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Meteorology Today: An Introduction to Weather, Climate, and The Environment, First Canadian Edition
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NEL
Earth’s atmosphere: the view from space.

Photos.com
NEL
Earth and Its Atmosphere
T o fly in space is to see the reality of Earth, alone.

To touch the earth after is to see beauty for the
Roberta Bondar, scientist, neurologist, physician,
Canada’s first female astronaut aboard the Space Shuttle
1
first time. Discovery Mission, January 22–30, 1992.
The Ukrainian Weekly, Nov. 2, 2003, Volume 71, Number 44, pg. 13.
atmosphere
atmos
atm e biosphere
he
ere
anthrosphere
cryosphere
hydrosphere
h
hyd
ydros re
e lithosphere
phere
re
CONTENTS
Earth฀as฀a฀System฀ 4 Vertical฀Structure฀of฀the฀Atmosphere฀ 12 ฀S ummary฀ 28
Overview฀of฀Earth’s฀Atmosphere฀ 4 Weather฀and฀Climate฀ 19 ฀K ey฀Terms฀ 28
NEL 3
4 CHA PTER 1
O
ur฀atmosphere฀is฀a฀delicat e,฀life-g iving฀blanket฀of ฀air ฀ ฀4 .฀ The฀ biosphere฀ encompasses฀all฀life฀on฀Ear th—plants,฀
that฀surrounds฀Earth.฀In฀one฀way฀or฀another,฀it฀inf฀u- animals,฀and฀h umans.฀We฀sometimes฀separ ate฀ourselves฀
ences฀everything฀we฀see฀and฀hear—it฀is฀intimately฀con- into฀a฀h uman฀syst em฀called฀the฀ anthrosphere,฀ which฀
nected฀to฀our฀lives.฀Air฀is฀with฀us฀from฀birth.฀We฀cannot฀detach฀ encompasses฀our฀h uman฀pr esence฀in฀the฀w orld.฀I t฀
ourselves฀from฀its฀presence.฀At฀Earth’s฀surface,฀we฀can฀travel฀for฀ includes฀our฀economy,฀culture,฀technology,฀communica-
many฀thousands฀of ฀kilomet res฀(km)฀in฀an y฀hor izontal฀direc- tions,฀structures,฀and฀any฀activities฀associated฀with฀these.฀
tion,฀but฀should฀w e฀move฀a฀mer e฀8฀km฀abo ve฀the฀surfac e,฀we฀ To฀fully฀and฀correctly฀understand฀phenomena฀in฀natur e,฀
would฀suffocate.฀We฀may฀be฀able฀to฀survive฀without฀food฀for฀a ฀ we฀mu st฀ holistically฀ consider฀the฀int eractions฀w ithin฀the ฀
few฀weeks฀or฀without฀water฀for฀a฀few฀da ys,฀but฀without฀air,฀we฀ system,฀as฀w ell฀as฀w ith฀other฀en vironmental฀syst ems.฀F or฀
would฀not฀sur vive฀more฀than฀a฀few฀min utes.฀Just฀as฀f ฀sh฀ are฀ example,฀understanding฀Ear th’s฀c hanging฀climat e฀in volves฀
conf฀ned฀to฀water,฀we฀are฀conf฀ned฀to฀an฀ocean฀of฀air.฀ understanding฀the฀climate฀within฀the฀atmospheric฀system฀and฀
Earth฀w ithout฀its฀at mosphere฀w ould฀not฀ha ve฀lak es฀or ฀ its฀int eraction฀w ith฀the฀ hydrosphere฀thr ough฀the฀oc ean฀
oceans.฀There฀would฀be฀no฀sounds, ฀no฀clouds, ฀no฀c olourful฀ because฀ocean฀conditions,฀especially฀sea฀surface฀temperature,฀
sunsets.฀The฀beautiful฀pageant ry฀of฀the฀sky฀w ould฀be฀absent.฀ have฀a฀major฀impact฀on฀w eather฀and฀climat e.฀Ov er฀longer ฀
It฀would฀be฀unimag inably฀cold฀at฀nig ht฀and฀unbear ably฀hot฀ periods฀of ฀time,฀climat e฀and฀the฀at mosphere’s฀c omposition฀
during฀the฀day.฀Everything฀on฀Earth฀would฀be฀at฀the฀mercy฀of฀ are฀governed฀by฀the฀gas฀e xchanges฀of฀plants฀in฀the฀ biosphere฀
an฀intense฀sun฀beating฀down฀on฀a฀parched฀planet. and฀the฀w eathering฀of ฀rocks฀in฀the฀ lithosphere.฀Even฀consid-
Living฀on฀Earth’s฀surface,฀we฀have฀adapted฀so฀completely฀ ering฀a฀single฀system฀requires฀knowledge฀of฀the฀various฀disci-
to฀our฀airy฀environment฀that฀we฀sometimes฀forget฀how฀truly฀ plines฀that฀stud y฀the฀pr ocesses฀oc curring฀in฀that฀syst em.฀
remarkable฀air฀is. ฀Even฀though฀it฀is฀tast eless,฀odourless,฀and฀ Understanding฀the฀at mosphere฀as฀a฀ph ysical฀system฀requires฀
invisible,฀it฀protects฀us฀from฀the฀sun’s฀scorching฀rays฀and฀pro- interdisciplinary฀knowledge.฀฀
vides฀us฀w ith฀a฀mixtur e฀of ฀gases฀that฀allo w฀life฀t o฀f ฀ourish.฀ Chapters฀in฀this฀book฀descr ibe฀parts฀of฀the฀at mospheric฀
Because฀we฀usually฀cannot฀see,฀smell,฀or฀taste฀air,฀it฀may฀seem฀ system.฀These฀ar e฀connected฀to฀other฀syst ems.฀We฀have฀cre-
surprising฀that฀between฀your฀eyes฀and฀the฀pages฀of ฀this฀book฀ ated฀a฀“systems฀icon”฀on฀the฀opening฀page฀of ฀each฀chapter฀as฀
there฀are฀trillions฀of ฀air฀molecules. ฀Some฀of ฀them฀ma y฀have฀ a฀guide฀t o฀illust rate฀the฀linkages฀betw een฀the฀syst ems.฀This฀
been฀in฀a฀cloud฀yesterday฀or฀over฀another฀continent฀last฀week.฀ will฀assist฀y ou฀in฀understanding฀what฀syst ems฀ar e฀involved฀
Some฀may฀have฀been฀par t฀of ฀a฀life-g iving฀br eath฀for฀some- and฀how฀they฀interrelate฀as฀you฀read฀each฀chapter.฀
thing฀that฀li ved฀h undreds,฀thousands, ฀or฀e ven฀millions฀of ฀
years฀ago.฀Air฀truly฀connects฀everything฀on฀Earth.฀
In฀this฀c hapter,฀we฀will฀examine฀a฀n umber฀of฀important฀
concepts฀and฀ideas฀about฀Earth’s฀atmosphere,฀many฀of฀which฀
Overview of Earth’s Atmosphere
will฀be฀expanded฀on฀in฀subsequent฀chapters.฀However,฀we฀will฀ The฀universe฀contains฀billions฀of ฀galaxies,฀and฀each฀galaxy฀is฀
start฀by฀discussing฀Ear th฀as฀a฀set฀of ฀interconnected฀systems;฀ made฀up฀of฀billions฀of฀stars.฀Stars฀are฀hot,฀glowing฀balls฀of฀gas฀
the฀atmosphere฀is฀one.฀ that฀gener ate฀energ y฀b y฀c onverting฀h ydrogen฀int o฀helium ฀
near฀their฀c entres.฀Our฀sun฀is฀an฀a verage-sized฀star฀situat ed฀
near฀the฀edge฀of฀the฀Milky฀Way฀galaxy.฀Revolving฀around฀the฀
Earth as a System sun฀are฀eight฀planets,฀including฀Earth฀(see฀●฀Figure฀1.1),*฀and฀
the฀other฀mat erial฀(e.g ,฀c omets,฀ast eroids,฀met eors,฀d warf฀
Earth฀is฀made฀up฀of฀several฀interlinked฀systems,฀one฀of฀which฀ planets)฀that฀comprise฀our฀solar฀system.
is฀the฀atmosphere.฀A฀system฀is฀a฀set฀of฀interacting฀interrelated฀ Warmth฀for฀our฀solar฀system฀is฀provided฀primarily฀by฀the฀
elements฀forming฀a฀complex฀whole.฀ sun’s฀energ y.฀ At฀an฀a verage฀distanc e฀of ฀nearly฀150฀million ฀
Each฀system฀can฀be฀clearly฀def฀ned.฀Systems฀interact฀with฀ kilometres฀from฀the฀sun, ฀Ear th฀intercepts฀only฀a฀v ery฀small฀
each฀other,฀and฀their฀parts฀interact฀within฀the฀system.฀We฀will฀ fraction฀of ฀the฀sun ’s฀t otal฀energ y฀output.฀A฀por tion฀of ฀this฀
def฀ne฀four฀major฀Earth฀systems,฀some฀with฀subsystems฀(refer฀ solar฀ radiation†฀is฀c onverted฀int o฀other฀for ms฀of ฀energ y,฀
to฀the฀illustration฀on฀the฀chapter฀opening฀page):฀ warming฀Ear th฀and฀at mosphere,฀e vaporating฀wat er,฀and ฀
฀1. ฀ The฀atmosphere฀includes฀the฀gaseous฀par t฀of฀Earth฀from฀ driving฀the฀at mosphere฀int o฀the฀patt erns฀of ฀e veryday฀w ind฀
its฀surface฀to฀the฀exosphere,฀where฀the฀atmosphere฀grad- and฀weather฀we฀experience.฀Radiation฀allows฀Earth฀to฀main-
ually฀merges฀with฀space. tain฀a฀global฀average฀surface฀temperature฀of฀about฀15⬚C.฀This฀
฀2 .฀ The฀ lithosphere฀ (sometimes฀called฀the฀ geosphere)฀ seems฀c omfortable,฀but฀because฀it฀is฀a฀g lobal฀a verage฀t em-
encompasses฀the฀solid฀Earth.฀It฀includes฀all฀the฀rock฀and฀ perature,฀it฀is฀composed฀of฀widely฀ranging฀temperatures฀from฀
geologic฀material฀making฀up฀the฀planet. ฀It฀includes฀the฀ all฀parts฀of฀the฀world.฀Thermometer฀readings฀can฀drop฀below฀
soil,฀whic h฀is฀sometimes฀t reated฀as฀a฀separ ate฀syst em฀
*Pluto฀was฀previously฀classif฀ed฀as฀a฀true฀ninth฀planet฀but฀recently฀was฀reclassif฀ed฀
called฀the฀pedosphere. as฀a฀planetary฀object฀called฀a฀dwarf฀planet.
฀3. ฀ The฀hydrosphere฀includes฀Earth’s฀watery฀parts,฀both฀fresh,฀ †
Radiation฀or฀radiant฀energy฀is฀energy฀transferred฀in฀the฀form฀of฀waves฀that฀have฀
salt,฀and฀frozen฀water฀(i.e.,฀snow฀and฀ice).฀The฀frozen฀part฀ electrical฀and฀mag netic฀properties.฀Lig ht฀that฀w e฀see,฀as฀w ell฀as฀ult raviolet฀(UV )฀
is฀sometimes฀treated฀separately฀as฀the฀cryosphere.฀ light,฀is฀radiation.฀Chapter฀2฀contains฀more฀on฀this฀important฀topic.
NEL
Earth and Its Atmosphere 5
● F I G U R E 1.1 Relative฀sizes฀and฀posi-
tions฀for฀planets฀in฀our฀solar฀syst em.฀Pluto฀is฀
included฀as฀an฀object฀called฀a฀d warf฀planet.฀
(Planet฀positions฀are฀not฀to฀scale.)
NASA
–85⬚C฀during฀a฀fr igid฀Antarctic฀night฀and฀climb฀abo ve฀50⬚C฀ shrink฀to฀the฀siz e฀of ฀a฀bask etball,฀its฀inhabitable฀at mosphere฀

during฀the฀day฀in฀hot฀subtropical฀deserts. would฀be฀thinner฀than฀a฀piec e฀of ฀paper.฀This฀thin฀blank et฀of ฀
Although฀our฀atmosphere฀extends฀upward฀for฀many฀hun- air,฀composed฀pr imarily฀of ฀nit rogen฀and฀o xygen,฀constantly฀
dreds฀of฀kilometres,฀almost฀99฀percent฀of฀it฀lies฀w ithin฀30฀km฀ shields฀Earth’s฀surface฀and฀its฀inhabitants฀from฀the฀sun’s฀dan-
of฀Ear th’s฀surface฀(see฀ ●฀Figure฀1.2).฀In฀fact,฀if ฀Ear th฀were฀to฀ gerous฀ult raviolet฀r adiant฀energ y฀and฀fr om฀the฀onslaug ht฀of ฀
material฀from฀interplanetary฀space.฀Nestled฀in฀this฀thin฀atmo-
sphere฀are฀clouds฀of฀liquid฀water฀and฀ice฀crystals฀that฀are฀part฀
of฀the฀g lobal฀water฀cycle.฀There฀is฀no฀def ฀nite฀upper฀limit฀t o฀
the฀atmosphere;฀it฀just฀bec omes฀thinner฀and฀thinner,฀eventu-
ally฀merg ing฀w ith฀the฀empt y฀spac e฀that฀sur rounds฀all฀the ฀
objects฀in฀our฀solar฀system.
Composition of the Atmosphere Earth’s฀atmosphere฀is฀a฀

thin,฀gaseous฀en velope฀c omposed฀mostly฀of ฀ nitrogen฀(N 2)฀
(about฀78%)฀and฀ oxygen฀( O2)฀(about฀21%), ฀w ith฀small฀t o฀
trace฀amounts฀of฀other฀gases,฀primarily฀water฀vapour,฀argon,฀
and฀carbon฀dioxide฀(CO 2).฀Many฀of ฀the฀gases฀in฀the฀at mo-
sphere฀ha ve฀cy cles฀of ฀pr oduction฀(sour ces)฀and฀r emoval฀
(sinks),฀so฀the฀composition฀of฀air฀for฀several฀gases฀is฀a฀dynamic฀
process.฀The฀study฀of฀the฀cycling฀of฀molecules฀and฀n utrients฀
on฀Earth฀is฀called฀ biogeochemistry฀because฀most฀of ฀the฀cycles฀
involve฀int eraction฀betw een฀the฀ biosphere,฀ with฀the฀other ฀
Earth฀systems.฀
▼฀Table฀1.1฀shows฀the฀relative฀distribution,฀sources,฀sinks,฀
and฀r esidence฀times฀of ฀the฀var ious฀per manent฀and฀var iable฀
gases฀present฀in฀a฀v olume฀of฀air฀near฀Ear th’s฀surface.฀Perma-
nent฀gases฀ar e฀also฀called฀c onstant฀gases฀because฀their฀c on-
centrations฀ar e฀nearly฀c onstant฀thr oughout฀the฀at mosphere฀
and฀ha ve฀not฀c hanged฀m uch฀o ver฀r ecent฀Ear th฀hist ory,฀
whereas฀variable฀gases฀exist฀in฀small฀and฀variable฀amounts.฀As฀
many฀of฀these฀gases฀occupy฀only฀a฀small฀fraction฀of฀a฀percent฀
in฀a฀v olume฀of ฀air฀near฀the฀surfac e,฀they฀are฀referred฀to฀col-
lectively฀as฀trace฀gases.฀(For฀a฀closer฀look฀at฀the฀c omposition฀
of฀air฀at฀Ear th’s฀surfac e,฀r ead฀F ocus฀on฀a฀Special฀T opic:฀ A฀
Breath฀of฀Fresh฀Air฀on฀p.฀8.)
The฀r elative฀amounts฀of ฀nit rogen฀and฀o xygen฀ar e฀fairly฀
constant฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀up฀to฀an฀elevation฀of฀about฀80฀km.฀
At฀Ear th’s฀surfac e,฀ther e฀is฀a฀balanc e฀betw een฀dest ruction฀
(output)฀and฀pr oduction฀(input)฀of ฀these฀tw o฀gases. ฀F or฀
example,฀nitrogen฀is฀removed฀from฀the฀atmosphere฀primarily฀
NASA
by฀biolog ical฀processes฀that฀in volve฀soil฀bact eria฀and฀b y฀tiny฀

● F I G U R E 1. 2 Earth’s฀atmosphere฀as฀viewed฀from฀space.฀The฀atmo- ocean-dwelling฀plankt on฀that฀c onvert฀it฀int o฀n utrients฀that฀
sphere฀is฀the฀thin฀blue฀r egion฀along฀the฀edge฀of ฀Earth. help฀fortify฀the฀ocean’s฀food฀chain.฀Nitrogen฀is฀returned฀to฀the฀
NEL
6 CHA PTER 1
▼ Table 1.1 Composition of the Atmosphere near Earth’s Surface

PERMANENT GASES
Parts per
Percent Dry Million* Atmospheric
Air (by ppm (by Atmospheric Sinks (removal Residence Time †
Gas Symbol volume) volume) Atmospheric Sources mechanism) (in years)
Nitrogen N2 78.084 780,840 decaying฀plants฀and฀animals฀ nitrogen-f฀xing฀bacteria฀in฀ 14,000,000

combustion soil฀and฀oceans
lightning
Oxygen O2 20.946 209,460 photosynthesis฀ plant฀and฀animal฀respiration฀ 4,500
water฀and฀nitrous฀oxide฀break- decaying฀plants฀and฀animals฀
down฀by฀ultraviolet฀radiation฀ chemical฀rock฀weathering฀
in฀the฀stratosphere growth฀of฀shellf฀sh
Argon Ar 0.93 9,300 radioactive฀decay฀of฀ no฀sinks forever,฀gradually฀
potassium accumulating
Neon Ne 0.0018 18 radioactive฀decay฀of฀Earth฀ no฀sinks forever,฀gradually฀
materials accumulating
Helium He 0.0005 5 radioactive฀decay฀of฀uranium฀ drifts฀into฀space 2,000,000
and฀thorium
Hydrogen H2 0.00006 0.6 oxidation฀of฀methane฀ drifts฀into฀space 6.5
automobile฀exhaust฀
volcanoes
Xenon Xe 0.000009 0.09 radioactive฀decay฀of฀Earth฀ no฀sinks forever,฀gradually฀
materials accumulating
VARIABLE GASES
Parts per
Gas and Air (by ppm (by Atmospheric Sinks (removal Residence Time †
Particles Symbol volume) volume) Atmospheric Sources mechanism) (in years)
Water฀ H2O 0฀to฀4 0฀to฀40,000 evaporation฀ precipitation 0.026฀or฀9.5฀days

vapour transpiration
Carbon฀ CO2 0.0389 389 respiration฀ absorbed฀by฀oceans 5฀to฀200฀plus,฀
dioxide combustion,฀ photosynthesis depending฀on฀
(especially฀fossil฀ burying฀organic฀material฀ source
fuels)฀ (landf฀lls)
industrial฀activity฀
volcanoes฀
oceans
Methane CH4 0.00018 1.8 wetlands atmospheric฀oxidation฀(breaks฀ 8.4
growing฀rice down฀when฀it฀reacts฀with฀
agriculture OH฀(hydroxyl)฀radicals)
ruminant฀digestion฀(cattle,฀ uptake฀in฀soils
sheep,฀bison,฀deer,฀etc.)
landf฀ll฀decay
biomass฀burning
sewage฀treatment
termites
ocean฀bacteria
NEL
VARIABLE GASES-CONT’D
Parts per
Gas and Air (by ppm (by Atmospheric Sinks (removal Residence Time †
Particles Symbol volume) volume) Atmospheric Sources mechanism) (in years)
Nitrous฀ N2O 0.0000314 0.314 nitrogen฀breakdown฀by฀bacteria฀ destruction฀through฀reaction฀ 120

oxide in฀soils฀and฀oceans with฀ultraviolet฀radiation฀
agricultural฀soils฀and฀manure and฀oxygen฀in฀the฀strato-
fossil฀fuel฀combustion sphere
sewage uptake฀in฀soils
Ozone O3 0.000004 0.04‡ oxygen฀breakdown฀by฀ultravi- recombines฀to฀form฀oxygen฀ 0.25฀or฀91฀days
olet฀radiation฀in฀the฀strato- (O2)฀in฀the฀stratosphere
sphere reacts฀with฀vegetation฀in฀the฀
photochemical฀smog troposphere
Particles฀ 0.000001 0.01–0.15 volcanoes removed฀by฀rain฀and฀settling฀ 0฀to฀0.04฀(min-
(dust,฀soot,฀ dust฀from฀soil by฀gravity utes฀to฀14฀days,฀
etc.) f฀res depending฀on฀size฀
sea฀spray in฀the฀tropo-
combustion฀(fossil฀fuels,฀ sphere฀and฀longer฀
฀biomass) in฀the฀strato-
sphere)
Chlorof฀uo- CFCs 0.00000002 0.0002 production฀by฀humans฀for฀ destroyed฀by฀ultraviolet฀radi- 55฀(CFC11)฀
rocarbons refrigerants,฀propellants,฀and฀ ation฀in฀the฀stratosphere 140฀(CFC12)
solvents
฀ 1฀ ฀฀
*Parts฀per฀million฀(ppm)฀measure฀very฀small฀amounts฀as฀1฀par t฀in฀1฀million฀par ts฀฀ ________
that฀there฀are฀389฀CO 2฀molecules฀in฀every฀1,000,000฀air฀molecules.
1,000,000 (฀ )
฀.฀For฀example,฀389฀CO 2฀parts฀per฀million฀(by฀volume)฀means฀
†
Residence฀time฀indicates฀the฀time฀that฀the฀substanc e฀remains฀in฀the฀atmosphere.
‡
In฀the฀stratosphere฀(altitudes฀between฀11฀and฀50฀km),฀values฀are฀about฀5฀to฀12฀parts฀per฀million฀(ppm).
atmosphere฀mainly฀through฀decaying฀plant฀and฀animal฀matter.฀ is฀called฀ evaporation.฀Falling฀r ain,฀snow,฀or฀some฀c ombina-

