Mid Term Industrial Pollution Control

Process Selection
Process Selection
Industrial Pollution Control
IPC 10.03.2020
9.26.2020
MCT Encabo, ChE, EnP, MEng, DURP

instructor
Important Factors in Process Selection
Methodology of process analysis resulting in
process selection includes several evaluation
steps that will vary depending upon the
complexity of the project and the experience
of the designer.
• Unit operations and processes must have the
capability (“equilibrium”) of handling
variations of influent WW flows and loads that
will produce a consistent effluent;
• “Equilibrium” refers to the inherent tolerance
that WW processes have for the pollution
loads applied to the plant.
• The various combinations of unit operations
and processes in a treatment plant work as a
system; therefore, the designer must use a
“systems” approach in the facilities design;
• The major part of the selection process is the
evaluation of various combinations of unit
operations and processes and their
interaction;
• part of this selection process may include
consideration of flow equalization in reducing
loadings on the treatment units;
• the evaluation process is not limited to WWT
units alone; the interaction of the liquid with
the sludge-processing alternatives must be
done as an integral part of the evaluation;
• the mass-balance analysis then becomes a
critical element of the evaluation.
Table A:
Important factors that must be considered when evaluating and selecting
unit operations and processes
Factor Comment
1. Process applicability This is evaluated on the basis of past experience, published
data, data from full-scale plants, and from pilot plant studies.
If new or unusual conditions are encountered, pilot plant
studies are essential.
2. Applicable flow The process should be matched to the expected range of flow
range rates. For example, stabilization ponds are not suitable for
extremely large flowrates.
3. Applicable flow Most unit operations and processes have to be designed to
variation operate over a wide range of flowrates. Most processes work
best at a relatively constant flowrate. If the flow variation is
too great, flow equalization may be necessary.
4. Influent WW These affect the types of processes to be used (e.g. chemical
characteristics or biological) and the requirements for their proper
operation.
Table A :
Factor Comment
5. Inhibiting and What constituents are present and may be inhibitory to the
unaffected treatment processes? What constituents are not affected
constituents during treatment?
6. Climatic constraints Temp. affects the rate of reaction of most chemical and
biological processes. It may also affect the physical operation
of the facilities. Warm temp. may accelerate odor generation
and also limit atmospheric dispersion.
7. Reaction kinetics Reactor sizing is based on the governing reaction kinetics.
and reactor Data for kinetic expressions usually are derived from
selection experience, published literature, and the results of pilot plant
studies.
8. Performance This is usually measured in terms of effluent quality, which
must be consistent with the effluent discharge requirements.
Table A:
Factor Comment
9. Treatment residuals The types and amounts of solid, liquid and gaseous residuals
that must be produced must be known or estimated. Often
pilot plant studies are used to identify and quantify residuals.
10. Sludge processing Are there any constraints that would make sludge processing
and disposal infeasible or expensive? How might recycle loads
from sludge processing affect the liquid unit operations or
processes? The selection of the sludge-processing system
should go hand-in-hand with the selection of the liquid
treatment system.
11. Environmental Environmental factors, such as prevailing winds, wind
constraints directions and proximity to residential areas, may restrict or
affect the use of certain processes, especially where odors
may be produced. Noise and traffic may affect selection of a
plant site. Receiving waters may have special limitations,
requiring the removal of specific constituents such as
nutrients.
Table A:
Factor Comment
12. Chemical What resources and what amounts must be committed for a
requirements long period of time for the successful operation of the unit
operation or process? What effects might the addition of
chemicals have on the characteristics of the treatment
residiuals and the cost of treatment?
13. Energy The energy requirements as well as probable future energy
requirements cost, must be known, if cost-effective treatment systems are
to be designed.
14. Other resource What, if any, additional resources must be committed to the
requirements successful implementation of the proposed treatment
system, using the unit operation or the process under
consideration?
15. Personnel How many people and what levels of skills are needed to
requirements operate the unit operation or process? Are these skills readily
available? How much training will be required?
Table A:
Factor Comment
16. Operating and What special operating and maintenance requirements will
maintenance need to be provided? What spare parts will be required and
requirements what will be their availability and cost?
17. Ancillary processes What support processes are required? How do they affect the
effluent quality, especially when they become inoperative?
18. Reliability What is the long-term reliability of the unit operation or
process under consideration? Is the operation or process
easily upset? Can it stand periodic shock loadings? If so, how
do such occurrences affect the quality of the effluent?
19. Complexity How complex is the process to operate under routine or
emergency conditions? What levels of training must the
operators have to operate the process?
Table A:
Factor Comment
20. Compatibility Can the unit operation or process be used successfully with
existing facilities? Can plant expansion be accomplished
easily?
21. Land availability Is there sufficient space to accommodate not only the
facilities currently under consideration but possible future
expansion? How much of a buffer zone is available to provide
landscaping to minimize the visual and other impacts?
Important factors in process selection
• Treatment plant performance is the measure of the
success of the design, either in terms of effluent
quality or of the percent removal obtained for the
constituents of concern.
• Examples of published data for the performance of
various operations and processes used in primary and
secondary treatment are presented in Table B.
• For biological systems commonly used for the
secondary treatment of WW, Table C shows the many
factors that affect the performance.
Table B: Degree of treatment achieved by various unit operations and processes
used in primary and secondary treatment
Treatment units Constituent removal efficiency, percent
BOD COD SS Pa Org-N NH3-N
Bar racks nil nil nil nil nil nil
Grit chambers 0-5c 0-5c 0-10c nil nil nil
Primary sedimentation 30-40 30-40 50-65 10-20 10-20 o
Activated sludge (conventional) 80-95 80-85 80-90 10-25 15-50 8-15
Tricking filters
High rate, rock media 65-80 60-80 60-85 8-12 15-50 8-15
Super rate, plastic media 65-85 65-85 65-85 8-12 15-50 8-15
a
Total Phosphorus b
Org-N – organic Nitrogen
c
The highest nos. apply if grit washers are not used
Table B: Degree of treatment achieved by various unit operations and processes

used in primary and secondary treatment
Treatment units Constituent removal efficiency, percent
BOD COD SS Pa Org-N NH3-N
Rotating biological contactors (RBC) 80-85 80-85 80-85 10-25 15-50 8-15
Chlorination nil nil nil nil nil nil
a
Total Phosphorus b
Org-N – organic Nitrogen
c
The highest nos. apply if grit washers are not used
Table C: Factors affecting the performance of typical secondary
treatment processes
Process Factors affecting performance
Activated sludge Reactor type
Hydraulic detention time
Hydraulic loading
Organic loading
Aeration capacity
Mean cell residence time (MCRT)
Food /microorganism ratio (F/M)
Return sludge recirculation rate
Nutrients
Environmental factors (pH, temperature)
Trickling filter Media type and depth
Hydraulic loading
Organic loading
Ventilation
Filter staging
Recirculation rate
Flow distribution
Table C: Factors affecting the performance of typical secondary
treatment processes
Process Factors affecting performance

RBCs Number of stages
Organic loading
Hydraulic loading
Drive mechanisms
Media density
Shaft selection
Recirculation rate
Submergence
Rotational speed
Design provisions for flowrate variations:

• not only for flow equalization but also flow
splitting and unit process bypassing under
certain flowrate conditions
• Min. treatment requirement may include:
• primary treatment
• disinfection of entire flow
• secondary treatment of a portion of the flow
Advantages of a unit process flow-splitting and

bypassing strategy are that:
• the biomass in the secondary treatment process
can be preserved during peak storm conditions
and not lost due to washout;
• the quality of the treatment plant effluent can be
restored shortly after the storm event;
• the entire treatment facilities need to be
oversized to handle unusual events.
Disadvantage of a unit process flow-splitting and

bypassing strategy:
• The effluent quality may violate the discharge
permit for short periods of time
Process selection based on kinetic
analysis
• WWT is carried out in tanks or basins of
various types and shapes under controlled
conditions;
• The biological or chemical transformations
occur in reactors and the resulting products of
reaction are separated typically in settling
basins;
Process selection based on kinetic
analysis
• Each treatment plant will require the selection
of at least one type of reactor for chemical or
biological treatment, and in most cases,
require one or more settling basins;
• Particular emphasis is placed on reaction
kinetics and reactor selection, which are key
ingredients in process selection;
Process selection based on kinetic analysis
o Consideration of reactor types
• Containers, vessels, or tanks in which chemical and
biological reactions are carried out are commonly called
reactors ;
• Table D shows the principal types of reactors used for
the treatment of WW and their descriptions;
• The first five reactors’ classification is based on their
hydraulic characteristics (homogeneous); while
heterogeneous reactions are carried in the last two
reactors.
Table D: Principal types of reactors used for the

treatment of WW
Type of reactor Identification sketch Description and /or application

Batch Flow is neither entering nor
leaving the reactor. The liquid
contents are mixed completely.
For example, the BOD test is
carried out in a bottle batch
reactor.
treatment of WW
Plug-flow, also known as Fluid particles pass through the
tubular-flow tank and are discharged in the
same sequence in which they
enter. The particles retain their
identity and remain in the tank
for a time equal to the
theoretical detention time. This
type of flow is approximated in
long tanks with a high-length –
to-width ratio in which
longitudinal dispersion is
minimal or absent.
treatment of WW
Complete-mix, also known Complete mixing occurs when
as continuous-flow the particles entering the tank
stirred-tank are dispersed immediately
throughout the tank. The
particles leave the tank in
proportion to their statistical
population. Complete mixing
can be accomplished in round
or square tanks if the contents
of the tank are uniformly and
continuously redistributed.
treatment of WW
Arbitrary flow Arbitrary flow is any degree of
partial mixing between plug-
flow and complete mixing.
Complete-mix reactors in The series of complete-mix
series reactors is used to model the
flow regime that exists between
the hydraulic flow patterns
corresponding to the complete-
mix and plug-flow reactors. If
the series is composed of one
reactor, the complete-mix
regime prevails. If the series
consists of an infinite number of
reactors in series, the plug-flow
regime prevails.

treatment of WW

Packed bed Packed-bed reactors are filled
with some type of packing
medium, such as rock, slag,
ceramic, or plastic. With respect
to flow, they can be completely
filled (anaerobic filter) or
intermittently dosed (trickling
filter).
treatment of WW

Fluidized-bed The fluidized-bed is similar to
the packed-bed reactor in many
respects, but the packing
medium is expanded by the
upward movement of fluid (air
or water) through the bed. The
porosity of the packing can be
varied by controlling the
flowrate of the fluid.
Operational factors that must be considered on

the type of reactor/s to be used in the
treatment process include:
(1)the nature of the WW to be treated
(2)the reaction kinetics governing the treatment
process
(3)the process requirements
(4)the local environmental conditions
In practice, the construction costs and the

operation and maintenance costs also affect
reactor selection.
Reactor flow regimes and reactor combination
Figure A: Flow regimes commonly used in the treatment of WW
inflow inflow Recycle may occur

reactor
reactor before or after another
treatment process
bypass recycle
(a) direct input with bypass flow (b) direct input with recycle flow
(PF or complete-mix reactor) (PF or complete-mix reactor)
The flow regime in (a) is used to achieve intermediate levels of treatment

by blending various amounts of treated or untreated WW.
The flow regime in (b) is often adopted to achieve greater process control.
Figure A: Flow regimes commonly used in the treatment of WW
inflow
Recycle may occur

Plug-flow reactor before or after another
treatment process
recycle
(c) step input with or without recycle (PF reactor, recycle type 1)
inflow
Recycle may occur
Plug-flow reactor
before or after another
treatment process
recycle
(d) Step input with recycle (PF reactor, recycle type 2)
Figure B: Hybrid reactor systems: (a) plug-flow reactor followed by
complete-mix reactor, and (b) complete-mix reactor followed by
plug-flow reactor
This shows the possible and have been used combinations..

