Assignment # 01 Course Code 0831

Course Name Foundation of Education Semester Spring 2020

Q.1: How can we build our education system on the Islamic foundations of educations?

Answer:
Importance of Education in Islam
Islam is the religion of peace, and it is one of the most sacred and trustworthy religions, which
has given us guidance in every aspect of life. Islam has given us education with knowledge
which has no limits. The Holy Quran is the most sacred book of Allah revealed on Prophet
Muhammad (SAW), for the guidance and enriched messages to the humanity. Education is the
knowledge of putting one's potentials to maximum use. Without education, no one can find the
proper right path in this world. This importance of education is basically for two reasons.
Education makes man a right thinker. Without education, no one can think properly in an
appropriate context you. It tells man how to think and how to make decision. The second reason
for the importance of education is that only through the attainment of education, man is enabled
to receive information from the external world. It is well said that

"Without education, man is as though in a closed room and with education he finds himself
in a room with all its windows open towards outside world."

This is why Islam attaches such great importance to knowledge and education. When the Quran
began to be revealed, the first word of its first verse was 'Iqra' that is, read. The reflective book
of Holy Quran is so rich in content and meaning that if the history of human thought continues
forever, this book is not likely to be read to its end. Every day it conveys a new message to the
humanity. Every morning, it gives us new thoughtful ideas and bound us in the boundaries of
ethics. Islamic Education is one of the best systems of education, which makes an ethical
groomed person with all the qualities, which he/she should have as a human being. The Western
world has created the wrong image of Islam in the world. They don't know that our teachings are
directly given to us from Allah, who is the creator of this world, through our Prophets.
The Muslims all over the world are thirsty of acquiring quality education. They know their
boundaries and never try to cross it. It is the West, which has created a hype that the Muslim are
not in a path of getting proper education. They think that our education teaches us fighting, about
weapons, etc., which is so false. This is true that there are certain elements, which force an
individual to be on the wrong path, because as we will mold a child, they will be like that, but it
doesn't mean that our religion teaches improperly to us. Our Holy Prophet (SAW), said,

“Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave”

“Seek knowledge even [if it is to be found in a place as distant as China”

At the battle of Badr, in which our beloved Holy Prophet (SAW) gained victory over his foes,
seventy people of the enemy rank were taken to prison. These prisoners were literate people. In
order to benefit from their education the Prophet declared that if one prisoner teaches ten Muslim
children how to read and write, this will serve as his ransom and he will be set free. This was the
first school in the history of Islam established by the Prophet himself with all its teachers being
non-Muslims. The Sunnah of the Prophet shows that education is to be received whatever the
risk involved.
Today, the Muslims are acquiring good ideas, thoughts, knowledge, and skills, from all corners
of the world. The world is moving very fast, and in this industrialize world, It is the duty of the
teachers to give quality ethical integrated education to the Muslim students worldwide, because
children are invaluable assets of future generations. The Prophet Muhammad (SAW) encouraged
all Muslims to acquire knowledge and share it.

He said:
"Acquire knowledge, for he who acquires it in the way of Allah performs an act of piety; he who
speaks of it, praises the Lord; he who seeks it, adores Allah; he who dispenses instruction in it,
bestows alms; and he who imparts it to others, performs an act of devotion to Allah." (Bukhari,
Muslim)

All the teachers of either secular or religious education should give more attention to the pupils
inside the classroom. It is necessary that in the Islamic system that we should consider these dear
children as our own children, and put aside all other considerations, and rise above all such
things and realize our duty and our mission. We should raise the standards of education and
attend to the needs of these children. We should realize our duties with earnestness and awaken
to the sense of responsibility. It has been seen that there are certain teacher who are not fulfilling
their duties with keen interest. I would like to request all the teachers that for the sake of God, for
the sake of your revolutionary duty, teach the children with devotion and dedication. It is
important that we advance our work through discussions, debates, studies, and through proper
distribution of work among ourselves. We must never forget that we are living in an Islamic
State, and our aim should be simultaneously to create both an independent as well as an Islamic
culture in character. Independence and richness of content are indeed among the characteristics
of the Islamic culture. Our system is an ideological system. We should make our child
enthusiastic, dynamic, and this search should pervade every corner of our society. We should
aspire them to be truthful and sincere. Self-sacrifice and generosity, love of freedom, the resolve
for resistance and headstrong perseverance, the courage to welcome martyrdom-all these are the
new values of the new generation, which should be taught according to the teaching of Islam.

Q.2: Write a detail note on naturalism?

Answer:

In philosophy, naturalism is the idea or belief that only natural (as opposed to supernatural or
spiritual) laws and forces operate in the universe. Adherents of naturalism assert that natural laws
are the rules that govern the structure and behavior of the natural universe, that the changing
universe at every stage is a product of these laws.
Naturalism is not so much a special system as a point of view or tendency common to a number
of
philosophical and religious systems; not so much a well-defined set of positive and negative
doctrines as an attitude or spirit pervading and influencing many doctrines. As the name implies,
this tendency consists essentially in looking upon nature as the one original and fundamental
source of all that exists, and in attempting to explain everything in terms of nature. Either the
limits of nature are also the limits of existing reality, or at least the first cause, if its existence is
found necessary, has nothing to do with the working of natural agencies. All events, therefore,
find their adequate explanation within nature itself. But, as the terms nature and natural are
themselves used in more than one sense, the term naturalism is also far from having one fixed
meaning.

— Dubray 1911
"Naturalism can intuitively be separated into an ontological and a methodological component"
argues David Papineau. "Ontological" refers to the philosophical study of the nature of being.
Some philosophers equate naturalism with materialism. For example, philosopher Paul Kurtz
argues that nature is best accounted for by reference to material principles. These principles
include mass, energy, and other physical and chemical properties accepted by the scientific
community. Further, this sense of naturalism holds that spirits, deities, and ghosts are not real
and that there is no "purpose" in nature. Such an absolute belief in naturalism is commonly
referred to as metaphysical naturalism.
Assuming naturalism in working methods as the current paradigm, without the further
consideration of naturalism as an absolute truth with philosophical entailment, is called
methodological naturalism.

According to Steven Schafersman, naturalism is a philosophy that maintains that;

1. "Nature encompasses all that exists throughout space and time;

2. Nature (the universe or cosmos) consists only of natural elements, that is, of spatiotemporal
physical substance—mass–energy. Non-physical or quasi-physical substance, such as
information, ideas, values, logic, mathematics, intellect, and other emergent phenomena, either
supervene upon the physical or can be reduced to a physical account;
3. Nature operates by the laws of physics and in principle, can be explained and understood by
science and philosophy;
4. The supernatural does not exist, i.e., only nature is real. Naturalism is therefore a
metaphysical philosophy opposed primarily by supernaturalism".

