1.

4 Kingdoms and Domains

prokaryote a single-celled organism
that does not contain membrane-bound
organelles
eukaryote any organism whose cells
contain organelles; some eukaryotic
organisms are single-celled, while others
are multicellular
BOOKMARK
The Linnaean classification system recognized only two kingdoms of living things—
Animals and Plants. When biologists began to use microscopes, they discovered
many new micro-organisms and gained a better understanding of the cellular struc-
ture of living things. Biologists discovered prokaryotes—unicellular organisms, such
as bacteria, that do not have membrane-bound organelles. They also discovered
many new eukaryotes—unicellular and small multicellular organisms with organelles.
These organisms were called protists—their cells had a nucleus and other organelles
but showed an extraordinary diversity of shapes, sizes, and life cycles. Biologists also
began to see evidence of significant differences between plants and fungi.
Today, most biologists classify the more than 1.7 million known living species
into six kingdoms. As you will learn, these six kingdoms are grouped within a higher
taxonomic rank.

Kingdoms of Life
Figure 1 shows a typical representation of the six kingdoms of life. The most easily rec-
ognizable kingdoms are the Animals, Plants, and Fungi. These kingdoms include many
large multicellular organisms. The other kingdoms include mostly or entirely microscopic
LEARNING TIP single-celled, or unicellular, organisms. The eukaryotic Protista is by far the most diverse
Name Change
group of organisms. Many of these are tiny, single-celled organisms such as amoeba and
Archaea used to be called
paramecium, while others, such as the kelps, are among the largest living organisms.
Archaebacteria, but we now know The Eubacteria, which are commonly called “bacteria,” and Archaea are prokaryotic and
that they are distinct from Eubacteria, are often extremely difficult to distinguish due to their extremely small size and lack of
the “true bacteria.” internal structure. Most prokaryotes consist of individual cells, but some others consist
of many cells that have joined to form long strands or clustered arrangements.

echinodermata arthropoda nematoda

angiosperms basidiomycetes
pteridophyta
chordata
mollusca
Kingdom
ascomycetes Animals

Kingdom annelida
cnidaria
Plants Kingdom rotifera
Fungi
gymnosperms bryophyta
zygomycetes platyhelminthes
phaeophyta
chrysophyta porifera
rhodophyta pyrrophyta
sarcodina

sporozoa chlorophyta mastigophora

ciliophora
Kingdom Protista
extreme
halophiles
proteobacteria
spirochetes
extreme
other bacteria thermophiles
cyanobacteria
methanogens
Figure 1 The six kingdoms of life Kingdom Eubacteria Kingdom Archaea

26 Chapter 1 • Understanding Biodiversity NEL

 You should note that the relative size of each kingdom in most diagrams, including UNIT TASK
Figure 1, does not represent the diversity, sheer numbers, or evolutionary relation-
ships of the various kingdoms. The Animal, Plant, and Fungi kingdoms are usually Which kingdom or kingdoms do the
greatly exaggerated in size. This reflects our own interest in these groups as well as organisms in your chosen group
belong to?
our familiarity with them in our everyday life.
Table 1 gives an overview of key characteristics of the six kingdoms. Keep in
mind that there are exceptions to these general descriptions and that the number of
different species of micro-organisms is likely grossly underestimated.
Table 1 Common Characteristics of the Six Kingdoms of Life

Kingdom Cell characteristics Other characteristics Examples (Organisms shown in the photos are bolded.)

Eubacteria • Prokaryotic •  Diverse means of obtaining energy  Escherichia coli,

> 10 000 •  Cell walls contain a  and nutrients—photosynthetic, Salmonella,
described unique compound. chemotropic, or heterotrophic nitrogen-fixing bacteria
species •  Cells are variable in  •  All can reproduce asexually
shape and size.

Archaea • Prokaryotic •  Some colonize extreme  extreme thermophiles

> 400 •  Cell walls and cell  environments. (organisms that thrive at
described membranes have a •  Live in the digestive tracts  high temperatures),
species unique structure. of mammals and marine methanogens (micro-
•  Most are extremely  environments organisms that produce
small. •  All can reproduce asexually. methane as a byproduct)

Protista • Eukaryotic •  May be heterotrophic or  Amoeba, kelps, green

> 100 000 •  Cells have extreme  photosynthetic, or both algae
described diversity of cellular •  Have variable forms of movement
species structure. •  Usually live in aquatic or other 
•  Some have chloroplasts  moist environments
and cell walls. •  Reproduce sexually and 
asexually

Fungi • Eukaryotic • All are heterotrophic mushrooms, yeasts,

> 100 000 •  The cell wall is  • Most are terrestrial moulds
described composed of chitin. •  Reproduce sexually and asexually
species • Most are multicellular.
•  Cells have no 
chloroplasts.

