Digital Communications (EECS-4214) : (Fall-2021)

Digital Communications (EECS-4214)
[Fall-2021]
Hina Tabassum
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
York University, Canada
PCM: Non-Uniform Quantization Time Division Multiplexing Delta Modulation Line Coding
Week 0
Introduction to Course
Communication System
Analog vs Digital Communication
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
(Hina Tabassum) 2 / 51
Week 1
Review of Probability Concepts

Discrete Random Variables
Continuous Random Variables
Introduction to Random Processes
Stationary vs Non-stationary Random Processes
Summary: Random Variables
Random variable X
Characteristic Function
of X is similar to LT of X
with s= jw
Moment Generating Function

Probability Density Cumulative Density Moments of
(MGF) or
Function (PDF) Function (CDF) X
Laplace Transforms (LTs)
1st Moment of X,
1st Central Moment
i.e., Mean
around X, i.e., E[X-E[x]]
E[X]
2nd Central Moment

2nd Moment of X around mean of X, i.e.,
E[X^2] Variance Standard Deviation of X
E[(X-E[x])^2] is Square root of
Variance
Nth Central Moment
Nth Moment of X around mean of X, i.e.,
E[X^n] Variance
E[X-E[x]]
Week 2
Two Dimensional Transformation

Autocorrelation
Power Spectral Density
Random Process through Linear Systems
Practice Problems
Summary: Random Process
Random Process
Wide-Sense Auto Correlation

Ergodicity Strict Sense Stationary
Stationary (Time Domain)
Wiener-Khintchin
Theorem
Power Spectral Density

(Frequency Domain)
Ensemble Averaging Time Averaging
Week 3
Quiz-1
PCM: Sampling
PCM: Quantization
Sampling Quantization Encoding Modulation
Input Transmitter Reciever Output

Channel
Transducer (TX) (RX) Transducer
Source Destination
Summary: Sampling
Nyquist Criterion: Fs ≥ 2W
x (t ) X( f )
t f
Ts 2 Ts 3 Ts t Fs 2 Fs
f
t ~ f
X (f)
~
x (t ) H( f )
t f
Week 4
Scalar vs Vector Quantization

PCM: Uniform Quantization
PCM: Non-Uniform Quantization
Quantization
Scalar Uniform
SQNR
Non-
Vector
Uniform
Summary: Uniform PCM
Input signal amplitude range [-U0 U0 ]

Number of quantization levels: q = 2n
2U0
Quantization step: ∆ = q−1
Quantization noise power: E[nq2 ] = ∆2 /12
] 2
SQNR = 10log10 E[X
U2
+ 6n + 4.8[dB]
0
Uniformly Distributed Signal: SQNR= 20log10 (q − 1) [dB]

Uniformly Distributed Signal: q >> 1, SQNR= 6n [dB]
Gaussian Distributed Signal: SQNR= 20log10 (q − 1) − 7.25dB
Week 5
. PCM: Non-Uniform Quantization
. Time Division Multiplexing
. Delta Modulation
. Line Coding
Non-Uniform Quantizer
In non–uniform quantizer, the step size varies.
Non–uniform quantizer is equivalent to passing the baseband signal through a
compressor and then applying the compressed signal to a uniform quantizer.
The resultant signal is then transmitted.
At the receiver, a device called Expander is used to restore the signal samples to
their correct relative level.
Non-Uniform Quantization
Transmitter
COMPRESSOR A/D Converter
D/A Converter EXPANDER Receiver
Compression Laws: µ - Law
Commonly used logarithmic compression law

The µ-law is used for PCM telephone systems in the USA, Canada and Japan.
A practical value for µ is 255.
ln(1+µ|x|)
F(x) = ln(1+µ)
sgn(x), −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
Compression Laws: A- Law