In (a) more complete mixing takes place later, while in (b) it occurs first
Selection of reaction rate expressions
The unit processes may be designed on the basis

of the rate at which the reaction proceeds
rather than the equilibrium position of the
reaction, because the reaction usually takes
too long to go to completion.
Quantities of chemicals in excess of
stoichiometric or exact reacting amounts may
be used to accomplish the treatment step in a
reasonable period of time.
The selection of reaction-rate expressions for

the process that is to be designed is based on:
(1)information obtained from the literature;
(2)experience with the design and operation of
similar systems
(3)data derived from pilot plant studies
In cases where significantly different WW

characteristics occur or new applications of
existing technology or new processes are
being considered, pilot plant testing is
recommended.
Application of Mass-Balance Analysis
Mass balance – affords a convenient way of

defining what occurs within
treatment facilities as a function
of time.
Figure C shows the mass balance analysis for a

complete-mix reactor.
Figure C; Definition sketch for a mass-balance analysis for a complete-mix reactor
Assumptions:
1.The volumetric flowrate into and out the container is constant;
2.The liquid within the reactor is not subject to evaporation (isothermal conditions);
3.The liquid within the container is mixed completely;
4.A chemical reaction involving the reactant C is occurring within the reactor; and
5.The rate of change in the concentration of the reactant C occurring within the
reactor is governed by a first-order reaction (rc = -kC)
Figure C; Definition sketch for a mass-balance analysis for a complete-mix reactor
Mass balance
:
1. General word statement:
rate of generation
rate of accumulation rate of flow of rate of flow of (utilization) of
of reactant within = reactant into the - reactant out of the + reactant within
the system boundary system boundary system boundary the system
boundary
2. Simplified word statement:
Accumulation = Inflow – Outflow + Generation
3. Symbolic representation:
V = QCO – QC + V (rate of reaction, rc )
V = QCO – QC + V (-kC)
where V = volume of reactor, L3
= rate of change of reactant concentration
within the reactor, ML-3T-1
Q = volumetric rate of flow into and out of
the container, L3 T-1
CO= concentration of reactant in the influent, ML-3
C = concentration of reactant in reactor and
effluent, ML-3
k = first-order reaction-rate constant, T-1
Mass balance for batch reactor
In special case when there is no inflow or outflow
from the container or vessel in which the
reaction is occurring, such container is known
as a batch reactor.
In this situation, Q equals zero and the mass
balance would be:
= (rate of utilization, ru, or generation, rg )
Mass balance for batch reactor
The key point to remember is that:
o when flow is not occurring, the concentration
per unit volume is changing according to the
applicable rate of expression;
o when flow is occurring, the concentration in the
reactor is also being modified by the inflow or
outflow from the reactor
Performance comparisons
To achieve an overall performance of 85 % BOD
removal (for example):
o either a complete-mix or plug-flow reactor can
be used;
o it must be noted that the total volume required
for the two reactor types will be quite different
depending on the removal kinetics.
Performance comparisons
Table E: Required reactor volumes expressed in terms of Q/k for
complete-mix reactors in series and a plug-flow reactor
for various removal efficiencies for first-order kinetics a
Reactor volume V = K (Q/k)

No. of reactors 85 % removal 90 % removal 95 % removal 98 % removal
in series efficiency efficiency efficiency efficiency
1 5.67 9.00 19.00 49.00

2 3.18 4.32 6.96 12.14
4 2.48 3.10 4.48 6.64
6 2.22 2.82 3.90 5.50
8 2.16 2.64 3.60 5.04
10 2.10 2.60 3.50 4.80
Plug-flow 1.90 2.30 3.00 3.91
Impacts of Variations of WW flowrates and
Constituent Loadings on Process Selection
• Almost all kinetic and empirical factors are based
on constant WW flowrate and loading conditions;
• In practice, the flowrates and loadings vary,
sometimes over a wide range;
• It is thus necessary to identify anticipated range
of flows and loading conditions and how they
might affect the various alternative unit
operations and processes being considered.
Table G identifies the critical design and sizing

factors for secondary treatment plant facilities
and describes potential performance impacts
of flowrate and constituent mass-loading
variations.
Table G: Effect of flowrates and constituent mass
loadings on the selection and sizing of secondary
treatment plant facilities
Unit operation Critical design Sizing criteria Effects of design criteria on
or process factor(s) plant performance
WW pumping Maximum hour flowrate Wetwell may flood,
and piping flowrate collection system may
surcharge, or treatment
units may overflow if peak
rate is exceeded
Screening Max hour flowrate Flowrate Headloss thru bar rack and
screens increase at high
Min flowrate flowrates.
Channel approach Solids may deposit in
velocity approach channel at low
flowrates
Grit removal Max hour flowrate Overflow rate At high flowrates, grit
removal efficiency
decreases in flow–through
type grit chambers causing
grit problems in other
processes.
Primary Max hour flowrate Overflow rate Solids removal efficiency
sedimentation decreases at high overflow
rates; increases loading on
secondary treatment
system.
Primary Min hour flowrate Detention time At low flowrates, long
sedimentation detention times may cause
the WW to be septic.
Activated Max hour Hydraulic residence Solids washout at high
sludge flowrates time flowrates; may need
effluent recycle at low
flowrates.
Max daily organic Food/microorganism High oxygen demand may
load (F/M) ratio exceed aeration capacity
and cause poor treatment
performance.
Trickling filters Max hour flowrate Hydraulic loading Solids washout at high
flowrates may cause loss of
process efficiency.
Min hour flowrate Hydraulic and organic Increased recycle at low
loading flowrates may be required
to sustain process.
Max daily organic Mass loading/media Inadequate oxygen during
load volume peak load may result in loss
of process efficiency and
cause odors.
Elements of conceptual process design
o Design period establishes the target date

when the design capacity of the facilities will
be reached;
o Longer periods are preferred for structures
and hydraulic conduit systems, that cannot be
easily expanded;
Table F: Typical design periods for WW facilities

Facility Planning period range, years
Collection systems 20-40
Pumping stations
Structures 20-40
Pumping system 10-25
Treatment plants
process structures 20-40
process equipment 10-20
hydraulic conduits 20-40
Treatment process flow diagrams

- are graphical representations of particular
combinations of unit operations and
processes.
- depends on factors such as:
- designer’s past experience
- design and regulatory agency policies on
application of specific treatment methods
Treatment process flow diagrams

- depend on factors such as:
- availability of suppliers of equipment
- maximum use that can be made of
existing equipment
- initial construction costs
- future operation and maintenance costs
Process design criteria

- establish the process design criteria so that
the size of physical facilities can be
determined;
Preliminary sizing
- next step is to determine the number and size of
the physical facilities needed.
- in considering sizing, physical site constraints need
to be considered (ex. Will the site accommodate
the use of round or rectangular tanks?)
- operational considerations will have to be
evaluated
- maintenance factors have to be considered
Solids balance
- this is the next step after the design criteria
has been established and preliminary sizing
completed;
- solid balances for each process flow diagram
must be made.
Solids balance
- must be prepared for the average load with
appropriate peaking factors applied for max loads, for
sizing of:
- sludge-thickening and storage facilities
- sludge digestors
- sludge-dewatering facilities
- thermal reduction systems
- composting facilities
- sludge-piping and pumping eqpmt
Plant layout
- refers to the spatial arrangement of the physical
facilities required to achieve a given treatment
objective;
- includes location of the control and admin
buildings and other necessary structures
- cardboard cutouts/computer-generated overlays
of the various treatment facilities are normally
evaluated before a final selection is made
Figure D: Plant layout
and aerial view
of a WWTP
Plant hydraulics
- next step after process flow diagram has
been selected and the size of the
corresponding physical facilities is
determined, hydraulic computations and
profiles are prepared for both average and
peak flowrates.
Plant hydraulics
- hydraulic computations are made to size
the interconnecting conduits and channels
and to compute the headlosses through the
plant.
Table H: Typical headlosses across treatment units
Treatment unit Headloss range, ft
Bar screen 0.5-1.0
Grit chambers
aerated 1.5-4.0
velocity-controlled 1.5-3.0
Primary sedimentation 1.5-3.0
Aeration tank 0.7-2.0
Trickling filter
low rate 100.0-20.0
high rate, rock media 6.0-16.0
high rate, plastic media 16.0-40.0
Secondary sedimentation 1.5-3.0
Table H: Typical headlosses across treatment units
Treatment unit Headloss range, ft

Filtration 10.0-16.0
Carbon adsorption 10.0-20.0
Chlorine-contact tank 0.7-6.0
Note: ft x 0.3048 = m
Plant hydraulics
- in designing the plant hydraulic system, consideration
needs to be given to:
- equalizing the flow splitting between
treatment units;
- making provisions for bypassing
secondary treatment units at extreme
peak flows to prevent loss of biomass;
Plant hydraulics
- in designing the plant hydraulic system,
consideration needs to be given to:
- minimizing the no. of changes in
direction of WW flow in conduits and
channels
Plant hydraulics
- hydraulic profiles are prepared for 3 reasons:
- to ensure that the hydraulic gradient is
adequate for the WW to flow through
the treatment facilities by gravity;
- to establish the head requirement for
the pumps where pumping will be
needed
Plant hydraulics
- hydraulic profiles are prepared for 3
reasons:
- to ensure that the plant facilities
will not be flooded or backed up
during periods of peak flow
Figure E: hydraulic profile of a treatment plant
Note: ft x 0.3048 = m; Mgal x 0.043813 = m3/s; w.s. = water surface

Thank You
Wastewater Treatment
Processes
IPC
Wastewater10.03.2020
Treatment Processes
IPC
10.03.2020
MCT Encabo, ChE, EnP

(Instructor)
WWT Processes
• Municipal WW is primarily organic in content;
• Significant no. of industries including
chemical, pharmaceutical and food industries
have high organic waste loads;
• This means that the main treatment processes
are geared towards organics removal.
WWT Processes
In a typical treatment plant, the WW is directed
through a series of physical, chemical and
biological processes, each with a specific waste
load reduction task, which typically are:
• Pre-treatment : physical and/or chemical

• Primary treatment : physical
• Secondary treatment : biological
• Advanced treatment : physical and/or chemical
and/or biological
WWT Processes
Table 1: Flow chart outline of unit processes in
domestic and typical industrial WWT
Treatment Municipal WW Chemical industry Milk processing WW
Categorization WW
Physical Equalization Equalization
pre-treatment Coarse screening Coarse screening
Fine screening Air stripping Fine screening
Grit removal Oxidation/reduction Grit removal
Flotation Flotation
Chemical
pre-treatment Neutralization Neutralization
Primary treatment Primary treatment Primary clarification
Secondary treatment Biological treatment Biological Biotowers
Activated sludge Activated sludge Activated sludge
or Trickling filters
or Aerated lagoons
or RBC
Secondary clarification
WWT Processes
Table 1: Flow chart outline of unit processes in
domestic and typical industrial WWT
Treatment Municipal WW Chemical industry Milk processing WW

Categorization WW
Nutrient removal Biological (N)
Chemical (P)
Biological (P)
Tertiary treatment Sand filters Sand filters Sand filters
Adsorption
Chemical oxidation
Ozonation
Advance WWT Ion exchange
Sludge treatment
and disposal Yes Yes Yes
Figure 1: Unit Processes in Municipal WWT
WW
Influent
Screening
Screening to landfill
Coarse
or recycle
Fine
Grit to landfill
Grit removal or recycle
Primary Returned sludge liquors

Primary sludge
clarification
Returned Returned activated sludge (RAS)

filter Activated sludge
Secondary
backwash sludge
Secondary Waste activated Sludge
clarification sludge (WAS) treatment
Conditioning,
Sand filtration thickening,
dewatering
Effluent waters Sludge

to receiving with
water body disposal
WW Pre-Treatment
Pre-treatment is the process that prepare a WW
to a condition that it can be further treated in
conventional secondary treatment biological
processes.
In municipal WW it means the removal of
floating debris and grit and the removal of oily
scums. These pollutants would inhibit the
biological process and possibly damage
mechanical equipment.
WW Pre-treatment
Ideal influent parameters for municipal
activated sludge, the principal biological
treatment processes are in the range 100 to
400 mg/L for BOD5 and SS.
There may be occasions when municipal WW (if
also taking industrial effluents) may have a pH
too acidic or too alkaline for optimum
biological degradation and may thus need pH
correction.
This may be achieved by the addition of sulfuric
acid or lime.
WW Pre-treatment
There may also be requirements when the flow
rate is inconsistent (e.g. 5-day week industrial
effluent) that flow balancing in a storage tank
be provided.
This balancing or equalization tank may also be
used to balance the organic loading if that
varies substantially.
WW Pre-treatment
If a WW is deficient in nutrients, essential for

biological treatment, then nutrients may be
added in the pre-treatment stage.
WW Pre-treatment
Pre-treatment for municipal WW is normally

only physical, i.e flow balancing, screenings
removal and dirt or oily scum removal.
Industrial influents may additionally require
chemical pre-treatment in the form of air
stripping (ammonia removal), oxidation,
reduction (heavy metal precipitation) and air
flotation (oil removal).
Figure 2: Typical chemical pre-treatment of industrial effluents
Industrial
process WW
Heavy Organic Ammonia

metals chemicals organics
Oxidation
reduction Oxidation Air stripping
Precipitation Adsorption
Filtration
Primary
treatment
Figure 3: Typical physical pre-treatment of municipal and combined
municipal/industrial
Municipal
WW WW
Screens
Grit facilities
FOG
flotation
Balancing
pH, organic,
nutrients,
flow
Primary
treatment
WW Pre-treatment
Screenings
Objective: to remove large floating material (e.g.

rags, plastic bottles, etc.) and so protect
downstream mechanical equipment (pumps)
WW Pre-treatment
Screenings
Four Types of screens in normal use:
1. Coarse screens – with openings greater than 6
mm that remove large material
2. Fine screens – with openings in the range 1.5
to 6 mm, which are sometimes used as a
substitute for primary clarification
3. Very fine screens – with openings in the range
0.2 to 1.5 mm, which reduce the SS to primary
clarification levels
WW Pre-treatment
Screenings
Four Types of screens in normal use:
4. Microscreens – with openings in the range
0.001 to 0.3 mm, which are used for effluent
polishing as a final treatment step. These are
not used in pre-treatment except as a single
one step treatment process for predominantly
inorganic WW, e.g quarry washings.
WW Pre-treatment
Screenings
Comminutors are a traditional method of
screening and shredding the material and
then allowing it back into flow.
They are no longer recommended since items
like plastic pieces can find their way to the
biological plant creating inhibition conditions
for microbial population.
WW Pre-treatment
Screenings
• Screens are designed to accommodate
through flow velocities greater than 0.5 m/s
and less than 1.2 m/s with maximum head
losses of about 0.7 m.
WW Pre-treatment
Grit channels
Grit is inorganic sand or gravel particles of size
about 1 mm which are washed into sewer
collection systems from roads and pavements.
Grit does not usually exist in industrial WW but
is part of municipal systems where the
collection systems combine foul water and
storm water.
WW Pre-treatment
Grit channels
Grit is removed (after screenings) because its

inclusion within the system can abrade
mechanical equipment and also because it can
settle out in the biological treatment plant,
reducing its space efficiency.
WW Pre-treatment
Grit channels
The two common types of grit collection devices
are:
1. The helical flow aerated grit chamber
2. The horizontal flow grit channel
WW Pre-treatment
Grit channels
Figure 4: Helical flow pattern in aerated grit chamber