This฀conversion฀and฀use฀of฀nitrogen฀by฀the฀biosphere฀is฀critical฀ tion฀of฀these฀is฀called฀precipitation.฀In฀the฀lower฀atmosphere,฀
to฀its฀productivity฀because฀nitrogen,฀in฀forms฀other฀than฀N2,฀is฀ water฀is฀everywhere.฀It฀is฀the฀only฀substance฀that฀exists฀as฀a฀gas,฀
an฀impor tant฀macronutrient.฀Oxygen,฀on฀the฀other฀hand, ฀is฀ a฀liquid,฀and฀a฀solid฀at฀t emperatures฀and฀pr essures฀normally฀
removed฀from฀the฀at mosphere฀when฀organic฀matt er฀decays;฀ found฀near฀Ear th’s฀surface฀(see฀ ●฀Figure฀1.3).฀Water,฀through฀
when฀o xygen฀c ombines฀w ith฀other฀substanc es฀t o฀pr oduce฀ the฀ hydrologic฀cycle,฀t ransforms฀and฀cir culates฀betw een฀the฀
oxides;฀and฀dur ing฀br eathing฀as฀lung s฀tak e฀in฀o xygen฀and ฀ atmosphere฀and฀hydrosphere฀and฀is฀like฀the฀lifeblood฀linking฀all฀
release฀carbon฀dioxide฀(CO 2).฀Oxygen฀is฀added฀t o฀the฀at mo- of฀Earth’s฀systems.
sphere฀dur ing฀phot osynthesis฀as฀plants฀c ombine฀car bon฀ Water฀vapour฀is฀an฀e xtremely฀impor tant฀at mospheric฀
dioxide฀and฀wat er฀to฀produce฀sugar฀and฀o xygen฀in฀the฀pr es- gas.฀As฀it฀c hanges฀from฀gas฀t o฀liquid฀t o฀ice,฀it฀r eleases฀large฀
ence฀of฀sunlight.฀ amounts฀of ฀energ y,฀called ฀ latent฀heat ;฀the฀r everse฀t ransfor-
Water฀vapour฀(H2O)฀is฀an฀invisible฀gas฀whose฀concentration฀ mations,฀fr om฀ic e฀t o฀liquid฀t o฀gas,฀r equire฀the฀addition฀of ฀
varies฀greatly฀from฀place฀to฀place฀and฀fr om฀time฀to฀t ime.฀Close฀ energy,฀which฀is฀then฀st ored฀as฀lat ent฀heat.฀Latent฀heat฀is฀an฀
to฀the฀surfac e฀in฀war m,฀st eamy,฀t ropical฀locations, ฀wat er฀ important฀s ource฀o f฀at mospheric฀e nergy,฀espec ially฀for฀stor ms,฀
vapour฀may฀account฀for฀up฀to฀4฀percent฀of฀Earth’s฀atmospheric฀ such฀as฀thunderstorms฀and฀hurricanes.฀Moreover,฀water฀vapour฀
gases,฀wher eas฀in฀fr igid฀polar฀ar eas,฀its฀c oncentration฀ma y฀ is฀a฀potent฀greenhouse฀gas฀because฀it฀strongly฀absorbs฀a฀portion฀
dwindle฀to฀a฀fraction฀of฀a฀percent฀(see฀Table฀1.1).฀Water฀vapour฀ of฀Earth’s฀outgoing฀radiant฀energy.฀Thus,฀water฀vapour฀plays฀a฀
molecules฀are฀invisible.฀They฀become฀visible฀only฀when฀the y฀ signif฀cant฀role฀in฀Earth’s฀heat–energy฀balance.
transform฀into฀larger฀liquid฀or฀solid฀par ticles,฀such฀as฀cloud฀ Carbon฀dioxide฀(CO 2)฀gas฀is฀a฀small฀(about฀0.0389฀per -
droplets฀and฀ic e฀cr ystals,฀whic h฀ma y฀e ventually฀g row฀large ฀ cent)฀but฀impor tant฀natur ally฀oc curring฀c omponent฀of ฀
enough฀in฀size฀to฀fall฀from฀the฀sky฀as฀rain฀or฀snow.฀The฀process฀ Earth’s฀air.฀Car bon฀dio xide฀ent ers฀the฀at mosphere฀mainly ฀
of฀water฀vapour฀changing฀into฀liquid฀water฀is฀called฀ conden- through฀decaying฀vegetation,฀but฀it฀also฀comes฀from฀volcanic฀
sation,฀whereas฀the฀conversion฀of฀liquid฀water฀to฀water฀vapour฀ eruptions,฀e xhaling฀br eaths฀of ฀animals,฀bur ning฀fossil฀fuels฀
NEL
8 CHA PTER 1
FFOC U S O N A S P E CI AL TO PIC
A Breath of Fresh Air
If we could examine a breath of air, we would Most air particles are molecules, which galaxy by the total number of galaxies and
see that air, like everything else, is composed are combinations of two or more atoms obtain
of atoms. Although we cannot see atoms (e.g., nitrogen, N2, and oxygen, O2). Most
1011 ⫻ 1011 ⫽ 1022 stars in the universe
individually, they are composed of electrons molecules are electrically neutral, but a
whirling about an extremely dense centre. few are electrically charged as they have Therefore, each breath of air contains
The centre, or nucleus, contains the atom’s lost or gained some of their electrons. about as many molecules as there are stars in
protons and neutrons. Almost all of the Charged atoms and molecules are called the known universe.
atom’s mass is concentrated here, in a tril- ions, and these can react with other atoms In Earth’s entire atmosphere, there are
lionth of the atom’s entire volume. In the or molecules. nearly 1044 molecules. To imagine this,
nucleus, the proton carries a positive charge, An average breath of fresh air contains a remember that 1044 is 1022 squared and there
whereas the neutron is electrically neutral. tremendous number of molecules. With every are 1022 molecules in a single breath. Conse-
Each circling electron carries a negative charge. deep breath, trillions of molecules from the quently, there are about 1022 breaths of air in
As long as the total number of protons in atmosphere enter your body. Some of these the entire atmosphere or
the nucleus equals the number of orbiting inhaled gases become a part of you, whereas
1022 ⫻ 1022 ⫽ 1044 molecules in the
electrons, the atom is balanced and electrically others are exhaled.
atmosphere
neutral (see ●฀Figure 1). The volume of an average-sized breath of
air is about a litre. Near sea level, there are In other words, there are as many mole-
roughly 10 thousand million, million, million cules in a single breath as there are breaths in
(1022)* air molecules in a litre. So, the atmosphere.
Each time we breathe, the molecules we
1 breath of air ⬇ 1022 molecules
exhale enter the turbulent atmosphere. If we
We can appreciate the size of this number wait a long time, those molecules will eventu-
when we compare it to the number of stars in ally become thoroughly mixed with all the
the universe. Astronomers have estimated that other air molecules. If none of the molecules
there are about 100 billion (1011) stars in an are consumed in other processes, eventually,
average-sized galaxy and that there may be there would be a molecule from that single
as many as 1011 galaxies in the universe. To breath in every breath that is out there. So,
determine the total number of stars in the considering the many breaths people exhale
● F I G U R E 1 An atom has protons and neutrons at
universe, we multiply the number of stars in a during their lifetimes, it is possible that our
its centre (called a nucleus) with electrons orbiting this lungs contain molecules that were once in the
centre. Molecules are combinations of two or more *The notation 1022 means the number one followed by lungs of people who lived hundreds or even
atoms. The air we breathe is mainly molecular nitrogen 22 zeroes. For further explanation of this system of thousands of years ago. In a very real way, we
(N2) and molecular oxygen (O2). notation (called scientific notation), see Appendix A. all share the same atmosphere.
(such฀as฀coal,฀oil,฀and฀natural฀gas),฀and฀deforestation.฀Carbon฀ content.฀ ●฀Figur e฀1.4฀illust rates฀impor tant฀wa ys฀car bon฀

dioxide฀is฀r emoved฀from฀the฀at mosphere฀dur ing฀photosyn- dioxide฀enters฀and฀leaves฀the฀atmosphere.
thesis฀as฀plants฀c onsume฀CO 2฀ and฀t ransform฀it฀int o฀car bon฀ ●฀Figure฀1.5฀reveals฀that฀the฀concentration฀of฀atmospheric฀
stored฀in฀their฀roots,฀branches,฀and฀leaves.฀Oceans฀act฀as฀huge฀ CO2฀ has฀risen฀more฀than฀23฀per cent฀since฀1958,฀when฀it฀was฀
reservoirs฀for฀CO 2฀as฀ph ytoplankton฀(tin y,฀dr ifting฀wat er฀ f฀rst฀measured฀at฀the฀Mauna฀Loa฀Observatory฀in฀Hawaii.฀This฀
plants)฀f฀x*฀ CO2฀ into฀their฀organic฀tissues. ฀Car bon฀dioxide฀ increase฀means฀that฀mor e฀CO 2฀ is฀ent ering฀the฀at mosphere฀
that฀dissol ves฀dir ectly฀int o฀surfac e฀wat er฀mix es฀do wnward฀ than฀is฀being฀removed.฀The฀increase฀appears฀to฀be฀mainly฀due฀
and฀circulates฀through฀greater฀depths.฀Estimates฀are฀that฀the฀ to฀fossil฀fuel฀burning;฀however,฀deforestation฀also฀plays฀a฀role฀
oceans฀hold฀mor e฀than฀50฀times฀the฀t otal฀at mospheric฀CO 2฀ as฀trees฀that฀are฀cut,฀burned,฀or฀left฀to฀rot฀release฀CO2฀directly฀
into฀the฀air,฀which฀also฀may฀result฀in฀soil฀CO 2฀being฀released.฀
*Carbon฀f฀xation฀is฀a฀pr ocess฀that฀c onverts฀CO 2฀gas฀int o฀solid฀car bon,฀usually฀b y฀ Deforestation฀is฀thoug ht฀to฀account฀for฀about฀20฀per cent฀of ฀
photosynthesis. the฀obser ved฀incr ease.฀CO 2฀measur ements฀for฀earlier฀time ฀
NEL
© C. Donald Ahrens
● F I G U R E 1. 4 The฀main฀components฀of฀the฀atmospheric฀carbon฀
● F I G U R E 1. 3 Earth’s฀atmosphere฀is฀a฀rich฀mixture฀of฀many฀gases,฀
dioxide฀cycle.฀The฀grey฀lines฀show฀processes฀that฀put฀carbon฀dioxide฀into฀
with฀clouds฀of฀condensed฀water฀vapour฀and฀ice฀crystals.฀Water฀in฀gas,฀
the฀atmosphere;฀the฀red฀lines฀show฀processes฀that฀remove฀carbon฀dioxide฀
liquid,฀and฀solid฀forms฀exists฀here.฀The฀ocean’s฀surface฀evaporates,฀
from฀the฀atmosphere.
forming฀invisible฀water฀vapour.฀Rising฀air฀currents฀condense฀water฀
vapour฀into฀many฀billions฀of฀tiny฀liquid฀droplets฀that฀appear฀as฀puffy฀
cumulus฀clouds.฀When฀rising฀air฀in฀the฀cloud฀e xtends฀to฀greater฀and฀
colder฀heights,฀some฀of฀the฀liquid฀droplets฀freeze฀into฀minute฀ice฀crystals. negative฀consequences฀of ฀g lobal฀war ming,฀suc h฀as฀r ising฀sea ฀
levels฀and฀the฀rapid฀melting฀of฀polar฀ice,฀will฀be฀felt฀worldwide.
Carbon฀dioxide฀and฀water฀vapour฀are฀not฀the฀only฀green-
periods฀come฀from฀ice฀cores฀(see฀ ●฀Figure฀1.6).฀In฀Greenland฀ house฀gases. ฀R ecently,฀others฀ha ve฀been฀gaining฀not oriety,฀
and฀ Antarctica,฀tin y฀bubbles฀of ฀air฀t rapped฀w ithin฀the฀ic e฀ primarily฀because฀they฀are฀becoming฀more฀concentrated฀and฀
sheets฀reveal฀that฀for฀several฀thousand฀years฀before฀the฀indus- are฀mor e฀effecti ve฀g reenhouse฀gases฀than฀CO 2.฀S uch฀gases ฀
trial฀r evolution,฀CO 2฀ levels฀w ere฀r elatively฀stable฀at฀about ฀ include฀methane฀(CH 4),฀nitrous฀oxide฀(N2O),฀and฀chlorof฀u-
280฀par ts฀per฀million฀(ppm), ฀althoug h฀o ver฀longer฀time ฀ orocarbons฀(CFCs).฀
periods,฀CO 2฀ levels฀ha ve฀f ฀uctuated฀c onsiderably.฀S ince฀the ฀ Levels฀of ฀methane฀(CH 4),฀for฀e xample,฀have฀been฀r ising฀
early฀1800s,฀CO 2฀levels฀have฀increased฀more฀than฀38฀per cent.฀ over฀the฀past฀c entury,฀increasing฀recently฀by฀about฀one-half ฀
With฀CO 2฀ levels฀pr esently฀incr easing฀b y฀about฀0.4฀per cent฀ of฀1฀per cent฀per฀y ear.฀Most฀methane฀appears฀t o฀derive฀from฀
annually฀(1.9฀ppm/y ear),฀scientists฀no w฀estimat e฀that฀the ฀ the฀br eakdown฀of ฀plant฀mat erial฀b y฀c ertain฀bact eria฀in฀r ice฀
concentration฀of฀CO2฀will฀likely฀rise฀from฀its฀current฀value฀of฀ paddies,฀wet฀oxygen-poor฀soil,฀the฀biolog ical฀activity฀of ฀ter-
about฀389฀ppm฀in฀2010฀t o฀a฀value฀near฀500฀ppm฀t oward฀the฀ mites,฀and฀bioc hemical฀r eactions฀in฀the฀st omachs฀of ฀c ows.฀
end฀of฀this฀century. Why฀methane฀is฀incr easing฀so฀r apidly฀is฀cur rently฀under ฀
Carbon฀dio xide฀is฀another฀impor tant฀g reenhouse฀gas. ฀ study.฀L evels฀of ฀ nitrous฀oxide฀(N 2O),฀c ommonly฀kno wn฀as฀
Like฀wat er฀vapour ,฀it฀t raps฀a฀por tion฀of ฀Ear th’s฀outgoing ฀ laughing฀gas,฀have฀been฀r ising฀annually฀at฀the฀r ate฀of ฀about฀
radiant฀energy.฀Consequently,฀as฀the฀at mospheric฀concentra- one-quarter฀of ฀a฀per cent.฀N itrous฀o xide฀for ms฀in฀the฀soil ฀
tion฀of฀CO2฀increases,฀so฀should฀the฀average฀global฀surface฀air฀ through฀a฀c hemical฀pr ocess฀involving฀bact eria฀and฀c ertain฀
temperature.฀In฀fact,฀in฀the฀past฀c entury,฀Earth’s฀average฀sur- microbes.฀Ultraviolet฀light฀from฀the฀sun฀destroys฀it.฀
face฀temperature฀has฀warmed฀by฀approximately฀0.74⬚C.฀Math- Chlorof฀uorocarbons฀(CFCs)฀represent฀a฀group฀of฀green-
ematical฀climat e฀models฀that฀pr edict฀futur e฀at mospheric฀ house฀gases฀that,฀up฀until฀recently,฀had฀been฀increasing฀in฀con-
conditions฀estimat e฀that฀if ฀le vels฀of ฀CO 2฀ (and฀other฀g reen- centration.฀ At฀one฀time, ฀the y฀w ere฀the฀most฀w idely฀used ฀
house฀gases)฀c ontinue฀at฀their฀pr esent฀rates,฀Ear th’s฀air฀t em- propellants฀in฀spray฀cans฀and฀were฀also฀used฀as฀refrigerants,฀as฀
perature฀near฀the฀surfac e฀c ould฀war m฀b y฀an฀additional฀3 ⬚C฀ propellants฀for฀blowing฀plastic฀foam฀insulation,฀and฀as฀solvents฀
by฀the฀end฀of ฀this฀c entury.฀As฀we฀shall฀see฀in฀Chapt er฀16,฀the฀ for฀cleaning฀elect ronic฀microcircuits.฀Although฀their฀a verage฀
NEL
10 CH A PTER 1
400
390
380
CO2 concentration (ppm)
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
1958 1968 1978 1988 1998 2008
Year
● F I G U R E 1. 5 Measurements฀of฀carbon฀dioxide฀(CO2)฀in฀parts฀per฀
million฀(ppm)฀at฀Mauna฀Loa฀Observatory,฀Hawaii.฀Higher฀readings฀
NASA
occur฀in฀winter,฀when฀plants฀die฀and฀r elease฀CO2฀to฀the฀atmosphere.฀
Lower฀readings฀occur฀in฀summer,฀when฀more฀abundant฀vegetation฀ ● F I G U R E 1. 7 The฀darkest฀colour฀represents฀the฀area฀of฀lowest฀
absorbs฀CO2฀from฀the฀atmosphere.฀The฀solid฀line฀is฀the฀a verage฀yearly฀ ozone฀concentration,฀or฀ozone฀hole,฀over฀the฀Southern฀Hemisphere฀on฀
value.฀Notice฀that฀the฀concentration฀of฀CO2฀has฀increased฀by฀more฀than฀ September฀22,฀2004.฀Notice฀that฀the฀hole฀is฀larger฀than฀the฀c ontinent฀of฀
23฀percent฀since฀1958. Antarctica.฀A฀Dobson฀unit฀(DU)฀is฀the฀ph ysical฀thickness฀of฀the฀diffuse฀
NOAA. Dr. Pieter Tans, NOAA/ESRL (www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/) and฀deep฀ozone฀layer฀if฀it฀were฀concentrated฀as฀pure฀ozone฀and฀then฀
brought฀to฀Earth’s฀surface,฀where฀500฀DU฀equals฀5฀mm.
concentration฀in฀a฀v olume฀of฀air฀is฀quit e฀small฀(see฀Table฀1.1,฀
p.฀7),฀they฀have฀important฀effects฀on฀our฀atmosphere.฀Not฀only฀ At฀the฀surfac e,฀ ozone฀(O 3)฀is฀the฀pr imary฀ing redient฀in฀
are฀the y฀eff ฀cient฀g reenhouse฀gases,฀the y฀also฀pla y฀a฀par t฀in฀ photochemical฀smog, *฀whic h฀ir ritates฀the฀e yes฀and฀thr oat฀
destroying฀ozone,฀a฀protective฀gas฀in฀the฀upper฀atmosphere฀(or฀ and฀damages฀v egetation.฀B ut฀the฀major ity฀of ฀at mospheric฀
stratosphere,฀a฀region฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀located฀between฀about฀ ozone฀(about฀97฀per cent)฀is฀ found฀in฀the฀upper฀at mosphere฀
11฀and฀50฀km฀above฀Earth’s฀surface).฀As฀a฀result฀of฀the฀recogni- or฀st ratosphere,฀wher e฀it฀for ms฀natur ally฀as฀o xygen฀at oms฀
tion฀of ฀their฀effect฀on฀the฀st ratospheric฀o zone฀la yer฀in฀the฀ combine฀w ith฀oxygen฀molecules.฀Here฀the฀c oncentration฀of ฀
1980s,฀they฀have฀been฀phased฀out฀and฀r eplaced฀with฀less฀dam- ozone฀averages฀less฀than฀0.002฀percent฀by฀volume.฀This฀small฀
aging฀hydrochlorof฀uorocarbons฀(HCFCs). quantity฀is฀important,฀however,฀because฀it฀shields฀plants,฀ani-
mals,฀and฀humans฀from฀the฀sun’s฀harmful฀ultraviolet฀rays.฀It฀
is฀ironic฀that฀o zone,฀which฀damages฀plant฀life฀in฀a฀pollut ed฀
environment,฀pr ovides฀a฀natur al฀pr otective฀shield฀in฀the ฀
upper฀atmosphere฀so฀that฀plants฀on฀the฀surfac e฀may฀survive.
When฀CFCs฀enter฀the฀stratosphere,฀ultraviolet฀rays฀break฀
them฀apart,฀and฀the฀CFCs฀release฀ozone-destroying฀chlorine.฀
Because฀of ฀this฀effect, ฀o zone฀c oncentration฀in฀the฀st rato-
sphere฀has฀been฀decr easing฀o ver฀par ts฀of ฀the฀N orthern฀and฀
Southern฀hemispheres.฀The฀reduction฀in฀stratospheric฀ozone฀
levels฀over฀springtime฀Antarctica฀has฀plummet ed฀at฀suc h฀an฀
alarming฀rate฀that฀during฀September฀and฀October,฀there฀is฀an฀
ozone฀hole฀over฀the฀region.฀●฀Figure฀1.7฀illustrates฀the฀extent฀
of฀the฀ozone฀hole฀above฀Antarctica฀during฀September฀2004.฀A฀
similar฀situation฀can฀oc cur฀o ver฀the฀ Arctic฀dur ing฀the ฀
Northern฀Hemisphere’s฀spring;฀however,฀it฀is฀normally฀much฀
less฀int ense฀than฀in฀the฀ Antarctic฀because฀the฀e xtreme฀c old฀
*Originally,฀the฀w ord฀smog฀meant฀the฀c ombining฀of฀smoke฀and฀fog .฀Today,฀how-