Or, as Carl Sagan succinctly put it:

"The Cosmos is all that is or ever was or ever will be."
In addition Arthur C. Danto states that Naturalism, in recent usage, is a species of philosophical
monism according to which whatever exists or happens is natural in the sense of being
susceptible to explanation through methods which, although paradigmatically exemplified in the
natural sciences, are continuous from domain to domain of objects and events. Hence, naturalism
is polemically defined as repudiating the view that there exists or could exist any entities which
lie, in principle, beyond the scope of scientific explanation. Arthur Newell Strahler states:

"The naturalistic view is that the particular universe we observe came into existence and
 has operated through all time and in all its parts without the impetus or guidance of any
supernatural agency."

"The great majority of contemporary philosophers urge that that reality is exhausted by nature,
containing nothing ‘supernatural’, and that the scientific method should be used to investigate all
areas of reality, including the ‘human spirit’.” Philosophers widely regard naturalism as a
"positive" term, and "few active philosophers nowadays are happy to announce themselves as
'non-naturalists'".

According to Robert Priddy, all scientific study inescapably builds on at least some essential
assumptions that are untested by scientific processes; that is, that scientists must start with some
assumptions as to the ultimate analysis of the facts with which it deals. These assumptions would
then be justified partly by their adherence to the types of occurrence of which we are directly
conscious, and partly by their success in representing the observed facts with a certain generality,
devoid of ad hoc suppositions.
“Kuhn” also claims that all science is based on an approved agenda of unprovable assumptions
about the character of the universe, rather than merely on empirical facts. These assumptions a
paradigm comprise a collection of beliefs, values and techniques that are held by a given
scientific community, which legitimize their systems and set the limitations to their investigation.
For naturalists, nature is the only reality, the "correct" paradigm, and there is no such thing as
'supernatural'. The scientific method is to be used to investigate all reality, including the human
spirit.
Some claim that naturalism is the implicit philosophy of working scientists, and that the
following basic assumptions are needed to justify the scientific method.

1. That there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers. The basis for
rationality is acceptance of an external objective reality.
"Objective reality is clearly an essential thing if we are to develop a meaningful
perspective of the world. Nevertheless its very existence is assumed."
Our belief that objective reality exist is an assumption that it arises from a real world
outside of ourselves. As infants we made this assumption unconsciously. People are
happy to make this assumption that adds meaning to our sensations and feelings, than live
with solipsism." Without this assumption, there would be only the thoughts and images in
our own mind (which would be the only existing mind) and there would be no need of
science, or anything else.
“that this objective reality is governed by natural laws”
Science, at least today, assumes that the universe obeys to knowable principles that don't
depend on time or place, nor on subjective parameters such as what we think, know or
how we behave. Hugh Gauch argues that science presupposes that “the physical world is
orderly and comprehensible.”
2. that reality can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation.
Stanley Sobottka said:

"The assumption of external reality is necessary for science to function and to flourish.
For
the most part, science is the discovering and explaining of the external world."
 "Science attempts to produce knowledge that is as universal and objective as possible
within the realm of human understanding."

That Nature has uniformity of laws and most if not all things in nature must have at least a
natural cause. Biologist Stephen Jay Gould referred to these two closely related propositions as
the constancy of nature's laws and the operation of known processes. Simpson agrees that the
axiom of uniformity of law, an unprovable postulate, is necessary in order for scientists to
extrapolate inductive inference into the unobservable past in order to meaningfully study
It
3. That experimental procedures will be done satisfactorily without any deliberate or
unintentional mistakes that will influence the results.
4. That experimenters won't be significantly biased by their presumptions.
5. That random sampling is representative of the entire population. A simple random sample
(SRS) is the most basic probabilistic option used for creating a sample from a population. The
benefit of SRS is that the investigator is guaranteed to choose a sample that represents the
population that ensures statistically valid conclusions.

Metaphysical naturalism
Metaphysical naturalism, also called "ontological naturalism" and "philosophical naturalism", is
a philosophical worldview and belief system that holds that there is nothing but natural elements,
principles, and relations of the kind studied by the natural sciences, i.e., those required to
understand our physical environment by mathematical modeling. Methodological naturalism, on
the other hand, refers exclusively to the methodology of science, for which metaphysical
naturalism provides only one possible ontological foundation.
Metaphysical naturalism holds that all properties related to consciousness and the mind are
reducible to, or supervene upon, nature. Broadly, the corresponding theological perspective is
religious naturalism or spiritual naturalism. More specifically, metaphysical naturalism rejects
the supernatural concepts and explanations that are part of many religions.

Methodological naturalism
It Concerns itself with methods of learning what nature is. These methods are useful in the
evaluation of claims about existence and knowledge and in identifying causal mechanisms
responsible for the emergence of physical phenomena. It attempts to explain and test scientific
endeavors, hypotheses, and events with reference to natural causes and events. This second sense
of the term "naturalism" seeks to provide a framework within which to conduct the scientific
study of the laws of nature. Methodological naturalism is a way of acquiring knowledge. It is a
distinct system of thought concerned with a cognitive approach to reality, and is thus a
philosophy of knowledge. Studies by sociologist Elaine Ecklund suggest that religious scientists
in practice apply methodological naturalism. They report that their religious beliefs affect the
way they think about the implications – often moral – of their work, but not the way they
practice science. Steven Schafersman states that methodological naturalism is

"the adoption or assumption of philosophical naturalism within the scientific method with or
without fully accepting or believing it. science is not metaphysical and does not depend on the
ultimate truth of any metaphysics for its success, but methodological naturalism must be adopted
as a strategy or working hypothesis for science to succeed. We may therefore be agnostic about
the ultimate truth of naturalism, but must nevertheless adopt it and investigate nature as if nature
is all that there is."

Alvin Plantinga
Alvin Plantinga, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at Notre Dame, and a Christian, has become a
well-known critic of naturalism. He suggests, in his evolutionary argument against naturalism,
that the probability that evolution has produced humans with reliable true beliefs, is low or
inscrutable, unless the evolution of humans was guided (for example, by God). According to
David Kahan of the University of Glasgow, in order to understand how beliefs are warranted, a
justification must be found in the context of supernatural theism, as in Plantinga's epistemology.
Plantinga argues that together, naturalism and evolution provide an insurmountable "defeater for
the belief that our cognitive faculties are reliable", i.e., a skeptical argument along the lines of
Descartes' evil demon or brain in a vat.