WW Pre-treatment
Grit channels
❑ Aerated grit chamber
▪ Air is introduced along one side of the
channel near the bottom and this causes a
spiral motion perpendicular to the main flow
direction.
▪ The heavier particles settle while the lighter
organic matter remains in suspension and is
carried on to primary clarification.
WW Pre-treatment
Grit channels
❑ Aerated grit chamber
▪ The design philosophy is based on an
adequate retention time in the basin of about
3 min.
▪ They have proved more efficient than the
horizontal flow type and the grit tends to be
“cleaner”.
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
▪ Flotation is the buoyancy unit process of
separating “solid” particles from a liquid
phase.
▪ The process of separation usually involves
introducing air bubbles at the bottom of a
flotation tank.
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
• The air bubbles attach themselves to the
particulate matter and their combined
buoyancy encourages the particles to rise to
the surface where they can be removed by
skimming.
• The particulates may settle if chemically
assisted by a coagulant, as is the case in the
removal of suspended particles in potable
water treatment.
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
• Flotation is used when suspended particles

have a settling velocity so low that they are
not settleable in sedimentation tanks.
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
• The flotation systems include:
o Gravity flotation
o Vacuum flotation
o Electroflotation
o Dissolved air flotation (DAF)
o Air flotation
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
o Gravity flotation
- accomplished by what is known as the
“greasy trap” or a series of them;
- common in very small industries and
automobile garages;
- not suitable for urban WWTP because of the
large tank size required.
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
o Gravity flotation
- the liquid flows thru a series of chambers
and in the process, the grease and oil
particles, being lighter than water, rise to the
surface water and are mechanically removed;
- a hydraulic retention time of about 30 mins
and a flow-through velocity of 4-6 m/h are
required for successful operation.
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
o Electroflotation
- is the process where electrodes placed
towards the floor of a tank produce
microbubbles when the liquid in the tank is
electrolysed by means of a direct current;
- the bubbles of oxygen produced at the
anode end rise and attach themselves to the
suspended particulates, producing a surface
scum which can be removed;
- involves high cost of electrode replacement.
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
o Vacuum flotation
- consists of saturating the WW with air in an
aeration basin and then applying a partial
vacuum to a covered tank;
- minute bubbles are released from the liquid
and become attached to the suspended
particles which then migrate to the surface
where they are removed;
- the flotation procedure is common in fruit
and vegetable processing industry.
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
o DAF
- most successful method;
- usually, part of the effluent is recycled from
a point downstream of the DAF unit;
- recycled flow is retained in a pressure vessel
for a few minutes where mixing and
saturation of the flow with air occurs;
- the recycled effluent is added to the DAF
unit where it is mixed with the incoming raw
effluent:
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
o DAF
- as the pressure returns to atmospheric, the
dissolved air comes out of solution, forming
fine bubbles, which rise to the surface
bringing grease matter with them, where they
are removed;
- design upward flow velocity is in the range
of 4-6 m/h and the solids ratio by weight is in
the range of 1-5 %.
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
Figure 5: Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) unit

WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
o Air flotation
- is a variation of DAF where air is directly
introduced to the flotation tank by means of
an impeller;
WW Pre-treatment
Flotation
o Air flotation
- is a variation of DAF where air is directly
introduced to the flotation tank by means of
an impeller;
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
o In order that a WWTP receives an effluent
that is capable of handling without distress,
equalization (balancing) may be required;
o This may include one of the following:
• Flow equalization
• Organic equalization
• Nutrient balancing
• pH balancing (neutralization or pH correction)
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
• Flow equalization (balancing)
- this is common in industries that operate a 5
day week;
- the flow is balanced or spread out equally
over 7 days so that the flow arriving into the
plant is the same for each of the 7 days;
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
- in case of organic or pollutant load
balancing, industry may at different times
during the week have a high COD effluent,
lasting only a few hours;
- if this were sent directly through the
treatment plant it may cause a shock load
with consequent problems;
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
- it is therefore usual to balance the high load
such that a more even load is sent to the
plant for treatment;
- this is done by retaining the pollutant load in
a balance or equalization tank, prior to
treatment.
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
• Nutrient balancing
- is where nutrients may be added to the
influent WW should the WW be deficient in
nutrients;
- pH (neutralization) may be required should
an influent to WWTP be too high or too low in
pH for optimum secondary treatment of that
waste; it is desirable that pH be in the range
of 6.5 to 8.5 for activated sludge treatment
systems;
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
Objectives of balancing may be summarized as:
• Equalization of flows to minimize flow surges
• Equalization of organic loads to dampen
fluctuations
• Neutralization of pH variations to bring it to
range to the range 6.5 to 8.5
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
Objectives of balancing may be summarized as:
• Provision of continuous influent to the plant
• Provision of continuous effluent from the
plant to the receiving body of water
• Control of high toxicity loads
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
❖ Equalization and neutralization are achieved
by the provisions of a tank, usually after the
screenings and grit removal and prior to
sedimentation;
❖ Two layouts are common:
✔ the in-line system (Figure 6)
✔ Side-line system (Figure7)
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
❖ In-line equalization system
▪ With this system, all the flow passes through
the equalization tank, resulting in a significant
flow and load (BOD5) dampening;
Figure 6: In-line equalization
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
Figure 7: Side-line equalization

WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
❖ type of tank equalization facility used may be
of the two kinds:
▪ a tank with min mixing to inhibit septicity;
▪ a tank with sufficient mixing to act as
pre-aeration unit
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
❖ Benefits of using the facility (both types):
▪ Using pre-aeration results in pre-flocculation
of some SS improves the settling
characteristics;
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
❖ Benefits of using the facility (both types):
▪ Provides steady state flow and load allowing
the biological system to operate at near
steady state conditions, therefore, optimum
operation occurs.
▪ In-line aeration equalization may provide up
to 20 % BOD5 load reduction to the biological
system.
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
❖ Equalization facilities may not be economical
for municipal plants if the peaking factors
(peak flow/average flow) are less than 2
(AWWA, 1992):
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
❖ Equalization facilities may be of three types:
▪ constant flow, variable waste strength
▪ constant waste strength, variable flow
▪ constant flow, constant waste strength
WW Pre-treatment
Equalization
❖ with some industries, flow rates are small but
waste strengths vary significantly.
▪ In this case, it may be desirable to produce a

constant waste strength by equalization and
permit the small flow to remain variable.
▪ In providing an equalization facility to produce
a constant flow, some benefits of dampening
the waste strength also occur.
Example 1
Design the size of an equalization tank to
balance flow rates from a municipal WW
system as given in columns 1 and 2 in the
table below:
Time Qw Volume Flow cumulative Qequalized Equalized flow Column (6)-(4)
(h) (m3/s) (m3/h) (m3) (m3/s) (m3 ) (m3)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
0-1 0.13 468 468 0.1388 500 32
1-2 0.12 432 900 0.1388 1000 100
2-3 0.11 396 1296 0.1388 1500 204
3-4 0.10 360 1656 0.1388 2000 344
4-5 0.08 288 1944 0.1388 2500 556
5-6 0.06 216 2160 0.1388 3000 840
6-7 0.08 288 2448 0.1388 3500 1052
7-8 0.10 360 2808 0.1388 4000 1192
8-9 0.12 432 3240 0.1388 4500 1260
9-10 0.14 504 3744 0.1388 5000 1256
10-11 0.16 576 4320 0.1388 5500 1180
11-12 0.18 648 4968 0.1388 6000 1032
12-13 0.20 720 5688 0.1388 6500 812
13-14 0.19 684 6372 0.1388 7000 678
Time Qw Volum Flow cumulative Qequalized Equalized flow Column (6)-(4)
(h) (m3/s) e (m3) (m3/s) (m3 ) (m3)
(1) (2) (m3/h) (4) (5) (6) (7)
(3)
14-15 0.18 648 7020 0.1388 7500 480
15-16 0.17 612 7632 0.1388 8000 368
16-17 0.16 576 8208 0.1388 8500 292
17-18 0.15 540 8748 0.1388 9000 252
18-19 0.16 576 9324 0.1388 9500 176
19-20 0.17 612 9936 0.1388 10000 -64
20-21 0.18 648 10584 0.1388 10500 -84
21-22 0.16 576 11160 0.1388 11000 -160
22-23 0.127 456 11700 0.1388 11500 -200
23-24 0.107 384 12000 0.1388 12000 0
Average
0.1388
Solution:
Column 1 – hourly increments
Column 2 – associated flow rates in m3/s
Column 3 – associated hourly flow rates in m3/h
Column 4 – cumulative flows in m3 from
midnight to midnight
Column 5 – equalized flow in m3 computed as
follows: 12,000 m3/24h x 3600 s = 0.1388
m3/s; if the average flow is computed over an
hour, this equals 500 m3. As such, if 500 m3 is
sent thru the system every hour, then after 24
hours, a total flow of 12000 m3 is processed.
Solution:
Column 6 – equalized flow cumulative in m3

Column 7 – shows the difference between the
cumulative flow and the cumulative equalized
flow. The equalized flow exceeds the cumulative
flow by a maximum of 1260 m3. This then is the
size of the equalization basin required to
process the equalized flow of 500 m3/h.
Solution:
The inflow cumulative mass diagram is a curve. The equalized cumulative flow
is a straight line. The differences between the two lines shows when an
equalization basin is required.
Next topics
• Primary treatment
Primary sedimentation
Sludge from Primary Settling
• Secondary treatment
Biological Oxidation
Bacterial Growth
Kinetics of Bacterial Growth
Secondary treatment system
The F/M ratio
Next topics
• Secondary treatment
Sludge settlement
Nitrification and denitrification
• Activated Sludge Systems
Complete-Mix Reactors
Plug-Flow Reactors
• Attached Growth Systems
Percolating Filters
Biotowers
RBCs
Wastewater Treatment
Primary & Secondary Treatment
IPC
10.10.2020
EnP MCT Encabo, ChE, MEng

Professor
ALLPPT.com _ Free PowerPoint Templates, Diagrams and Charts

Primary Treatment
• Primary treatment is often called

clarification, sedimentation or settling;
• This is the unit process where the WW is
allowed to settle for a period (≈ 2 h) in
a settling tank and so produce a
somewhat clarified liquid effluent in one
stream and a liquid-solid sludge (called
primary sludge) in a second stream.
Primary Treatment
Objective:
To produce a liquid effluent of suitably

improved quality for the next treatment stage
(i.e. secondary biological treatment) and to
achieve a solids separation resulting in a
primary sludge that can be conveniently
treated and disposed of.
Primary Treatment
Benefits of primary treatment:

Reduction in SS
Reduction in BOD5
Reduction in the amount of waste
activated sludge (WAS) in the activated
sludge plant
Removal of floating material
Partial equalization of flow rates and
organic load
Primary Treatment
o Primary treatment is quiescent

sedimentation with surface skimming of
floating matter and grease, and bed
level collection and removal of settled
sludge.
o Sedimentation is carried out in a variety
of tank configurations including:
• circular – most common
• rectangular
• square
Primary Treatment
o Sedimentation tanks may be:

• flat-bottomed
• hopper-bottomed
o Tank is sized so that retention time is
about 2h (range 20 mins to 3 h)
o In this quiescent period, the suspended
particles settle to the bottom as sludge
and are raked towards a central hopper
from where the sludge is withdrawn.
Primary Treatment
Figure 8:
Typical Circular Primary Settling Tank
Primary Treatment
o The clarified water is discharged over a perimeter
weir at the surface of the tank, at a rate known as
the basin overflow rate or surface overflow rate
(SOR).
• SOR units are m3/day/m2
• the last m2 is the plan area of the tank
o The SOR is different to the weir overflow rate (WOR)

• WOR units are m3/day/m
• the last m is the length (perimeter) of the weir
Primary Treatment
o Primary sedimentation is the oldest of

WWT processes;
o According to AWWA (1992), money

spent on primary treatment often
provides the greatest return on the
investment in terms of dollars per kg of
pollutant removed
Primary Treatment
o Traditionally, the design criteria were:
• Basin overflow rate (surface loading
m3/day/m2)
• Depth
• Surface geometry
• Hydraulic retention time
• Weir rate (m3/day/m)
o These criteria are physical and while they may
be adequate for the design of the tank they say
nothing about the performance and operation
of the sedimentation process;
Primary Treatment
o Therefore, additional parameters, called
performance criteria, were established to monitor
and improve the day-to-day performance, and
these are:
• Influent flow rates and their variation
(daily variation)
• Influent waste strength rates and its variation
• Recycle influent streams:
- from activated sludge or septage;
- supernatants from sludge dewatering;
- washings from tertiary filter processes
o This may vary from hour to hour or from day to day.
Primary Treatment
o The flow rates may have peaks several

times the daily average, and waste
strengths may vary accordingly. This may
vary from hour to hour or from day to day;
o Recycle streams can come from several
sources and in hugely varying waste
strengths;
o Septage, for instance, may have a BOD5
value 30 times greater than municipal raw
WW;
Primary Treatment
o Supernatants from anaerobic digestion

processes or filtrate backwashings may
also be very high in waste strength;
o As such, the performance of a primary

clarification is not solely dependent on
influent flow variations.
Primary Treatment
o For instance, plants that may have been

overdesigned for flow may find that the
retention time in the tank is not the 2
hours of the original design but several
times that;
o Excessive retention time leads to

septicity as there is no mixing in primary
sedimentation.
Primary Treatment
o It is also possible that where the O & M

of primary tanks is poor (i.e. long
retention times and infrequent sludge
withdrawals) the quality of clarified water
is no improvement on the influent WW;
o However, with good performance
management, removal rates of 50 to 70
percent for SS and 25 to 40 percent for
BOD5 can be achieved.
Primary Treatment
Figure 9: Surface overflow rate and percentage
removal
• Surface water overflow rates

range from 32 to 48 m3/day/m2
at average flow rates;
• Based on peak flow rates, the
corresponding values are
80 to 120 m3/day/m2;
• When waste activated sludge
from activated sludge treatment
is recycled through primary
settling tanks the overflow rates
are approximately 75 % of
the above.
Primary Treatment
Example 2:
Design a primary settling tank to
remove60 % of the SS if the average
flow is 5000 m3/day with a peak
factor of 2.5. What is the
corresponding BOD5 reduction?
Primary Treatment
Solution:
From Figure 9, we see that to achieve 60 % SS
reduction, a surface overflow rate of 35 m3/day/m2
is required. This also affords a 32 % BOD5
reduction.
surface area required = =
= 143 m 2