● F I G U R E 1. 6 Carbon฀dioxide฀(CO2)฀values฀in฀parts฀per฀million฀ ever,฀the฀word฀usually฀refers฀to฀the฀type฀of฀pollution฀that฀forms฀in฀large฀cities,฀such฀
during฀the฀past฀1000฀years฀from฀ice฀cores฀in฀Antarctica฀(blue฀line)฀ as฀Los฀ Angeles,฀Califor nia,฀as฀w ell฀as฀T oronto,฀Ontar io,฀and฀ Vancouver,฀B ritish฀
and฀from฀Mauna฀Loa฀Observatory฀in฀Hawaii฀(red฀line).฀ Columbia.฀Because฀this฀type฀of฀smog฀forms฀when฀chemical฀reactions฀take฀place฀in฀
Data courtesy Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. the฀presence฀of฀sunlight,฀it฀is฀termed฀photochemical฀smog.
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● F I G U R E 1. 8 Erupting฀volcanoes฀
can฀send฀tons฀of฀particles฀into฀the฀atmo-
sphere,฀along฀with฀vast฀amounts฀of฀water฀
vapour,฀carbon฀dioxide,฀and฀sulphur฀
dioxide.
© David Weintraub/Photo Researchers
stratospheric฀temperatures฀that฀enhanc e฀the฀o zone฀dest ruc- The฀bur ning฀of ฀sulph ur-containing฀fuels฀(suc h฀as฀c oal฀
tion฀do฀not฀normally฀occur฀in฀the฀Arctic. and฀oil)฀releases฀the฀colourless฀gas฀sulphur฀dioxide฀(SO2)฀into฀
Impurities฀from฀both฀natural฀and฀human฀sources฀are฀also฀ the฀air.฀When฀the฀at mosphere฀is฀suff ฀ciently฀moist,฀the฀SO 2฀
present฀in฀the฀at mosphere:฀wind฀picks฀up฀dust฀and฀soil฀fr om฀ may฀transform฀into฀tiny฀dilute฀drops฀of฀sulphuric฀acid.฀Rain฀
Earth’s฀surface฀and฀carries฀it฀aloft;฀small฀saltwater฀drops฀from฀ containing฀sulph uric฀acid฀c orrodes฀metals฀and฀paint ed฀sur-
ocean฀wa ves฀ar e฀sw ept฀int o฀the฀air฀(on฀e vaporating,฀these ฀ faces฀and฀tur ns฀freshwater฀lakes฀acidic.฀ Acid฀r ain฀is฀a฀major฀
drops฀leave฀microscopic฀salt฀particles฀suspended฀in฀the฀atmo- environmental฀pr oblem,฀especially฀do wnwind฀fr om฀major ฀
sphere);฀smoke฀from฀for est฀f฀res฀is฀oft en฀car ried฀hig h฀abo ve฀ industrial฀areas.฀In฀addition,฀high฀concentrations฀of฀SO 2฀pro-
Earth;฀and฀v olcanoes฀spew฀man y฀tonnes฀of ฀f฀ne฀ash฀par ticles฀ duce฀serious฀respiratory฀problems฀in฀h umans,฀such฀as฀br on-
and฀gases฀into฀the฀air฀(see฀●฀Figure฀1.8).฀Many฀kinds฀of฀human฀ chitis฀and฀emphysema,฀and฀have฀an฀adverse฀effect฀on฀plant฀life.
activity,฀especially฀combustion฀in฀industrial฀or฀other฀setting s,฀ These฀gas฀exchanges฀between฀the฀atmosphere฀and฀the฀bio-
can฀directly฀release฀par ticles฀or฀gases฀that฀subsequently฀c on- sphere,฀hydrosphere,฀and฀lithosphere,฀which฀lead฀to฀the฀current฀
dense฀to฀form฀particles.฀Some฀of ฀these฀pollutants฀can฀be฀car - composition฀of ฀air,฀illust rate฀some฀of ฀the฀int erconnections฀
ried฀by฀winds฀for฀a฀long฀distanc e:฀for฀e xample,฀some฀organic฀ between฀systems฀that฀characterize฀Earth.฀These฀interconnec-
pollutants฀and฀brominated฀f฀ame฀retardants฀that฀are฀produced฀ tions฀also฀ac count฀for฀the฀de velopment฀of ฀the฀at mosphere’s฀
in฀the฀middle฀latitudes฀can฀be฀transported฀to฀the฀Arctic,฀where฀ composition฀over฀the฀course฀of฀Earth’s฀evolution.
they฀accumulate,฀causing฀health฀and฀environmental฀problems.฀
Collectively,฀these฀tin y฀solid฀or฀liquid฀suspended฀par ticles฀of ฀ The Early Atmosphere The฀at mosphere฀that฀or iginally฀
various฀composition฀are฀called฀particulates฀or฀aerosols. surrounded฀Earth฀was฀pr obably฀much฀different฀from฀the฀air฀
Some฀impurities฀found฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀are฀natural฀and฀ we฀breathe฀today.฀Ear th’s฀f฀rst฀atmosphere฀(some฀4.6฀billion฀
can฀be฀quit e฀benef฀cial.฀Small,฀f฀oating฀par ticles,฀for฀instanc e,฀ years฀ago)฀most฀likely฀consisted฀of฀hydrogen฀and฀helium,฀the฀
act฀as฀surfac es฀on฀whic h฀wat er฀vapour฀c ondenses฀t o฀for m฀ two฀most฀abundant฀gases฀found฀in฀the฀uni verse,฀as฀w ell฀as฀
clouds.฀H owever,฀most฀h uman-made฀impur ities฀(and฀some฀ hydrogen฀compounds,฀such฀as฀methane฀(CH4)฀and฀ammonia฀
natural฀ones)฀are฀a฀nuisance,฀as฀well฀as฀a฀health฀hazar d.฀These฀ (NH3).฀Most฀scientists฀feel฀that฀this฀early฀atmosphere฀escaped฀
we฀call฀ pollutants.฀F or฀e xample,฀aut omobile฀eng ines฀emit฀ into฀space฀from฀Earth’s฀hot฀surface.
copious฀amounts฀of ฀ nitrogen฀dioxide฀(NO 2),฀ carbon฀mon- A฀sec ond,฀mor e฀dense฀at mosphere฀g radually฀enveloped฀
oxide฀(CO),฀and฀ hydrocarbons.฀In฀sunlight,฀nitrogen฀dioxide฀ the฀Earth฀as฀gases฀fr om฀molten฀rock฀within฀Earth’s฀hot฀int e-
reacts฀w ith฀hydrocarbons฀and฀other฀gases฀t o฀produce฀o zone.฀ rior฀escaped฀thr ough฀volcanoes฀and฀st eam฀vents.฀We฀assume฀
Carbon฀monoxide฀is฀a฀major฀pollutant฀of ฀city฀air.฀Colourless฀ that฀v olcanoes฀spew ed฀out฀the฀same฀gases฀then฀as฀the y฀do ฀
and฀odourless,฀this฀poisonous฀gas฀forms฀during฀the฀incomplete฀ today:฀mostly฀water฀vapour฀(about฀80฀percent),฀carbon฀dioxide฀
combustion฀of฀carbon-containing฀fuel.฀Hence,฀over฀75฀percent฀ (about฀10฀percent),฀and฀sulphur฀dioxide฀or฀hydrogen฀sulphide,฀
of฀carbon฀monoxide฀in฀urban฀areas฀comes฀from฀road฀vehicles. with฀up฀to฀a฀few฀per cent฀nitrogen.฀These฀gases฀(mostly฀wat er฀
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12 CH A PTER 1
vapour฀and฀car bon฀dioxide)฀probably฀created฀Earth’s฀second฀ can condense into liquid cloud droplets or transform into deli-
atmosphere. cate ice crystals. Water is the only substance in our atmosphere
As฀millions฀of ฀years฀passed,฀the฀c onstant฀outpouring฀of ฀ that is found naturally as a gas (water vapour), as a liquid
gases฀from฀the฀hot฀interior,฀known฀as฀outgassing,฀provided฀a฀ (water), and as a solid (ice).
rich฀supply฀of฀water฀vapour,฀which฀formed฀into฀clouds.฀Some฀ ● Both water vapour and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important
of฀Ear th’s฀wat er฀may฀have฀or iginated฀fr om฀n umerous฀c olli- greenhouse gases. Some trace gases are also effective green-
sions฀w ith฀small฀met eors฀and฀disint egrating฀c omets฀when ฀ house gases.
Earth฀was฀very฀young.฀Rain฀fell฀on฀the฀Ear th฀for฀many฀thou- ● Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere protects life from harmful ultra-
sands฀of ฀y ears,฀for ming฀the฀r ivers,฀lak es,฀and฀oc eans฀of ฀the฀ violet (UV) radiation. At the surface, ozone is a harmful main
world.฀During฀this฀time,฀large฀amounts฀of฀CO2฀were฀dissolved฀ ingredient of photochemical smog.
in฀the฀oc eans.฀Thr ough฀c hemical฀and฀biolog ical฀pr ocesses,฀ ● The majority of water on our planet is believed to have come
much฀of ฀the฀CO 2฀became฀lock ed฀up฀in฀car bonate฀sedimen- from Earth’s hot interior through outgassing.
tary฀rocks,฀such฀as฀limestone.฀With฀much฀of฀the฀water฀vapour฀
already฀condensed฀and฀the฀c oncentration฀of฀CO 2฀dwindling,฀
the฀atmosphere฀gradually฀became฀rich฀in฀N2,฀which฀is฀usually฀
not฀chemically฀active.
It฀appears฀that฀O 2,฀the฀sec ond฀most฀abundant฀gas฀in ฀
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
today’s฀at mosphere,฀pr obably฀began฀an฀e xtremely฀slo w฀ A฀vertical฀prof฀le฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀identif฀es฀how฀properties฀
increase฀in฀concentration฀as฀energetic฀rays฀from฀the฀sun฀split฀ change฀w ith฀altitude. ฀The฀at mosphere฀can฀be฀v iewed฀as฀a ฀
water฀vapour฀(H2O)฀into฀hydrogen฀and฀oxygen฀during฀a฀pro- series฀of ฀layers฀as฀one฀mo ves฀fr om฀spac e฀t o฀Ear th’s฀surfac e.฀
cess฀called฀ photodissociation.฀The฀h ydrogen฀(H 2),฀being ฀ Each฀layer฀can฀be฀def฀ned฀in฀a฀number฀of฀ways:฀by฀the฀manner฀
lighter,฀pr obably฀r ose฀and฀escaped฀int o฀spac e,฀wher eas฀the ฀ in฀which฀air฀t emperature฀varies฀through฀it,฀by฀the฀gases฀that฀
oxygen฀r emained฀in฀the฀at mosphere.฀S imilarly,฀phot odisso- comprise฀it,฀or฀even฀by฀its฀electrical฀properties.฀Before฀we฀can฀
ciation฀of ฀CO 2฀ produced฀oxygen฀in฀the฀early฀at mosphere฀by฀ examine฀these฀various฀atmospheric฀layers,฀we฀need฀to฀under-
splitting฀into฀CO฀and฀O,฀which฀then฀reacted฀with฀OH฀to฀pro- stand฀the฀vertical฀prof฀le฀of฀two฀important฀variables:฀air฀pres-
duce฀O2.฀The฀concentration฀of฀O2฀in฀the฀early฀atmosphere฀was฀ sure฀and฀air฀density.
kept฀in฀check,฀however,฀by฀the฀production฀of฀H2฀in฀volcanoes,฀
which฀reacts฀with฀O2฀to฀remove฀it. A BRIEF LOOK AT AIR PRESSURE AND AIR DENSITY Ear-
About฀2฀to฀3฀billion฀years฀ago,฀the฀slow฀increase฀in฀oxygen฀ lier฀in฀this฀c hapter,฀we฀learned฀that฀our฀at mosphere฀is฀mor e฀
may฀have฀been฀enoug h฀for฀pr imitive฀plants฀t o฀evolve.฀Or฀the ฀ crowded฀close฀to฀Earth’s฀surface.฀This฀occurs฀because฀air฀mol-
plants฀may฀have฀evolved฀in฀an฀almost฀o xygen-free฀(anaerobic)฀ ecules฀(as฀w ell฀as฀e verything฀else)฀ar e฀held฀near฀Ear th฀b y฀
environment.฀At฀any฀r ate,฀plant฀g rowth฀g reatly฀enr iched฀our ฀ gravity.฀This฀st rong,฀invisible฀for ce฀pulls฀e verything฀t oward฀
atmosphere฀w ith฀oxygen.฀The฀r eason฀for฀this฀enr ichment฀is฀ Earth’s฀centre.฀In฀the฀at mosphere,฀it฀squeez es฀or฀c ompresses฀
that,฀during฀the฀process฀of฀photosynthesis,฀plants,฀in฀the฀pr es- air฀molecules฀closer฀together,฀which฀causes฀their฀number฀in฀a฀
ence฀of ฀sunlig ht,฀combine฀car bon฀dioxide฀and฀wat er฀to฀pro- given฀v olume฀t o฀incr ease.฀The฀mor e฀air฀ther e฀is฀abo ve฀any฀
duce฀oxygen.฀Of฀course,฀as฀plants฀r espire฀and฀decay,฀they฀take฀ level฀in฀the฀at mosphere,฀the฀mor e฀w eight,฀the฀g reater฀the ฀
up฀oxygen฀and฀r elease฀carbon฀dioxide,฀reversing฀this฀pr ocess.฀ squeezing฀or฀compression฀effect,฀and฀the฀greater฀the฀number฀
How,฀then,฀do฀plants฀r esult฀in฀incr eased฀atmospheric฀oxygen?฀ of฀air฀molecules฀in฀a฀g iven฀volume.
Some฀plants฀e ventually฀become฀embedded฀in฀sediments฀and ฀ Consequently,฀gravity฀has฀an฀effect฀on฀the฀weight฀of฀objects,฀
join฀the฀ lithosphere,฀ becoming฀fossil฀fuels฀and฀organic฀sedi- including฀air.฀In฀fact,฀weight฀is฀the฀force฀acting฀on฀an฀object฀due฀
mentary฀rocks฀such฀as฀limest one.฀In฀this฀case, ฀they฀effectively฀ to฀gravity.฀Weight฀is฀def฀ned฀as฀the฀mass฀of฀an฀object฀multiplied฀
remove฀CO 2฀and฀enhanc e฀O 2฀in฀the฀at mosphere.฀Hence,฀after฀ by฀the฀acceleration฀of฀gravity฀or
plants฀and฀the฀biosphere฀evolved,฀the฀atmospheric฀oxygen฀con-
weight฀⫽฀mass฀⫻฀gravity
tent฀incr eased฀mor e฀r apidly,฀pr obably฀r eaching฀its฀pr esent฀
composition฀about฀several฀hundred฀million฀years฀ago. An฀object’s฀mass฀is฀the฀amount฀of ฀matter฀in฀the฀object. ฀
The฀mass฀of ฀air฀in฀a฀sealed฀c ontainer฀is฀the฀same฀e verywhere฀
in฀the฀universe.฀However,฀if฀you฀were฀to฀instantly฀travel฀to฀the฀
BR IEF R E V IE W moon,฀where฀the฀ac celeration฀of฀gravity฀is฀m uch฀less฀than฀it฀
Before going on to the next several sections, here is a review of is฀on฀Ear th,฀the฀mass฀of ฀air฀in฀that฀c ontainer฀w ould฀be฀the฀
some of the important concepts presented so far: same,฀but฀its฀weight฀would฀decrease.
The฀ density฀of ฀an y฀substanc e,฀including฀air ,฀is฀det er-
● Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. In a volume of mined฀by฀the฀mass฀of฀atoms฀and฀molecules฀that฀make฀up฀the฀
dry air near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 per- substance฀and฀the฀amount฀of ฀space฀between฀them.฀In฀other฀
cent and oxygen (O2) about 21 percent. words,฀densit y฀t ells฀us฀ho w฀m uch฀matt er฀e xists฀in฀a฀g iven฀
● Water vapour varies spatially and temporally. It normally occu- space฀or฀volume.฀We฀can฀express฀density฀in฀a฀variety฀of฀ways.฀
pies less than 4 percent in a volume of air near the surface and The฀molecular฀density฀of฀air฀is฀the฀number฀of฀molecules฀in฀a฀
NEL
given฀volume.฀Most฀commonly,฀density฀is฀g iven฀as฀the฀mass฀
of฀air฀in฀a฀g iven฀volume฀or฀
฀ mass฀฀฀
density฀⫽฀฀_______
volume
In฀the฀SI฀syst em฀of฀units฀(see฀ Appendix฀A),฀mass฀is฀g iven฀in฀
kilograms฀(kg)฀and฀v olume฀is฀g iven฀in฀cubic฀met res฀(m 3).฀
Near฀sea฀le vel,฀air฀densit y฀is฀about฀1.2฀kilog rams฀per฀cubic฀
metre฀(1.2฀kg฀m –3).*
There฀are฀appreciably฀more฀molecules฀within฀the฀same-
sized฀v olume฀of ฀air฀near฀Ear th’s฀surfac e฀than฀ther e฀ar e฀at ฀
higher฀levels฀of฀the฀atmosphere.฀Consequently,฀air฀density฀is฀
greatest฀at฀the฀surfac e฀and฀decr eases฀as฀w e฀move฀to฀hig her฀
altitudes.฀Notice฀in฀฀ ●฀Figure฀1.9฀that฀because฀air฀near฀the ฀
surface฀is฀c ompressed,฀air฀densit y฀nor mally฀decr eases฀very฀
rapidly฀at฀f ฀rst฀and฀then฀mor e฀slo wly฀as฀w e฀mo ve฀far ther฀
away฀from฀the฀surface.฀This฀is฀an฀example฀of฀an฀exponential฀
rate฀of ฀change.฀The฀t erm฀ exponential฀change ฀descr ibes฀the฀ ● F I G U R E 1. 9 Both฀air฀pressure฀and฀air฀density฀decrease฀exponen-
situation฀when฀the฀rate฀at฀which฀a฀property฀changes฀is฀pro- tially฀with฀increasing฀altitude.฀The฀average฀mass฀per฀square฀metre฀of฀all฀
portional฀to฀the฀cur rent฀size฀of฀the฀pr operty.฀In฀the฀case฀of ฀ the฀air฀molecules฀above฀Earth’s฀surface฀is฀10,339.3฀kg,฀which฀produces฀
air฀density,฀it฀decreases฀rapidly฀near฀the฀surfac e,฀where฀it฀is฀ an฀average฀pressure฀of฀1,013.25฀hPa.
large,฀and฀then฀decr eases฀less฀r apidly฀in฀the฀upper฀at mo-
sphere,฀where฀it฀is฀smaller.฀฀ tons฀per฀square฀metre.††฀So฀if฀more฀molecules฀are฀packed฀into฀
Air฀molecules฀ar e฀in฀c onstant฀motion.฀On฀a฀mild฀spr ing฀ the฀air฀column,฀the฀air฀becomes฀more฀dense,฀it฀weighs฀more,฀
day฀near฀the฀surface,฀an฀air฀molecule฀will฀collide฀about฀10฀bil- and฀the฀surfac e฀pressure฀goes฀up .฀On฀the฀other฀hand, ฀when฀
lion฀times฀eac h฀second฀w ith฀other฀air฀molecules. ฀It฀w ill฀also฀ fewer฀molecules฀ar e฀in฀the฀c olumn,฀the฀air฀w eighs฀less,฀and฀
bump฀against฀objects฀ar ound฀it—houses,฀t rees,฀f฀owers,฀ the฀ the฀surface฀pressure฀goes฀do wn.฀In฀summary,฀the฀surfac e฀air฀
ground,฀and฀even฀people.฀Each฀time฀an฀air฀molecule฀bounc es฀ pressure฀can฀be฀c hanged฀by฀changing฀the฀mass฀of ฀air฀abo ve฀
against฀a฀person,฀it฀gives฀a฀tiny฀push.฀This฀small฀push฀or฀force฀ the฀surface.
divided฀by฀the฀area฀on฀which฀it฀pushes฀is฀called฀ pressure฀and฀ Billions฀of฀air฀molecules฀push฀constantly฀on฀the฀human฀
can฀be฀written฀as body.฀This฀for ce฀is฀e xerted฀equally฀in฀all฀dir ections฀and฀is ฀
force฀฀฀ what฀we฀call฀pressure.฀We฀are฀not฀crushed฀by฀it฀because฀bil-
pressure฀⫽฀฀฀_____
area lions฀of ฀molecules฀inside฀our฀bod y฀push฀outwar d฀just฀as ฀
hard.฀E ven฀thoug h฀w e฀do฀not฀actually฀feel฀this฀c onstant฀
In฀the฀at mosphere,฀the฀pr essure฀resulting฀from฀multiple฀ bombardment฀of฀air,฀we฀can฀detect฀quick฀changes฀in฀it.฀For฀
molecular฀“pushes”฀is฀sur prisingly฀large.฀If฀we฀could฀weigh฀a฀ example,฀if ฀w e฀climb฀r apidly฀in฀ele vation,฀our฀ears฀ma y฀
column฀of ฀air฀that฀has฀a฀cr oss฀section฀of ฀one฀squar e฀met re฀ “pop.”฀This฀happens฀because฀the฀air฀c ollisions฀outside฀our ฀
and฀extends฀from฀sea฀le vel฀to฀the฀t op฀of ฀the฀at mosphere,฀its฀ eardrums฀lessen.฀The฀popping฀oc curs฀as฀the฀air฀c ollisions฀
mass฀w ould฀be฀o ver฀10,000฀kg฀or฀10฀met ric฀t onnes†฀(see ฀ between฀the฀inside฀and฀the฀outside฀of ฀our฀ears฀equaliz e.฀A฀
Figure฀1.9).฀Under฀nor mal฀conditions,฀this฀r esults฀in฀at mo- drop฀in฀the฀n umber฀of ฀collisions฀informs฀us฀that฀the฀pr es-
spheric฀pressures฀near฀sea฀level฀that฀are฀close฀to฀101,325฀new- sure฀has฀decreased.฀The฀force฀exerted฀by฀air฀molecules฀is฀less฀
as฀ther e฀ar e฀few er฀air฀molecules฀the฀hig her฀y ou฀ar e฀abo ve฀
*The฀notation฀“m⫺3”฀means฀฀__ ฀m1฀3฀฀,฀so฀kg฀m⫺3฀means฀฀__
฀mkg3฀฀฀or฀kilograms฀per฀cubic฀metre. Earth’s฀surface.฀A฀similar฀t ype฀of ฀ear฀popping฀oc curs฀as฀w e฀
†
A฀c ommon฀misunderstanding฀oc curs฀because฀the฀e veryday฀usage฀of ฀ kilograms฀ drop฀in฀elevation.
confuses฀the฀t erms฀ weight฀and฀ mass฀and฀t reats฀them฀as฀thoug h฀the y฀ar e฀the ฀
same.฀They฀are฀not.฀Here฀the฀one฀squar e฀metre฀column฀extending฀from฀sea฀le vel฀ WEATHE R WATCH
to฀the฀t op฀of ฀the฀at mosphere฀has฀a฀mass฀of ฀10,339.3฀kg฀of ฀air.฀ When฀w orking฀
with฀the฀SI฀unit฀syst em,฀ weight฀is฀the฀mass฀of ฀air฀(10,339.3฀kg)฀m ultiplied฀b y฀
gravity฀(9.8฀m฀s ⫺2),฀so฀w eight฀is฀actually฀measur ed฀in฀units฀of ฀for ce฀(kg฀m฀s ⫺2)฀ Located in the U.S. Rocky Mountains, Denver, Colorado, has an
called฀newtons฀(N).฀Thus,฀the฀air’s฀weight฀⫽฀mass฀⫻฀g฀⫽฀10,339.3฀kg฀⫻฀9.8฀m฀s –2฀⫽฀ elevation of 1609 m and a Major League Baseball franchise. The air
101,325฀kg฀m฀s –2฀⫽฀101,325฀N. density in this “mile-high” city is normally about 15 percent less
††
To฀calculate฀the฀pressure฀for฀the฀one฀square฀metre฀column฀of฀air฀extending฀from฀ than the air density at sea level. Less air density causes less drag
sea฀level฀to฀the฀top฀of฀the฀atmosphere฀referred฀to฀here,฀we฀must฀f฀rst฀compute฀the฀ force on a baseball as it moves through the air. A baseball hit in
weight฀of฀the฀air฀column.฀The฀air’s฀weight฀⫽฀mass฀⫻฀g฀⫽฀10,339.3฀kg฀⫻฀9.8฀m฀s ⫺2฀ Denver will travel farther than one hit in a city closer to sea level,
⫽฀101,325฀kg฀m฀s ⫺2฀⫽฀101,325฀N.฀Since฀this฀weight฀is฀distributed฀over฀one฀square฀ such as Toronto. Consequently, a “hit” that is a home run in
metre,฀the฀pressure฀is฀101,325฀N฀m ⫺2,฀and฀a฀new ton฀per฀square฀metre฀(N฀m ⫺2)฀is฀ Denver could be an “out” at the SkyDome in Toronto because of
a฀pressure฀term฀also฀known฀as฀a฀pascal฀(abbreviated฀as฀Pa).฀Hectopascals฀(1฀hPa฀⫽฀ air density.
100฀Pa)฀are฀commonly฀used฀units฀of฀pressure,฀as฀are฀kilopascals฀(1฀kPa฀⫽฀1000฀Pa).
NEL
14 CH A PTER 1
FFOC U S O N A S P E CI AL TO PIC
The Atmospheres of Other Planets

