour Code System were calculated. The central knob of analogue ohm meter was adjusted to get the appropriate measurement value. The values from ohm meter of resistors were recorded. The whole procedure is repeated for other resistors. s. 1% 2 | 3" | 4 | Resista | Range No.| band | band|band| band| nce 1 34 7 | 10% | + 5% | 27000 + | 25650 - 1350 28350 2 1 © | 10° | £5%| 1000+ | 950 - 1000 50 1050 3 3 3 | 107 | +5%| 033+ | 0.5155-| 0.32 0.0165 | 0.3465 4 4 7 (107 |45%| 4.74 |4.465-| 5.00 0.235 495 Discussion: the resistor color code was very useful in determining the values of the individual resistors. There were no resistors that were out of tolerance. The color-coded values are the theoretical values for the resistors, measured values with are more accurate to use with the differences of resistance and heat being accounted for. There would be some parallax and systematic error. As a conclusion, for the resistant the value resistant from analogue and digital reading of ohm meter must be tally with the manual calculation from the codes of color. Aim: To calibrate thermocouple by deflection method.| WII vserroccnp win elect sence consng or ows asunar eect conductors forming an electrical junction. A thermocouple produces a temperature Enis cg ors rst tthe irl stearic age a saat satpeiorupge ace Thacmgcapiecaas italy une aypatrtzunqersinaensorTettppecgs are widely used in science and industry. Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, sie wd siete as on ravectinn pesos Woven Sos Tals get dey aie ee he thermocouple working principle is based on the Seeback Effect. This effect states that when a closed circult is formed by jointing two dissimilar metals at two junctions, and junctions are maintained at different temperatures then an electromotive force (e.m..)is induced in this closed circuit. The amount of induced e.m.f is different for different metal combinations and is proportional to the temperature difference of the junctions. This is the basic thermocouple working principle. Two Thermometers Two Beakers ‘Two Stands ‘Two Test tubes Electric Heater Wires of Copper and Eureka (55% Cu- 45% Ni Alloy) ZR RR SS beakers cold water was taken. The test tubes with fixed thermometers were dipped in beakers. Eureka ae a aire tities Goce te nero nees also dipped. One end of thermometer was connected with copper wire and other end is connected withtest tubes was noted. Then the electric heater was switched ON and the raising temperature after every five degree was shown deflection on galvanometer. These deflections were noted with temperature. Graph: | Bllconnection should be made propery. Reading should be taken carefully. Observation and calculation: S.N Ti (Cold) | T2 (Hot) | Deflection) T=T.-Tz 1 18°C 18°C 0 °c 2 18°C 23°C O12 Si 3 18°C 32°C 0.2 14°C 4 18°C 41°C 0.3 23°C 5 18°C 50°C 0.4 32°C 6 18°C 59°C 05 41°C z 18°C 68°C 06 50°C 8 18°C 77 07 59°C 9 18°C 86°C 08 68°C 10 18°C 95°C 0.9 TIC Precautions: | i i | | | | | |