Primary Treatment
Solution:
Using a circular tank,
Required diameter = 13.5 m
Assuming a side wall depth of 3 m:
Volume = 143 x 3 = 429 m3
Detention time = Vol/Q = = 2.06 h
At peak flows,
SOR = = 87 m3 /m2 /day
Primary Treatment
Solution:
Detention time = = 50 min.
From figure 9, SS removal rate is 38 %

BOD5 removal rate is 20 %
Primary Treatment
Chemically Enhanced Primary
Sedimentation
▪ The addition of coagulant chemicals (iron

salts, lime, alum) before sedimentation
promotes flocculation of fine suspended
matter into more readily settleable flocs.
▪ This increases the efficiency substantially
of SS and BOD5 removal rates
Primary Treatment
Sedimentation
Table 8: Comparison of pollutant removal
efficiencies for primary sedimentation
with and without coagulation
Removal efficiencies of primary
Parameter settling
With coagulation Without coagulation
(%) (%)
TSS 60-90 40-70
BOD5 40-70 25-40
COD 30-60 20-30
TP 70-90 5-10
Bacteria 80-90 50-60
Primary Treatment
Sedimentation
▪ Chemical enhancement sustains the

high removal efficiency over a wide
range of removal rates;
▪ In conventional primary sedimentation
tanks, as the surface overflow rate
increases, the removal efficiencies are
almost constant over an SOR range of
20 to 80 m3 /m2 /day
Primary Treatment
Sedimentation
Disadvantages
▪ Increase of primary sludge which is a
chemical-type sludge is quite different
to the biological sludge, from primary
sedimentation;
▪ Chemical sludge is difficult to dewater
as is known from water treatment
chemical type sludges.
Primary Treatment
Sedimentation
Mechanism
▪ To use an aeration tank prior to the
settling tank;
▪ The chemicals are added to the
aeration tank.
Primary Treatment
Sedimentation
Figure 10: Ontario, Canada, wastewater treatment
Anionic
facility
Ferric
chlorid polymer
e 0.3
14 ppm
ppm
36,400
Aeration Sedimentation
m3/day
tank tank
Influent
Effluent
parameters
parameters
TSS = 150 mg/L
TSS = 24 mg/L
BOD5 = 150 mg/L
BOD5 = 60 mg/L
TP = 5.6 mg/L
TP = 0.8 mg/L
Primary Treatment
Sludge Quantities from Primary Settling
The amount of sludge produced will depend on:
▪ the through flow;

▪ the total SS;
▪ efficiency of solids removal
Sm = Q x TSS x E in kg/day
where Sm = sludge quantity, kg/day

Q = throughflow, m3/day
TSS = total suspended solids, mg/L
E = removal efficiency
Primary Treatment
Example 3:
(a) Determine the amount (in kg/day and
m3/day) of primary sludge solids generated in
a domestic treatment plant for a
population equivalent of 20,000, with an
efficiency of TSS removal of 60 %.
(b) What is the density of primary sewage sludge
if it is 2 per cent dry solids (i.e. 98 per cent
water)?
Primary Treatment
Solution:
(a) Assume per capita flow = 225 L/day
Therefore, Q = 20,000 x 225 = 4,500 m3/day
Assume TSS concentration = 300 mg/L
Therefore
Sm = 4,500 m3/day x 300 mg/L x 0.6 x
= 810 kg/day
= = 0.18 kg/ m 3/day
Primary Treatment
Solution:
or
Assuming the density of sludge (ρs) to be 1000 kg/ m3
(ρw = 1000 kg/m3), then the volume of sludge generated
daily is
V= = = 0.81 m 3/day
Chemically enhanced primary settling may increase the

above values by 50 to 100 per cent.
Primary Treatment
Solution:
Typically, unaided treatment produces about 0.15 kg/m3
while chemically assisted with lime, alum, or ferric chloride
produces 0.4, 0.25 and 0.25.
(b) Density of water ρw = 1000 kg/m3
Assume particle density of sludge ρp = 1700 kg/m3
Particle density is defined as ρp =
where Mp = mass of particles (solid)
Vp = volume of particles (no air, no water)
Primary Treatment
Solution:
This sludge is composed of 98 per cent water + 2
per cent sludge particles.
A mass balance gives:
Mwater + Msludge = Mtotal
ρwvw + ρpVp = ρTVtotal
Therefore ρT = 1014 kg/m3

Primary Treatment
Solution:
The sludge (water + particles) density is not much
more than the density of water.
Therefore, the assumption in part (a) of taking
the sludge density to be the same as water
density is safe enough.
Even at dry solids as high as 20 per cent, the
density of the sludge is still only 1140 kg/m3.
Secondary Treatment
Municipal WW pollution are summarily

described by the following parameters:
▪ Total solids – suspended (40 per cent),
colloidal (10 per cent) or dissolved (50
per cent);
▪ Biochemical oxygen demand
▪ Chemical oxygen demand
▪ Nutrients – nitrogen and phosphorus
Secondary Treatment
Earlier, it was seen that primarily settling

removed 60 per cent of the suspended
solids and about 30 per cent of the BOD5.
About 65 per cent of the solids removed
(settleable) are organic and the remainder
inorganic.
Figure 11 shows a typical parameter set for a
municipal WW prior to secondary treatment.
Secondary Treatment
Figure 11: Typical municipal WW parameters

before and after primary settling
After screening Primary To

and grit settling secondary
removal treatment
Influent Effluent Desired
TSS = 300 TSS = 120 TSS = 35
mg/L mg/L mg/L
BOD 5 = 300 BOD 5 = 210 BOD 5 = 25
mg/L mg/L mg/L
TP = 10 mg/L TP = 9 TP = 2 mg/L
TN = 40 mg/L TN = 10
mg/L TN = 36 mg/L
Secondary Treatment
From Figure 11, it is seen that the main
purpose of secondary treatment is to
reduce the BOD5 value which does not
benefit as much as SS from primary
settling.
▪ Secondary treatment should be a
process that is capable of biodegrading
the organic matter into
non-polluting end products, e.g.
water, carbon dioxide and biomass
(sludge)
Secondary Treatment
The end product liquid effluent should be:

• Well stabilized or well oxidized so that it
does not provide a food source for
aerobic bacteria in the receiving water
body;
• The discharge to the water body should
lead to little or no removal of DO by
bacterial action;
Secondary Treatment
To produce a well-oxidized liquid effluent,

a vast array of biological process exist,
some general and some proprietary, that
are capable of removing the organic
matter from the WW.
Secondary Treatment
Principles of Biological Oxidation
The mechanism of removal of organic
matter include:
▪ biodegradation
▪ air stripping
▪ adsorption
Adsorption of non-degradable organics
into biological solids is not significant,
but it does occur for particular organics
including pesticides, e.g. lindane.
Secondary Treatment
▪ Heavy metals will adsorb on to biomass
and bioaccumulate, resulting in end
products containing heavy metals;
▪ Air stripping of volatile organic carbon
(VOC) occurs in aerobic systems;
▪ The breakdown of carbonaceous
material by aerobic degradation emits
CO2 and other VOCs into the
atmosphere.
Secondary Treatment
▪ Biodegradation is the dominant mechanism
of organics removal for municipal and most
industrial WW;
▪ Most treatment plants now use the activated
sludge systems for this purpose;
▪ Figure 12 is a schematic of the activated
sludge system. It comprises of 2 “box”
structures:
the aeration tank and
the secondary clarification tank.
Secondary Treatment
Figure 12: Typical layout of activated sludge system
Secondary
From Clarifier Liquid
Wastewater Aeration tank
Primary (solid-liquid
influent (biological reactor) effluent
settling separator)
RAS
Returned activated
Waste
sludge
(WAS) activate
d
sludge
From Aeration
primar Influen mixing
Liquid
y t effluen
settling t
RAS
WAS
Figure 12: Typical layout of activated sludge

system
Secondary Treatment
▪ The aeration tank basically retains the influent
WW for a no. of hours (or days) in a
well-mixed/aerated environment, before
forwarding the effluent for further settling to
the secondary clarification tank;
▪ The end products of the clarification tank are:
clarified liquid effluent, ready for discharge for
open water bodies, and;
a liquid-solid sludge
Secondary Treatment
▪ A fraction (about 20 %) of the sludge is
returned to the aeration tank and is
called returned activated sludge (RAS);
▪ The sludge contains a high density of
live microbial biomass and in returning
part of it, an active population of
microbes are always maintained in the
aeration tank;
Secondary Treatment
▪ The influent WW is the food source for the

resident microbes in the aeration tank;
▪ The microbes biodegrade this feedstock
into new microbial cells in the presence of
aerated water;
▪ Other end products include CO2, NO3-, and
SO4-
Secondary Treatment
▪ In the clarifier, the excess biomass

settles out as sludge and about 80 % of
this is removed for further treatment
and subsequent disposal.
Secondary Treatment
▪ The mixed “liquor” suspension in the
aeration tank contains WW, living and
dead microorganisms and inert
biodegradable and non-biodegradable
suspended and colloidal matter.
▪ The particulate fraction of the mixed
liquor is called the “mixed liquor
suspended solids” (MLSS)
Secondary Treatment
▪ This value is generally of the order of 2000 to
4000 mg/L for a healthy microbial suspension
in the aeration tank;
▪ The MLSS of the RAS is of the order of 10 000
to 20 000 mg/L
▪ This is a measure of the microbial population
essential to keep the MLSS in the aeration
base >2000 mg/L; otherwise, the microbial
population is not large enough to biodegrade
the incoming organics.
Secondary Treatment
Bacterial Growth in Pure Cultures
▪ The bacterial population is expressed as:
No. of cells (N) per unit volume; or
Mass of cells (M) per unit volume
▪ Figure 12 is a schematic of the growth
curve for a typical bacteria cell culture.
▪ At different points in this curve, the cell
may have:
a different size; and a
a different mass of sorbed substrata
Secondary Treatment
Figure 12: Characteristic growth curves of
cultured microorganisms
When a bacterial inoculum is placed

in a closed vessel with ideal conditions
and excess food, the growth and
decay
of bacterial cell numbers follow this
curve
Secondary Treatment
▪ Bacteria reproduce by binary fission and
a significant parameter is called the
regeneration rate or doubling time;
▪ During the acclimation period, there is
no growth as organisms acclimate to
their new environment;
▪ This acclimation period may be up to 6
weeks for some complex industrial
wastes;
Secondary Treatment
▪ This phase is followed by an exponential

growth, when the cells reproduce at their
optimum regeneration rates;
▪ The doubling time is typically 20 to 60
mins.;
▪ In the stationary phase, the population
remains constant with the rate of new
cell synthesis equal to the death rate of
old cells;
Secondary Treatment
▪ Around this time, the substrate (food) is
becoming limited or exhausted or there
is a nutrient deficiency;
▪ The endogenous phase is where
bacteria are surviving off their own
stored energy and consuming the dead
cells;
▪ The no. of cells then begin to decline
and there is then an accelerated death
phase when there is no biodegradable
Secondary Treatment
▪ This schematic is a typical of the real

microbial population for activated sludge
systems, where the population tends to be
complex, interrelated mixed populations
with each species having its own growth
curve;
▪ Most organisms in activated sludge are
single-cell bacteria with soil origins;
Secondary Treatment
▪ The objective in operating the activated

sludge system is:
to try to retain the mixed population within
a desirable range on the growth curve for
optimum performance.
▪ Outside the range, there may be an
excess of organisms or a deficiency,
and both lead to operational problems.
Secondary Treatment
▪ When a biodegradable organic food is
supplied to a heterotrophic (utilizing
organic materials for energy),
microorganism population in a well-
aerated environment, the response is as
follows:
1. The readily soluble biodegradable
COD goes thru the cell wall and is
metabolized quickly;
Secondary Treatment
2. The slowly biodegradable particulate
COD is adsorbed on to the organisms
and stored. This quick reaction
removes all the particulate and colloidal
COD. Over time the COD is broken down
by extracellular enzymes, transferred
through the cell wall and metabolized.
The rate limiting step in the overall
synthesis is the enzymatic breakdown
at rates at 10 % of the readily
biodegradable COD rate.
Secondary Treatment
3. Some of the COD metabolized is

converted to new cells, while the
remainder is lost as heat in the
energy process, such that the
amount of oxygen utilized is
proportional to the COD lost.
Secondary Treatment
4. At the same time, there is net loss

of live biomass, termed endogenous
mass loss, where some of the
organisms utilize as food their own
stored food materials and dead cells.
This endogenous degradation is
continuous and relatively constant at
about 10 to 20 per cent per day.
Secondary Treatment
The biochemical equation for bacterial cell
respiration and synthesis in using organic matter
as substrate in the ASP is:
Equation 1:
bacteri
a
For mixed cultures, as in activated sludge,

biomass is the parameter of interest, rather than
the number of organisms.
Secondary Treatment
Figure 13:
Substrate
concentration
versus specific growth
rate
In the log growth phase in Fig. 13, the

rate of biomass increase is proportional to
the initial biomass concentration and is
represented by first order equation:
Secondary Treatment
(Equation
2)
= growth rate of biomass,

mg/L/day
X = concentration of biomass,
= specific growth rate constant, d -1
µmg/L
(mass of cells produced/ mass of cells
present per unit time)
Letting represent the biomass at time t = 0, integrating in the
above equation:
Secondary Treatment
(Equation
3)
The growth rate that follows this equation is

called the exponential growth rate. It is
assumed that this equation holds as long as
there is no change in the biomass
concentration or environmental
conditions.
Secondary Treatment
• However, this cannot always be the case. For
a batch culture, it will incur environmental
change during its lifetime.
• In mixed cultures, it is not yet possible to
measure µ. There are essential requirements
for microbial growth including:
availability of substrate or nutrients.
• If an essential requirement is limited, growth
slows or ceases.
Secondary Treatment
• Monod (1949), noting that the growth rate
(dX/dt) was a function of organism
concentration (X) and also of a limiting
nutrient concentration, showed experimentally
that:
(Equation
4)
where S = concentration of limiting substrate, mg/L