Commonly used logarithmic compression law
The A-law is used for PCM telephone systems in the Europe.
A practical value for A is 100.
( 1+ln(A|x|)
1+ln(A)
sgn(x), 1/A ≤ |x| ≤ 1
F(x) = A|x|
1+ln(A)
sgn(x), |x| ≤ 1/A
Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio (SQNR)
∆2 fX (x)
E[nq2 ] =
R
12 x [F 0 (x)]2 dx
What happens when F(x) = x?
E[X 2 ]
SQNR= E[nq2 ]
E[nq2 ] Expression: µ - Law
∆2 fX (x)
E[nq2 ] =
R
12 x [F 0 (x)]2 dx
2
∆2 ln (1+µ)
R1
E[nq2 ] = 12 µ2 −1 (1 + µ|x|)2 fX (x)dx
0
This is a general expression with µ law compressor function F (x)
and thus can be used in conjunction with any type of signal
distributions fX (x).
Summary: Non-Uniform PCM
Input signal amplitude range [-U0 U0 ]

Number of quantization levels: q = 2n
2U0 ∆ U0
Quantization step: ∆i = (q−1)F 0 (xi ) = F 0 (x) ≈
2n−1 F 0 (xi )
∆2
R fX (x)
Quantization noise power: E[nq2 ] = 12 x [F 0 (x)]2 dx
2
∆2 ln (1+µ)
R1
E[nq2 ] = 12 µ2 −1 (1 + µ|x|)2 fX (x)dx
U02 ln2 (1+µ) R1

E[nq2 ] = 3.22n µ2 −1 (1 + µ|x|)2 fX (x)dx
Example: Uniform Distribution of Input Signal

If |U0 | ≤ 1, integrate over U0 , else integrate from -1 to 1.
∆2 (q−1)2 U2
E[X 2 ] = 12 = 30
2
∆2 ln (1+µ) 1
E[nq2 ] = + µ|x|)2 2U1 0 dx
R
12 µ2 −1 (1
2 ln2 (1+µ)
E[nq2 ] = 2 ∆
12 3µ3 [(1 + µU0 )3 − 1] 2U1 0 (if |U0 | ≤ 1)
2
∆2 ln (1+µ)
E[nq2 ] = 12 3µ3 [(1 + µ)3 − 1] U10 (if |U0 | > 1)
q2
SQNR = ln2 (1+µ)
(if |U0 | > 1)
3µ3
[(1+µ)3 −1] U1
0
2
(1+µ)
SQNR = 20log10 (q − 1) − 10log10 ln 3µ3 [(1 + µ)3 − 1] U10
What happens when µ → 0?
Example: Gaussian Distribution of Input Signal
x2
fX (x) = √1 e − 2σ2 , |x| ≤ 1/3
σ 2π
Find SQNR when σ =1
E[X 2 ]
SQNR = x2
∆2 ln2 (1+µ)
R 1/3
12 µ2 −1/3
(1+µ|x|)2 √1 e− 2 dx
2π
What is Multiplexing?
A method by which multiple analog or digital signals are

combined to be sent over a shared communication medium.
Types of multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing
Time division multiplexing
Space division multiplexing or Spatial multiplexing
PCM PCM
PCM
t1
PCM
t2
PCM t24 PCM
Time Division Multiplexing
T1 Carrier
T1 carrier system has been adopted in USA, Canada and Japan.

Accommodate 24 voice signals.
The voice signals are filtered with low-pass filter (cutoff 3400 Hz).
The filtered signals are sampled at 8KHz.
The µ-law companding technique is used with µ = 255.
Sampling rate of 8KHz
24 8-bit words plus a single framing bit for synchronization.
Each frame consists of a total 193 bits. Each frame is of duration
125 µsec, correspondingly, the bit rate is 1.544 Mbps.
Robbed/Non-Robbed Frames
1 bit per user is used for signaling purposes.
A super frame is composed of 12 frames and two frames are
robbed (i.e., every 6th frame is a robbed frame).
Total duration of a super frame
Sampling Duration
F 1 2 3 24
User-1, 8 bits Non-Robbed Frame
F 1 2 3 24
1 bit 7 bits Robbed Frame
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Super Frame
PCM PCM
Rate Calculations
Data rate per frame for all users