Robert T. Pennock
Robert T. Pennock contends that as supernatural agents and powers "are above and beyond the
natural world and its agents and powers" and "are not constrained by natural laws", only logical
impossibilities constrain what a supernatural agent cannot do. He states: "If we could apply
natural knowledge to understand supernatural powers, then, by definition, they would not be
supernatural." As the supernatural is necessarily a mystery to us, it can provide no grounds on
which one can judge scientific models. "Experimentation requires observation and control of the
variables. But by definition we have no control over supernatural entities or forces." Science
does not deal with meanings; the closed system of scientific reasoning cannot be used to define
itself. Allowing science to appeal to untestable supernatural powers would make the scientist's
task meaningless, undermine the discipline that allows science to make progress, and "would be
as profoundly unsatisfying as the ancient Greek playwright's reliance upon the deus ex machina
to extract his hero from a difficult predicament."

W. V. O. Quine
W. V. O. Quine describes naturalism as the position that there is no higher tribunal for truth than
natural science itself. In his view, there is no better method than the scientific method for judging
the claims of science, and there is neither any need nor any place for a "first philosophy", such as
(abstract) metaphysics or epistemology, that could stand behind and justify science or the
scientific method. Therefore, philosophy should feel free to make use of the findings of scientists
in its own pursuit, while also feeling free to offer criticism when those claims are ungrounded,
confused, or inconsistent. In Quine's view, philosophy is "continuous with" science and both are
empirical.Naturalism is not a dogmatic belief that the modern view of science is entirely correct.

Karl Popper
Karl Popper equated naturalism with inductive theory of science. He rejected it based on his
general critique of induction, yet acknowledged its utility as means for inventing conjectures.
A naturalistic methodology (sometimes called an "inductive theory of science") has its value, no
doubt. I reject the naturalistic view: It is uncritical. Its upholders fail to notice that whenever they
believe to have discovered a fact, they have only proposed a convention. Hence the convention is
liable to turn into a dogma.
This criticism of the naturalistic view applies not only to its criterion of meaning, but also to its
idea of science, and consequently to its idea of empirical method.

Q.3: Write a note on realism as a main philosophical thought?

Answer:

Realism

- Philosophy
Philosophizing is the thinking that has 3 (three) characteristics, namely radical (thought up by the
roots, not half-hearted), systematic (logical thinking), and universal (think overall). In relation to
education, education directly related to the purpose of life and the lives of individuals and society
education. Education can not be fully understood without understanding the ultimate goal being
sourced to the goals and views of human life. The concept of world views and life goals will be a
cornerstone in setting educational goals. Approach to what and how the philosophy of education
can be done through several perspectives. The first viewpoint says that the philosophy of
education can be composed because the linear relationship between philosophy and education.
For example, some schools of thought can be connected in such a way as to educational
philosophy.

Definition of Realism
The term realism comes from the Latin "realists" who is to be really, really real. Realism is a
philosophy that assumes that there is a real external world can be recognized.
Therefore, realism holds that sensory perception and sense objects really exist, regardless of the
senses and the mind that it was him because the object can be investigated, analyzed, studied by
science, nature discovered by science and philosophy. Realism in various forms according to
Kattsoff (1996: 126) draw a sharp dividing line between the knowing and the known, and
generally inclined toward materialistic dualism or monism. A materialistic followers say that the
soul and the material completely alike. If so, it would be equally said to be "the soul is the
matter" as saying "matter is spirit." But if people are trying to trace the spirit to the material or
the material to the spiritual, depending on which one is considered primary. When people say
"life is a matter" and because the
material is not likely to have the intent, it is also not possible to have the intent soul. On the other
hand if the material is the soul, the universe can be understood as one that had the purpose or can
be said to be "teleological"

Philosophy Mathematics Achievements

As a school of philosophy, realism holds that there are five senses and captured the concept in
mind that there are real there. Example: a stumbling stone in the road there is a new experience.
Roses fragrance stimulates the nose is real there is perched on a tree branch the garden flowers.
Realism acknowledge and accept the unity between esensia and existence, the nature and
existence of objects which are captured by five senses and understood by the mind. b. Rationale
of Realism Education According to realism, the purpose of education will be formulated as an
effort to develop the potential of existing and owned by the students to be as optimal as possible.
According to realism, that is the nature of reality that are on the "things" or "objects". So, not
something that escapes or is released from its owner. Therefore, it is natural that the first concern
in education is what is on the learner. The followers of realism have agreement on the basic
principles relating to education. Some basic principles of educational realism is as follows:
1. Learning to essentially put the attention on the learner as it is.
2. Initiatives in education should emphasize education rather than children.
3. The core of the educational process is the assimilation of the subject matter that has been
determined. Curriculum in organizing and planned with certainty by the teacher. Widely material
and social environment, human beings that determines how he should live.

Some learning principles proposed by Comenius (Sadulloh, 2003) are:

1. Learning should be based on the interests of students. Success in learning is not as imposed
from outside, but rather is a result of personal development.
2. Each subject should have the outline, outline of teaching and learning, syllabus and lesson
plans, and already there at the beginning of learning.
3. At the beginning of the meeting or the beginning of the lesson, the teacher should convey
information about the outlines of learning that students will learn.
4. Classes should be enriched with pictures maps, photographs, works of students and everything
which is related to the teaching and learning activities provided or performed.
5. Learning should take place simultaneously with the previous lesson so that it becomes a
unified whole and keep abreast of knowledge on a continuous basis.

Humanistic Realism
Humanistic realism is the reaction against the emphasis on form and style of the old classical
literature. It has great regard for the ancient literature but it emphasizes the study of content and
ideas in the ancient classical literature to understand ones present social life and environment.
The aim is not to study the form and style of old literature to have mastery over it. The study of
old literature is a means to understand the practical life.

Social Realism
Social Realism in education is the reaction against a type of education that produces scholars and
professional men to the neglect of the man of affairs i.e. practice. Education should not produce
men who are unfit in social life. The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to
prepare the practical man of the world.

Sense Realism
The sense realism in education emphasizes the training of the senses. Senses are the gateways of
knowledge and learning takes place the operation of the senses. According to sense-realists
nature is the treasure house of all knowledge and this knowledge can be obtained through the
training of the senses.
Neo-Realism
Neo-Realism is really a philosophical thought. It appears the methods and results of modern
development in physics. They do not consider the scientific principles everlasting while they
express the changeability in them. They support the education of art with the science and
analytical system of education with the humanistic feelings. They consider living and non-living
all objective to be organs and the development of organs is the main objective and all round
development of the objects is the main characteristic of education. Bertrand Russel and
whitehead were the supporters of this faculty.

Realism and Aims of education

"Realists do not believe in general and common aims of education. According to them aims are
specific to each individual and his perspectives."
The aim of education should be to teach truth rather than beauty, to understand the present
practical life. The purpose of education, according to social realists, is to prepare the practical
man of the world.
The science realists expressed that the education should be conducted on universal basis. Greater
stress should be laid upon the observation of nature and the education of science. Neo-realists
aim at developing all round development of the objects with the development of their organs.