µm = maximum growth rate, d-1
Ks = half-saturation constant, i.e the concentration of
S when µ = µ m /2 (mg/L) as shown in Figure 14
Secondary Treatment
Figure 14: Substrate concentration vs. specific growth
rate
Secondary Treatment
▪ Equation 3 assumes only growth of
microorganisms;
▪ However, there is growth of one set of
organisms and die-off of another set,
occurring simultaneously;
▪ To take account of one die-ff, an
endogenous decay (rate = Kd) is used,
so that Equation 2 becomes:
Secondary Treatment
Biomass production:
(Equation
5)
If all substrate (S) could be converted to

biomass (X) then the rate of substrate
utilization is
(Equation
6)
Ideal:
(Similar to the energy analogy, dissipation =
production)
Secondary Treatment
However, such an idealization cannot occur due to
inefficiencies in the conversion process and a yield
coefficient (Y<1) is introduced such that the rate of
substrate utilization is in excess of the rate of
biomass generated:
Real: (Equation
7)
where: Y = fraction of substrate converted to

biomass, mg/L of biomass/mg/L of substrate
typically 0.4 to 0.8 in aerobic systems and 0.08
to 0.2 for anaerobic systems
=
Secondary Treatment
Substitution into Equation 6 then becomes
Substrate utilization:
(Equation
8)
Equation 5 for biomass production and
Equation 7 for substrate utilization are the
fundamental biological process design
equations for different reaction
configurations. They will be used in the mass
balance equations in anaerobic
digestion.
Secondary Treatment Systems
Secondary treatment systems are broadly
categorized as:
▪ Suspended growth
▪ Attached growth
▪ Dual biological suspended and attached
growth
• are defined as those aerobic processes
that achieve a high microorganism
concentration through the recycle of
biological solids;
• the bacterial organisms convert
biodegradable organic WW and certain
inorganic fractions into new biomass and
other (non-polluting) end products (e.g.
water and carbon dioxide) .
• the biomass is removed as sludge
and the liquid after settling is
removed as clarified effluent;
• the gases are air-stripped;
• suspended growth systems and in
particular conventional plug flow
activated sludge system are the most
common processes for treating both
municipal and industrial WW
▪ Attached growth system or fixed film reactors
• allow a microbial layer to grow on the
surface of the media (stone, plastic) while
exposed to the atmosphere from where it
draws its oxygen;
• the microbial layer is sprayed from above
the WW;
• the microbial layer converts the
biodegradable organic WW to biomass
and by-products;
▪ Attached growth system or fixed film

reactors
• the trickling or percolating filter is
common for treating municipal WW
which already have been through
primary settling;
• the rotating biological contactors and
biofilters are in operation for higher
strength wastes than municipal;
▪ Attached growth system or fixed film
reactors
• RBCs are sometimes used as
roughing filters with subsequent
activated sludge or stone media
trickling filters for further treatment;
▪ Dual process systems
• Utilize two stage arrangements of:
fixed film
suspended growth processes
• Objective:
to achieve very high quality effluent
standards
Figure 15: Secondary treatment systems
Biological
Secondary
treatment
Suspende Attached Dual

d growth biological
growth treatment
(a) Types of secondary treatment
systems
Activated Stabilization Aerate Containmen Constructe

sludge ponds d t d
lagoon ponds wetlands
(b) Types of suspended
s growth
Figure 15: Secondary treatment systems

Biological
Secondary
treatment
Plug Complete Oxidatio Contact

Sequencing
flow mix n stabilization
batch
ditch
reactors
(a) Types of activated sludge
systems
Conventiona Extended High Step Tapere

l aeration rate feed d
aeratio
(b) Types of plug flow activated sludge n
Secondary Treatment
The F/M ratio
▪ The F/M (food to microbes) ratio is the
most useful design and operational
parameter of activated sludge systems;
▪ The activated sludge system is a
continuous process with growth and
decay of microorganisms;
▪ A system achieves equilibrium when the
food substrate and the microorganisms
consuming it are in balance.
Secondary Treatment
The F/M ratio
▪ Out of balance can mean too much
substrate, too little substrate, too many
organisms, too little organisms, etc.;
▪ The equilibrium parameter is known as
the F/M ratio or food to microbes ratio;
▪ This ratio controls the rate of biological
oxidation and the mass of organisms,
by maintaining microbial growth in either
the log declining or endogenous phase.
Secondary Treatment
The F/M ratio
Figure 15: Schematic of F/M ratio (not to scale)
Secondary Treatment
The F/M ratio
▪ The type of activated sludge system can
be defined by its F/M ratio (Figure 15);
Extended aeration 0.03 < F/M < 0.8
Conventional 0.8 < F/M <2
High rate F/M >2
Secondary Treatment
The F/M ratio
The F/M ratio is defined as:
Therefore: (Equation
9)
where: So = concentration of influent BOD, (kg/m3)
Qo= influent flow rate, (m3/day)
X = concentration of reactor solids, i.e MLSS, (kg/m 3)
V = reactor volume, (m3)
φ = hydraulic retention time, (days)
Secondary Treatment
The F/M ratio
▪ Log or accelerated growth phase:
there is an excess substrate (high F/M)
▪ Endogenous Phase:
low F/M ratio (values<0.4) and ideally at
0.2 (plug flow) and 0.1 (complete mix
systems)
▪ Removal rates of BOD are highest, called
extended aeration
Secondary Treatment
Sludge Settlement Parameters
▪ The use of recycle sludge is a principal
feature in the process design of an ASP;
▪ This is where a fraction of the sludge is
low in organic content and is not a food
substrate;
▪ It’s high in biomass content, therefore,
suitable for recycle;
▪ If aeration basin did not receive this
recycle sludge, it would become
deficient in microorganism population;
Secondary Treatment
▪ The sludge volume index (SVI) is a
parameter used in the control of the
amount of the recycle sludge;
▪ Determined in a lab test, using 1 L of
conical flask:
SVI = (Equation
where: 10)
SVI = sludge volume index, mL/g
SV = volume of settled solids in 1 L cylinder after 30
min, mL/L
MLSS = mixed liquor SS, mg/L
Secondary Treatment
▪ SV is taken from a sample of mixed

liquor taken near the exit weir of the
aeration basin
▪ MLSS is from a similar sample and is
dried out and weighed;
Secondary Treatment
▪ A sludge has a good settling characteristic:
SVI range is 80 to 120 for an MLSS range
of 2000 – 3500 mg/L
As the MLSS increase, the solids loading is
higher, producing a lower SVI
▪ An alternative to SVI is to increase the
aeration basin size
Secondary Treatment
Nitrification and Denitrification
The nitrogen cycle in simple terms is:
Equation 11:
ammonia N nitrite N
N2→ organic N→ (N -N) → (N → N2
nitrification nitrification denitrification
The objective is:
to stabilize the organic N and ammonia N in WW,

first to nitrate N and secondly to N gas.
Secondary Treatment
• Nitrogen in WW is generally in the forms of
organic N and ammonia N in both soluble
and particulate forms;
• WW contains insignificant amounts of nitrite
N and nitrate N;
• Organic N and ammonia N are undesirable
in WW effluents since they both have a
nitrogenous oxygen demand and ammonia
N is toxic to fish life.
Secondary Treatment
• Nitrification is the biological process using
nitrifying bacteria (nitrosomonas and
nitrobacter) to convert ammonia to nitrate
N in two process steps as follows:
(Equation 12)
nitrosomonas
nitrobacter (Equation 13)

bacteria
Secondary Treatment
• Generally, many environmental
authorities are satisfied if WW is treated
to the level of nitrification;
• However, the end product of nitrification,
nitrate N, still has potential negative
impact on receiving water quality.
Secondary Treatment
• Nitrate N leads to the stimulation of algae
growth and is also associated with the
infant disease, methanoglobinaemia;
• As such, many authorities now require a
denitrification process to reduce nitrate N to
the inoffensive nitrogen gas (N2).
• This process is called denitrification and like
nitrification can be attained by biological
means.
Secondary Treatment
Activated Sludge Systems
• The more common activated sludge
systems are:
Complete mix
Plug flow
Oxidation ditch
Contact stabilization
Sequencing batch reactors
Secondary Treatment
o Complete Mix Reactors
• have uniform characteristics throughout
the entire reactor;
• circular or square in shape and rarely
rectangular;
• aeration can be provided by surface
aerators with adjustable outflow weirs
used to vary the depth of submergence of
the reactor or by submerged bubble
diffuser aeration systems;
Secondary Treatment
• The effluent quality is the same as the
WW quality in the basin;
• As such, only a low level of food is
available to the microbes;
• The operating food substrate to microbes
ratio (F/M) ranges from 0.04 to 0.07;
• The volumetric loading is typically less
than 1 kg BOD5/day/m3.
.
Secondary Treatment
• Dissolved oxygen (DO) levels are
maintained throughout at not less than 2
mg/L;
• Generally, the returned activated sludge
(RAS), from the clarifier is fed directly to
the aeration basin where it is completely
mixed with the existing contents;
Secondary Treatment
• Advantages of the complete mix system are:
ability to withstand shock loads, due to the
low F/M ratio;
good flexibility in being able to utilize a wide
range of loads;
particularly suitable for high organic
industrial WW.
• Figure 16 is a schematic of the complete
mix system.
Secondary Treatment
Aeration Clarifier
basin
Influen Effluen
Qo -
Qt , S , t
Qw
o o Qo + Q r
Vo X e, S e
V, X, X, S
Qr, S Control volume
Xu Qu, Xu of aeration
basin
and clarifier
RAS
Qw, Sw,
Returned activated VWaste
w activated
sludge sludge
(RAS) (WAS)
Figure 16: Typical complete mix activated sludge
system
Secondary Treatment
Using the nomenclature of the AWWA (1992), the
system of Figure 16 consists of the following:
oInfluent stream
oAeration basin
oSecondary clarifier
oSludge waste
oSludge return to aeration basin
Secondary Treatment
where :
Q = flow rate, m3/d

S = substrate food concentration, kg/m3
or mg/L
X = biomass concentration (biological
solids), mg/L
V = aeration tank volume, m3
Secondary Treatment
For Figure 16, mass balance equations for
biomass production (Equation 5) and for
substrate utilization (Equation 8) are as
follows:
1.Mass balance of biomass production
This uses the control volume of the
aeration tank and clarifier (shown by
dashed lines in Figure 16):
Secondary Treatment
1. Mass balance of biomass production
sludge
Influent biomass effluent wasted
Biomass + production = biomass + biomass
(Equation 14)
QoXo V (Q o-Qw)Xe QwXw
Secondary Treatment
Substitute Equation 5:
QoXo + V (Qo-Qw)Xe +QwXw (Equation 15)
Assume that the biomass in influent and effluent level is

negligible, i.e Xo = Xe = 0.
(Equation 16)
Secondary Treatment
2. Mass balance of food substrate
This uses the control volume of the aeration
tank and clarifier:
sludge
Influent + substrate = effluent + wasted
consumed consumed substrate substrate
(Equation 17)
QoSo V (Q o-Qw)Se QwSw
Secondary Treatment
Substitute Equation 8:
(Equation
18)
Assume that all reactions take place in

the aeration basin so that the substrate
in the aeration basin is of the same
concentration as of the substrate in the
clarifier and in the effluent (i.e. Se=
Sw=S).
Secondary Treatment
Rearranging Equation 18, we get:
(Equation
19)
Combining Equation 16 and 19:
(Equation
Define the hydraulic retention times (HRT) of
20)
influent in the aeration basin:

φ= (Equation
21)
Secondary Treatment
Define the mean cell residence time (MCRT) of
microorganisms in the system, also called the
solids retention time (SRT) or sludge age, as φc:
φc = total biomass in basin/ biomass wasted per
unit of time
φc = units of time (Equation
22)
As a fraction of the sludge from the clarifier is

returned to the aeration basin, φc > φ,
Equation 20 becomes:
Secondary Treatment
(Equation
23)
Rearranging:
(Equation
24)
Equation 24 is the concentration of biomass

solids in the aeration basin or the mixed
liquor suspended solids (MLSS).
Secondary Treatment
A term commonly used is the F/M ratio, or
the ratio of food to microorganisms.
Low F/M ratios as occuring in complete mix
systems are resistant to shock loads.
It is determined as follows:
From Equation 9,
mg BOD applied/mg
MLSS/day
(Equation
25)
THE
In a completely mixed activated sludge

system, determine:
(a) The aeration basin volume V
(b) The hydraulic retention time (φ)
(c) The sludge volume wasted daily Qw
(d) The mass of sludge wasted daily QwXw
(e) The fraction of sludge recycled Qr /Qo
(f) The F/M ratio
THE
Given:
• Population equivalent 50,000 (11,250 m3/day)
• Influent BOD5 (So) = 200 mg/L
• Required effluent BOD5 >= 10 mg/L
• Yield coefficient Y = 0.6
• Decay rate = 0.06 d-1
THE
Assume:
• MLSS in aeration basin (X) = 3,500 mg/L
(3.5 kg/m3)
• MLSS in clarifier sludge (X ) = 15,000 mg/L
(15 kg/m3)
• Mean cell residence time ( ) = 10 days
• Biomass concentration in the effluent (Xe) =
0
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Wastewater Treatment Processes
Plug Flow
MME 681 (IPC)

10.10.2020
Engr. MCT Encabo

Instructnr
PLUG FLOW REACTORS
Plug flow means that a “plug” of substrate influent to an

aeration basin is moved forward, without too much
interaction with the “plug” that went before or after it.
PLUG FLOW REACTORS
This means that satisfactory mixing occurs in the lateral

direction, but none in the longitudinal direction.
Figure 26 is a schematic of a plug flow reactor.
There is a BOD concentration gradient from entry to exit

PLUG FLOW REACTORS
Figure 26: Schematic of Plug Flow System

PLUG FLOW REACTORS
Plug Flow System:

- characterized by a high organic loading at the influent
end of the basin, reducing as the outfall weir is approached;
PLUG FLOW REACTORS
Aeration basin
- typically rectangular or elongated with oval returns
(see Figure 27).
- at the influent end there is an excess of food substrate
corresponding to the log growth phase and a high F/M
ratio;
- at the downstream end, there is shortage of food
substrate and the microorganisms are in the endogenous
phase;
PLUG FLOW REACTORS
Figure 27: Typical layout of an oxidation ditch system

PLUG FLOW REACTORS
Aeration basin
- through the aeration basin, the food substrate decreases
while the microorganism concentration increases;
- this makes the analysis of kinetics more complex than the
complete mix system;
- simplifying assumptions include that the concentration of
microorganism in the influent to the basin is equal to that
in the effluent from the basin;
PLUG FLOW REACTORS
Advantages of plug flow include:
the ability to treat fully all influent and allow no “plugs” to

go untreated – this is because the influent typically stays in
the aeration basin for much longer periods than in the case of
the complete mix systems;
PLUG FLOW REACTORS
PF dimension units:
- tend to be long rectangular with length to width ratios of
about 10 to 1 and depths about 2 to 4 meters.
Figure 28 is a layout of a plug flow activated sludge system.
PLUG FLOW REACTORS
Aeration basin Clarifier
Influent Effluent
Qo - Q w
Qo , So ,xo Qo + Q r Qo + Q r X e , Se
X w, S i V constant X, Se
V, X, S
Qr , X w Q u, X u
RAS Qw , X w
Returned activated sludge Sludge waste
Figure 28: Typical plug flow activated sludge system

PLUG FLOW REACTORS
As with the complete mix system, it is possible using mass
balances of the biomass and the substrate to determine the
design and operating parameters.
However, this is only possible with the introduction of the

simplification that the biomass concentration of influent and
effluent of aeration basin is the same, x̄.
PLUG FLOW REACTORS
•
Influent BOD after dilution with recycle flow

Plug Flow Reactors (Oxidation Ditch)
o A typical plan configuration of an oxidation ditch is shown
in Figure 27.
o The aeration basin is usually a “racetrack” configuration
with cage or brush aerators at one or more locations.
o Influent enters the basin just upstream of the aerator and
moves forward as “plug”, from a location of high oxygen
levels to a zone of low oxygen levels.
o Effluent leaves the basin upstream of the influent.
o Sludge is recycled, as is typical with activated sludge.
o Oxidation ditches are characterized by long HRTs (≈ 24 h)
and long SRTs or MCRTs (20 to 30 days).
o High-quality liquid effluents are also characteristic of
oxidation ditches, but a disadvantage is a thin sludge which
is difficult to thicken.
o Extended aeration, which can be adopted with complete
mix systems, is more common with oxidation ditch systems.
o Extended aeration means long HRTs (16 to 24 hours),
enabling variable flow rates and flow strengths to be
handled.
o The endogenous phase is the operational phase of the
microorganisms and while nitrification is common, it is also
possible to achieve denitrification.
o Extended aeration in complete mix reactors is only used for
small plants due to the increased size of aeration basin.
o Primary clarification is omitted as the key objective is to

minimize the amount of sludge generated.
o Generally, all substrate removal is converted to energy and

then oxidized so that no excess biomass is generated and so
no sludge handling is required.
o In practice, some sludge is generated.

o Based on zero growth rate, then:
g
where the subscript “g” is for generation.
o Benefield and Randall (1980) derive the equation for the
extended aeration tank volume as:
o Example 5: Determine the size of an extended aeration

basin to treat 30,000 m3/day if the influent BOD is 300
mg/L. The effluent BOD concentration is expected to be 5
mg/L. Given X=4 kg/m3, Y=0.4, kd = 0.03 day-1.
Solution:
Using the equation:
Plug Flow Reactors (Contact Stabilization)
▪ Figure 29 is a form of activated sludge when aeration is

carried out in two phases in two different tanks.
▪ In the contact tank, the suspended organic matter is
adsorbed by the microbial mass and the dissolved organic
matter is absorbed by the biomass.
▪ The retention time is 30 to 60 minutes.
Contact tank Clarifier
Influent Effluent
Sludge recycle Sludge waste

Aerator tank
Figure 29: Layout of contact stabilization system

.
▪ The second tank, called the stabilization tank, with a 2 to 3

h retention period, is where the solids have been removed
in a settlement zone and are further stabilized by a
re-aeration tank before being combined with the influent
wastewater.
▪ The MLSS tends to be about 2000 mg/L in the contact tank
and up to 20,000 mg/L in the aeration basin.
▪ The aeration volume requirements are typically 50 per cent

lower than the conventional plug flow, the model on which
it is based.
▪ The BOD removal efficiency is in the range 80 to 90 per
cent.
▪ This system is used for expansion of existing system (where
space is a limitation) and also in package plants.
Plug Flow Reactors (Sequencing Batch Reactors)
▪ An SBR is a complete mix activated sludge system without a

secondary clarifier.
▪ Within the single aeration basin, five different sequences

are followed as shown in Figure 30.
▪ Aeration and clarification are carried out in one tank.

The sequences are as follows:
▪ Fill The basin fills with influent

▪ React The basin is aerated when 100 % full
▪ Settle The basin is allowed to settle when
sedimentation and clarification occur
▪ Draw The effluent is withdrawn from the top of the tank
▪ Sludge waste The sludge is wasted from the bottom of the tank
Figure 30: Typical configuration for an SBR (adapted from
USEPA, 1986)
Volume Cycle Purpose Operation
time
Fill
25-100 % 25 % Add substrate Air on/off
React
100 % 35 % Aeration/reaction Air on
time
USEPA, 1986)
time Settle
100 % 20 % ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ Clarification Air off

͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠͠
Effluent Draw
100 → 35 % 15 % ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ Effluent withdrawal Air
͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠͠ off
USEPA, 1986)
time
Idle
Sludge
35 → 25 % 5 ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ Sludge wasting Air on/off
wasted ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠ ͠͠
%
Plug Flow Reactors (Sequencing Batch
Reactors)
▪ The tank volume, cycle times, cycle purposes and cycles of
aeration are also shown in Figure 30.
▪ The cycle length varies from 4 to 48 h with SRTs from 15 to 80
days (AWWA, 1992).
▪ The F/M ratio varies with cycle length and may range from 0.03
to 0.18.
▪ An advantage of the SBR system is that there is no need for a
sludge recycle period.
ATTACHED GROWTH SYSTEMS
▪ When organic WW is “sprayed” over stones or plastic, a microbial

slime layer develops in the surface;
▪ This layer has the effect of reducing BOD5 effluents;
▪ Before, stones, 25 to 100 mm in size, were grouped in a shallow,
open-topped cylinder about 1 m deep;
▪ More recently, plastic media have been used instead of stones to
encourage the growth of microbial layer in media with very high
surface area to volume ratios.
▪ This type of aerobic process is called the attached growth or fixed
film system;
▪ Percolating or trickling filter – earliest version and still widely
used;
▪ Other systems
• RBC – used for both low- and high-strength wastes;
▪ Other systems
• biofilters or high-rate biofilters with plastic media; also used as
roughing filters to reduce the BOD5 from about 2000 to 300 mg/L
and then treated in a conventional activated sludge system ;
some biofilters are made up of flocor (lightweight synthetic
media) with heights up to 6m.
PERCOLATING OR TRICKLING FILTERS
▪ These are cylindrical or rectangular boxes of concrete or steel,

containing stone media;
▪ Media is angular (rather than rounded), thus, limestone was a
popular choice;
▪ Tank dimensions: 1 to 2.5 m deep
5 to 50 m in diameter
▪ Floor of tank has underdrain system for collecting treated WW

▪ Near the floor of the perimeter walls are openings to allow an
updraught of air for aeration.
▪ Figure 31 shows the schematic of this type of filters.
▪ The treated effluent passes to a secondary clarifier
Figure 31: Section schematic of percolating filter
o In principle, since biomass is fixed to the stone media, there is no

need for recycle sludge as in activated sludge;
o At the stone media/ biomass/ air interfaces, aerobic degradation
of the substrate takes place;
o At deeper levels, there may also be biodegradation due to

anaerobic process;
o As the organic load continues to be sprayed on the media, a
buildup of biomass occurs in excess of the most efficient levels;
o At this point, some biomass gets washed forward with the

effluent;
o This is known as the biomass “sloughing” and is identified in high
BOD 5 readings in the effluent;
o Recycling of effluent through the filters improves the end quality
effluent, and in the case of low-rate units, achieve nitrification.
❖ Maintaining a healthy community of microorganisms in the

trickling filter is essential as it is in activated sludge;
❖ The significant microorganisms are essentially facultative
bacteria, but fungi, protozoa, algae, worms, insects and snails
also reside in the habitat;
❖ The nitrifying bacteria - resident at lower depths process
nitrification.
The factors affecting operation of the process and design are
identified by AWWA (1992) as:
WW composition and treatability
Media type and depth
Hydraulic and organic loading
Recirculation ratio and arrangement
Temp
Distributor operation
❖ Trickling filters are versatile systems:
treat low-strength wastes to advanced standards
act as roughing filter to high-strength wastes
❖ If there is a high recirculation ratio, it is theoretically possible:
to treat high-strength wastes also to advanced standards, as in
the case of flocculent-type SS.
❖ Trickling filters system is able to treat soluble organics efficiently:
It is suited to many industrial WW, i.e. milk wastes
❖ Media type varies:
stone media - dense media with shallow depths of about 1 m;
- typically used for low- strength wastes, i.e.
municipal wastes
Plastic media - depths up to 6m
- typically for industrial wastes
❖ Loading (hydraulic and organic) vary depending on type of filter
(see Table below)
Table 9: Characteristics of trickling filter
Design Low rate – Intermediate High Super Roughing
characteristics conventional rate rate rate filter
Media Stone Stone Stone Plastic Plastic/Stone
Hydraulic loading 10 000 – 40 000 – 100 000 – 150 000 – 600 000 –
(m3/d/m2) 40 0000 100 000 400 000 900 000 1 800 000
Organic loading 1-3 3 -6 6-12 < 30 >20
(kg BOD5/d/m3)
% BOD removal 80-85 50-70 40-80 65-85 40-85
Nitrification Yes Some No Little No
❖ Recirculation will normally be the case for trickling filters, except:
the low rate, and
the roughing filter
❖ recirculation ratios may vary from 0.4 to 4 depending on the
quality of treatment required;
❖ Recirculation may be:
from the effluent of the trickling filter
from the secondary clarifier
❖ Recirculation may re-enter:
the influent pipe before the filter, or
directly on to the filter
❖ Which system is chosen will depend on the waste characteristics,
loadings, effluent standards, and economics;
❖ Temp, as with other secondary treatment process, affects
performance;
at lower winter temps. → reduced efficiencies occur
at high summer temps. → efficiency increases due to increased
bacterial activity
❖ Filter efficiency and temp. are expressed in the following
equation:
(Equation 26)
Et = filter efficiency at temperature t