T
Earth is unique. Not only does it lie at just the

right distance from the sun so that life as we
know it flourishes, it also provides its inhabit-
ants with an atmosphere rich in nitrogen and
oxygen—two gases that are not abundant in
the atmospheres of Venus or Mars, our closest
planetary neighbours.
The Venusian atmosphere is 95 percent
carbon dioxide with minor amounts of water
vapour and nitrogen. An opaque acid-cloud
deck encircles the planet, hiding its surface.
Measurements reveal a turbulent atmosphere
with twisting eddies and fierce winds in excess
NASA
NASA
of 200 km hr–1. This thick, dense atmosphere
produces a surface air pressure of about ● F I G U R E 2 An image of Jupiter extending from ● F I G U R E 3 Neptune’s Great Dark Spot. White
90,000 hPa, which is 90 times greater than the equator to the southern polar latitudes. The spots, wispy clouds below this spot are similar to the high wispy
that on Earth. On Earth, one would have to including the Great Red Spot, are spinning eddies similar cirrus clouds we have on Earth. However, on Neptune,
descend to a depth of about 900 m in the to the storms that exist in Earth’s atmosphere. they are probably composed of methane ice crystals.
ocean to experience a similar pressure. Moreover,
this thick atmosphere of CO2 produces a strong Mars Lander and the planet’s thin, cold atmo- Such storms may be accompanied by winds of
greenhouse effect, with a scorching hot surface sphere, with virtually no cloud cover, currently several hundreds of kilometres per hour. These
temperature of 480⬚C. has scientists believing that there is no liquid winds carry fine dust around the entire planet.
The atmosphere of Mars, like that of water on the Martian surface, although ice was The dust gradually settles out, coating the land-
Venus, is mostly carbon dioxide with small found just under the surface. This thin atmo- scape with a thin, reddish veneer.
amounts of other gases. Unlike Venus, the Mar- sphere produces an average surface air pressure The atmosphere of the largest planet,
tian atmosphere is very thin and heat rapidly of about 7 hPa, which is less than one-hun- Jupiter, is much different from that of Venus and
escapes from the surface. Surface temperatures dredth of that experienced at the surface of Mars. Jupiter’s atmosphere is mainly hydrogen
on Mars are much lower, averaging around Earth. On Earth, similar pressures are observed (H2) and helium (He), with minor amounts of
–60⬚C. The combination of evidence from the at altitudes of nearly 35 km. Occasionally, huge methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3). A promi-
Martian surface gathered by NASA’s Phoenix dust storms develop near the Martian surface. nent feature on Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a
Air฀molecules฀not฀only฀tak e฀up฀spac e,฀fr eely฀dar ting,฀ always฀dec reases฀w ith฀inc reasing฀he ight.฀Lik e฀air฀densit y,฀air ฀
twisting,฀spinning ,฀and฀c olliding฀w ith฀e verything฀ar ound฀ pressure฀decr eases฀r apidly฀at฀f ฀rst฀and฀then฀mor e฀slo wly฀at ฀
them,฀but฀as฀w e฀have฀seen,฀these฀same฀molecules฀also฀ha ve฀ higher฀levels,฀as฀illustrated฀in฀Figure฀1.9.
weight.฀In฀fact,฀air฀is฀surprisingly฀heavy.฀The฀weight฀of฀all฀the฀ ●฀Figur e฀1.10 ฀ also฀illust rates฀ho w฀r apidly฀air฀pr essure฀
air฀sur rounding฀Ear th฀is฀a฀stagger ing฀5136฀t rillion฀met ric฀ decreases฀with฀height.฀Near฀sea฀le vel,฀atmospheric฀pressure฀is฀
tonnes,฀or฀about฀5.136฀ ⫻฀10 18฀kg .฀This฀w eight฀of ฀air฀mole- usually฀close฀to฀1000฀hPa.฀Normally,฀just฀above฀sea฀level,฀atmo-
cules฀acts฀as฀a฀do wnward฀force฀on฀the฀Ear th.฀The฀amount฀of ฀ spheric฀pressure฀decreases฀by฀about฀10฀hPa฀for฀every฀100-metre฀
force฀e xerted฀o ver฀an฀ar ea฀of ฀surfac e฀is฀called฀ atmospheric฀ (m)฀increase฀in฀elevation.฀At฀higher฀levels,฀air฀pressure฀decreases฀
pressure฀or,฀simply,฀air฀pressure.*฀The฀pressure฀at฀any฀level฀in฀ much฀more฀slowly฀with฀height.฀Much฀like฀air฀density,฀air฀pres-
the฀atmosphere฀may฀be฀measured฀in฀t erms฀of฀the฀total฀mass฀ sure฀shows฀an฀e xponential฀decrease฀w ith฀heig ht.฀With฀a฀sea-
of฀air฀per฀unit฀area฀above฀any฀point.฀As฀we฀climb฀in฀elevation,฀ level฀pressure฀near฀1000฀hPa,฀we฀can฀see฀in฀Figur e฀1.10฀that฀at ฀
fewer฀air฀molecules฀are฀above฀us;฀hence,฀atmospheric฀pressure฀ an฀altitude฀of฀only฀5.5฀km,฀the฀air฀pressure฀is฀about฀500฀hPa,฀or฀
half฀of฀the฀sea-level฀pressure.฀This฀situation฀means฀that฀if ฀you฀
*Because฀air฀pr essure฀is฀measur ed฀w ith฀an฀inst rument฀called฀a฀ barometer,฀atmo- were฀at฀a฀mer e฀5.5฀km฀abo ve฀Ear th’s฀surfac e,฀you฀w ould฀be฀
spheric฀pressure฀is฀often฀referred฀to฀as฀barometric฀pressure. above฀one-half฀of฀all฀the฀molecules฀in฀the฀at mosphere.
NEL
huge atmospheric storm that measures about of hot hydrogen. Energy from this lower region Spot. The white wispy clouds in the photo-
three times larger than Earth. This storm spins rises toward the surface; then it, along with Jupi- graph are probably composed of methane ice
counterclockwise in Jupiter’s southern hemi- ter’s rapid rotation, stirs the cloud layer into crystals. Studying the atmospheric behaviour of
sphere (see ●฀Figure 2). Large white ovals near more or less horizontal bands of various colours. other planets may give us added insight into
the Great Red Spot are similar smaller storm Swirling storms exist on other planets, the workings of our own atmosphere. Addi-
systems. Unlike Earth’s weather machine, which such as Saturn and Neptune. In fact, the large tional information about size, surface tempera-
is driven by the sun, Jupiter’s massive swirling dark oval on Neptune (see ●฀Figure 3) appears ture, and atmospheric composition of our solar
clouds appear to be driven by a collapsing core to be a storm similar to Jupiter’s Great Red system’s planets is given in ▼฀Table 1.
▼ Table 1 Our Solar System: Surface Temperatures and Atmospheric Components

AVERAGE DISTANCE AVERAGE SURFACE MAIN ATMOSPHERIC
DIAMETER FROM SUN TEMPERATURE COMPONENTS
Kilometres Millions of Kilometres °C
Sun 3 5505 —
1392฀⫻฀10
Mercury 4880 58 260* —฀
Venus 12,112 108 480 CO2
Earth 12,742 150 15 N2,฀O 2
Mars 6800 228 ⫺60 CO2
Jupiter 143,000 778 ⫺110 H2,฀He
Saturn 121,000 1427 ⫺190 H2,฀He
Uranus 51800 2869 ⫺215 H2,฀CH4
Neptune 49000 4498 ⫺225 N2,฀CH4
Pluto 3100 5900 ⫺235 CH4
*This฀value฀is฀for฀the฀side฀of ฀Mercury฀that฀receives฀sunlight.
At฀the฀ele vation฀of ฀the฀hig hest฀mountain฀peak฀on฀Ear th,฀ Earth’s฀surface.฀Air฀temperature,*฀however,฀has฀a฀mor e฀com-

Mount฀Everest฀(8.850฀km), ฀the฀air฀pr essure฀would฀be฀about฀ plicated฀vertical฀prof฀le.
300฀hPa.฀This฀summit฀is฀abo ve฀nearly฀70฀per cent฀of ฀all฀the฀ Look฀closely฀at฀●฀Figure฀1.11฀and฀notice฀that฀air฀tempera-
air฀molecules฀in฀the฀at mosphere.฀At฀an฀altitude฀appr oaching฀ ture฀normally฀decreases฀from฀Earth’s฀surface฀up฀to฀an฀altitude฀
50฀km, ฀the฀air฀pr essure฀is฀about฀1฀hP a,฀whic h฀means฀that฀ of฀about฀11฀km. ฀This฀decr ease฀in฀air฀t emperature฀w ith฀
99.9฀percent฀of ฀all฀the฀air฀molecules฀ar e฀below฀this฀le vel.฀Yet฀ increasing฀height฀is฀primarily฀due฀to฀sunlight฀warming฀Earth’s฀
the฀at mosphere฀e xtends฀up wards฀for฀man y฀h undreds฀of ฀ surface,฀whic h฀then฀war ms฀the฀air฀abo ve฀the฀surfac e฀(see ฀
฀kilometres,฀g radually฀becoming฀thinner฀and฀thinner฀until฀it฀ Chapter฀2฀for฀mor e฀details).฀The฀r ate฀at฀whic h฀the฀air฀t em-
ultimately฀merges฀with฀outer฀space.฀(Up฀to฀now,฀we฀have฀con- perature฀decreases฀with฀height฀is฀called฀the฀temperature฀lapse฀
centrated฀on฀Earth’s฀atmosphere.฀For฀a฀brief฀look฀at฀the฀atmo- rate.฀The฀ average฀or฀ standard฀ lapse฀r ate฀in฀the฀lo wer฀at mo-
spheres฀of฀the฀other฀planets,฀read฀Focus฀on฀a฀Special฀Topic:฀The฀ sphere฀is฀about฀6.5 ⬚C฀for฀e very฀1000฀m฀r ise฀in฀ele vation.฀
Atmospheres฀of฀Other฀Planets฀on฀p.฀14.)
*Air฀temperature฀is฀a฀quantity฀measured฀by฀a฀thermometer฀that฀represents฀the฀degree฀
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE We฀have฀seen฀that฀both฀air฀ of฀hotness฀or฀coldness฀of฀the฀air.฀It฀is฀also฀a฀measur e฀of฀the฀kinetic฀energy฀of฀the฀air ฀
pressure฀and฀density฀decrease฀exponentially฀with฀height฀above฀ molecules,฀which฀is฀proportional฀to฀their฀speed฀squared,฀as฀we฀will฀see฀in฀Chapter฀2.
NEL
16 CH A PTER 1
WEATHE R WATCH
If you are flying in a jet aircraft at 9000 m above Earth’s surface,

the air temperature outside your window would typically be about
⫺43⬚C. As air temperatures normally decrease with increasing
height, the air temperature outside your window may be more
than 60⬚C colder than air at the ground directly below where you
are flying.
“breaks”฀and฀is฀diff ฀cult฀t o฀locat e,฀and฀her e฀scientists฀ha ve฀

observed฀t ropospheric฀air฀mixing฀w ith฀st ratospheric฀air฀and฀
vice฀versa.฀These฀breaks฀also฀mark฀the฀position฀of฀jet฀streams—
high-altitude฀winds฀that฀meander฀in฀a฀nar row฀channel,฀like฀a฀
river,฀often฀at฀speeds฀exceeding฀100฀knots฀(185฀km฀h –1).*
From฀Figure฀1.11,฀we฀can฀see฀that,฀in฀the฀stratosphere,฀the฀
air฀temperature฀begins฀to฀increase฀w ith฀heig ht,฀producing฀a฀
temperature฀inversion.฀The฀in version฀region,฀along฀w ith฀the฀
lower฀isothermal฀layer,฀tends฀to฀keep฀the฀vertical฀air฀currents฀
of฀the฀troposphere฀from฀spreading฀into฀the฀stratosphere.฀The฀
inversion฀also฀tends฀to฀reduce฀the฀amount฀of฀vertical฀motion฀
● F I G U R E 1.1 0 Atmospheric฀pressure฀decreases฀rapidly฀with฀height.฀ in฀the฀st ratosphere,฀making฀the฀st ratosphere฀a฀st ratif฀ed,฀
Climbing฀to฀an฀altitude฀of฀only฀5.5฀km,฀where฀the฀pressure฀is฀500฀hPa,฀ stable฀layer.฀฀
would฀put฀you฀above฀one-half฀of฀the฀atmosphere’s฀molecules.฀Climbers฀ Even฀thoug h฀air฀t emperature฀incr eases฀w ith฀heig ht,฀the฀
to฀the฀peak฀of฀Mount฀Everest฀(8850฀m฀above฀sea฀level)฀know฀this฀all฀too฀ air฀at฀an฀altitude฀of ฀30฀km฀is฀e xtremely฀cold,฀averaging฀less฀
well฀as฀breathing฀becomes฀so฀diff฀cult฀above฀8000฀metres฀above฀sea฀level฀ than฀–46 ⬚C.฀Above฀polar฀latitudes, ฀at฀this฀altitude, ฀air฀t em-
that฀the฀last฀section฀of ฀the฀climb฀is฀known฀as฀the฀“death฀zone.” peratures฀can฀change฀dramatically฀from฀one฀week฀to฀the฀next.฀
A฀sudden฀warming฀can฀raise฀the฀temperature฀in฀one฀w eek฀by฀
Remember฀that฀these฀are฀average฀rates,฀and฀on฀any฀given฀day,฀ more฀than฀50 ⬚C.฀(Such฀a฀r apid฀war ming,฀althoug h฀not฀w ell฀
real฀temperature฀lapse฀rates฀can฀differ฀from฀the฀average.฀Lapse฀ understood,฀is฀pr obably฀due฀t o฀sinking฀air฀associat ed฀w ith฀
rates฀f฀uctuate฀day฀to฀day฀and฀season฀to฀season.฀Occasionally,฀ circulation฀changes฀that฀oc cur฀in฀lat e฀winter฀or฀early฀spr ing,฀
air฀t emperatures฀actually฀ increase฀w ith฀heig ht฀(so฀ther e฀is฀a฀ as฀well฀as฀with฀the฀poleward฀displacement฀of฀strong฀jet฀stream฀
negative฀lapse฀rate),฀creating฀a฀temperature฀inversion.฀฀ winds฀in฀the฀lower฀stratosphere.)฀
The฀atmosphere฀from฀the฀surface฀up฀to฀about฀11฀km฀con- How฀do฀w e฀measure฀the฀at mosphere’s฀temperature฀pro-
tains฀all฀of ฀the฀w eather฀w e฀ar e฀familiar฀w ith฀on฀Ear th.฀This฀ f฀le?฀Radiosondes,฀or฀weather฀balloons,฀are฀instruments฀that฀
region฀is฀kept฀well฀stirred฀by฀rising฀and฀descending฀air฀currents.฀ measure฀the฀air’s฀vertical฀temperature฀prof฀le฀up฀to฀elevations฀
Here฀it฀is฀c ommon฀for฀air฀molecules฀t o฀cir culate฀through฀a฀ exceeding฀30฀km. ฀See฀F ocus฀on฀an฀O bservation:฀The฀Radio-
depth฀of ฀more฀than฀10฀km฀in฀just฀a฀few฀da ys.฀This฀r egion฀of ฀ sonde฀on฀p.฀18฀for฀more฀information฀about฀them.
circulating฀air฀extending฀upward฀from฀Earth’s฀surface฀to฀where฀ The฀r eason฀for฀the฀in version฀in฀the฀st ratosphere฀is฀that฀
the฀air฀stops฀becoming฀colder฀with฀height฀is฀called฀the฀ tropo- ozone฀gas,฀whic h฀is฀c oncentrated฀in฀the฀upper฀at mosphere,฀
sphere—from฀the฀Greek฀tropein,฀meaning฀to฀turn฀or฀change. plays฀a฀major฀role฀in฀heating฀the฀air฀at฀this฀altitude. ฀Recall฀that฀
Notice฀in฀Figur e฀1.11฀that฀just฀abo ve฀11฀km฀the฀air฀t em- ozone฀is฀important฀because฀of฀its฀protective฀capacity฀to฀absorb฀
perature฀normally฀stops฀decreasing฀with฀height.฀Here฀the฀lapse฀ energetic฀ultraviolet฀solar฀energy.฀Some฀of฀this฀absorbed฀energy฀
rate฀is฀z ero.฀This฀r egion,฀where,฀on฀a verage,฀the฀air฀t empera- warms฀the฀stratosphere,฀which฀explains฀why฀there฀is฀an฀in ver-
ture฀r emains฀c onstant฀w ith฀heig ht,฀is฀r eferred฀t o฀as฀an฀ iso- sion.฀If฀ozone฀were฀not฀pr esent,฀the฀air฀w ould฀probably฀con-
thermal฀(equal฀t emperature)฀zone.*฀The฀bott om฀of฀this฀z one฀ tinue฀to฀become฀colder฀with฀height,฀as฀it฀does฀in฀the฀t
roposphere.
marks฀the฀top฀of฀the฀troposphere฀and฀the฀beginning฀of฀another฀ Figure฀1.11฀represents฀the฀average฀temperature฀prof฀le฀for฀
atmospheric฀layer,฀the฀stratosphere.฀The฀boundary฀separating฀ Earth’s฀middle฀latitudes. ฀Notice฀that฀the฀le vel฀of ฀maxim um฀
the฀t roposphere฀fr om฀the฀st ratosphere฀is฀called฀the฀ tropo- ozone฀concentration฀is฀obser ved฀near฀25฀km, ฀yet฀the฀st rato-
pause.฀The฀heig ht฀of ฀the฀t ropopause฀var ies.฀I t฀is฀nor mally฀ spheric฀air฀temperature฀reaches฀a฀maximum฀near฀50฀km.฀This฀
found฀at฀hig her฀ele vations฀o ver฀equat orial฀r egions฀and ฀ occurs฀because฀o zone฀absor bs฀only฀c ertain฀wa velengths฀of ฀
decreases฀in฀elevation฀as฀we฀travel฀poleward.฀Generally฀all฀over฀
the฀world,฀the฀tropopause฀occurs฀at฀higher฀altitudes฀in฀summer฀ *A฀knot฀is฀a฀nautical฀mile฀per฀hour .฀A฀nautical฀mile฀was฀or iginally฀def฀ned฀as฀a฀
and฀at฀lower฀ones฀in฀w inter.฀In฀some฀regions,฀the฀t ropopause฀ minute฀of ฀latitude฀(1/60th฀of ฀a฀deg ree฀of ฀latitude).฀Although฀not฀an฀SI฀unit, ฀the฀
knot฀is฀a฀c ommon฀measure฀for฀wind฀speed฀used฀in฀aviation,฀boating,฀and฀meteo-
*In฀many฀instances,฀the฀isother mal฀layer฀is฀not฀pr esent,฀and฀an฀in version฀occurs฀ rology.฀One฀knot฀is฀equal฀t o฀1.852฀kilomet res฀per฀hour฀(km฀hr ⫺1)฀or฀0.51฀met res฀
where฀the฀air฀temperature฀begins฀to฀increase฀with฀increasing฀height. per฀second฀(m฀s ⫺1).
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involve฀no฀pain, ฀just฀a฀feeling฀of ฀e xhaustion.฀Soon฀v isual฀