Realism and Methods of Teaching

i. Education should proceed from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract.
ii. Things before rules and words.
iii. Students to be taught to analyze rather than to construct.
iv. Vernacular to be the medium of instruction.
v. The order of nature to be sought and followed.
vi. Repetition is necessary for retention.
vii. Individuals experience and spirit of inquiry is more important than authority.
viii. No unintelligent cramming. More emphasis on questioning and understanding.
ix. Methods of scientific thinking formulated by sir Thomas Bacon.
x. Social realists follow the method of travel of journey method, which will give real
experience of varied aspects of life improve knowledge and mental faculties.

Realism and The Teacher

1. A teacher should be such that he himself be educated and well versed with the customs of
belief and rights and duties of people, and the trends of all ages and places.
2. He must have full mastery of the knowledge of present life.
3. He must guide the student towards the hard realities of life. He is neither pessimist, nor
optimist. 4. He must be able to expose children to the problems of life and the world around.

A teacher should always keep in mind :

1. Re-capitulation is necessary to make the knowledge permanent.
2. One subject should be taught at one time.
3. No pressure or coercion be brought upon the child.
4. The practice of cramming should be given up.
5. The uniformity should be the basic principle in all things.
6. Things should be introduced first and then the words.
7. The entire knowledge should be gained after experience.
8. The knowledge should be imparted on the basis of organs.
9. Straight forward method should be adopted for teaching.
10. There should be a co-relation between utility in daily life and education.
11. The child should be told the utility of whatever is taught.
12. The simple rules should be defined.
13. All the subjects should be taught in proper order.
14. Various organs of education should be taught in chronological order.
15. The topic should not be given up unless the boys understand it well.
16. To find out the interest of the child and to teach accordingly.

Realism and the Child

1. Realism in education recognizes the importance of the child. The child is a real unit which has
real existence. He has some feelings, some desires and some powers. All these cannot be
overlooked. These powers of the child shall have to be given due regard at the time of planning
education.
2. Child can reach near reality through learning by reason.
3. Child has to be given as much freedom as possible.
4. The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of facts.
5. The child can learn only when he follows the laws of learning.
6. The child is to be understood a creature of the real world there is no sense in making him a
God. He has to be trained to become a man only.

Realism and Discipline

Discipline is adjustment to objectivity. It is necessary in order to enable the child to adjust
himself to his environment and concentrate on his work. Bringing out change in the real world is
impossible. The student himself is a part of this world. He has to admit this fact and adjust
himself to the world. A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties,
tyrannies, hardships and shortcomings pervading the world. Realism has vehemently opposed
withdrawal from life. One has to adjust oneself to this material world. Thus, the realism has
brought great effect in various fields of education. The aims, the curriculum, the methods of
teaching the outlook towards the child, the teachers, the discipline and the system of education
all were given new blood. Realism in education dragged the education from the old traditions,
idealism and the high and low tides to the real surface.

Dark Side of Realism

1. The realist claims to be objective. Objectivity in knowledge is nothing but the partnership of
personal knowledge. Knowledge is always subjective.
2. The realist recognizes the origin of knowledge from the datum achieved by senses and asserts
that only objects are main and it is through their contact that knowledge is acquired. Then how
does our illusion arise? How does knowledge become fallacious? Where does the external object
go in dream? The realist is unable to answer these questions satisfactorily.
3. The realist does not accept the existence of transcendental (not based on experience or reason)
being. How could be know the non-existence of that which does not exist? Has non-existence got
no existence? Void ness and non-existence also are the parts of existence. Here the realist is
dumb completely.
4. Today the effect of realism has given rise to the wave of science. It is right, but there should
be no indifference towards art and literature. The realist supports this negligence. 5. Realism
enthusiastic disappointment in students and teachers. No progress can be made by having faith in
the facts of daily life and shattering faith in ideals. Life is but full of miseries and struggles.
Sorrow is more predominant than joy in the world. A person becomes disappointed by this
feeling. That is why realists often appear to be skeptics ( person who doubts the truth of a
particular claim, theory etc. ), pessimists and objections.

Conclusion
The doctrine of realism believes that with something or the other way, there are things that are
just in and of itself, and that is essentially not affected by someone. For example, the facts show,
the table remains as represented there, although no one in the room was a catch. So the table is
not dependent on our ideas about it, but it depends on the table. There are two main contributions
of the education based upon the realism. Firstly, it tried to remove the gulf-between the life and
education. Secondly, it propounded the principle of experimentation and observation in
education. It was realism that first introduced the thought that the organs are the door way to
knowledge and the knowledge can be gained through the inductive method. The wordy education
and bookish knowledge are not sufficient.

Varieties Of Philosophical Realism

The history of Western philosophy is checkered with disputes between those who have defended
forms of realism and those who have opposed them. While there are certainly significant
similarities linking the variety of positions commonly described as realist, there are also
important differences which obstruct any straightforward general characterization of realism.
Many, if not all, of these disputes may be seen as concerned in one way or another with the
relations between, on the one hand, human beings as thinkers and subjects of experience and, on
the other hand, the objects of their knowledge, belief, and experience. Do sense perception and
other forms of cognition, and the scientific theorizing which attempts to make sense of their
deliverances, provide knowledge of things which exist and are as they are independently of
people’s cognitive or investigative activities? It is at least roughly true to say that philosophical
realists are those who defend an affirmative answer to the question, either across the board or
with respect to certain areas of knowledge or belief—e.g., the external world, scientific theories,
mathematics, or morality.
The affirmative answer may seem no more than the merest common sense, because the vast
majority of one’s beliefs are certainly most naturally taken to concern mind-independent objects
whose existence is an entirely objective matter. And this seems to be so whether the beliefs in
question are about mundane matters such as one’s immediate surroundings or about theoretical
scientific entities such as subatomic particles, important forces, and so on. Nevertheless, much
argument and clarification of the issues and concepts involved (e.g. objectivity and mind-
independence) is required if the realism favored by common sense is to be sustained as a
philosophical position. Any general statement of realism, however, inevitably obscures the great
variation in focus in controversies between realists and antirealists from antiquity to the present
day. In some controversies, what is primarily at issue is a question of ontology, concerning the
existence of entities of some problematic kind. In others, the opposition, while still broadly
ontological in character, concerns rather the ultimate nature of reality as a whole, a historically
important example being the controversies generated by various forms of idealism. In yet others
the dispute, while not entirely divorced from questions of ontology, is primarily concerned with
the notion of truth, either in general or in application to statements of some particular type, such
as moral judgments or theoretical scientific claims about unobservable entities.