Data rate per frame for synchronization
Data rate per non-robbed frame for a user data
Data rate per robbed frame for a user data
Data rate per super frame of a user
Signaling data rate
Delta Modulation
Sample the base-band signal at a rate much higher than the

Nyquist rate to increase the correlation between adjacent samples
of the signal, so as to permit the use of a single quantizer strategy.
The difference between the input and the approximation is

quantized into only two levels, corresponding to positive and
negative differences, respectively,
In PCM, we encode every sample; whereas, in delta modulation

we encode the difference between two sample values obtained at
sampling instants as ∆.
Schematic Representation
Pulse Generator
x (t ) Pulse Shaping
+
Limiter x Filter
-
Graphical Illustration
Slope Overload x (t )
Output of the
Integrator
t Granular Noise
Pulse Train from

2 Ts 3 Ts Generator
Ts
t
Delta Modulated
Signal
t
Slope Overload
To avoid slope overload, the necessary condition is:

dx(t)

dt
≤ fs ∆ (1)
max
Clearly, slope overload can be prevented either by increasing

quantization step ∆ or sampling frequency fs .
Example: Assume x(t) = Am cos(2πfm t), where Am = 1v and
fm = 800 Hz. If ∆ = 0.1v, determine fs .
Granular Noise
The granular noise is uniformly distributed between −∆ and ∆.

1
fQ (q) = , −∆ ≤ q ≤ ∆
2∆
2
The average noise power can thus be given as E[q2 ] = ∆3
After passing the noise power through a low pass filter of
bandwidth W , the effective noise power can be given as
W W ∆2
N0 = E[q2 ] =
fs fs 3
Problem
Consider a sinusoidal signal with maximum frequency of 3.4KHz

and maximum amplitude of 1 volt. This speech signal is applied to a
delta modulator whose bit rate is set at 60 kbit/sec. Explain the
choice of an appropriate step size for the modulator.
Solution:
2πfm A
fs ≥ ∆
Problem
Consider a Delta modulator system designed to operate at 4 times

the Nyquist rate for a signal with a 4KHz bandwidth. The step size
of the quantizer is 400mV.
a) Find the maximum amplitude of a 1KHz input sinusoid for which
the delta modulator does not show slope overload.
b) Find post-filtered output SNR
Analog vs Digital Transmissions
Why Modulation of Digital Data?
The transmission medium is bandpass, and/or

Multiple users need to share the medium
Converting digital data to a bandpass analog signal is traditionally

called digital-to-analog conversion.
Types of Digital Modulation

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
The amplitude, frequency, phase or a combination of a carrier wave

(typically a sinewave) is varied based on the digital information to
be transmitted
ASK
Amplitude (strength) of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
Both frequency and phase remain constant
Commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero
ASK
Demodulation: only the presence or absence of a sinusoid in a given time

interval needs to be determined
Advantage: simplicity
Disadvantage: ASK is very susceptible to noise interference – noise usually
(only) affects the amplitude, therefore ASK is the modulation technique most
affected by noise
Application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber
FSK
Frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant during each bit interval.
FSK
Demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine which of two possible

frequencies is present at a given time
Advantage: FSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK – receiver is looking for
specific frequency changes over a number of intervals, so voltage (noise) spikes
can be ignored
Disadvantage: FSK spectrum is 2 x ASK spectrum
Application: modems (low speed and noisy environments where accuracy is
preferred over speed)
PSK
phase of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
peak amplitude and frequency remain constant during each bit interval
PSK
Demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine the phase of received
sinusoid with respect to some reference phase
Advantage: PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while it
requires/occupies the same bandwidth as ASK. More efficient use of bandwidth
(higher data-rate) are possible, compared to FSK.
Disadvantage: more complex signal detection / recovery process, than in ASK
and FSK
Types of PSK: BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK, etc.
QAM
The idea of using two carriers, one in-phase and the other quadrature, with
different amplitude levels for each carrier is the concept behind quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM), which is a modulation scheme with variations in
both phase and amplitude.
Line Coding
A line code is a code selected for use within a communications
system for transmitting a digital signal over the channel.
It is a process of converting binary data (sequence of bits) to a
digital signal, i.e. bits are transmitted ‘one-by-one’ –different from
block coding
Types of Line Coding
Bit Rate vs Baud Rate
The speed of data is expressed in bits/second or bytes/second.