impairment฀sets฀in,฀and฀routine฀tasks฀become฀diff฀cult.฀Some฀
people฀dr ift฀int o฀an฀inc oherent฀stat e,฀neither฀r ealizing฀nor ฀
caring฀what฀is฀happening฀t o฀them.฀If฀this฀o xygen฀def฀ciency฀
persists,฀a฀person฀will฀lapse฀into฀unconsciousness฀and฀death.฀
Suffocating฀is฀not฀the฀only฀pr oblem฀that฀would฀be฀expe-
rienced฀in฀the฀mesospher e.฀Exposur e฀t o฀ult raviolet฀solar ฀
energy฀w ould฀cause฀se vere฀bur ns฀on฀e xposed฀bod y฀par ts.฀
Also,฀g iven฀the฀lo w฀air฀pr essure,฀the฀blood฀in฀one ’s฀v eins฀
would฀begin฀to฀boil฀at฀normal฀body฀temperatures.
The฀air฀t emperature฀in฀the฀mesospher e฀decr eases฀w ith฀
height,฀partly฀because฀there฀is฀little฀o zone฀in฀the฀air฀t o฀absorb฀
solar฀r adiation.฀Consequently,฀the฀molecules฀near฀the฀t op฀of ฀
the฀mesosphere฀absorb฀less฀energy฀than฀those฀near฀the฀bottom฀
of฀the฀layer.฀This฀results฀in฀decreasing฀temperature฀with฀height.฀
So฀we฀f฀nd฀air฀in฀the฀mesosphere฀becoming฀colder฀with฀height฀
up฀to฀an฀elevation฀near฀85฀km.฀At฀this฀altitude,฀the฀temperature฀
of฀the฀atmosphere฀reaches฀its฀lowest฀average฀value฀of฀⫺90⬚C.
The฀“hot฀layer”฀above฀the฀mesosphere฀is฀the฀thermosphere.฀
The฀boundar y฀that฀separ ates฀the฀lo wer,฀c older฀mesospher e฀
from฀the฀hig her฀temperature฀ther mosphere฀is฀the฀ mesopause.฀
In฀the฀ther mosphere,฀oxygen฀molecules฀absor b฀energetic฀solar ฀
rays,฀increasing฀the฀kinetic฀energy฀of฀the฀molecules฀and฀there-
fore฀the฀t emperature.*฀Because฀ther e฀are฀very฀few฀at oms฀and ฀
molecules฀in฀the฀ther mosphere,฀the฀absor ption฀of ฀a฀small฀
amount฀of ฀solar฀energ y฀can฀cause฀a฀large฀incr ease฀in฀kinetic ฀
energy฀and฀ther efore฀air฀t emperature.฀Furthermore,฀because฀
● F I G U R E 1.1 1 Thermal฀layers฀of฀the฀atmosphere฀as฀def฀ned฀by฀the฀ the฀amount฀of ฀solar฀energ y฀affecting฀this฀r egion฀depends฀
average฀air฀temperature฀prof฀le฀(heavy฀line)฀above฀Earth’s฀surface. strongly฀on฀solar฀acti vity,฀temperatures฀in฀the฀ther mosphere฀
vary฀from฀day฀to฀day฀(see฀●฀Figure฀1.12).฀The฀low฀density฀of฀the฀
ultraviolet฀r adiation฀fr om฀the฀sun. ฀E ven฀thoug h฀ther e฀ar e฀ thermosphere฀also฀means฀that฀an฀air฀molecule฀w ill฀move฀an ฀
fewer฀o zone฀molecules,฀m uch฀of ฀the฀energ y฀r esponsible฀for฀ average฀distance฀of ฀over฀one฀kilomet re฀before฀colliding฀w ith฀
heating฀the฀stratosphere฀is฀absorbed฀in฀the฀upper฀par t฀of฀this฀ another฀molecule.฀A฀similar฀air฀molecule฀at฀Earth’s฀surface฀will฀
layer฀and฀removed฀before฀it฀reaches฀the฀lower฀layers฀containing฀ move฀an฀a verage฀distanc e฀of ฀less฀than฀one-millionth฀of ฀a฀
the฀o zone฀maxim um.฀So฀e ven฀thoug h฀ther e฀is฀mor e฀o zone฀ ฀centimetre฀before฀it฀collides฀with฀another฀molecule.฀Because฀of฀
lower฀down,฀there฀is฀not฀much฀radiation฀left฀at฀the฀right฀wave- this,฀it฀would฀not฀feel฀“warm”฀in฀the฀thermosphere,฀even฀though฀
lengths฀to฀be฀absorbed,฀and฀the฀heating฀is฀less.฀Also,฀the฀low฀air฀ the฀temperature฀might฀be฀quite฀high.฀This฀is฀because฀our฀per -
density฀and฀the฀la yer’s฀st ratif฀cation฀mak e฀the฀t ransfer฀of ฀ ception฀of฀air’s฀“warmth”฀has฀to฀do฀with฀both฀the฀average฀speed฀
energy฀from฀the฀upper฀to฀the฀lower฀stratosphere฀quite฀slow. of฀molecules฀c olliding฀w ith฀our฀bod y฀(i.e.,฀the฀t emperature)฀
Above฀the฀st ratosphere฀is฀the฀ mesosphere฀ or฀middle ฀ and฀the฀n umber฀of ฀molecules฀c olliding฀with฀our฀bod y.฀In฀the฀
sphere.฀The฀boundar y฀near฀50฀km฀separ ates฀these฀layers฀and฀ thermosphere,฀molecules฀are฀zipping฀around฀quickly,฀but฀there฀
is฀called฀the฀stratopause.฀At฀this฀level,฀the฀stratosphere฀reaches฀ are฀t oo฀few฀of ฀them฀t o฀impar t฀m uch฀heat, ฀so฀it฀w ould฀feel฀
its฀hig hest฀t emperature.฀H ere฀air฀is฀e xtremely฀thin฀and฀air ฀ extremely฀c old.฀M oreover,฀it฀is฀in฀the฀ther mosphere฀wher e฀
pressure฀is฀quit e฀lo w,฀a veraging฀about฀1฀hP a,฀whic h฀means฀ charged฀par ticles฀from฀the฀sun฀int eract฀w ith฀air฀molecules฀t o฀
that฀only฀one-thousandth฀of ฀all฀the฀at mosphere’s฀molecules฀ produce฀dazzling฀aur ora฀or฀nor thern฀lig hts฀displays.฀We฀w ill฀
occurs฀above฀this฀le vel฀and฀99.9฀per cent฀of฀the฀at mosphere’s฀ investigate฀aurora฀in฀Chapter฀2.
mass฀is฀located฀below฀it. Air฀densit y฀in฀the฀upper฀ther mosphere฀is฀so฀lo w฀that฀air ฀
The฀per centage฀of ฀nit rogen฀and฀o xygen฀in฀the฀meso- temperatures฀in฀this฀region฀are฀not฀measured฀directly.฀They฀are฀
sphere฀is฀about฀the฀same฀as฀it฀is฀at฀sea฀le vel,฀but฀the฀air’s฀low฀ determined฀by฀observing฀the฀orbital฀change฀of฀satellites฀caused฀
density฀mak es฀it฀impossible฀t o฀get฀enoug h฀oxygen,฀and฀w e฀ by฀the฀drag฀of฀the฀atmosphere.฀Even฀though฀the฀air฀is฀extremely฀
would฀suffocat e฀in฀a฀matt er฀of ฀min utes฀w ithout฀the฀pr oper฀ thin,฀enoug h฀air฀molecules฀st rike฀a฀sat ellite฀to฀slow฀it฀do wn,฀
breathing฀equipment.฀Being฀adapted฀to฀living฀nearer฀sea฀level,฀ making฀it฀drop฀into฀a฀slightly฀lower฀orbit.฀This฀is฀the฀reason฀the฀
our฀brains฀soon฀become฀oxygen฀starved—a฀condition฀known฀
as฀hypoxia.฀High-elevation฀mountaineers฀and฀pilots฀who฀f ฀y฀ *As฀w ill฀be฀discussed฀in฀Chapt er฀2,฀air฀t emperature฀is฀actually฀a฀measur e฀of ฀the฀
above฀3฀km฀for฀t oo฀long฀without฀an฀oxygen-breathing฀appa- kinetic฀energ y฀of฀the฀molecules฀in฀air .฀In฀other฀w ords,฀it฀r epresents฀how฀fast฀the฀
ratus฀experience฀this.฀The฀f฀rst฀sy mptoms฀of฀hypoxia฀usually฀ molecules฀are฀moving฀about.
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18 CH A PTER 1
FFOC U S O N A N O B S E RVAT I O N
The Radiosonde
T
Up to an altitude of about 30 km, the vertical When winds are added, the device is called a complement radiosondes by using instruments
distribution of temperature, pressure, and rawinsonde, although the term radiosonde is that measure radiant energy to provide vertical
humidity can be obtained using a measuring often used generically to include all such instru- temperature profiles in inaccessible regions.
device called a radiosonde.* The radiosonde is a ments. When plotted on a graph, the vertical
small, lightweight box equipped with electronic distribution of temperature, humidity, and wind
weather sensors, a battery, an antenna, and a is called a sounding. Eventually, the balloon
radio transmitter. It is attached to a tightly tied bursts—usually somewhere near 33 km altitude
helium or hydrogen gas-filled balloon by a cord for helium balloons—and the radiosonde
(see ●฀Figure 4). Some radiosondes also have a returns to Earth.
parachute. As the balloon rises, the attached Selected weather stations tasked with
radiosonde measures air temperature with a releasing radiosondes, called upper-air stations,
small electrical thermometer, called a thermistor, release them twice a day, usually at the time
located outside the box. The radiosonde mea- that corresponds to midnight and noon in
sures humidity electrically by sending an electric Greenwich, England.* Releasing radiosondes
current across a carbon-coated plate. Air pres- is an expensive operation because the instru-
sure is obtained by a small barometer located ments are never retrieved, and even when spent
inside the box. Every second, all of this informa- ones are found, they are usually so damaged
tion is transmitted to the surface by radio, that they are not reusable. Modern satellites
where it is processed and stored every two sec-
onds. Some units use special equipment such *Since weather is global, it is important to standardize
as a Global Positioning System (GPS) or weather weather observations around a standard time. Coordi- © C. Jackson
nated Universal Time (UTC) is used. UTC is very similar
radar to track the radiosonde’s position as it to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), corresponding to the
moves through the sky. These types of radio- local solar time at Greenwich, near London, England.
sondes also provide a vertical profile of winds. Sometimes UTC is abbreviated as Z; so UTC time is
also called “Zulu” time. Appendix F on p. A-18 gives ● F I G U R E 4 A radiosonde and balloon. Canada’s
*A radiosonde that is dropped by parachute from an conversions between North American local standard upper-air radiosonde network consists of 31 stations
aircraft is called a dropsonde. times and UTC. where weather balloons are launched twice daily.
Solar฀Maximum฀Mission฀spacecraft฀fell฀t o฀Earth฀in฀Dec ember฀ fairly฀uniform฀at฀78฀percent฀nitrogen,฀21฀percent฀oxygen฀due฀

1989,฀and฀the฀Russian฀space฀station฀Mir฀did฀the฀same฀in฀March฀ to฀฀turbulent฀mixing.฀When฀classifying฀layers฀chemically,฀this฀
2001.฀The฀amount฀of ฀drag฀is฀r elated฀to฀the฀densit y฀of ฀the฀air ,฀ lower,฀well-mixed฀region฀is฀kno wn฀as฀the฀ homosphere฀(see฀
and฀the฀densit y฀is฀r elated฀t o฀the฀t emperature.฀So ,฀b y฀det er- Figure฀1.12).฀In฀the฀ther mosphere,฀collisions฀between฀atoms฀
mining฀air฀densit y,฀scientists฀ar e฀able฀t o฀construct฀a฀v ertical฀ and฀molecules฀ar e฀infrequent,฀and฀the฀air฀is฀unable฀t o฀keep฀
prof฀le฀of฀air฀temperature฀through฀the฀entire฀atmosphere. itself฀stirred.฀As฀a฀result,฀diffusion฀takes฀over฀as฀heavier฀atoms฀
At฀the฀t op฀of ฀the฀ther mosphere,฀about฀500฀km฀abo ve฀ and฀molecules฀(such฀as฀oxygen฀and฀nitrogen)฀tend฀to฀settle฀to฀
Earth’s฀surface,฀molecules฀can฀move฀distances฀of฀10฀km฀before฀ the฀bott om฀of ฀the฀la yer,฀wher eas฀lig hter฀gases฀(suc h฀as ฀
they฀collide฀w ith฀other฀molecules. ฀Here฀many฀of ฀the฀lig hter,฀ hydrogen฀and฀helium)฀f ฀oat฀t o฀the฀t op.฀The฀r egion฀fr om฀
faster฀moving฀molecules฀t raveling฀in฀the฀r ight฀direction฀actu- approximately฀the฀base฀of฀the฀thermosphere฀to฀the฀top฀of฀the฀
ally฀escape฀Ear th’s฀gravitational฀pull.฀The฀r egion฀where฀atoms฀ atmosphere฀is฀also฀called฀the฀ heterosphere.
and฀molecules฀can฀shoot฀off ฀int o฀spac e฀is฀r eferred฀t o฀as฀the฀
exosphere,฀and฀it฀represents฀the฀upper฀limit฀of฀our฀atmosphere. THE IONOSPHERE The฀ionosphere฀is฀not฀r eally฀a฀la yer฀but฀
So฀far,฀w e฀have฀e xamined฀the฀at mospheric฀layers฀based฀ rather฀an฀electrif฀ed฀region฀within฀the฀upper฀atmosphere฀where฀
on฀the฀v ertical฀pr of฀le฀of ฀t emperature.฀However,฀the฀at mo- fairly฀large฀concentrations฀of฀ions฀and฀free฀electrons฀exist.฀Ions฀
sphere฀ma y฀also฀be฀di vided฀int o฀la yers฀based฀on฀c hemical฀ are฀atoms฀and฀molecules฀that฀have฀lost฀or฀gained฀one฀or฀mor e฀
composition.฀The฀c omposition฀of ฀the฀at mosphere฀beg ins฀ electrons.฀Atoms฀lose฀electrons฀and฀become฀positively฀charged฀
to฀slo wly฀c hange฀in฀the฀lo wer฀par t฀of ฀the฀ther mosphere.฀ when฀they฀cannot฀absorb฀all฀of฀the฀energy฀transferred฀to฀them฀
Below฀the฀ther mosphere,฀the฀c omposition฀of ฀air฀r emains฀ by฀a฀colliding฀energetic฀particle฀or฀the฀sun’s฀energy.
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into฀the฀ionosphere,฀into฀the฀E฀and฀F฀regions,฀where฀the฀waves฀
are฀r ef฀ected฀back฀t o฀Ear th.฀C onsequently,฀at฀nig ht,฀ther e฀is฀
little฀absorption฀of ฀radio฀waves฀in฀the฀hig her฀reaches฀of ฀the฀
ionosphere฀and฀AM฀radio฀waves฀bounce฀repeatedly฀from฀the฀
ionosphere฀to฀the฀Earth’s฀surface฀and฀back฀to฀the฀ionosphere฀
again.฀In฀this฀way,฀standard฀AM฀radio฀waves฀are฀able฀to฀travel฀
for฀many฀hundreds฀of฀kilometres฀at฀night.
Around฀sunr ise฀and฀sunset, ฀ AM฀r adio฀stations฀usually ฀
make฀“necessary฀t echnical฀adjust ments”฀t o฀c ompensate฀for ฀
the฀changing฀electrical฀characteristics฀of฀the฀D฀region.฀Because฀
they฀can฀broadcast฀over฀a฀greater฀distance฀at฀night,฀most฀AM฀
stations฀reduce฀their฀output฀near฀sunset.฀This฀reduction฀pre-
vents฀two฀stations—both฀transmitting฀at฀the฀same฀frequency฀
but฀h undreds฀of ฀kilomet res฀apar t—from฀int erfering฀w ith฀
each฀other’ s฀r adio฀pr ograms.฀ At฀sunr ise,฀as฀the฀ D฀re gion฀
intensif฀es,฀the฀po wer฀supplied฀t o฀AM฀r adio฀t ransmitters฀is฀
normally฀increased.฀FM฀stations฀do฀not฀need฀t o฀make฀these฀
adjustments฀because฀FM฀r adio฀wa ves฀ar e฀shor ter฀than฀ AM฀
waves฀and฀ar e฀able฀t o฀penet rate฀thr ough฀the฀ionospher e฀
without฀being฀ref฀ected.
● F I G U R E 1.1 2 The฀various฀layers฀and฀regions฀of฀the฀atmosphere:฀
layers฀based฀on฀temperature฀are฀represented฀by฀the฀red฀line฀(an฀active฀
sun฀is฀associated฀with฀larger฀numbers฀of฀solar฀eruptions.),฀layers฀based฀
on฀chemical฀composition฀are฀shown฀by฀the฀green฀line,฀and฀regions฀where฀
BR IEF R E V IE W
electrical฀properties฀occur฀are฀represented฀by฀the฀dark฀blue฀line.฀ We have examined our atmosphere from a vertical perspective.
The main points are as follows:
The฀ionosphere฀usually฀starts฀about฀60฀km฀above฀Earth’s฀ ● Atmospheric pressure at any level represents the total mass of
surface฀and฀extends฀to฀the฀outer฀limits฀of฀the฀atmosphere.฀As฀ air above that level, and atmospheric pressure always decreases
illustrated฀in฀Figure฀1.12,฀the฀bulk฀of฀the฀ionosphere฀is฀in฀the฀ with increasing height above the surface.
thermosphere.
● The rate at which the air temperature decreases with height is
The฀ionosphere฀plays฀a฀major฀role฀in฀AM฀radio฀commu-
called the lapse rate. A measured increase in air temperature
nications,฀as฀sho wn฀in฀ ●฀Figure฀1.13.฀The฀lo wer฀par t฀of ฀the฀
with height is called an inversion.
ionosphere,฀called฀the฀ D฀re gion,฀re f฀ects฀standard฀AM฀r adio฀
● The atmosphere may be divided into layers according to its ver-
waves฀back฀to฀Earth,฀but฀at฀the฀same฀time,฀it฀seriously฀weakens฀
tical profile of temperature and its gaseous composition. The
them฀thr ough฀absor ption.฀At฀nig ht,฀the฀ D฀region฀gra dually฀
atmosphere can also be divided into regions based on its elec-
disappears฀and฀AM฀radio฀waves฀are฀able฀t o฀penetrate฀higher฀
trical properties.
● The atmospheric layer with the highest temperature is the ther-
mosphere; the layer with the coldest temperature is the meso-
sphere. Ozone gas is found in the stratosphere.
● We live at the bottom of the troposphere, which is an atmo-
spheric layer where the air temperature normally decreases with
height. The troposphere is a region that contains all of the
weather we are familiar with.
● The ionosphere is an electrified region of the upper atmosphere
that normally extends from about 60 km to the top of the
atmosphere.
Weather and Climate