Realism in Ontology
In application to matters of ontology, realism is standardly applied to doctrines which assert the
existence of entities of some problematic or controversial kind. Even under this more restricted
heading, however, realism and opposition to it have taken significantly different forms, as
illustrated in the following three examples.
Universals
One of the earliest and most famous realist doctrines is Plato’s theory of Forms, which asserts
that things such as “the Beautiful” (or “Beauty”) and “the Just” (or “Justice”) exist over and
above the particular beautiful objects and just acts in which they are instantiated and more or less
imperfectly exemplified; the Forms themselves are thought of as located neither in space nor in
time. Although Plato’s usual term for them (eido) is often translated in English as Idea, it is clear
that he does not think of them as mental but rather as abstract, existing independently both of
mental activity and of sensible particulars. As such, they lie beyond the reach of sense
perception, which Plato regards as providing only beliefs about appearances as opposed to
knowledge of what is truly real. Indeed, the Forms are knowable only by the philosophically
schooled intellect. Although the interpretation of Plato’s theory remains a matter of scholarly
controversy, there is no doubt that his promulgation of it initiated an enduring dispute about the
existence of universals—often conceived, in opposition to particulars, as entities, such as general
properties, which may be wholly present at different times and places or instantiated by many
distinct particular objects. Plato’s pupil Aristotle reacted against the extreme realism which he
took Plato to be endorsing: the thesis of universalia ante res (Latin: “universals before things”),
according to which universals exist in their own right, prior to and independently of their
instantiation by sensible particulars. He advocated instead a more moderate realism of
universalia in rebus (“universals in things”): While there are universals, they can have no
freestanding, independent existence. They exist only in the particulars that instantiate them.

Abstract entities and modern nominalism

In the second half of the 20th century the term nominalism took on a somewhat broader sense
than the one it had in the medieval dispute about universals. It is now used as a name for any
position which denies the existence of abstract entities of any sort, including not only universals
but also numbers, sets, and other abstracts which form the apparent subject matter of
mathematical theories. In their classic nominalist manifesto, “Steps Toward a Constructive
Nominalism” (1947), the American philosophers Nelson Goodman and W.V.O.Quine declared:

We do not believe in abstract entities. No one supposes that abstract entities—classes, relations,
properties,
etc.—exist in space-time; but we mean more than this. We renounce them altogether. Any system
that countenances abstract entities we deem unsatisfactory as a final philosophy.

But second, even if the facts could be restricted, without begging the question, to facts about
what is concrete, it is still unclear that the nominalist will be in a position to wield the razor to
his advantage, because it may be argued that such facts admit of no satisfactory explanation
without the aid of scientific (and especially physical) theories which make indispensable use of
mathematics. Indispensability arguments of this kind were advanced by the American
philosopher Hilary Putnam and (relinquishing his earlier nominalism) by Quine. Other, perhaps
weightier, arguments for nominalism appeal to the broadly epistemological problems confronting
realism. Given that numbers, sets, and other abstracta could, by their very nature, stand in no
spatiotemporal (and therefore no causal) relation to human beings, there can be no satisfactory
explanation of how humans are able to think about and refer to abstracta or come to know truths
about them.

Realism and Idealism

The opposition between idealism and realism, although undeniably ontological in a broad sense,
is distinct both from general disputes about realism in ontology and from disputes which turn
upon the notion of truth or its applicability to statements of some specified type (see below
Realism and truth). In its most straightforward and, arguably, basic sense, idealism not only
asserts the existence of “ideas” (and perhaps other mental entities) but also advances a restrictive
claim about the nature or composition of reality as whole: there is nothing in reality other than
ideas and the minds whose ideas they are. So understood, idealism is a form of monism, which is
opposed both to other forms of monism (e.g., materialism) and to pluralism, which posits two or
more irreducibly distinct kinds of stuff or things (e.g., mental and physical, as in various versions
of dualism).
A paradigmatic example of an idealist position is Berkeley’s rejection of “brute matter” as
unintelligible and his accompanying doctrine that reality consists exclusively of “ideas”—for
which esse est percipi (“to be is to be perceived”)—and “spirits,” including finite spirits
corresponding to individual human beings and at least one infinite spirit, or God. If idealism in
this sense is to be viewed as a kind of antirealism, the realism it opposes must be one which
maintains the existence of material things independently of their being perceived or otherwise
related to any mind, finite or otherwise.
The 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant recognized that Berkeley’s “dogmatic
idealism” involved denying the independent reality of space. Berkeley’s arguments, he thought,
were effective against metaphysical positions which assumed that space is a property of “things
in themselves,” as opposed to their representations, or “appearances,” in the mind. Kant argued
to the contrary that space as well as time are forms of “sensible intuition,” or the mode in which
the mind is affected by sensible objects. Thus, the reality of objects external to the mind (objects
in space) is guaranteed, because being in space and time is a condition of being an object of
sensible experience at all.

Q.4: How can psychological foundations help us in developing instructional strategies?

Answer:

Understanding Educational Psychology

Today’s educational system is highly complex. There is no single learning approach that works
for everyone. That’s why psychologists working in the field of education are focused on
identifying and studying learning methods to better understand how people absorb and retain
new information.
Educational psychologists apply theories of human development to understand individual
learning and inform the instructional process. While interaction with teachers and students in
school settings is an important part of their work, it isn’t the only facet of the job. Learning is a
lifelong endeavor. People don’t only learn at school, they learn at work, in social situations and
even doing simple tasks like household chores or running errands. Psychologists working in this
subfield examine how people learn in a variety of settings to identify approaches and strategies
to make learning more effective.