Plants • Eukaryotic •  Autotrophic and photosynthetic mosses, ferns, conifers,

> 250 000 • All are multicellular • Most are terrestrial flowering plants
described •  Cell walls are  •  Reproduce sexually and asexually
species composed of cellulose.
•  Possess chloroplasts

Animals • Eukaryotic •  All are heterotrophic elephants, sponges,

> 1.2 • All are multicellular. •  Most reproduce sexually. corals, insects, snails,
million •  Cells have no cell walls  •  Live in terrestrial and aquatic  birds, humans
described or chloroplasts. environments
species

NEL 1.4 Kingdoms and Domains 27

 A simplified phylogenetic tree (Figure 2) shows key evolutionary relationships
among the six kingdoms. Note that the Protist Kingdom does not represent a single
clade. The brown, red, and green algae are more closely related to plants, while the
amoeboid protists are more closely related to fungi and animals.

thermophiles
halophites
Archaea
methanogens

Animals
nonphotosynthetic
eukaryotes Fungi
ancestral amoebozoa
eukaryotic
original cell brown algae
cell photosynthetic
red algae Protists
eukaryotes
green algae

Plants
purple bacteria
photosynthetic bacteria
Eubacteria
other bacteria

past present

Figure 2 A simplified phylogenetic tree of the six kingdoms

Domains of Life
In 1996, Carl Woese conducted a detailed analysis of living organisms. He revealed
domain the highest taxonomic level; that all organisms could be classified into three distinct groups. These groups, called
there are three domains of life domains, showed significant differences in their genetic makeup, which was very com-
pelling evidence of their distinct evolutionary kinships (Figure 3).
Eubacteria Archaea Eukaryotes

m
slim
me
gram

eth
animals
green nonsulfur bacteria

an
tha

gi
e mo
en

ob fun
the

pu
no

tam
posit

rpl me ac
sa

ter
rmo

tha
ulds

e
oe

plants
r ci

ba no ium
ba
ive

na

cte cilia
pro

co
e

tes
s

ria pyr cc a
teu

cyano o us ae
bacte dic rch
s

ria tium oa flagella

h al tes
mi trich
flavobacteria omon
cro dipl ads
sp om
ori ona
thermotogales d ia d s
Most recent common ancestor
of all living organisms

Figure 3 The three domains of life based on the work of Carl Woese. This detailed arrangement of
the branches is continually being refined as new data become available.

28 Chapter 1 • Understanding Biodiversity NEL

 The Domain Eubacteria contains only the Kingdom Eubacteria. Similarly, the Investigation 1.4.1
Domain Archaea contains only the kingdom Archaea. The third domain, Eukaryotes,
contains the other four kingdoms: Protista, Animals, Plants, and Fungi. The branches Sampling the Diversity of Life (page 32)
of the tree and the distances between the branches show an estimate of how closely After reading about Kingdoms
related the groups are. You may be surprised to see that, while there are very dramatic and Domains, you can complete
differences in the physical appearances of animals, plants, and fungi, they were all Investigation 1.4.1.
placed very close together on this tree. The proximity is determined largely by com- In this field study, you will sample
paring the genetic makeup of different species and groups. and then classify organisms from a
chosen ecosystem.

Research This
Who Is in My Clade?
SKILLS
Skills: Researching, Analyzing, Communicating HANDBOOK A2.1

Taxonomists have studied the phylogenetic relationships of all well-
known groups of organisms. Their findings are often presented
in the form of phylogenetic trees. In this activity you will examine
the phylogenetic relationships of a species of your choosing. You
should choose a relatively well known mammal or bird, since you
are more likely to be familiar with its related groups.
1. Choose a species and describe its distinguishing
characteristics. Using the Internet and other resources, find
out its genus name.
2. Research the names and characteristics of all other species
that are in the same genus.
3. Find out which taxonomic family and order your species
belongs to. List the names of several other species that are
in the same order.
4. Find two or three simple phylogenetic trees that illustrate
the relationships among these species and clades that your
chosen species belongs to. Draw your own version of the
tree based on the information you have found. Be creative,
but present your findings accurately.
A. How similar were members of the same genus? What
features do they share? What features can be used to tell
them apart? K/U T/I
B. List and describe a number of other species to highlight the
diversity within the same order. K/U T/I
C. Based on your research, which groups within the order are
most closely related? K/U
GO TO N ELS ON S C I EN C E

1.4 Summary UNIT TASK BOOKMARK

To which domains do the organisms in

• Most biologists classify living things using a system of six kingdoms and three
your chosen group belong?
domains.
• Th
e most easily recognized kingdoms are Animals, Plants, and Fungi.
• Protista is the only kingdom that does not represent a clade.
• Eubacteria and Archaea are diffi cult to distinguish because of their extremely
small size and lack of internal structure.
• Th
e six-kingdom, three-domain system is based on phylogenetic relationships
revealed by genetic evidence.

1.4 Questions
1. List the six kingdoms and three characteristics of each. K/U
2. Why do you think biologists originally placed fungi within
the plant kingdom? K/U T/I
3. Use the simplified phylogenetic tree in Figure 2 (page 28) to
answer the following questions: K/U T/I C
(a) State the four groups that gave rise to the protists.
(b) To which other group(s) are the Amoebozoa most
closely related?
(c) Suggest some possible reasons to account for why
biologists have grouped the Amoebozoa with brown,
red, and green algae in the kingdom Protista.
(d) Are animals more closely related to the Archaea or to
the Eubacteria? Explain your reasoning.
4. Make a simple sketch of a “tree of life” that includes six
kingdoms. Label the kingdoms but colour the branches
according to domain. Use a different colour for each
domain. K/U C
5. Describe the most significant differences between the
three domains of life. Why are the Eubacteria and Archaea
difficult to distinguish? K/U C

NEL 1.4 Kingdoms and Domains 29