● F I G U R E 1.1 3 At฀night,฀the฀higher฀region฀of฀the฀ionosphere,฀the฀
F฀region,฀strongly฀ref฀ects฀AM฀radio฀waves,฀allowing฀them฀to฀be฀sent฀over฀ We฀w ill฀now฀tur n฀our฀att ention฀to฀weather฀e vents฀that฀tak e฀
great฀distances.฀During฀the฀day,฀the฀lower฀D฀region฀strongly฀absorbs฀and฀ place฀in฀the฀lower฀atmosphere.฀The฀remainder฀of฀this฀chapter฀
weakens฀AM฀radio฀waves,฀preventing฀them฀from฀being฀picked฀up฀by฀ serves฀as฀a฀broad฀overview฀of฀material฀in฀later฀chapters.฀Many฀
฀distant฀receivers. of฀the฀concepts฀and฀ideas฀you฀will฀encounter฀here฀are฀designed฀
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20 CH A PTER 1
to฀familiarize฀you฀with฀items฀you฀might฀read฀about฀in฀news- and฀biosphere.฀These฀are฀constantly฀changing฀and฀impacting฀
papers฀or฀magazines฀or฀see฀on฀t elevision.฀ each฀other.฀Whereas฀major฀transformations฀of฀Earth’s฀lith-
Meteorology฀is฀the฀study฀of฀the฀atmosphere฀and฀its฀phe- osphere฀ar e฀c ompleted฀only฀aft er฀long฀spans฀of ฀time, ฀the ฀
nomena.฀ When฀w e฀talk฀about฀the฀ weather,฀w e฀ar e฀talking ฀ state฀of฀the฀atmosphere฀can฀change฀in฀a฀matter฀of฀minutes.฀
about฀the฀condition฀of฀the฀atmosphere฀at฀any฀particular฀time฀
and฀place.฀Weather฀is฀always฀changing.฀It฀is฀composed฀of฀the฀ METEOROLOGY: A BRIEF HISTORY The฀term฀meteorology฀
following: goes฀back฀to฀the฀Greek฀philosopher฀Aristotle,฀who฀wrote฀a฀book฀
on฀natural฀philosophy฀entitled฀ Meteorologica฀in฀about฀340฀ b.c.฀
฀1. ฀ air฀te mperature—the฀deg ree฀of ฀hot ness฀or฀c oldness฀of ฀
This฀work฀represented฀the฀sum฀of ฀knowledge฀on฀w eather฀and฀
the฀air,฀whic h฀c orresponds฀t o฀the฀kinetic฀energ y฀of ฀air฀
climate฀at฀that฀time, ฀as฀w ell฀as฀mat erial฀on฀ast ronomy,฀geog-
molecules
raphy,฀and฀c hemistry.฀Some฀of ฀the฀t opics฀c overed฀included฀
฀2. ฀ air฀pressure—the฀force฀of฀the฀air฀above฀an฀area
clouds,฀rain,฀snow,฀wind,฀hail,฀thunder,฀and฀hurricanes.฀In฀those฀
฀3. ฀ humidity—a฀measure฀of฀the฀amount฀of ฀water฀vapour฀in฀
days,฀anything฀seen฀in฀the฀air฀and฀all฀substanc es฀that฀fell฀fr om฀
the฀air
the฀sky฀were฀called฀meteors.฀The฀term฀meteorology฀comes฀from฀
฀4. ฀ clouds—visible฀masses฀of ฀tiny฀water฀droplets฀and/or฀ic e฀
the฀Greek฀word฀meteoros,฀meaning฀“high฀in฀the฀air.”฀
crystals฀that฀are฀above฀Earth’s฀surface
In฀ Meteorologica,฀ Aristotle฀att empted฀t o฀e xplain฀at mo-
฀5. ฀ precipitation—any฀form฀of฀water,฀either฀liquid฀(r ain)฀or฀
spheric฀phenomena฀in฀a฀philosophical฀and฀speculative฀manner.฀
solid฀(sno w),฀that฀falls฀fr om฀clouds฀and฀r eaches฀the ฀
Even฀though฀many฀of฀his฀speculations฀were฀found฀to฀be฀erro-
ground
neous,฀Aristotle’s฀ideas฀were฀accepted฀without฀reservation฀for฀
฀6. ฀ wind—the฀horizontal฀movement฀of฀air
almost฀2000฀years.฀In฀fact,฀the฀bir th฀of฀meteorology฀as฀a฀gen-
฀7. ฀ visibility—the฀g reatest฀distanc e฀one฀can฀see฀t o฀identify฀
uine฀natural฀science฀did฀not฀tak e฀place฀until฀the฀in vention฀of฀
prominent฀objects
weather฀instruments฀(the฀thermometer฀at฀the฀end฀of฀the฀16th฀
If฀we฀measure฀and฀obser ve฀these฀ weather฀ele ments฀ove r฀a ฀ century,฀the฀bar ometer฀for฀measur ing฀air฀pr essure฀in฀1643, ฀
specif฀ed฀interval฀of฀time,฀say,฀for฀many฀years,฀we฀would฀obtain฀ and฀the฀hygrometer฀for฀measuring฀humidity฀in฀the฀late฀1700s).฀฀
the฀“average฀weather”฀of ฀a฀par ticular฀area.฀In฀addition,฀if ฀we฀ As฀mor e฀and฀bett er฀inst ruments฀w ere฀de veloped฀in฀the฀
keep฀t rack฀of ฀the฀var iability฀in฀eac h฀weather฀element,฀we฀can ฀ 1800s,฀the฀science฀of฀meteorology฀progressed.฀The฀invention฀
def฀ne฀ the฀ climate฀of ฀that฀ar ea.฀Climate,฀therefore,฀represents฀ of฀the฀telegraph฀in฀1843฀allowed฀for฀the฀transmission฀of฀rou-
the฀accumulation฀of฀daily฀and฀seasonal฀weather฀events฀and฀their฀ tine฀w eather฀obser vations.฀The฀understanding฀of ฀the฀c on-
variability,฀including฀extreme฀weather฀events฀such฀as฀heat฀waves฀ cepts฀of฀wind฀f฀ow฀and฀storm฀movement฀became฀clearer,฀and฀
in฀summer฀and฀cold฀spells฀in฀winter฀over฀a฀long฀period฀of฀time.฀ in฀1869, ฀cr ude฀w eather฀maps฀w ith฀lines฀of ฀equal฀pr essure฀
If฀we฀were฀able฀to฀watch฀Earth฀for฀thousands฀to฀millions฀ (isobars)฀w ere฀dr awn.฀ Around฀1920, ฀the฀c oncepts฀of ฀air ฀
of฀years,฀even฀the฀climat e฀would฀change.฀We฀might฀see฀h uge฀ masses฀and฀weather฀fronts฀were฀formulated฀in฀Norway.฀By฀the฀
glaciers,฀r ivers฀of ฀ic e฀mo ving฀do wn฀st ream-cut฀valle ys,฀and฀ 1940s,฀daily฀upper -air฀balloon฀obser vations฀of ฀temperature,฀
continental฀sheets฀of ฀mo ving฀sno w฀and฀ic e฀spr eading฀o ver฀ humidity,฀and฀pressure฀gave฀a฀three-dimensional฀view฀of฀the฀
large฀portions฀of฀North฀America.฀Over฀a฀time฀span฀of ฀about฀ atmosphere,฀and฀hig h-f฀ying฀militar y฀aircraft฀discovered฀the฀
two฀million฀y ears,฀w e฀mig ht฀see฀m ultiple฀g laciations฀wher e฀ existence฀of฀jet฀streams.
the฀ice฀advances฀and฀retreats฀several฀times.฀Of฀course,฀for฀this฀ Meteorology฀took฀another฀step฀forward฀in฀the฀1950s,฀when฀
to฀happen,฀the฀average฀temperature฀of฀North฀America฀would฀ high-speed฀computers฀were฀developed฀to฀solve฀mathematical ฀
have฀to฀decrease฀and฀then฀rise฀in฀a฀cyclic฀manner. equations.฀At฀the฀same฀time,฀a฀group฀of฀scientists฀in฀Princeton,฀
If฀we฀could฀photograph฀Earth฀once฀every฀thousand฀years,฀ New฀J ersey,฀de veloped฀n umerical฀means฀for฀pr edicting฀the฀
for฀many฀hundreds฀of฀millions฀of฀years฀we฀could฀watch฀Earth฀ weather.฀Prior฀to฀this฀advance,฀the฀mathematical฀equations฀that฀
in฀time-lapse฀photography.฀This฀would฀show฀that฀climate฀and฀ represent฀the฀atmosphere฀had฀to฀be฀simplif฀ed฀to฀by฀solved฀“by฀
Earth฀itself฀are฀changing:฀mountains฀would฀form฀and฀rise฀up,฀ hand,”฀w ith฀less฀ac curate฀r esults.฀Today,฀c omputers฀plot฀the฀
only฀to฀be฀torn฀down฀by฀erosion;฀isolated฀puffs฀of฀smoke฀and฀ observations,฀draw฀the฀lines฀on฀the฀map,฀and฀forecast฀the฀state฀
steam฀w ould฀appear฀as฀v olcanoes฀spew฀hot฀gases฀and฀f ฀ne฀ of฀the฀atmosphere฀at฀some฀desired฀time฀in฀the฀future.
dust฀int o฀the฀at mosphere;฀and฀Ear th’s฀entir e฀surfac e฀w ould฀ After฀World฀War฀II,฀surplus฀military฀radars฀became฀avail-
undergo฀a฀g radual฀t ransformation฀as฀c ertain฀oc ean฀basins ฀ able,฀and฀many฀were฀transformed฀into฀precipitation-measuring฀
widen฀and฀others฀shrink.* tools.฀I n฀the฀mid-1990s, ฀these฀w ere฀r eplaced฀b y฀the฀mor e฀
In฀summar y,฀Ear th฀is฀c omposed฀of ฀a฀n umber฀of ฀ sophisticated฀ Doppler฀r adars,฀whic h฀ha ve฀the฀abilit y฀t o฀use฀
dynamic฀systems,฀the฀atmosphere,฀hydrosphere,฀lithosphere,฀ radio฀waves฀t o฀image฀st orms,฀their฀w inds,฀and฀pr ecipitation฀
(see฀●฀Figure฀1.14).
*The฀movement฀of฀Earth’s฀continents฀and฀oc ean฀f฀oor฀is฀e xplained฀by฀the฀theor y฀ In฀1960,฀the฀f฀rst฀weather฀satellite,฀TIROS฀I,฀was฀launched,฀
of฀plate฀tectonics.฀In฀this฀theory,฀Earth’s฀surface฀is฀composed฀of฀about฀eight฀major฀
ushering฀in฀space-age฀meteorology.฀Subsequent฀satellites฀pro-
plates฀that฀mo ve฀in฀r elation฀to฀each฀other.฀Plate฀tectonics฀explains฀how฀the฀ litho-
sphere฀evolves,฀how฀volcanoes฀and฀earthquakes฀occur,฀how฀and฀where฀mountains,฀ vided฀a฀wide฀range฀of฀useful฀information,฀ranging฀from฀time-
build,฀and฀accounts฀for฀the฀changing฀distribution฀of฀land฀and฀ocean฀surfaces฀over฀ lapse฀images฀of ฀clouds฀and฀st orms฀t o฀images฀that฀depict ฀
geologic฀time.฀These฀changes฀have฀greatly฀affected฀Earth’s฀climate. swirling฀ribbons฀of ฀water฀vapour฀f ฀owing฀around฀the฀g lobe.฀
NEL
NOAA
● F I G U R E 1.1 4 Radar฀image฀showing฀the฀heavy฀rain฀(yellow฀areas)฀from฀thunderstorms฀embedded฀in฀Hurricane฀Katrina฀as฀it฀
makes฀landfall฀near฀New฀Orleans฀on฀August฀29,฀2005,฀at฀09:48฀UTC.฀The฀circular฀“hole”฀in฀the฀precipitation฀that฀is฀just฀offshore฀is฀
the฀hurricane฀eye.
Throughout฀the฀1990s฀and฀int o฀the฀21st฀c entury,฀sophisti- equator฀is฀0 ⬚,฀whereas฀the฀latitude฀of ฀the฀North฀Pole฀is฀90 ⬚N฀

cated฀satellites฀have฀supplied฀c omputers฀w ith฀an฀impr essive฀ and฀that฀of ฀the฀South฀P ole฀is฀90 ⬚S.฀The฀latitudes฀betw een฀
range฀of ฀imager y฀and฀measur ements฀that฀suppor t฀w eather฀ 30⬚N฀and฀60⬚N฀are฀commonly฀referred฀to฀as฀the฀middle฀lati-
tracking฀and฀forecasts.฀฀ tudes฀or฀mid-latitudes.
A SATELLITE’S VIEW OF THE WEATHER A฀good฀view฀of฀the฀ Storms of All Sizes Infrared฀sat ellite฀images฀suc h฀as ฀
weather฀can฀be฀seen฀fr om฀a฀w eather฀satellite.฀ ●฀Figure฀1.15฀is฀a ฀ Figure฀1.15฀provide฀a฀snapshot฀related฀to฀temperatures฀in฀the฀
satellite฀image฀centred฀over฀the฀North฀American฀continent฀taken฀ atmosphere฀and฀on฀Ear th.฀The฀clouds฀appear฀whit e฀because฀
in฀the฀infrared฀band฀such฀that฀cold฀clouds฀are฀coloured฀white฀in฀ they฀are฀colder฀than฀the฀ground฀below฀them,฀and฀cold฀objects฀
the฀image.฀The฀image฀was฀obtained฀by฀combining฀imagery฀from฀ are฀assigned฀a฀white฀colour฀in฀this฀type฀of฀image.฀Organized฀
two฀ geostationary฀satellites ฀situat ed฀about฀36,000฀km฀abo ve฀ cloud฀masses฀ar e฀st orms.฀S uperimposed฀on฀the฀sat ellite฀
Earth—one฀located฀over฀the฀western฀part฀of฀the฀continent฀and฀ image฀are฀areas฀of฀low฀pressure฀called฀“lows”฀that฀correspond฀
the฀other฀o ver฀the฀east ern฀par t.฀At฀this฀ele vation,฀the฀sat ellite฀ to฀st orm฀c entres฀(indicat ed฀b y฀large฀r ed฀“L”฀sy mbols)฀and ฀
travels฀at฀the฀same฀rate฀as฀Earth฀spins,฀which฀allows฀it฀to฀remain฀ their฀adjoining฀weather฀fronts฀in฀red฀and฀blue.฀These฀middle-
positioned฀above฀the฀same฀spot฀on฀Earth฀so฀that฀it฀can฀continu- latitude฀cyclonic฀st orms฀ha ve฀w inds฀spinning฀about฀their ฀
ously฀monitor฀what฀is฀taking฀place฀beneath฀it. centre.฀In฀the฀case฀of ฀the฀system฀over฀the฀Great฀Lakes,฀there฀
The฀solid฀white฀grid฀lines฀running฀from฀north฀to฀south฀on฀ are฀two฀centres฀(Ls):฀one฀over฀western฀Lake฀Superior฀and฀the฀
the฀satellite฀image฀ar e฀called฀ meridians,฀or฀lines฀of ฀longitude.฀ other฀over฀Lake฀Huron.฀Another฀middle-latitude฀cy clone฀is฀
Since฀the฀z ero฀mer idian฀(or฀pr ime฀mer idian)฀r uns฀thr ough฀ over฀British฀Columbia,฀and฀a฀third฀one฀is฀crossing฀the฀Mari-
Greenwich,฀Eng land,฀the฀ longitude฀ of฀any฀plac e฀on฀Ear th฀is฀ time฀pr ovinces.฀F ronts฀ar e฀discussed฀in฀Chapt er฀11฀and ฀
simply฀how฀far฀east฀or฀w est,฀in฀deg rees,฀it฀is฀fr om฀the฀pr ime฀ middle-latitude฀cyclones฀in฀Chapter฀12.
meridian.฀M ost฀of ฀N orth฀ America฀lies฀betw een฀52 ⬚W฀and ฀ A฀smaller฀but฀mor e฀vigorous฀storm,฀called฀a฀ hurricane,฀
130⬚W฀longitude. occurs฀o ver฀t ropical฀oc eans฀(see฀Figur e฀1.14).฀These฀st orms฀
The฀solid฀whit e฀lines฀that฀par allel฀the฀equat or฀are฀called฀ have฀diameters฀of฀a฀few฀hundred฀kilometres฀and฀often฀have฀a฀
parallels฀of฀latitude.฀The฀latitude฀of฀any฀place฀is฀how฀far฀north฀ zone฀of ฀clear฀skies฀at฀their฀c entre,฀called฀the฀ eye.฀Near฀the ฀
or฀south,฀in฀degrees,฀it฀is฀from฀the฀equator.฀The฀latitude฀of฀the฀ surface,฀in฀the฀e ye,฀w inds฀are฀lig ht,฀skies฀ar e฀gener ally฀clear,฀
NEL
22 CH A PTER 1
● F I G U R E 1.1 5 This฀
satellite฀image฀(taken฀in฀the฀
infrared)฀shows฀a฀variety฀of฀ H
cloud฀patterns฀and฀storms฀
in฀Earth’s฀atmosphere฀on฀
September฀28,฀2009,฀at฀12:00฀ H
UTC.฀Clouds฀are฀colder฀than฀
the฀ground฀and฀are฀coloured฀
white฀in฀the฀image.฀The฀
coloured฀base฀map฀and฀ L L
weather฀fronts฀are฀added฀
after฀the฀image฀is฀taken.฀ L
L L
Lake Superior
Lake
Ottawa
Lake
Huron
L Lake Ontario
H Michigan
Environment Canada. Data courtesy of NOAA (2010).
and฀the฀atmospheric฀pressure฀is฀lowest.฀Around฀the฀eye,฀how- A Look at a Weather Map We฀can฀obtain฀a฀better฀picture฀

ever,฀is฀an฀extensive฀region฀where฀heavy฀rain฀and฀high฀surface฀ of฀the฀middle-latitude฀st orm฀by฀examining฀a฀simplif ฀ed฀ sur-
winds฀are฀reaching฀peak฀gusts฀of ฀100฀knots฀(185฀km฀h –1).฀To฀ face฀weather฀map฀(see฀●฀Figure฀1.17)฀for฀the฀same฀time฀as฀the฀
be฀categorized฀as฀a฀h urricane,฀surface฀winds฀must฀exceed฀64฀ Figure฀1.15฀satellite฀image.฀In฀Figure฀1.17,฀the฀red฀letter฀“L”’s฀
knots*฀or฀119฀km฀h –1.฀Hurricanes฀ar e฀discussed฀fur ther฀in ฀ on฀the฀map฀indicat e฀r egions฀of ฀lo w฀at mospheric฀pr essure,฀
Chapter฀15. called฀lows,฀or฀cyclones,฀which฀mark฀the฀c entre฀of฀the฀mid-
Trailing฀from฀the฀Maritimes’฀storm฀system฀in฀Figure฀1.15฀ latitude฀st orm.฀The฀blue฀lett er฀“H”’s฀on฀the฀map฀r epresent฀
is฀a฀line฀of ฀smaller฀st orms฀off ฀Flor ida’s฀Atlantic฀c oast.฀This฀
line฀of ฀cloud฀r epresents฀clusters฀of ฀towering฀cumulus฀clouds฀
that฀ha ve฀de veloped฀int o฀ thunderstorms,฀one฀of ฀the฀most ฀
common฀types฀of฀storms.฀ ●฀Figure฀1.16฀is฀an฀e xample฀of฀the฀
tall,฀c hurning฀cum ulonimbus฀clouds฀that฀ar e฀ac companied฀
by฀lig htning,฀th under,฀st rong฀gust y฀w inds,฀and฀hea vy฀r ain.฀
Thunderstorms,฀at฀their฀most฀int ense,฀can฀spa wn฀the฀most฀
violent฀disturbance฀in฀the฀atmosphere,฀a฀tornado.
A฀tornado฀or฀twister฀is฀an฀intense,฀rotating฀column฀of฀air฀
that฀e xtends฀do wnward฀fr om฀the฀base฀of ฀a฀se vere฀th under-
storm.฀Tornadoes฀can฀appear฀as฀ropes฀or฀large฀cylinders.฀The฀
majority฀are฀less฀than฀a฀kilometre฀wide,฀and฀many฀are฀smaller฀
than฀a฀football฀f ฀eld.฀Tornado฀w inds฀can฀e xceed฀200฀knots ฀
© C. Donald Ahrens
(370฀km฀h–1),฀but฀most฀peak฀at฀less฀than฀125฀knots฀(232฀km฀h–1).฀
Some฀r apidly฀r otating฀clouds, ฀called฀funnel฀clouds, ฀that ฀
appear฀to฀hang฀fr om฀the฀base฀of ฀a฀par ent฀cloud฀ne ver฀reach฀
the฀ground฀to฀form฀a฀tornado.฀฀
● F I G U R E 1.1 6 Thunderstorms฀developing฀and฀advancing฀along฀an฀
*1฀knot฀⫽฀1.852฀km฀hr ⫺1฀or฀0.51฀m฀s ⫺1. approaching฀cold฀front.
NEL
F I G U R E 1.1 7 Simplif฀ed฀
2 H ●
surface฀weather฀map฀taken฀at฀the฀
–3 same฀time฀as฀the฀satellite฀image฀
H shown฀in฀Figure฀1.15.฀The฀numbers฀
on฀the฀map฀represent฀air฀tempera-
–2
tures฀in฀⬚C.
3
L 2
9
L 9 13
Lake
7
L Superior L
Ottawa
4 L
11
H 5 Lake L. L L.
Michigan Huron Ontario
12
Environment Canada. Data courtesy of NOAA (2010).
13
17
18
regions฀of ฀hig h฀pressure,฀called฀ highs,฀o r฀anticyclones.฀The฀ s฀ urface฀air.฀Since฀sinking฀air฀does฀not฀usually฀produce฀clouds,฀

circle฀symbols฀on฀the฀map฀represent฀either฀individual฀weather฀ we฀f฀nd฀generally฀clear฀skies฀and฀fair฀w eather฀associated฀with฀
stations฀or฀cities฀wher e฀obser vations฀are฀taken.฀ Wind฀is฀the฀ the฀regions฀of฀high฀atmospheric฀pressure.
horizontal฀mo vement฀of ฀air฀and฀has฀both฀dir ection฀and ฀ The฀swirling฀air฀around฀areas฀of฀high฀and฀low฀pressure฀is฀
speed.฀ Wind฀dir ection฀is฀def ฀ned฀as฀the฀dir ection฀that฀the ฀ the฀major฀weather฀producer฀for฀the฀middle฀latitudes.฀Look฀at฀
wind฀is฀blo wing฀from.*฀On฀w eather฀maps,฀wind฀direction฀is฀ the฀middle-latitude฀st orm฀and฀the฀surfac e฀t emperatures฀in ฀
shown฀by฀the฀shaft฀lines฀that฀point฀toward฀the฀weather฀station฀ Figure฀1.17฀and฀notic e฀that฀t o฀the฀southeast฀of ฀the฀st orm฀
symbol.฀ Wind฀speed฀is฀indicat ed฀b y฀the฀siz e฀and฀n umber฀ affecting฀the฀G reat฀Lakes,฀southerly฀w inds฀from฀the฀G ulf฀of ฀
of฀ barbs฀on฀the฀w ind-direction฀shafts.฀Eac h฀bar b฀r epresents฀ Mexico฀are฀bringing฀warm,฀humid฀air฀northward฀over฀much฀
10฀knots฀(18.5฀km฀h –1฀or฀5.1฀m฀s –1). of฀the฀southeastern฀portion฀of฀the฀continent.฀On฀the฀st orm’s฀
Notice฀how฀the฀wind฀blows฀around฀the฀highs฀and฀the฀lows.฀ western฀side, ฀c ool,฀dr y,฀nor therly฀br eezes฀c ombine฀w ith฀
The฀hor izontal฀pressure฀differences฀create฀a฀for ce฀that฀star ts฀ sinking฀air฀to฀create฀generally฀clear฀weather฀over฀the฀Prairies฀
the฀air฀mo ving฀from฀hig her฀pressure฀t oward฀lower฀pressure.฀ and฀U.S.฀Rocky฀Mountains.฀The฀boundary฀that฀separates฀the฀
The฀winds฀are฀slowed฀down฀near฀Earth’s฀surface฀because฀of฀its฀ warm฀and฀c ool฀air฀appears฀as฀hea vy,฀c oloured฀lines฀on฀the฀
roughness,฀or฀ friction.฀Because฀of ฀Ear th’s฀rotation,฀the฀w inds฀ map—fronts,฀across฀whic h฀there฀is฀a฀shar p฀c hange฀in฀t em-
are฀def฀ected฀from฀their฀path฀toward฀the฀right฀in฀the฀Northern฀ perature,฀humidity,฀and฀wind฀direction.
Hemisphere.†฀This฀def ฀ection,฀combined฀with฀friction฀due฀t o฀ Where฀the฀cool฀air฀from฀Canada฀replaces฀the฀warmer฀air฀
Earth’s฀surface,฀causes฀the฀winds฀to฀blow฀clockwise฀and฀outward฀ from฀the฀Gulf฀of฀Mexico,฀a฀cold฀front฀is฀drawn฀in฀blue,฀with฀
from฀the฀c entre฀of ฀hig hs฀and฀ counterclockwise฀and฀ inward฀ arrowheads฀sho wing฀the฀fr ont’s฀gener al฀dir ection฀of ฀mo ve-
toward฀the฀centre฀of฀lows. ment.฀Where฀the฀warm฀Gulf฀air฀is฀r eplacing฀cooler฀air฀to฀the฀
Also฀notice฀by฀comparing฀Figures฀1.15฀and฀1.17฀that฀in฀
the฀regions฀of฀high฀pressure,฀skies฀ar e฀generally฀clear.฀As฀the฀
surface฀air฀f฀ows฀outward฀away฀from฀the฀centre฀of฀a฀high,฀air฀ WEATHE R WATCH
sinking฀fr om฀abo ve฀m ust฀r eplace฀the฀lat erally฀spr eading฀
When it rains, it rains pennies from heaven—sometimes. On July
*For฀example,฀if ฀you฀are฀facing฀nor th฀and฀the฀w ind฀is฀blo wing฀in฀y our฀face,฀the฀ 17, 1940, a tornado reportedly picked up a treasure of over 1000
wind฀is฀called฀a฀“north฀wind.” 16th century silver coins, carried them into a thunderstorm, and
†
This฀def฀ecting฀force,฀known฀as฀the฀Coriolis฀force,฀is฀discussed฀more฀completely฀in฀ then dropped them on the village of Meschery in the Gorki region
Chapter฀8,฀as฀are฀the฀winds. of Russia.
NEL
24 CH A PTER 1
north,฀a฀warm฀front฀is฀drawn฀in฀red,฀with฀half฀circles฀showing฀ how฀cold฀or฀war m฀it฀feels.฀On฀a฀c old,฀windy฀day,฀the฀effects฀