Research in Action

Educational Psychology Applied

Psychologists working in education study the social, emotional and cognitive processes involved
in learning and apply their findings to improve the learning process. Some specialize in the
educational development of a specific group of people such as children, adolescents or adults,
while others focus on specific learning challenges such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) or dyslexia.
No matter the population they are studying, these professionals are interested in teaching
methods, the instructional process and different learning outcomes. How much the time of day
when new information is introduced influence whether a person retains that information?
What does culture have to do with how we process new ideas? How does age affect our ability to
develop new skills, like language? How is in-person learning different from remote learning
using technology? How does the choice of a media platform make a difference in learning?
These are all questions that educational psychologists are asking — and answering — in settings
as diverse as government research centers, schools, community organizations and learning
centers.
Educational psychology is a subfield of psychology. It takes theories, research, principles, and
knowledge from psychology, and uses them in education.
Education includes a wide range of teaching and learning situations, from children being taught
by a teacher and learning in a classroom at school, to university students learning from an
instructor in a lecture or a tutorial, to individuals teaching themselves a new skill at home.
Essentially education can include any situation in which someone acquires knowledge by means
of a process.
Educational psychologists define the field
There are many varying definitions of educational psychology in the literature.
Robert Slavin defines educational psychology quite narrowly as the systematic study of
learners, learning, and teaching (1994, 24). Bruce Tuckman and David Monetti’s definition is
slightly broader. They define educational psychology as the study of human behavior applied to
the teaching and learning processes
Investigations of another educational psychologist, Anita Woolfolk, show distinct changes in the
research focus of educational psychologists over time. In earlier decades educational
psychologists tended to study individual differences, assessment, and learning behaviors. More
recently they have studied cognitive development and learning, specifically concept learning,
memory, and retention. Most recently educational psychologists have focused on studying the
effects of society and culture on learning and development
Educational psychology in an interactive context
Tuckman and Monetti describe some of the difficulties that teachers have to deal with on a
daily basis. Teaching is a profession that depends almost entirely on interaction with other
people. Teachers have to manage this interaction with students so that students learn what they
are supposed to learn. This is difficult because interpersonal interactions are complex and have
different dimensions. These almost always have to be managed at the same time. For example,
teachers have to schedule, observe, record, evaluate, and react to a large number of students who
may all be doing different things. Further, teacher behavior and student behavior are often
dependent on each other. This means that teachers cannot delay their actions in the classroom.
They must think quickly to react to the challenges that they face.
Educational psychology prepares teachers for these challenges by providing them with theories
and principles about teaching and learning. It encourages teachers to reflect (think) about the
needs of their learners and to be sensitive to the issues that learners might be facing in achieving
their learning goals. In this way, educational psychology helps teachers become more effective
and improves the chances of their learners achieving success in the classroom.
Research by psychologists has shown that human behavior is very complex. For example,
although developmental psychologists such as Erik Erikson (insert dates) have suggested that
there are a number of key stages of human development that are the same for everyone, these
stages are not easily or clearly defined. This means that “Educational psychology aims to
uncover the principles of teaching in order to improve learning”. Principles are uncovered when
research studies repeatedly come up with the same conclusions. These principles they can be
used by teachers to deal with specific problems. For example, one of the principles of classroom
management is to establish good interpersonal relationships with learners in order to build
mutual trust and respect.

Educational psychology provides teachers with a body of knowledge

Educational psychology provides teachers with a body of knowledge about teaching and
learning. This body of knowledge includes knowledge of human development, intelligence,
memory, motivation, assessment, instructional strategies, and classroom management. It is made
available to trainees, including aspiring teachers, mainly at universities and colleges of education
to help them prepare for their teaching careers. Educational psychology contributes to better
educational practice
Educational psychologists are seldom satisfied with the body of knowledge they have uncovered
or the teaching methods they have experimented with, recommended, and implemented.
Educational psychologists are continually asking questions, and conducting research, about how
teaching and learning can be improved. By questioning current practices and experimenting with
new teaching methods, educational psychologists and professional teachers can ensure that
classroom practices remain at the cutting edge of educational innovation. Educational
psychology challenges teachers to disciplined enquiry and research Educational psychology
constantly develops new theories and principles about teaching and learning. With a dynamic
and changing field, teachers are challenged to n keep up to date with developments by reading
articles published in educational newsletters and journals, and by sharing and discussing-for
example, at staff meetings, teacher centers, workshops, and conferences-information about what
works and what does not in their different subject areas. This helps them improve their teaching,
and become ever more effective teachers as they progress in their careers.
Educational psychology encourages a reflective mindset
Effective teaching that results in successful learning depends on thought and critical reflection.
Educational psychology assists teachers to examine their own attitudes, teaching practices, and
the outcomes of their teaching.
Reflective teachers ask themselves before, during, and after every lesson why they do what they
do and the way that they do it. They check their performance against the background knowledge
provided by their training and their classroom experience. They examine their teaching methods
and experiment to find out if there are better ways of doing what they are doing. Through
reflective teaching, teachers develop the cognitive tools for creatively solving problems that may
arise in their classrooms.
What is effective teaching?
It is not easy to define what an effective teachers are like or what they do that sets them apart
from teachers who are less effective. Is effectiveness measured by learners’ results in
examinations, or do factors such as motivation and interest play a role? Further, terms like
“good,” “professional,” and “experienced” are often used to describe teachers and teaching.
Here, too, the criteria for these judgments are often not explored or explained. Nevertheless,
there is a broad understanding of the concepts and teachers often have the performance evaluated
both in terms of classroom practice and learner performance. Throughout this book, we will use
the terms “effective teachers” and effective teaching” to define and explore educational practices
that “work.” Many people think that you can be an effective teacher without any training. These
people think that teaching is common sense or that some people are born with a natural ability to
teach. However, there is a vast difference between a parent teaching an infant to walk, or a child
to ride a bicycle, and teaching a young learner how to write or to do algebra. Classroom learning
is far more structured, deliberate, concentrated, and abstract than the learning that takes place
between parent and child.
Educational psychologists generally agree that most people can be trained to become effective
teachers. While observation and practice are important components of effective teaching,
teachers need to be aware of several basic principles so that these can be applied in the
classroom. Over the years educational psychologists have identified four essential components of
effective teaching:
1. subject knowledge and knowledge of teaching resources
2. critical thinking and problem-solving skills
3. knowledge of learners and their learning
4. teaching and communication skills

Subject knowledge and knowledge of teaching

In order to be an effective teacher, a teacher needs subject knowledge (knowledge about what to
teach). For example, if a teacher is teaching a course about the history of the modern Middle
East, he or she must know about this subject. However, while subject knowledge is necessary, it
is not enough. Knowledge of how to transmit information and the skill to do so is at least as
important as knowledge of the information and skills themselves. To be an effective teacher, a
teacher must also know where to find information about his or her subject, so that he or she can
keep his or her subject knowledge up to date with the latest information about it. In addition, to
be effective, a teacher must have an understanding of pedagogy (also referred to as instruction), a
word which comes from the Greek and literally means ‘to lead the child.’ Pedagogy refers to the
set of teaching strategies a teacher uses in any given teaching situation to help learners learn
what they are supposed to learn at that time. In designing these teaching strategies, an effective
teacher takes into account a number of factors about his or her students, including their behavior,
background knowledge about the subject, and motivation, as well as their intellectual, social, and
cultural characteristics. The learning material needs to be presented in a way that makes sense,
using strategies that help learners remember what they have been taught.