The data rate Rb is related to the bit period Tb . Rb = 1/Tb .
Communication systems use symbols to convey information. A
symbol may be one bit per symbol (called binary), or a group of bits,
or a collection of defined voltage levels (multiple level symbols), etc.
The symbol rate is related to the symbol’s period, RS = 1/TS .
The symbol rate is also called Baud rate.
Bit rate is given as Rb = RS log2 2n , where n is bits per symbol.
Unipolar RZ and NRZ
Polar RZ and NRZ
BiPolar NRZ
BiPolar RZ
Manchester (Bi-Phase or Split-Phase) Encoding
Differential Manchester (Bi-Phase) Encoding
Polar Quaternary NRZ (2B1Q)
Design Considerations
Smaller transmission bandwidths

Power efficiency: Keep power as low as possible.
Error detection and correction capability: error correcting codes
are a special topic
Favorable Power Spectral Density: We want zero power at DC
(f = 0) to avoid baseline drift.
Adequate timing content: Often we must extract the timing or
clock information from the signal.
Transparency: This means for every possible sequence of data the
coded signal is received correctly.

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Digital Communications (EECS-4214)

Review of Probability Concepts

Summary: Random Variables

Moment Generating Function

2nd Central Moment

Two Dimensional Transformation

Summary: Random Process

Wide-Sense Auto Correlation

Power Spectral Density

Sampling Quantization Encoding Modulation

Input Transmitter Reciever Output

Scalar vs Vector Quantization

Summary: Uniform PCM

Input signal amplitude range [-U0 U0 ]

Uniformly Distributed Signal: SQNR= 20log10 (q − 1) [dB]

. PCM: Non-Uniform Quantization

. Time Division Multiplexing

D/A Converter EXPANDER Receiver

Compression Laws: µ - Law

Commonly used logarithmic compression law

Compression Laws: A- Law

Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio (SQNR)

What happens when F(x) = x?

E[nq2 ] Expression: µ - Law

Summary: Non-Uniform PCM

Input signal amplitude range [-U0 U0 ]

U02 ln2 (1+µ) R1

Example: Uniform Distribution of Input Signal

What happens when µ → 0?

Example: Gaussian Distribution of Input Signal

A method by which multiple analog or digital signals are

PCM t24 PCM

Time Division Multiplexing

T1 carrier system has been adopted in USA, Canada and Japan.

User-1, 8 bits Non-Robbed Frame

1 bit 7 bits Robbed Frame

Data rate per frame for all users

Sample the base-band signal at a rate much higher than the

The difference between the input and the approximation is

In PCM, we encode every sample; whereas, in delta modulation

Pulse Train from

To avoid slope overload, the necessary condition is:

Clearly, slope overload can be prevented either by increasing

The granular noise is uniformly distributed between −∆ and ∆.

Consider a sinusoidal signal with maximum frequency of 3.4KHz

Consider a Delta modulator system designed to operate at 4 times

Analog vs Digital Transmissions

Why Modulation of Digital Data?

The transmission medium is bandpass, and/or

Converting digital data to a bandpass analog signal is traditionally

Types of Digital Modulation

The amplitude, frequency, phase or a combination of a carrier wave

Demodulation: only the presence or absence of a sinusoid in a given time

Demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine which of two possible

Types of Line Coding

Bit Rate vs Baud Rate

The speed of data is expressed in bits/second or bytes/second.

Unipolar RZ and NRZ

Polar RZ and NRZ

Manchester (Bi-Phase or Split-Phase) Encoding

Differential Manchester (Bi-Phase) Encoding

Polar Quaternary NRZ (2B1Q)

Smaller transmission bandwidths