its฀general฀direction฀of฀movement.฀Where฀the฀cold฀front฀has฀ of฀wind฀chill฀tell฀us฀that฀it฀feels฀much฀colder฀than฀it฀really฀is,฀
caught฀up฀t o฀the฀war m฀fr ont฀and฀c old฀air฀is฀no w฀r eplacing฀ and฀if ฀not฀pr operly฀dressed,฀we฀run฀the฀r isk฀of ฀frostbite฀or฀
cool฀air ,฀an฀ occluded฀fr ont,฀whic h฀in฀Canada฀is฀called฀a ฀ even฀hypothermia.฀On฀a฀hot, ฀humid฀day,฀we฀nor mally฀feel฀
TROugh฀of ฀ Warm฀A ir฀ ALoft฀(abbr eviated฀TR OWAL),฀is ฀ uncomfortably฀war m฀and฀blame฀it฀on฀the฀h umidity.฀I f฀w e฀
drawn฀w ith฀blue฀and฀r ed฀hook฀sy mbols.฀Along฀eac h฀of ฀the฀ become฀too฀warm,฀our฀bodies฀overheat,฀and฀heat฀exhaustion฀
fronts,฀warm฀air฀is฀rising,฀producing฀clouds฀and฀precipitation.฀ or฀heat฀stroke฀may฀result.฀Those฀most฀lik ely฀to฀suffer฀these฀
Notice฀in฀the฀sat ellite฀image฀(see฀Figur e฀1.15)฀that฀the ฀ maladies฀ar e฀the฀elderly฀w ith฀impair ed฀cir culatory฀syst ems฀
TROWAL฀(occluded฀front)฀and฀the฀c old฀front฀appear฀as฀an฀ and฀infants,฀whose฀heat฀r egulatory฀mechanisms฀are฀not฀y et฀
elongated,฀curling฀cloud฀band฀that฀st retches฀fr om฀the฀lo w- fully฀developed.
pressure฀areas฀over฀lakes฀Superior฀and฀Huron฀into฀the฀state฀of฀ Weather฀affects฀how฀we฀feel฀in฀other฀wa ys,฀too.฀Arthritic฀
Pennsylvania฀south฀of฀Lake฀Erie. pain฀is฀most฀lik ely฀to฀occur฀when฀r ising฀humidity฀is฀ac com-
In฀Figure฀1.17,฀observe฀the฀frontal฀system฀over฀southern฀ panied฀b y฀falling฀pr essures.฀The฀incidenc e฀of ฀hear t฀attacks ฀
Ontario.฀As฀the฀westerly฀winds฀aloft฀push฀the฀front฀eastward,฀ shows฀a฀statistical฀peak฀aft er฀the฀passage฀of ฀war m฀fr onts,฀
a฀person฀on฀the฀outskir ts฀of ฀Otta wa฀mig ht฀obser ve฀the ฀ when฀r ain฀and฀w ind฀ar e฀c ommon,฀and฀aft er฀the฀passage฀of ฀
approaching฀fr ont฀as฀g radually฀incr easing฀and฀lo wering฀ cold฀fr onts,฀when฀an฀abr upt฀c hange฀takes฀plac e฀as฀sho wery฀
clouds,฀eventually฀followed฀by฀the฀start฀of฀precipitation.฀On฀a฀ precipitation฀is฀ac companied฀b y฀c old,฀gust y฀w inds.฀H ead-
Doppler฀radar฀image,฀the฀advancing฀precipitation฀is฀shown฀in฀ aches฀ar e฀c ommon฀on฀da ys฀when฀w e฀ar e฀for ced฀t o฀squint,฀
●฀Figure฀1.18,฀which฀is฀taken฀some฀15฀hours฀after฀the฀weather฀ often฀due฀to฀hazy฀skies฀or฀a฀thin,฀bright,฀overcast฀layer฀of฀high฀
map฀and฀sat ellite฀image฀in฀Figur es฀1.15฀and฀1.17. ฀ As฀the ฀ clouds.฀F or฀some฀people, ฀a฀war m,฀dr y฀w ind฀blo wing฀
system฀passes฀thr ough฀Ottawa,฀it฀should฀e xperience฀periods฀ downslope฀(for฀e xample,฀a ฀ chinook฀w ind฀ in฀souther n฀
of฀r ain฀or฀sho wers.฀All฀of ฀this,฀however,฀should฀g ive฀way฀to฀ Alberta)฀adversely฀affects฀their฀behaviour฀(they฀often฀become฀
clearing฀skies฀and฀surfac e฀winds฀from฀the฀w est฀or฀nor thwest฀ irritable฀and฀depr essed).฀J ust฀ho w฀and฀wh y฀these฀w inds฀
after฀the฀front฀has฀moved฀on. impact฀h umans฀physiologically฀is฀not฀w ell฀underst ood.฀We฀
will,฀ho wever,฀take฀up฀the฀question฀of ฀why฀these฀w inds฀ar e฀
WEATHER AND CLIMATE IN OUR LIVES Weather฀and฀cli- warm฀and฀dry฀in฀Chapter฀9.
mate฀pla y฀a฀major฀r ole฀in฀our฀li ves.฀ Weather,฀for฀e xample,฀ When฀the฀weather฀turns฀colder฀or฀war mer฀than฀nor mal,฀
often฀dictates฀the฀t ype฀of ฀clothing฀w e฀wear,฀whereas฀climate฀ it฀impacts฀dir ectly฀on฀the฀li ves฀and฀pock etbooks฀of ฀man y฀
inf฀uences฀the฀t ype฀of ฀clothing฀w e฀bu y.฀Climat e฀det ermines฀ people.฀F or฀e xample,฀the฀e xceptionally฀war m฀w inter฀of ฀
when฀t o฀plant฀cr ops฀as฀w ell฀as฀what฀t ypes฀of ฀cr ops฀can฀be ฀ 1997–98฀o ver฀N orth฀ America฀sa ved฀o ver฀$6.7฀billion฀in ฀
planted.฀Weather฀determines฀if฀these฀same฀crops฀will฀grow฀to฀ heating฀costs฀in฀the฀U nited฀States,฀whereas฀Canadian฀homes฀
maturity. saved฀an฀average฀of฀$200฀each.฀The฀exceptional฀warmth฀(2฀to฀
Even฀when฀w e฀ar e฀pr operly฀dr essed฀for฀the฀w eather,฀ 8⬚C฀above฀normal)฀in฀the฀w inter฀of฀1997–98฀was฀due฀t o฀the฀
wind,฀humidity,฀and฀precipitation฀change฀our฀perception฀of฀ effects฀of฀a฀particularly฀strong฀El฀Niño฀that฀year.฀El฀Niño฀is฀a฀
● F I G U R E 1.1 8
Radar฀image฀showing฀the฀
Environment Canada. Canadian Weather Radar. © Her Majesty The Queen in Right of Canada,
light฀rain฀associated฀with฀
passing฀of฀a฀low-pressure฀
system฀and฀TROWAL฀over฀
Ontario฀on฀September฀29,฀
2009,฀at฀11:30฀p.m.฀EDT.฀
The฀image฀is฀a฀composite฀
from฀10฀radars.฀The฀
colours฀denote฀the฀inten-
sity฀of฀rainfall.฀
Environment Canada, 2009.
NEL
phenomenon฀discussed฀in฀Chapt er฀10฀that฀affects฀g lobal฀ snow฀over฀the฀hig her฀mountains.฀These฀ “pineapple฀express”฀

weather฀patt erns฀and฀ar ises฀when฀war mer฀than฀nor mal฀sea฀ storms฀can฀result฀in฀severe฀f฀ooding฀and฀loss฀of฀electricity฀due฀
surface฀t emperatures฀for m฀in฀the฀east ern฀t ropical฀P acif฀c฀ to฀downed฀power฀lines.
Ocean.฀On฀the฀other฀side฀of ฀the฀coin,฀the฀colder฀than฀normal฀ Prolonged฀dr y฀spells, ฀especially฀when฀ac companied฀b y฀
winter฀of฀2000–01฀over฀much฀of฀North฀America฀sent฀heating฀ high฀temperatures,฀can฀lead฀to฀a฀shortage฀of฀food฀and,฀in฀some฀
costs฀soaring฀as฀the฀demand฀for฀heating฀fuel฀escalat ed. places,฀w idespread฀star vation.฀Parts฀of ฀ Africa,฀for฀e xample,฀
Major฀c old฀spells฀ac companied฀b y฀hea vy฀sno w฀and฀ic e฀ have฀per iodically฀suffer ed฀thr ough฀major฀dr oughts฀and ฀
can฀play฀havoc฀by฀snarling฀c ommuter฀t raff฀c,฀cur tailing฀air- famine.฀During฀the฀years฀from฀1999฀through฀2004,฀the฀Cana-
port฀services,฀closing฀sc hools,฀and฀do wning฀power฀lines฀(see฀ dian฀Prairies฀experienced฀the฀worst฀prolonged฀drought฀in฀over฀
●฀Figure฀1.19).฀For฀example,฀a฀huge฀ice฀storm฀during฀January฀ 100฀years,฀whic h฀had฀de vastating฀impacts฀on฀ag riculture.฀I n฀
1998,฀affecting฀east ern฀Ontar io฀thr ough฀souther n฀Quebec ฀ 2002฀alone,฀this฀c ost฀the฀Canadian฀ec onomy฀$3.6฀billion฀and฀
and฀Nova฀Scotia,฀as฀well฀as฀the฀northern฀New฀England฀states,฀ some฀41,000฀jobs.
left฀millions฀of฀people฀without฀power฀for฀as฀long฀as฀a฀month฀ When฀the฀climat e฀turns฀hot฀and฀dr y,฀animals฀suffer฀t oo.฀
and฀caused฀o ver฀$3฀billion฀in฀damage฀in฀Canada, ฀making฀it฀ In฀1986,฀over฀500,000฀c hickens฀per ished฀in฀the฀U .S.฀state฀of ฀
Canada’s฀costliest฀natural฀disaster.฀When฀frigid฀air฀settles฀into฀ Georgia฀dur ing฀a฀tw o-day฀per iod฀at฀the฀peak฀of ฀a฀summer฀
the฀U.S.฀Deep฀South,฀many฀millions฀of฀dollars฀worth฀of฀tem- heat฀wave.฀Severe฀drought฀also฀has฀an฀effect฀on฀water฀reserves,฀
perature-sensitive฀fr uits฀and฀v egetables฀ma y฀be฀r uined,฀the ฀ often฀forcing฀communities฀to฀ration฀water฀and฀restrict฀its฀use.฀
eventual฀c onsequence฀being฀hig her฀pr oduce฀pr ices฀in฀the ฀ During฀per iods฀of ฀e xtended฀dr ought,฀v egetation฀oft en฀
supermarket.฀ Winter฀w eather฀does฀not฀ha ve฀t o฀be฀c old฀t o฀ becomes฀tinder-dry,฀and฀spar ked฀b y฀lig htning฀or฀a฀car eless฀
cause฀damage.฀When฀fr ontal฀syst ems฀st retch฀fr om฀the฀sub- human,฀such฀a฀dried-up฀region฀can฀quickly฀become฀a฀raging฀
tropics฀and฀cr oss฀the฀N orth฀American฀West฀Coast,฀the y฀can฀ inferno.฀Dur ing฀2002,฀in฀the฀midst฀of ฀the฀pr airie฀dr ought,฀
bring฀moist,฀warm฀winds฀and฀copious฀amounts฀of ฀rain฀with฀ Alberta฀e xperienced฀a฀f ฀vefold฀incr ease฀in฀the฀n umber฀of ฀
wildf฀res.
Every฀summer ,฀sc orching฀ heat฀wa ves฀tak e฀man y฀li ves.฀
During฀the฀past฀20฀years,฀an฀annual฀average฀of฀more฀than฀300฀
deaths฀in฀North฀America฀is฀attributed฀to฀excessive฀heat฀expo-
sure.฀Europe฀suffered฀through฀a฀devastating฀heat฀wave฀during฀
the฀summer฀of฀2003,฀when฀it฀is฀estimat ed฀that฀70,000฀people฀
died,฀including฀14,802฀during฀one฀two-week฀period฀in฀France฀
alone.฀The฀high฀death฀tolls฀mainly฀affected฀the฀elderly,฀many฀
of฀whom฀w ere฀in฀understaffed฀car e฀facilities฀in฀the฀cities ฀
during฀the฀t raditional฀August฀holiday฀period.฀This฀left฀them฀
without฀support฀resources฀that฀might฀have฀helped฀them฀cope฀
with฀these฀unusual฀conditions.฀Daily฀maximum฀temperatures฀
across฀the฀r egion฀e xceeded฀35฀t o฀40 ⬚C฀in฀man y฀par ts฀of ฀
Europe,฀and฀se veral฀all-time฀maxim um฀temperature฀records฀
were฀set.฀
Every฀y ear,฀the฀v iolent฀side฀of ฀w eather฀inf ฀uences฀ the฀
lives฀of ฀millions. ฀I t฀is฀amazing฀ho w฀man y฀people฀whose ฀
family฀r oots฀ar e฀in฀the฀U .S.฀M idwest฀kno w฀the฀st ory฀of ฀
someone฀who฀was฀se verely฀injur ed฀or฀killed฀b y฀a฀t ornado.฀
Tornadoes฀ha ve฀not฀only฀tak en฀man y฀li ves,฀but, ฀ann ually,฀
they฀also฀cause฀damage฀t o฀building s฀and฀pr operty฀totalling฀
in฀the฀h undreds฀of ฀millions฀of ฀dollars฀as฀a฀sing le฀large฀t or-
nado฀can฀level฀an฀entire฀section฀of฀a฀town฀(see฀●฀Figure฀1.20).฀
Although฀not฀as฀fr equent฀as฀in฀the฀U .S.฀Midwest,฀tornadoes฀
CP PHOTO/Jacques Boissinot
in฀Canada฀can฀also฀ha ve฀sig nif฀cant฀impacts: ฀in฀the฀1980s, ฀

tornadoes฀in฀Barrie,฀Ontario,฀and฀Edmonton,฀Alberta,฀killed฀
35฀people.฀
Although฀the฀gentle฀rains฀of฀a฀typical฀summer฀thunder-
storm฀are฀welcome฀over฀much฀of฀North฀America,฀the฀heavy฀
● F I G U R E 1.1 9 The฀ice฀storm฀of฀1998฀that฀affected฀southern฀ downpours,฀high฀winds,฀and฀hail฀of ฀severe฀thunderstorms฀
Quebec,฀eastern฀Ontario,฀New฀Brunswick,฀and฀Nova฀Scotia฀was฀Canada’s฀ are฀not.฀Cloudbursts฀from฀slowly฀moving,฀intense฀thunder-
costliest฀natural฀disaster,฀at฀a฀cost฀of฀over฀$3฀billion.฀About฀1.5฀million฀ storms฀can฀pr ovide฀t oo฀m uch฀r ain฀t oo฀quickly ,฀cr eating฀
customers฀were฀without฀electricity฀for฀up฀to฀30฀days฀when฀the฀weight฀of฀ f฀ash฀ f฀oods฀as฀small฀st reams฀bec ome฀r aging฀r ivers฀c om-
the฀ice฀crumpled฀transmission฀towers. posed฀of฀mud฀and฀sand฀entangled฀with฀uprooted฀plants฀and฀
NEL
26 CH A PTER 1
trees฀(see฀ ●฀Figur e฀1.21). ฀On฀a verage,฀f ฀ooding฀and฀f ฀ash฀

f฀ooding฀cause฀more฀property฀damage฀in฀Canada฀and฀mor e฀
deaths฀in฀the฀U nited฀States฀than฀any฀other฀natur al฀disaster.฀
Strong฀do wndrafts฀or iginating฀inside฀an฀int ense฀th under-
storm฀(a฀ downburst)฀cr eate฀tur bulent฀w inds฀that฀ar e฀
capable฀of ฀dest roying฀crops฀and฀inf ฀icting฀damage฀on฀sur -
face฀structures.฀Several฀airline฀cr ashes฀have฀been฀att ributed฀
to฀the฀tur bulent฀ wind฀shear ฀z one฀w ithin฀the฀do wnburst.฀
Annually,฀hail฀damages฀crops฀worth฀millions฀of฀dollars,฀and฀
lightning฀takes฀the฀lives฀of฀about฀se ven฀people฀eac h฀year฀in฀
Canada฀and฀62฀in฀the฀U nited฀Stat es.฀F orty-f฀ve฀ percent฀ of฀
the฀8000฀a verage฀annual฀wildf฀res฀in฀Canada฀ar e฀started฀by฀
lightning,฀which฀causes฀81percent฀of฀the฀t otal฀area฀burned.฀
Each฀y ear,฀w ildf฀res฀dest roy฀betw een฀0.7฀and฀7.6฀million ฀
hectares฀and฀directly฀cost฀$500฀million฀to฀$1฀billion฀to฀con-
trol,฀for฀a฀total฀annual฀average฀cost฀of฀about฀$14฀billion฀(see฀
●฀Figure฀1.22).
Even฀the฀quiet฀side฀of ฀w eather฀has฀its฀inf ฀uence.฀When฀
winds฀die฀do wn฀and฀h umid฀air฀bec omes฀more฀tranquil,฀fog฀
may฀for m.฀Dense฀fog฀can฀r estrict฀v isibility฀o ver฀the฀wat er,฀
affecting฀shipping,฀and฀at฀air ports,฀causing฀f ฀ight฀delays฀and฀
cancellations.฀Every฀w inter,฀deadly,฀fog-r elated฀aut omobile฀
accidents฀oc cur฀along฀our฀busy฀hig hways.฀B ut฀fog฀has฀a ฀
฀positive฀side,฀too,฀especially฀ during฀a฀dr y฀spell,฀as฀fog฀mois-
© Eric Nguyen/Corbis
ture฀collects฀on฀tree฀branches฀and฀drips฀to฀the฀ground,฀where฀
it฀provides฀water฀for฀the฀root฀system.
Weather฀and฀climate฀have฀become฀so฀much฀a฀part฀of฀our฀
lives฀that฀the฀f ฀rst฀thing฀man y฀of ฀us฀do฀in฀the฀mor ning฀is ฀
● F I G U R E 1. 2 0 A฀tornado฀and฀a฀rainbow฀form฀over฀south-central฀
listen฀t o฀the฀local฀w eather฀for ecast.฀F or฀this฀r eason,฀man y฀
Kansas฀during฀June฀2004.฀White฀streaks฀in฀the฀sky฀are฀descending฀
radio฀and฀t elevision฀newscasts฀ha ve฀their฀o wn฀ “weather-
฀hailstones.
● F I G U R E 1. 2 1 Flooding฀
in฀Winnipeg฀during฀April฀and฀
May฀1997.฀The฀Red฀River฀
reached฀its฀highest฀levels฀since฀
1826,฀causing฀widespread฀
f฀ooding฀affecting฀southern฀
Manitoba฀as฀well฀as฀North฀
Dakota฀and฀Minnesota.฀
CP PHOTO/Tom Hanson
NEL
FFO C U S O N A S P E C I AL TO PI C
What Is a Meteorologist?
W
Most people associate the term “meteorologist”

● F I G U R E 5 A model that
with the weatherperson they see on television or
simulates a three-dimensional
hear on the radio. Many television and radio
view of the atmosphere. This
weathercasters are, in fact, professional meteorol- computer model predicts how
ogists, but some are not. A professional meteo- winds and clouds over North
rologist is usually considered to be a person who America will change with time.
has completed the requirements for a university
degree in meteorology or atmospheric science.
This individual has strong, fundamental knowl-
edge concerning how the atmosphere behaves,
along with a substantial background of course-
work in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and
the environmental sciences.
A meteorologist uses scientific principles
NCAR/UCAR/NSF
to explain and to forecast atmospheric phe-

nomena. About two-thirds of the approximately
1350 meteorologists and atmospheric scientists
in Canada (about half of the 9000 in the
United States) work doing weather forecasting planners and social scientists, to determine how Meteorologists also provide a variety of
for the Meteorological Service of Canada (the the atmosphere interacts with the entire eco- services not only to the general public in the
National Weather Service in the United States). system. Scientists doing work in physical mete- form of weather forecasts but also to city
The rest work for the military or television or orology may study how radiant energy warms planners, contractors, farmers, and large cor-
radio stations, work in research, teach atmo- the atmosphere; those at work in the field of porations. Meteorologists working for private
spheric science courses in colleges and univer- dynamic meteorology might be using the math- weather firms create the forecasts and
sities, or do meteorological consulting work. ematical equations that describe airflow to learn graphics that are found in newspapers, on
Scientists who do atmospheric research more about jet streams. Scientists working in television, and on the Internet. Overall, there
may be investigating how the climate is operational meteorology might be preparing a are many exciting jobs that fall under the
changing, how snowflakes form, or how pollu- weather forecast by analyzing upper-air informa- heading of “meteorologist”—too many to
tion impacts the environment. Aided by super- tion over North America. A climatologist, or cli- mention here. However, for more information
computers, some research meteorologists mate scientist, might be studying the interaction on this topic, try some of the following
simulate the atmosphere using computer of the atmosphere and ocean to see what influ- websites:
models, to see how it behaves (see ●฀ Figure 5). ence such an interchange might have on Earth ● http://www.cmos.ca/
Researchers often work closely with scientists many years from now. Consulting meteorolo- ● http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/jobs_emplois/
from other fields, such as biologists, environ- gists might be conducting air pollution disper- Careers/Meteorologist_e.cfm
mental scientists, chemists, physicists, oceanog- sion modelling to understand the impact of an ● http://www.ametsoc.org/ and click on
raphers, and mathematicians, as well as industrial facility on air quality. “Students”
person”฀to฀present฀weather฀information฀and฀g ive฀daily฀fore- information฀pr ovided฀b y฀the฀M eteorological฀Ser vice฀of ฀

casts.฀M ore฀and฀mor e฀of ฀these฀people฀ar e฀pr ofessionally฀ Canada฀(MSC), ฀suc h฀as฀c omputerized฀w eather฀for ecasts,฀
trained฀in฀met eorology,฀and฀man y฀stations฀r equire฀that฀the฀ time-lapse฀sat ellite฀images,฀and฀c olour฀Doppler฀r adar฀dis-
weathercaster฀obtain฀endorsement฀from฀the฀Canadian฀Mete- plays.฀(A t฀this฀point, ฀it฀is฀int eresting฀t o฀not e฀that฀man y฀
orological฀and฀Oceanographic฀Society฀(CMOS)฀(or฀a฀seal฀of ฀ viewers฀belie ve฀that฀the฀w eatherperson฀the y฀see฀on฀TV฀is฀a฀
approval฀fr om฀the฀ American฀M eteorological฀Societ y).฀To฀ meteorologist฀and฀that฀all฀met eorologists฀for ecast฀the ฀
make฀their฀w eather฀pr esentation฀as฀up-t o-the-minute฀as ฀ weather.฀If฀you฀are฀interested฀in฀learning฀what฀a฀met eorolo-
possible,฀most฀stations฀in฀Canada฀tak e฀ad vantage฀of ฀the ฀ gist฀or฀atmospheric฀scientist฀is฀and฀what฀he฀or฀she฀mig ht฀do฀
NEL
28 CH A PTER 1
WEATHE R WATCH
During late August and September 2005, Hurricane Katrina

slammed into Mississippi and Louisiana (see Figure 1.14). In the
city of New Orleans, several levees (that protected the city from
flooding) broke, and flood waters over six metres deep inundated
parts of the city, killing over 1200 people.
for฀a฀living฀[other฀than฀forecast฀the฀weather],฀read฀Focus฀on฀
a฀Special฀Topic:฀What฀Is฀a฀Meteorologist?฀on฀p.฀27.)
For฀man y฀y ears,฀a฀staff ฀of ฀t rained฀pr ofessionals฀at฀the ฀
“Weather฀N etwork”/“Météo฀Média ”฀in฀Canada฀and฀ “The฀
Weather฀Channel”฀in฀the฀United฀States฀have฀provided฀weather฀
information฀24฀hours฀a฀da y฀on฀cable฀t elevision.฀As฀well,฀the฀
© Jon Hicks/CORBIS
Meteorological฀Ser vice฀of ฀Canada฀oper ates฀ Weatheradio฀