Knowledge of learners and their learning

Subject knowledge and pedagogy are not the only types of knowledge that teachers require.
Effective teaching depends on teachers knowing their learners and knowing how learners learn.
Educational psychology provides teachers with knowledge about how this. It provides teachers
with insights into different ways learning can take place, learner preferences, learner motivation,
and the link between the emotional life of the learner and learning. Knowing these things
teachers can plan and manage instructional procedures, establish a suitable classroom
environment, and engage learners in meaningful learning activities.

Critical thinking and problem-solving skills

Many research studies have looked at the differences between more- and less-effective teachers.
One theme that runs through these studies is that effective teachers are critical thinkers.
Woolfolk (2010, 292) defines critical thinking as the ability “to evaluate conclusions by
logically and systematically examining the problem, the evidence, and the solution.” In other
words, critical thinking is an ordered, logical process of thinking about a problem and how it can
be solved. It requires reflective judgment and the analysis of the validity and reliability of
information. It may involve generating or organizing ideas, examining assumptions, evaluating
arguments and evidence, solving problems, defining opinions, or recognizing hidden values and
meanings. Teachers need to be critical thinkers because teaching involves solving problem in a
systematic, logical way. The most effective teachers constantly evaluate and upgrade their own
teaching practices. They read widely, observe other teachers, attend conferences to learn new
ideas, and use their own learners’ responses to guide their instructional decisions (Saber et al.
1991; Shulman 1987). Teachers who improve are the ones who reflect about their own practice,
are open to new ideas, and look at their own teaching critically.

Teaching and communication skills

Teaching is a form of communication. Teachers are communicators. Communication is more
than a matter of teachers talking and students listening. Communication also involves students
talking and teachers listening. It is important that learners get opportunities to participate in the
communication process. Through creating opportunities for interaction (for example, by inviting
questions and answers from learners, or through initiating discussions or group presentations),
the teacher can monitor the learners’ perceptions and understandings and adjust his or her own
communications accordingly. What is more, communication is more than just talking and
listening (verbal communication). It is also includes non-verbal communication such as teachers’
actions, movements, tone of voice, and facial expressions (together, their body language). Some
researchers say that as much as 65% of effective communication is nonverbal (Ornstein).
Effective communication between a teacher and his or her learners also depends on the teacher’s
credibility with them: do the learners trust that what the teacher says is believable, and does the
teacher’s body language support and strengthen this trusting relationship on a daily basis? One of
the ways by which teachers can earn the trust and respect of their learners is by practicing
“congruent communication” as opposed to “incongruent communication.” Congruent
communication is also known as the language of acceptance. The language of acceptance
acknowledges the learner’s situation and reflects a non-discriminatory attitude by the teacher
(Tuckman and Monetti ). Incongruent language is also known as the language of rejection.

Teaching: Art or science?

While educational psychologists claim that they have put teaching on a scientific footing because
they conduct systematic scientific research into human behavior, thinking and learning, and
instructional design, there are many elements that characterize it as an art. Events inside the
classroom are often spontaneous and unpredictable. These require a teacher’s intuition, or the
ability to act on a feeling, instead of factual knowledge. It is impossible to provide teachers with
a magic formula that makes them effective, or a recipe to handle every circumstance that arises.
Further, it is difficult to evaluate the teaching performance of individual teachers accurately and
consistently because there is no single set of scientific criteria to do so. Finally, some teachers
appear to natural educators, but it is hard to define what sets them apart from others. A teacher
who attempts to base every action on scientific evidence may come across as rigid and
mechanical to his or her learners By contrast, a teacher who ignores scientific knowledge about
teaching and learning runs the risk of applying principles and methods that are ineffective
(Biehler and Snowman 1993, 20). Scientific research done by educational psychologists and
other educationalists can introduce teachers to principles and theories of teaching that extend
their ability or competence. Teaching from a scientific basis helps teachers avoid the pitfalls of
subscribing to the latest fad (a fashionable but unproven method of teaching). If teaching is
purely an art, then effective teaching would be determined by the teacher’s natural talent or by
long years of practice. But, there is a sizeable body of scientific research and research-validated
instructional practices that have been shown to improve teacher performance and learners’
achievement.

The reflective teacher

To reflect means “to think.” “To reflect about your actions” as a teacher means that you think
and plan carefully about the way that you want to do things, and how these things should be
done. Reflective teaching can therefore be seen as a blend of teaching as an art and teaching as a
science. Reflective teachers think carefully about the educational goals they want to achieve, and
whether or not such goals are actually worth achieving. They think carefully about the nature and
effectiveness of the instructional methods and techniques they want to use to reach those goals,
and they question the underlying assumptions, for example the means-end relationship, behind
the choice of learning materials. They also reflect about the extent to which scientific evidence
supports their choices.
A good example of a means-end relationship can be found in learning a second or third language.
From a learning point of view, the end goal will determine the shortest, most effective means
(way) of achieving it. If the end goal is every day spoken communication for the purposes of
tourism, then a good means to the end may be to attend a short language course or living with a
family in the country where the language is spoken. The picture changes dramatically if the end
goal is to earn an advanced degree in a language. Here the focus is on academic purposes. This
requires a high level of proficiency in the written and spoken forms of the language, and a
detailed understanding of its grammar and literature. Achieving these will require a completely
different means. If, for example, the goal is for learners to acquire problem-solving skills,
learners would likely be engaged in activities that call for analysis (that is, breaking up the
problem into smaller parts), reasoning, and decision-making. Debates, simulations, and
laboratory experiments are just three examples of activities that might be useful to meet such a
goal. If, however, the goal is for learners to memorize facts and information, learners will likely
be given activities that call for isolated memorization and recall. Worksheets and drill-and
practice exercises are typically used as means to meet this type of goal. The point is that effective
teachers think about these issues as a basis for planning.

Becoming a reflective teacher

Becoming a reflective teacher is not difficult, although it does require practice. As you try out
various teaching techniques or wonder why certain learners respond to instruction as they do,
formulate hypotheses (tentative explanations) and then try to test them. You will rarely be able to
do this in a completely controlled way, but you can often set up simple experiments. For
example, if most of the learners in your class seem to be restless whenever you present a
particular topic, you might test a hypothesis such as: learners will be interested and focused if I
have learn-by-doing activities during the lesson. Once you have established a hypotheses you can
test it by trying it out. As you do so, play the role of the teacher as an artist and be enthusiastic
and committed. Then play the role of the teacher as a scientist: be objective when analyzing the
results of your teaching. If you find that your learners respond more positively, or that test scores
are up, or that the quality of their work has improved, you have evidence to substantiate your
hypothesis. If student behavior remains unchanged or deteriorates, however, formulate another
hypothesis and test it. Most truly reflective teachers keep a personal teacher’s portfolio or
workbook, in which they record all their experiments, experiences, and findings.