E20 = filter efficiency at 20 o C
a = constant at 1.035
❖ Traditionally, the operation of the distribution arms were at rates
of about 1 rev/min with spraying about 30 s;
❖ It has been established that more efficient operation occurs at
spraying frequencies of >30 min with much slower distributor
rotations;
❖ In the latter case, problems with flies on the surface and
microbial “sloughing” are reduced.
▪ Process modelling of trickling filters is not well advanced,
particularly for stone media, because of the irregularity of the
stone media;
▪ More precise modelling rates exist for synthetic media;
▪ In practice, one or other of the many available empirical models
is used when designing trickling filter systems.
Two empirical models are:
1. The National Research Council (US) Model (1948):
Equation 27)
where E = efficiency of BOD removal

W = influent BOD, kg/d
V = filter removal, m3
F = recirculation factor = (1 + R)/(1 + 0.1R) 2
R = Qr / Q = recirculation flow/wastewater flow
2. The British Manual of Practices Model (1988):
(Equation 28)
where = influent BOD, mg/L

= settled effluent BOD, mg/L
K = rate coefficient (0.02 for stone, 0.4 plastic)
= media surface area and coefficient, m2/m3
(m =1.41 for stone, 0.73 for plastic)
2. The British Manual of Practices Model (1988):
(Equation 28)
where = volumetric loading rate and coefficient , m2/m3/d

(n=1.25 for stone, 1.4 for plastic)
x = temperature coefficient (1.111)
t = temperature of wastewater, OC
Example 6:
A municipal wastewater has the following characteristics:
Influent BOD = 360 mg/L
Required effluent standard = 25 mg/L
Population equivalent = 20 000 at 225 L/h/d
Wastewater temperature = 20 OC
Example 6:
Determine the volume of a single-stage stone trickling filter if the
recirculation ratio is 1:1 and 2:1. Use the NRC equation.
Solution:
Efficiency of BOD removal required = E
= = 93 %
Using the NRC equation:
For R = 1: Recirculation factor, F =
BOD influent loading = 20 000 x 225 x 360 x

= 1620 kg/d
Solution:
Using the NRC equation,
V = 34,793 m3
Solution:
For R = 2: Recirculation factor, F =
NRC equation:
V = 27,550 m3
BIOTOWERS
Biotowers use plastic media and achieve a superior hydraulic and
organic loading rate to stone trickling filters.
They are used primarily for high-strength industrial wastes and are
in common use in the dairy milk industry.
BIOTOWERS
The design can be based in the following equation (Eckenfelder and
Barnhart, 1963):
= effluent substrate concentration, BOD5 , mg/L

= influent substrate concentration , BOD5, mg/L
D = depth of medium
Q = hydraulic loading rate, m3/m2/s
k = treatability constant
n = medium characteristic constant
ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS
A cylinder with its axis horizontal rotates into and out of the
semicircular wastewater holding tank, as shown in Figure 32.
The rotating cylinder or reactor is made of high-density plastic.
As the cylinder rotates, it builds up on its surface a film of biomass.

Figure 32: Schematic of a rotating biological contactor
The wastewater comes into contact with the biomass and with the
air.
The microorganisms in the biomass remove the organic matter from

the wastewater film.
The process gained favor in the 1960s and the 1970s but has
recently fallen out of favor due to problems with excess biomass
buildup and structural problems of shaft and media.
NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• Nitrogen and phosphorus are the key nutrients as they cause
“pollution” of the receiving water body.
• As N travels through the N cycle, it is a water pollutant in four of its

oxidation states, which are biochemically interconnectable:
Organic N → ammonia N → nitrite N → nitrate N

NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• It is desirable (and regulated) to reduce the “total nitrogen” (in
municipal wastewaters from ~ 40 to ~ 10 mg/L) as defined by:
Total nitrogen = organic N + ammonia N + nitrite N + nitrate N
and Kjeldahl N = organic N + ammonia N

NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• In wastewaters, there is almost no nitrite and no nitrate, so,
Total N can be approximated by the Kjeldahl N (TKN)
• The activated sludge process oxidizes the organic and ammonia N to the
higher oxidation states of nitrite and nitrate;
• Nitrite N is rather unstable and oxidizes easily to nitrate N;
• It is desirable to further oxidize the nitrate to nitrogen gas (inoffensive)

NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• The process of conversion of ammonia N to nitrate N is called
nitrification and takes place in secondary treatment WW systems in the
presence of nitrifying bacteria (nitrosomonas and nitrobacter).
• The process of conversion of nitrate N to nitrogen gas is called

denitrification and takes place in the presence of denitrifying bacteria.
NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• Nitrification and denitrification will only work in ideal conditions,
specific for each one.
• Both require different (oxygen level and bacterial) environments,

though possibly in the same tank but at different times.
• The ideal conditions are characterized by:

DO levels
Organic loading availability
NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• Like N, the nutrient P also has a cycle.
• P occurs in solution, in particles or detritus or in the bodies of

microorganisms, as:
Ortho-phosphates (PO43-, HPO42-, H 2PO -, H 3PO4 -)
Polyphsphate (P2O7)
~70 per cent of wastewater phosphorus
Organically bound P
NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• The sources of phosphorus include:
Detergents, domestic and commercial

Land fertilizers
Potable water treatment additives
Human excreta in sewage
Food residues in sewage
NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• Like N, phosphorus is a water pollutant if it exists in a growth-limiting
water environment.
• It can stimulate the growth of photosynthetic algae, thereby causing

eutrophication of lakes or slow-moving rivers.
• As such, it is desirable to reduce the “total phosphorus” (TP) in

municipal WW from ~ 10 to < 2 mg/L P.
NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• Traditionally, P can be removed by chemical precipitation resulting from
the addition of metal salts, i.e ferric chloride.
• Currently, P removal by biological process is more desirable.
• Biological treatment, such as conventional activated sludge, converts

most P to the ortho-phosphate forms (HPO42-, H 2PO-, PO4 3-).
NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• These forms are then removed by chemical precipitation using calcium,
aluminum or ferric, such as:
3HPO42-+ 5Ca2+ +4OH- → Ca5(OH)(PO4)3 + 3H2O

HPO42- + Al3+ → AlPO4 + H +
HPO42- + Fe3+ → FePO4 + H +
NUTRIENT REMOVAL
• When lime is used as calcium source, precipitation normally follows
biological treatment;
• With alum or iron as the precipitant, treatment may be effected in the

activated sludge operation itself or even in the primary clarifier.
BIOLOGICAL NUTRIENT REMOVAL
❑ Biological N removal is a two-step process:
▪ Nitrification in an aerobic environment
▪ Denitirification in an anoxic environment
❑ Biological P removal is a 1-step process in alternating anaerobic and

aerobic environments.
❑ Chemical P removal is a 1-step process.

NITRIFICATION
❑ Nitrification or ammonia oxidation depends on the population of
nitrifying bacteria, which depend on temp., ammonia concentration,
organic substrate, pH, DO concentration, system mean cell residence
time and the presence of nitrifying inhibitors.
❑ From AWWA (1992):

For each kg of ammonia oxidized to nitrate, the following occurs:
NITRIFICATION
❑ For each kg of ammonia oxidized to nitrate, the following occurs
(AWWA, 1992):
▪ 4.18 kg of O2 are consumed
▪ 14.1 kg of alkalinity as CaCO3 are destroyed
▪ 0.15 kg of new cells are produced (extra sludge)
▪ 0.09 kg of inorganic carbon are consumed
This shows that:
❑ more oxygen, more alkalinity and more C are consumed along with the
production of more microorganism cells.
DENITRIFICATION
❑ Upon completion of nitrification, denitrification follows;
❑ It is achieved biologically under anoxic conditions, i.e absence of

oxygen;
❑ The energy required for denitrification comes from the energy content
of the wastewater;
❑ Adequate internal C sources should exist, otherwise, external sources

such as methanol are added (may be required in industrial WW).
DENITRIFICATION
❑ The denitrifying organisms are primarily facultative heterotrophs that
reduce nitrate in the absence of molecular oxygen (DO ~ 0 mg/L);
❑ The overall denitrification process is summarized as (AWWA, 1992):

DENITRIFICATION
▪ NO3-N → N2
▪ Oxygen recovery is 2.86 kg O2/kg NO3--N reduced
▪ Alkalinity recovery is 3.0 kg CaCO3 /kg NO3–N
▪ Biomass production is ~ 0.4 kg VSS/kg COD removed
It is therefore seen that:
❑ the denitrification process recovers oxygen and alkalinity and produces
more VSS;
❑ To proceed from nitrification to denitrification is an economic step
regarding oxygen consumption.
DENITRIFICATION
❑ Typically about 25 % less oxygen is used in fully nitrified/denitrified

plants;
❑ Because denitrification requires carbon source, this is mostly supplied

by recycling a large amount of nitrified effluent to the anoxic basin at
the head of the process (Figure 33) .
COMBINED NITRIFICATION-DENITRIFICATION
SYSTEM
• Rather than having to use another C source for denitrification and to
exploit the oxygen-saving advantages of denitrification, several
nitrification-denitrification systems have evolved.
• Figure 33 is the simplest arrangement.

COMBINED NITRIFICATION-DENITRIFICATION
SYSTEM
Figure 33: Two-stage biological N removal
COMBINED NITRIFICATION-DENITRIFICATION SYSTEM
Figure 34: Schematic of nitrification-denitrification in an oxidation ditch
Figure 35: Modified Bardenpho process for N and P removal

BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL
• This is based on the idea of forcing the microorganisms to accumulate
more P than is required for cell growth;
• Typically, WW biomass has bacterial cells composed of:

carbon (~ 50 %)
oxygen (~ 20 %)
nitrogen (~ 15 %)
hydrogen (~ 10 %)
phosphorus (~ 3 %)
• In other words, there appears to be a limit to the amount of
phosphorus that can be taken up by the bacteria;
• Conventional secondary treatment processes remove about 20 % of

phosphorus influent levels and primary treatment removes about 10
%.
• Raw influent total P levels are about 10 mg/L for municipal WW and
regulated standards for effluent total P are at < 1 mg/L.
• Conventional treatment processes are inadequate to meet the
standards and so chemical precipitation of P was common until the
development of biological P removal systems;
• Bio-P removal was developed when it was identified that enhanced P

storage by bacteria was possible when they were exposed to
alternating anaerobic and aerobic environments;
• A typical P content of microbial solids is about 1.5 to 2 % on a dry

weight basis.
• A system with an anaerobic zone followed by an aerobic zone results
in the selection of a population rich in organisms capable of taking up
P at levels above the stoichiometric requirements for growth;
• In this environment, the biomass accumulates P to levels of 4 to 12 %

of the microbial solids;
• When these solids are wasted, 2.5 to 4 times more P removal occurs
than for conventional systems.
• The mechanism for P removal is via the bacteria Acinobacter sp. In
the anaerobic environment in the absence of nitrates and dissolved
oxygen;
• The influent to the secondary treatment has P levels reduced by 10 %

by primary settlement;
• Biological P removal systems can further reduce the levels by 70 to 80

%.
• This means that P levels can be reduced from 10 mg/L to 2-3 mg/L by
biological P methods;
• Further reductions often required for sensitive waters are achieved

by chemical precipitation;
• Levels can be reduced to 0.6 – 1 mg/L by the addition of 3 – 6 mg/L

iron/ L of WW. This compares with 25 mg/L iron for conventional
chemical precipitation.
Figure 36: Two-stage biological phosphorus removal (A/O process)

Figure 37: PhoStrip bio-P removal process
COMBINED BIOLOGICAL N AND P REMOVAL
• Figure 35 is a schematic design of the five-stage modified Bardenpho
process;
• The following is based on the discussion of the seven designs of such

plants in the US (AWWA, 1992)
• Effluent levels for TKN range from 3 to 7 mg/L and TP range from 0.5
to 3 mg/L.
COMBINED BIOLOGICAL N AND P REMOVAL
• In the Bardenpho process, the split of the five tank volumes varies,
but those with the best performance are arranged as shown in Figure
35;
• As with conventional systems, there is also a recycle (liquid) from the

end of the first aerobic tank to the beginning of the anoxic tank.
Next topics
• Secondary clarification
• Advanced treatment process
Granular media filtration
Activated Carbon adsorption
Chemical treatment
Ammonia removal by air stripping
• WW disinfection
• Diffusers for WW
Diffuser flume flow
Diffuser design
Next topics
• Anaerobic Digestion and Sludge Treatment
• Industrial Air Emissions Control
• Solid Waste Treatment
Introduction to Wastewater Treatment
OUTLINE
• What is wastewater treatment ?
• Why treat wastewater?
• Definition of terms
• Basic Process Flow
• Different types of process
2
WHAT IS WASTEWATER TREATMENT?
According to Wikipedia
Wastewater treatment is a process used to remove contaminants from