Canada,฀a฀national฀netw ork฀broadcasting฀weather฀and฀en vi-
ronmental฀infor mation฀24฀hours฀a฀da y฀on฀the฀ VHF฀band ฀
directly฀from฀Environment฀Canada’s฀Storm฀Prediction฀Cen-
● F I G U R E 1. 2 2 Estimates฀are฀that฀lightning฀strikes฀Earth฀about฀
tres.฀A฀special฀war ning฀t one฀can฀be฀issued฀when฀a฀w eather฀
100฀times฀every฀second.฀About฀25฀million฀lightning฀strikes฀hit฀the฀
warning฀is฀made,฀which฀will฀activate฀a฀weather฀radio’s฀internal฀
United฀States฀each฀year,฀and฀there฀are฀about฀2.7฀million฀in฀Canada.฀
Consequently,฀lightning฀is฀a฀very฀common,฀and฀sometimes฀deadly,฀
alert฀syst em฀t o฀tur n฀on฀the฀r adio.฀ A฀similar฀syst em฀called ฀
weather฀phenomenon. NOAA฀Weather฀Radio฀exists฀in฀the฀United฀States.
SUMMARY
This฀c hapter฀pr ovided฀an฀o verview฀of ฀Ear th’s฀at mosphere.฀ lighter฀molecules฀can฀actually฀escape฀Earth’s฀gravitational฀pull฀
Most฀of฀the฀topics฀touched฀on,฀such฀as฀the฀various฀storms฀and฀ and฀shoot฀off฀into฀space.฀The฀ionosphere฀represents฀that฀por-
weather฀syst ems,฀w ill฀be฀e xamined฀in฀m uch฀mor e฀depth฀in฀ tion฀of ฀the฀upper฀at mosphere฀wher e฀large฀n umbers฀of ฀ions฀
subsequent฀chapters.฀We฀saw฀that฀the฀atmosphere฀is฀one฀of ฀a฀ and฀free฀electrons฀exist.
set฀of ฀int erconnected฀syst ems฀that฀mak e฀up฀Ear th:฀at mo- We฀looked฀brief฀y฀at฀the฀weather฀map฀and฀a฀satellite฀image฀
sphere,฀biospher e/anthrosphere,฀h ydrosphere/cryosphere,฀ and฀obser ved฀that฀dispersed฀thr oughout฀the฀at mosphere฀are฀
and฀lithosphere.฀Each฀of฀these฀systems฀is฀linked฀to฀each฀of฀the฀ storms฀and฀clouds฀of ฀all฀siz es฀and฀shapes. ฀The฀mo vement,฀
others฀in฀various฀ways,฀and฀these฀linkages฀will฀be฀highlighted฀ intensif฀cation,฀and฀w eakening฀of฀these฀syst ems,฀as฀w ell฀as฀the ฀
at฀the฀start฀of฀each฀chapter. dynamic฀nature฀of฀air฀itself,฀produce฀a฀variety฀of฀weather฀events฀
Our฀at mosphere฀is฀one฀r ich฀in฀nit rogen฀and฀o xygen฀as฀ that฀we฀described฀in฀terms฀of฀weather฀elements.฀The฀sum฀total฀
well฀as฀smaller฀amounts฀of฀other฀gases,฀such฀as฀water฀vapour,฀ of฀weather฀and฀its฀extremes฀over฀a฀long฀period฀of฀time฀is฀what฀
carbon฀dioxide,฀and฀other฀greenhouse฀gases฀whose฀increasing฀ we฀call฀climat e.฀ Although฀sudden฀c hanges฀in฀w eather฀ma y฀
levels฀are฀resulting฀in฀g lobal฀warming.฀We฀examined฀Earth’s฀ occur฀in฀a฀moment,฀climatic฀change฀takes฀place฀gradually฀over฀
early฀atmosphere฀and฀found฀it฀to฀be฀much฀different฀from฀the฀ many฀years.฀The฀study฀of฀the฀atmosphere฀and฀all฀of ฀its฀related฀
air฀we฀breathe฀today. phenomena฀is฀called฀ meteorology,฀a฀t erm฀whose฀or igin฀dates฀
We฀investigated฀the฀various฀layers฀of฀the฀atmosphere:฀the฀ back฀to฀the฀days฀of฀Aristotle.฀Finally,฀we฀discussed฀some฀of ฀the฀
troposphere฀(the฀lowest฀layer),฀where฀almost฀all฀weather฀events฀ many฀ways฀weather฀and฀climate฀inf฀uence฀our฀lives.
occur,฀and฀the฀st ratosphere,฀where฀ozone฀protects฀us฀fr om฀a฀
portion฀of ฀the฀sun ’s฀harmful฀rays.฀In฀the฀st ratosphere,฀ozone฀ KEY TERMS
has฀decr eased฀in฀c oncentration฀o ver฀polar฀r egions฀dur ing฀
spring,฀especially฀in฀the฀Souther n฀hemispher e.฀ Above฀the ฀ The฀follo wing฀t erms฀ar e฀list ed฀(w ith฀page฀n umbers)฀in฀the฀
stratosphere฀lies฀the฀mesospher e,฀where฀the฀air฀t emperature฀ order฀they฀appear฀in฀the฀t ext.฀Def฀ne฀each.฀Doing฀so฀w ill฀aid฀
drops฀dramatically฀with฀height.฀Above฀the฀mesosphere฀lies฀the฀ you฀in฀reviewing฀the฀material฀covered฀in฀this฀chapter.
thermosphere,฀where฀temperatures฀are฀highest.฀At฀the฀t op฀of ฀
the฀thermosphere฀is฀the฀e xosphere,฀where฀collisions฀between฀ atmosphere,฀4 geosphere,฀4
gas฀molecules฀and฀at oms฀are฀so฀infr equent฀that฀fast-mo ving฀ lithosphere,฀4 pedosphere,฀4
NEL
hydrosphere,฀4 troposphere,฀16 ฀ 6.฀ List฀the฀tw o฀most฀abundant฀g reenhouse฀gases฀in฀Ear th’s฀

cryosphere,฀4 stratosphere,฀16 atmosphere.฀What฀makes฀them฀greenhouse฀gases?
biosphere,฀4 tropopause,฀16 ฀ 7.฀ Explain฀ho w฀the฀at mosphere฀“protects”฀inhabitants฀at ฀
anthrosphere,฀4 radiosondes,฀16 Earth’s฀surface.
radiation,฀4 mesosphere,฀17 ฀ 8.฀ What฀are฀some฀of฀the฀aerosols฀in฀our฀atmosphere?
radiant฀energy,฀4 thermosphere,฀17
฀ 9.฀ How฀has฀the฀composition฀of฀Earth’s฀atmosphere฀changed฀
nitrogen฀(N2),฀5 kinetic฀energy,฀17
over฀time?฀Brief฀y฀outline฀the฀e volution฀of฀Earth’s฀atmo-
oxygen฀(O2),฀5 exosphere,฀18
sphere.
water฀vapour,฀5 homosphere,฀19
argon,฀5 heterosphere,฀19 ฀10.฀ (a)฀ Explain฀the฀concept฀of฀air฀pressure฀in฀terms฀of฀mass฀
carbon฀dioxide฀(CO2),฀5 ionosphere,฀19 of฀air฀above฀some฀level.
trace฀gases,฀5 weather,฀20 (b)฀ Why฀does฀air฀pressure฀always฀decrease฀with฀increasing฀
condensation,฀7 climate,฀20 height฀above฀the฀surface?
evaporation,฀7 plate฀tectonics,฀20 11.฀ What฀is฀standar d฀at mospheric฀pr essure฀at฀sea฀le vel฀in ฀
precipitation,฀7 meteorology,฀20 (a)฀฀millimetres฀of ฀mer cury,฀(b)฀hect opascals,฀and ฀
hydrologic฀cycle,฀7 middle฀latitudes,฀21 (c)฀kilopascals?
latent฀heat,฀7 middle-latitude฀cyclonic฀ 12. What฀is฀the฀average฀or฀standard฀temperature฀lapse฀rate฀in฀
photosynthesis,฀7 storm,฀21 the฀troposphere?
methane฀(CH4),฀9 hurricane,฀21 13.฀B rief฀y฀descr ibe฀ho w฀the฀air฀t emperature฀c hanges฀fr om฀
nitrous฀oxide฀(N2O),฀9 thunderstorms,฀22 Earth’s฀surface฀to฀the฀lower฀thermosphere.
chlorof฀uorocarbons฀ tornado,฀22
14.฀ On฀the฀basis฀of ฀temperature,฀list฀the฀la yers฀of฀the฀at mo-
(CFCs),฀9 lows,฀23
sphere฀from฀the฀lowest฀to฀the฀highest฀layer.
ozone฀(O3),฀10 cyclones,฀23
photochemical฀smog,฀10 highs,฀23 15.฀ What฀atmospheric฀layer฀contains฀all฀of฀our฀weather?
ozone฀hole,฀10 anticyclones,฀23 ฀16.฀(a)฀ In฀ what฀at mospheric฀la yer฀do฀w e฀f ฀nd฀the฀lo west฀
aerosols,฀11 wind,฀23 average฀air฀temperature?
pollutants,฀11 wind฀direction,฀23 (b)฀ The฀highest฀average฀temperature?
nitrogen฀dioxide฀(NO2),฀11 fronts,฀23 (c)฀ The฀highest฀concentration฀of฀ozone?
carbon฀monoxide฀(CO),฀11 cold฀front,฀23 17.฀ Above฀what฀r egion(s)฀of ฀the฀w orld฀w ould฀y ou฀f ฀nd฀ an฀
hydrocarbons,฀11 warm฀front,฀24 ozone฀hole?
sulphur฀dioxide฀(SO2),฀11 occluded฀front,฀24
18. How฀does฀the฀ionospher e฀affect฀ AM฀radio฀transmission฀
acid฀rain,฀11 wind฀chill,฀24
during฀the฀day฀versus฀during฀the฀night?
outgassing,฀11 frostbite,฀24
photodissociation,฀12 hypothermia,฀24 19.฀ Even฀though฀the฀actual฀c oncentration฀of฀oxygen฀is฀close฀
density,฀12 heat฀stroke,฀24 to฀21฀per cent฀(b y฀v olume)฀ in฀the฀upper฀st ratosphere,฀
exponential฀rate฀of฀change,฀13 chinook฀wind,฀24 explain฀wh y,฀w ithout฀pr oper฀br eathing฀appar atus,฀y ou฀
pressure,฀13 severe฀thunderstorms,฀25 would฀not฀be฀able฀to฀survive฀there.
air฀pressure,฀14 f฀ash฀f฀oods,฀25 20.฀Def฀ne฀meteorology฀and฀discuss฀the฀or igin฀of฀this฀word.
lapse฀rate,฀15 downburst,฀26 21. When฀someone฀sa ys฀that฀ “the฀w ind฀dir ection฀t oday฀is ฀
temperature฀inversion,฀16 wind฀shear,฀26 south,”฀does฀this฀mean฀that฀the฀w ind฀is฀blo wing฀toward฀
the฀south฀or฀from฀the฀south?
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 22.฀ Describe฀some฀of ฀the฀featur es฀obser ved฀on฀a฀surfac e฀
฀ 1.฀ What฀is฀the฀pr imary฀source฀of ฀energ y฀for฀Ear th’s฀atmo- weather฀map.
sphere? 23.฀ Explain฀ho w฀w ind฀blo ws฀ar ound฀lo w-pressure฀ar eas฀in ฀
฀ 2.฀ List฀the฀four฀most฀abundant฀gases฀in฀t oday’s฀at mo- the฀Northern฀Hemisphere.
sphere. 24. How฀are฀fronts฀def฀ned?
฀ 3.฀ Of฀the฀four฀most฀abundant฀gases฀in฀our฀at mosphere,฀ 25. Rank฀the฀following฀storms฀in฀size฀from฀largest฀to฀smallest:฀
which฀one฀sho ws฀the฀g reatest฀var iation฀at฀Ear th’s฀ hurricane,฀t ornado,฀middle-latitude฀cy clonic฀st orm,฀
฀surface? thunderstorm.
฀ 4.฀ What฀are฀some฀of฀the฀important฀roles฀that฀water฀plays฀in฀ 26. Weather฀in฀the฀middle฀latitudes฀t ends฀t o฀mo ve฀in฀what฀
our฀atmosphere? general฀direction?
฀ 5.฀B rief฀y฀explain฀the฀production฀and฀natural฀destruction฀of฀ 27. How฀does฀weather฀differ฀from฀climate?
carbon฀dioxide฀near฀Earth’s฀surface.฀Give฀two฀reasons฀for฀ 28.฀ Describe฀some฀of฀the฀ways฀weather฀and฀climate฀inf฀uence฀
the฀increase฀of฀carbon฀dioxide฀over฀the฀past฀100฀years. the฀lives฀of฀people.
NEL
30 CH A PTER 1
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT ฀ 3.฀ If฀y ou฀w ere฀suddenly฀plac ed฀at฀an฀altitude฀of ฀100฀km ฀

above฀Earth,฀would฀you฀expect฀your฀stomach฀to฀expand฀
฀ 1.฀ Which฀of฀the฀following฀statements฀relate฀more฀to฀weather฀ or฀contract?฀Explain.
and฀which฀relate฀more฀to฀climate?
(a)฀ The฀summers฀here฀are฀warm฀and฀humid.
(b)฀ Cumulus฀clouds฀presently฀cover฀the฀entire฀sky. PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES
(c)฀ Our฀lowest฀temperature฀last฀winter฀was฀⫺29⬚C. ฀ 1.฀ Keep฀track฀of฀the฀w eather.฀On฀an฀outline฀map฀of ฀North฀
(d)฀ The฀air฀temperature฀outside฀is฀22⬚C. America,฀mark฀the฀daily฀position฀of ฀fronts฀and฀pr essure฀
(e)฀ December฀is฀our฀foggiest฀month. systems฀for฀a฀per iod฀of ฀se veral฀w eeks฀or฀mor e.฀( This฀
information฀can฀be฀obtained฀fr om฀newspapers,฀the฀tele-
(f)฀ The฀hig hest฀t emperature฀e ver฀r ecorded฀in฀M idale,฀ vision฀news,฀or฀the฀Internet.)฀Plot฀the฀general฀upper-level฀
Saskatchewan,฀was฀45.0⬚C฀on฀July฀5,฀1937. f฀ow฀patt ern฀on฀the฀map .฀O bserve฀how฀the฀surfac e฀sys-
(g)฀ Snow฀is฀falling฀at฀the฀r ate฀of฀5฀cm฀per฀hour. tems฀mo ve.฀Relate฀this฀infor mation฀t o฀the฀mat erial฀on ฀
(h)฀ The฀average฀temperature฀for฀the฀month฀of฀January฀in฀ wind,฀fronts,฀and฀cyclones฀covered฀in฀later฀chapters.
Edmonton,฀Alberta,฀is฀⫺13.5⬚C. ฀ 2.฀ Compose฀a฀one-w eek฀journal,฀including฀daily฀newspaper ฀
฀ 2. A฀standar d฀pr essure฀of ฀1013.25฀hect opascals฀is฀also ฀ weather฀maps฀and฀w eather฀forecasts฀from฀the฀newspaper ฀
known฀as฀one฀atmosphere฀(1฀ATM).฀ or฀from฀the฀Internet.฀Provide฀a฀commentary฀for฀each฀day฀
(a)฀ Look฀at฀Figure฀1.10฀and฀determine฀at฀approximately฀ regarding฀the฀coincidence฀of฀actual฀and฀predicted฀weather.
what฀levels฀you฀would฀record฀a฀pressure฀of฀0.5฀ATM฀ ฀ 3.฀ Formulate฀a฀short-term฀climatology฀for฀your฀city฀for฀one฀
and฀0.1฀ATM.฀ month฀b y฀r ecording฀maxim um฀and฀minim um฀
(b)฀T he฀s urface฀ air฀pr essure฀on฀M ars฀is฀about฀0.007 ฀ ฀temperatures฀and฀pr ecipitation฀amounts฀e very฀da y.฀
ATM.฀If฀you฀were฀standing฀on฀M ars,฀the฀surface฀air฀ You฀can฀get฀this฀infor mation฀fr om฀t elevision,฀newspa-
pressure฀would฀be฀equivalent฀to฀a฀pressure฀observed฀ pers,฀the฀Internet,฀or฀your฀own฀measurements.฀Compare฀
at฀appr oximately฀what฀ele vation฀in฀Ear th’s฀at mo- this฀data฀t o฀the฀actual฀climat ology฀for฀that฀month. ฀How฀
sphere? can฀you฀explain฀any฀large฀differences฀between฀the฀two?
NEL

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Vice President, Editorial Director: Production Service: Interior icons:

Earth’s atmosphere: the view from space.

Earth and Its Atmosphere

T o ﬂy in space is to see the reality of Earth, alone.

Earth and Its Atmosphere 5

–85⬚C฀during฀a฀fr igid฀Antarctic฀night฀and฀climb฀abo ve฀50⬚C฀ shrink฀to฀the฀siz e฀of ฀a฀bask etball,฀its฀inhabitable฀at mosphere฀

Composition of the Atmosphere Earth’s฀atmosphere฀is฀a฀

by฀biolog ical฀processes฀that฀in volve฀soil฀bact eria฀and฀b y฀tiny฀

▼ Table 1.1 Composition of the Atmosphere near Earth’s Surface

Nitrogen N2 78.084 780,840 decaying฀plants฀and฀animals฀ nitrogen-f฀xing฀bacteria฀in฀ 14,000,000

Water฀ H2O 0฀to฀4 0฀to฀40,000 evaporation฀ precipitation 0.026฀or฀9.5฀days

Earth and Its Atmosphere 7

Nitrous฀ N2O 0.0000314 0.314 nitrogen฀breakdown฀by฀bacteria฀ destruction฀through฀reaction฀ 120

atmosphere฀mainly฀through฀decaying฀plant฀and฀animal฀matter.฀ is฀called฀ evaporation.฀Falling฀r ain,฀snow,฀or฀some฀c ombina-

A Breath of Fresh Air

(such฀as฀coal,฀oil,฀and฀natural฀gas),฀and฀deforestation.฀Carbon฀ content.฀ ●฀Figur e฀1.4฀illust rates฀impor tant฀wa ys฀car bon฀

Earth and Its Atmosphere 9

*Originally,฀the฀w ord฀smog฀meant฀the฀c ombining฀of฀smoke฀and฀fog .฀Today,฀how-

Earth and Its Atmosphere 11

Earth and Its Atmosphere 13

The Atmospheres of Other Planets

Earth is unique. Not only does it lie at just the

Earth and Its Atmosphere 15

▼ Table 1 Our Solar System: Surface Temperatures and Atmospheric Components

At฀the฀ele vation฀of ฀the฀hig hest฀mountain฀peak฀on฀Ear th,฀ Earth’s฀surface.฀Air฀temperature,*฀however,฀has฀a฀mor e฀com-

If you are ﬂying in a jet aircraft at 9000 m above Earth’s surface,

“breaks”฀and฀is฀diff ฀cult฀t o฀locat e,฀and฀her e฀scientists฀ha ve฀

Earth and Its Atmosphere 17

involve฀no฀pain, ฀just฀a฀feeling฀of ฀e xhaustion.฀Soon฀v isual฀

Solar฀Maximum฀Mission฀spacecraft฀fell฀t o฀Earth฀in฀Dec ember฀ fairly฀uniform฀at฀78฀percent฀nitrogen,฀21฀percent฀oxygen฀due฀

Earth and Its Atmosphere 19

Weather and Climate

Earth and Its Atmosphere 21

Throughout฀the฀1990s฀and฀int o฀the฀21st฀c entury,฀sophisti- equator฀is฀0 ⬚,฀whereas฀the฀latitude฀of ฀the฀North฀Pole฀is฀90 ⬚N฀

and฀the฀atmospheric฀pressure฀is฀lowest.฀Around฀the฀eye,฀how- A Look at a Weather Map We฀can฀obtain฀a฀better฀picture฀

Earth and Its Atmosphere 23

regions฀of ฀hig h฀pressure,฀called฀ highs,฀o r฀anticyclones.฀The฀ s฀ urface฀air.฀Since฀sinking฀air฀does฀not฀usually฀produce฀clouds,฀

north,฀a฀warm฀front฀is฀drawn฀in฀red,฀with฀half฀circles฀showing฀ how฀cold฀or฀war m฀it฀feels.฀On฀a฀c old,฀windy฀day,฀the฀effects฀

Earth and Its Atmosphere 25

phenomenon฀discussed฀in฀Chapt er฀10฀that฀affects฀g lobal฀ snow฀over฀the฀hig her฀mountains.฀These฀ “pineapple฀express”฀

in฀Canada฀can฀also฀ha ve฀sig nif฀cant฀impacts: ฀in฀the฀1980s, ฀

trees฀(see฀ ●฀Figur e฀1.21). ฀On฀a verage,฀f ฀ooding฀and฀f ฀ash฀

Earth and Its Atmosphere 27

Most people associate the term “meteorologist”

to explain and to forecast atmospheric phe-

person”฀to฀present฀weather฀information฀and฀g ive฀daily฀fore- information฀pr ovided฀b y฀the฀M eteorological฀Ser vice฀of ฀

During late August and September 2005, Hurricane Katrina

Meteorological฀Ser vice฀of ฀Canada฀oper ates฀ Weatheradio฀

Earth and Its Atmosphere 29

hydrosphere,฀4 troposphere,฀16 ฀ 6.฀ List฀the฀tw o฀most฀abundant฀g reenhouse฀gases฀in฀Ear th’s฀

QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT ฀ 3.฀ If฀y ou฀w ere฀suddenly฀plac ed฀at฀an฀altitude฀of ฀100฀km ฀

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