Teachers as self-regulated, life-long learners

In addition to being critical thinkers and creative decision makers, most effective teachers are
also lifelong learners. This means that they never stop learning and never consider themselves as
knowing all there is to know. As McCown et al state, to become an expert teacher, you must first
become an expert learner. And becoming an expert learner implies that the teacher practices self-
regulation. Self-regulated teachers take responsibility for building their own knowledge and
skills base. They set new learning goals based on their own experiences and the reflection of
others like them. They motivate themselves to learn and uncover new information; they monitor
their own progress, assess the extent of their own mastery of new knowledge and skills, and
continuously redirect the course of their learning and development.

What makes a good teacher?

We discussed some of the instructional tasks involved in effective instruction and highlighted
four essential components of effective instruction. We drew a further distinction between
teaching as an art and teaching as a science, concluding that the most “artful” teachers are the
ones who reflect regularly about their practice and never stop learning, working from a well-
founded scientific knowledge base about teaching and learning.

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY – A FOUNDATION FOR TEACHING AND

LEARNING
The role of research in educational psychology
One of the most important functions of research in educational psychology is that it provides
teachers-in training, beginner and less experienced teachers with knowledge and skills about how
to teach in the best possible ways in their individual subject areas. For example, from the
moment a teacher walks into a classroom, he or she needs to know how to create a suitable
teaching and learning environment, one which is conducive to meeting his or her teaching
objectives as well as the learning needs of the learners. Creating such an environment implies
excellent classroom management skills, among others. It is very difficult for a beginner teacher
to re-establish control once chaos has erupted. In order to be better prepared and to avoid
unnecessary disruptions to the teaching-learning process, beginner teachers can pick up useful
pointers by reading case studies and studying research reports prepared by educational
psychologists and experienced teachers. One example of the impact of research on the teaching
and learning process is the finding that one of the most powerful predictors of a teacher’s impact
on learners is the belief that what the teacher does in class actually makes a huge difference. This
belief, called teacher efficacy, is at the heart of what it means to be an intentional teacher.
Teachers who believe that success in school is almost entirely due to children’s inborn
intelligence, home environment, or other factors that teachers cannot influence, are unlikely to
teach in the same way as those who believe that their own efforts are the key to children’s
learning. An intentional teacher, one who has a strong belief in his or her efficacy, is more likely
to put forth consistent effort, to persist in the face of obstacles, and to keep trying relentlessly
until every student succeeds.

Q.5: Describe the relationship between politics and education?

Answer:
What is the Relationship between Education and Politics?

Different persons will approach the relationship between politics and education from different
vectors. Folks interested in diving more deeply into specific areas should follow the appropriate
links in the info-box to the right. The interface between politics and education is at once deeply
intellectual and critically practical. Some who come to this page will be interested in the
relationship between teachers unions and innovative institutional arrangements in schools, others
in curriculum and pedagogy, others in race and culture, others in the relationship between
technology and education, others in the relationship custom shot glasses between political
philosophy and education, or even the politics of knowledge, others in teacher education, others
in high-stakes testing and still others in the dynamic relationship between political ideology and
education. Of course, this is only to a name a few of the potential vectors of inquiry that
permeate the relationship between political and educational phenomena.
It seems evident that formal education should be strongly associated with political participation
for women and for men. Indeed, the American sociologists Burns, Schlozman and Verba assert,
on the basis of decades of research into the factors influencing women and men’s engagement
with politics in the USA, that education is an especially powerful predictor of political
participation.
They identify a range of direct and indirect effects that formal education has upon political
participation. Its direct effects include the acquisition of the knowledge and communication
skills useful for public debate, and direct training in political analysis through courses with
current events content. Its indirect effects are many and include the benefits of voluntary
engagement in school government, clubs, sports and school newspapers, these arenas provide
young people with an early apprenticeship for politics, where they can exercise leadership,
develop civic skills of cooperation and negotiation, and acquire bureaucratic and organizational
skills useful for political activity.
Education enhances other factors supporting political engagement, such as access to high-income
jobs that provide the resources and contacts for political activity, and access to non-political
associations such as charitable organizations or religious establishments that can be a recruitment
ground for political activity.

As an academic discipline the study of politics in education has two main roots: The first root is
based on theories from political science while the second root is footed in organizational theory.
Political science attempts to explain how societies and social organizations use power to
establish regulations and allocate resources. Organizational theory uses scientific theories of
management to develop deeper understandings regarding the function of organizations.
Researchers have drawn a distinction between two types of politics in schools. The term
micropolitics refers to the use of formal and informal power by individuals and groups to achieve
their goals in organizations. Cooperative and conflictive processes are integral components of
micropolitics. Macro-politics refers to how power is used and decision making is conducted at
district, state, and federal levels. Macro-politics is generally considered to exist outside the
school, but researchers have noted that micro- and macro-politics may exist at any level of
school systems depending on circumstance.
There exist significant difference between "Politics of Education" and "Politics in Education".
More debates on the prevailing differences are solicited from academia of the world to define
politics educationally.
Education and politics enjoy a symbiotic relationship that is, education affects politics and vice
versa. Education, or lack thereof, influences the collective intellect, goals, and values of the body
politic. The way in which a society is educated will thus determine who is able to hold office;
how those in office are elected (or chosen); how much power and control those in office will
have at their disposal; what laws are considered reasonable and unreasonable; and how those
representing the state will choose to regulate, promote, and establish educational institutions. The
last point is critical as it shows how the cycle comes full circle. Just as much as educational
institutions have a role in creating, maintaining, and limiting the state, the political has immense
power over the educational. Look at how the modern state has control over how much schools
are funded and what they can and can’t teach (evolution, sexual education, the way in which
history is framed, among many other examples). Indeed, there are many states that strictly
prohibit secular education, as it is in their interest to keep their populations misinformed. Why?
Precisely because the more informed (educated) their population, the more likely it is that their
stranglehold on power will be overthrown.

One of the earliest political philosophers Plato has put this as follows:
“It is the government which must flow from the education and not education from the
Government.”
Plato gives more importance to education to the extent that it must produce the best of the
Government. What we commonly see is the education system is dependent on the government. It
is the government which decides how the education must be. Rather, what requires is that the
education must decide who should be governing, and what should be the kind of government.

Plato writes: “Until the philosophers become the kings, and the princes of the world have the
spirit and power of philosophy cities will never have rest from their evils.”
Now if we have to put this in the present times, the word king is applicable to all the rulers either
democratic or not. And cities should be read as States (meaning countries).
Plato gives an extensive Theory of Education that would create such philosophers who
were eligible to rule.
It includes elementary education (10 years of physical training plus two years of moral
education). And this was to be completed by the age of twenty. The disqualified were to take up
the role of producers.