wastewater or sewage and convert it into an effluent that can be returned
to the water cycle with minimum impact on the environment, or directly
reused.
3
WHY TREAT WASTEWATER?
What you should know about the Clean Water Act
Why the need for the Clean Water Act?
• 51% of the classified rivers still met the standards for their most
beneficial use
• domestic wastewater is the principal cause of organic pollution (at 48%)
of our water bodies.
• 3% of investments in water supply and sanitation were going to
sanitation and sewage treatment.
• Metro Manila was second to the lowest in sewer connections among
major cities in Asia and less than 7% compared to 20% for Katmandu,
Nepal and 30% for Dhaka, Bangladesh.
• Thirty-one percent (31%) of all illnesses in the country are attributed to
polluted waters.
4
What is the Clean Water Act?
Signed in 2004, the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 unifies citizens,
industries, communities, local government units, and national government
in a singular movement toward minimizing pollution and promoting the
preservation of our country’s water resources.
5
What are the prohibited acts under R.A. 9275?
• Discharging or depositing any water pollutant to the water body, or such which will
impede natural flow in the water body
• Discharging, injecting or allowing to enter into the soil, anything that would pollute
groundwater
• Operating facilities that discharge regulated water pollutants without the valid
required permits
• Disposal of potentially infectious medical waste into sea by vessels
• Unauthorized transport or dumping into waters of sewage sludge or solid waste.
• Transport, dumping or discharge of prohibited chemicals, substances or pollutants
listed under Toxic Chemicals, Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act (Republic.Act
No. 6969)
• Discharging regulated water pollutants without the valid required discharge permit
pursuant to this Act
6
What are the prohibited acts under R.A. 9275?
• Noncompliance of the LGU with the Water Quality Framework and Management Area
Action Plan
• Refusal to allow entry, inspection and monitoring as well as access to reports and
records by the DENR in accordance with this Act
• Refusal or failure to submit reports and/or designate pollution control officers
whenever required by the DENR in accordance with this Act
• Directly using booster pumps in the distribution system or tampering with the water
supply in such a way to alter or impair the water quality
• Operate facilities that discharge or allow to seep, willfully or through grave negligence,
prohibited chemicals, substances, or pollutants listed under R.A. No. 6969, into water
bodies.
• Undertake activities or development and expansion of projects, or operating
wastewater treatment/sewerage facilities in violation of P.D.1586 and its IRR.
7
What are the fines and penalties imposed on polluters?
• Fined for every day of violation, the amount of not less than Php 10,000 but not more
than Php 200,000.
• Failure to undertake clean-up operations willfully shall be punished by imprisonment of
not less than two years and not more than four years.
• This also includes a fine of not less than Php 50,000 and not more than Php 100,000
per day of violation.
• Failure or refusal to clean up which results in serious injury or loss of life or lead to
irreversible water contamination of surface, ground, coastal and marine water shall be
punished with imprisonment of not less than 6 years and 1 day and not more than 12
years and a fine of Php 500,000/day for each day the contamination or omission
continues.
• In cases of gross violation, a fine of not less than Php 500,000 but not more than Php
3,000,000 will be imposed for each day of violation.
• Criminal charges may also be filed.
8
Birth of DAO 2016-08
9
DENR EFFLUENT STANDARDS
Class Class Class
Class “AA”
Parameters “A” “B” “C”
BOD5, mg/l 1 5 5 50
COD, mg/l 2 10 10 100
TSS, mg/l 25 50 70 70
Oil/Grease, mg/l nil 1 1 5
pH 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-9.0
Color, PCU 15 50 150 150
Total Coliforms,
50 1000 2000 10,000
MPN/100ml
Classifications:
Class “AA”- Public Water Supply Class I, water having water shed, uninhabited & protected. Only require disinfection.
Class “A” - Public Water Supply Class II, water that require complete treatment
Class “B” - Recreational Water Class I, water with primary contact recreation, such as bathing, swimming, diving.
Class “C” - Recreation Water Class II, such as boating
- Fishery Water, Irrigation
10
- Industrial Water Supply Class I
Definition of Terms
14
• pH Value
- is an expression of the intensity of the Alkaline

alkaline or acidic strength of wastewater.
6.5-8.5
The pH may range from 0-14, wherein
ideal 7 Neutral
0-6.99 is the range for acidic and 7.1-14.0 is range
the range for alkaline, while 7 is neutral.
- the range between 6.5-8.5 is the Acidic
best/ideal pH value at which a normal
biological treatment will operate.
0
Effects of pH (outside ideal range) to the
Bodies of Water:
• Too much Acids & Alkaline will kill
almost all the living organisms in water.
Definition of Terms
• Color
- visual perceptual property or “condition” which
is used along with composition and concentration
to describe wastewater.
Effects of Colors to the Bodies of Water:

Color will block sunlight causing underwater
plants to die.
- Dissolved Oxygen, DO
- amount of oxygen dissolved in water.
- like all life on land; plants, animals and human,
all aquatic life also needs oxygen to live in water
- minimum amount of DO required is 1.5 mg/L.
Definition of Terms
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand, BOD
- is the amount of oxygen used by the microorganism as they
biologically decompose organic matter in water.
Examples of Organic (Carbon Based) Wastes:

Carbohydrates from:
- human & animal wastes
- sugar
- oil and grease
- Surfactants (ex: detergents)
Effects of Too Much BOD to the Bodies of Water:

- Eutrophication will occur. It is the sudden bloom of microorganisms
and algae.
- Aquatic animals and plants will die due to depletion of oxygen.
Definition of Terms
• Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD
- is a measure of the amount of oxygen needed to decompose all the

organic and inorganic materials in water.
Examples of Inorganic (Non-Carbon Based) Wastes:

Nitrogen (ex: Ammonia NH3, on human & animal urine)
Acids (ex: muriatic acids, HCl)
Alkalines (ex: sodium hydroxide, caustic)
Chlorides (ex: salts, NaCl)
Heavy Metals (like iron, manganese)
Effects of Too Much COD to the Bodies of Water:

- Depletion of Dissolved Oxygen in the water.
- Living organisms will die due to depletion of oxygen.
Definition of Terms
• Fats, Oil & Grease (FOG)
- are the third major components of foodstuffs. They are complex organic
materials. The term “grease” as commonly used, includes the fats, oils,
waxes, and other related constituents found in wastewater.
Examples are butter, lard, margarine, vegetable fats; fats from meat,
cereal, seeds, nuts; industrial & automotive oils & lubricants.
Effects of Too Much FOG (floating) to the

Bodies of Water:
- Water can’t absorb oxygen from air.

- Depletion of Dissolved Oxygen in the water.
- Living organisms will die due to depletion of
oxygen.
Definition of Terms
• Total Suspended Solids, TSS
- defines as the insoluble material suspended in the water
- may be composed of organic and inorganic materials
Examples of Insoluble Solid Wastes:

plastics, rubbers
sands, dirts
some fibers from hard tissues
Effects of Too Much TSS to the Bodies of Water:

- Siltation, mud or clay particles at the bottom of a creek, river or lake.
- Reduction of volume/flow of creek or river, causing floods
- Underwater plants will die as they are buried by silts.
Definition of Terms
Total Coliform
- include bacteria that are found in the soil, in water that has been
influenced by surface water, and in human or animal waste.
BASIC PROCESS OUTLINE
1. Preliminary/Primary Treatment
• Screening
• Equalization
2. Biological/Secondary Treatment
3. Aerobic Digester
• Sludge Digestion
4. Post Treatment
• Chlorine Disinfection
5. Tertiary Treatment
• Filtration System
18
SAMPLE PROCESS FLOW
Manual Bar Collecting/ SBR Basin Chlorine Filtration

Screen Equalization Contact Tank Tank
Tank
Raw Effluent
Wastewater
Sludge
Holding Tank
19
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SEWAGE
TREATMENT SYSTEM
• Conventional Treatment System
• Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR) System
• Membrane Bio Reactor (MBR) System
• Integrated Fixed Activated Sludge (IFAS) System
• Moving Bed Bio Reactor (MBBR) System
• Advance Oxidation Process (AOP) System
20
CONVENTIONAL TREATMENT SYSTEM
Conventional wastewater treatment

consists of a combination of physical,
chemical, and biological processes
and operations to remove solids,
organic matter and, sometimes,
nutrients from wastewater.
21
SEQUENTIAL BATCH REACTOR (SBR) SYSTEM
The sequencing batch reactor (SBR) is a

fill-and draw activated sludge system for
wastewater treatment. In this system,
wastewater is added to a single “batch”
reactor, treated to remove undesirable
components, and then discharged.
Equalization, aeration, and clarification can
all be achieved using a single batch reactor.
SBR systems have been successfully used to
treat both municipal and industrial
wastewater.
22
MEMBRANE BIO REACTOR (MBR) SYSTEM
Membrane bioreactor (MBR) is the combination

of a membrane process like microfiltration or
ultrafiltration with a biological wastewater
treatment process, the activated sludge process.
23
INTEGRATED FIXED ACTIVATED SLUDGE (IFAS) SYSTEM
Integrated fixed film activated sludge (IFAS)

systems add fixed or free floating media to
an activated sludge basin to encourage the
growth of biomass and enhance the
treatment process. IFAS systems are being
implemented at an increasing number of
wastewater treatment facilities to expand
the capacity of the activated sludge system
in the same tank volume.
24
INTEGRATED FIXED ACTIVATED SLUDGE (IFAS) SYSTEM
25
MOVING BED BIO REACTOR (MBBR) SYSTEM
Moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) is a type of

wastewater treatment process that was first
invented by Prof. Hallvard Ødegaard at Norwegian
University of Science and Technology in the late
1980s. The MBBR system consists of an aeration
tank (similar to an activated sludge tank) with
special plastic carriers that provide a surface where
a biofilm can grow.
26
MOVING BED BIO REACTOR (MBBR) SYSTEM
27
ADVANCE OXIDATION PROCESS (AOP) SYSTEM
Advanced oxidation processes (abbreviation: AOPs),

in a broad sense, are a set of chemical treatment
procedures designed to remove organic (and
sometimes inorganic) materials in water and
wastewater by oxidation through reactions with
hydroxyl radicals (·OH). In real-world applications of
wastewater treatment, however, this term usually
refers more specifically to a subset of such chemical
processes that employ ozone (O3), hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) and/or UV light.
28
ADVANCE OXIDATION PROCESS (AOP) SYSTEM
29
SBR PROCESS DESCRIPTION
1. Preliminary/Primary Treatment
• Screening
- To remove solids not suitable for chemical and/or biological treatment.
• Equalization Tank
- To help equalize flow in waste water treatment applications, also make excellent
holding areas for other liquids, agents and chemicals introduced to wastewater treatment
systems.
- To make the wastewater homogenous by means of continuous mixing of air.
30
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
2. Biological Treatment using SBR
a) Fill
– the influent wastewater enters the basin
- this is where aeration begins to achieve
aerobic conditions
b) React
- actual biological cleaning by microorganisms
- short aeration and rest phases alternate in a
controlled cleaning process
- activated sludge will develop with
microorganisms and clean the water thoroughly
31
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
c) Settle
- live sludge sinks to the bottom of the
system
- allows a clarified water zone to form
at the top of the SBR tank
d) Decant
– treated water is now fed into a
discharge system (stream, river, sea,
etc) or into an infiltration system
(disinfection/post treatment)
32
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
e)Idle
- sludge collected will go directly to the
sludge digester tank
33
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
3. Chlorine Disinfection
- Disinfection in Wastewater Treatment is accomplished by the use of chlorine, a strong

oxidizing chemical which attacks and kills pathogenic organisms.
4. Sludge Digestion
- Convert waste activated sludge solids to carbon dioxide, water, residual cell debris and other
end products
- Reduce odors
- Reduce biodegradable solids content
- To prepare the sludge for ultimate disposal on land
34
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Mid Term Industrial Pollution Control

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Process Selection

MCT Encabo, ChE, EnP, MEng, DURP

Treatment units Constituent removal efficiency, percent

BOD COD SS Pa Org-N NH3-N

Bar racks nil nil nil nil nil nil

Grit chambers 0-5c 0-5c 0-10c nil nil nil

Primary sedimentation 30-40 30-40 50-65 10-20 10-20 o

Activated sludge (conventional) 80-95 80-85 80-90 10-25 15-50 8-15

Table B: Degree of treatment achieved by various unit operations and processes

Treatment units Constituent removal efficiency, percent

BOD COD SS Pa Org-N NH3-N

Process Factors affecting performance

Design provisions for flowrate variations:

Advantages of a unit process flow-splitting and

Disadvantage of a unit process flow-splitting and

Table D: Principal types of reactors used for the

Type of reactor Identification sketch Description and /or application

Table D: Principal types of reactors used for the

Type of reactor Identification sketch Description and /or application

Type of reactor Identification sketch Description and /or application

Operational factors that must be considered on

In practice, the construction costs and the

inflow inflow Recycle may occur

The flow regime in (a) is used to achieve intermediate levels of treatment

Recycle may occur

This shows the possible and have been used combinations..

The unit processes may be designed on the basis

The selection of reaction-rate expressions for

In cases where significantly different WW

Mass balance – affords a convenient way of

Figure C shows the mass balance analysis for a

Figure C; Definition sketch for a mass-balance analysis for a complete-mix reactor

Figure C; Definition sketch for a mass-balance analysis for a complete-mix reactor

V = QCO – QC + V (rate of reaction, rc )

Reactor volume V = K (Q/k)

1 5.67 9.00 19.00 49.00

Table G identifies the critical design and sizing

o Design period establishes the target date

Table F: Typical design periods for WW facilities

Treatment process flow diagrams

Treatment process flow diagrams

Process design criteria

Treatment unit Headloss range, ft

Note: ft x 0.3048 = m; Mgal x 0.043813 = m3/s; w.s. = water surface

MCT Encabo, ChE, EnP

• Pre-treatment : physical and/or chemical

Treatment Municipal WW Chemical industry Milk processing WW

Primary Returned sludge liquors

Returned Returned activated sludge (RAS)

Effluent waters Sludge

If a WW is deficient in nutrients, essential for

Pre-treatment for municipal WW is normally

Heavy Organic Ammonia

Objective: to remove large floating material (e.g.

Grit is removed (after screenings) because its

Figure 4: Helical flow pattern in aerated grit chamber

• Flotation is used when suspended particles

Figure 5: Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) unit

Figure 7: Side-line equalization

▪ In this case, it may be desirable to produce a

Column 6 – equalized flow cumulative in m3

EnP MCT Encabo, ChE, MEng

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